Load Factor

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Load factor (Aeronautics)

In aeronautics, the load factor is defined as the ratio of


the lift of an aircraft to its weight and represents a global
measure of the stress ("load") to which the structure of the
aircraft is subjected:

where:
n = Load factor
L = Lift
W = Weight
Since the load factor is the ratio of two forces, it is
dimensionless.
However, its units are traditionally referred to as g,
because of the relation between load factor and apparent
acceleration of gravity felt on board the aircraft.
A load factor of one, or 1 g, represents conditions in
straight and level flight, where the lift is equal to the
weight. Load factors greater or less than one (or even
negative) are the result of maneuvers or wind gusts

Load factor and g


The fact that the load factor is commonly expressed in g
units does not mean that it is dimensionally the same as
the acceleration of gravity, also indicated with g. The load
factor is strictly non-dimensional.
The use of g units refers to the fact that an observer on
board an aircraft will experience an apparent acceleration
of gravity (i.e. relative to his frame of reference) equal to
load factor times the acceleration of gravity.
For example, an observer on board an aircraft performing
a turn with a load factor of 2 (i.e. a 2 g turn) will see
objects falling to the floor at twice the normal acceleration
of gravity.
In general, whenever the term load factor is used, it is
formally correct to express it using numbers only, as in "a
maximum load factor of 4". If the term load factor is
omitted then g is used instead, as in "pulling a 3 g turn"

Positive and negative load factors


Variation of the load factor n with the bank angle θ, during
a coordinated turn.
The load factor, and in particular its sign, depends not only
on the forces acting on the aircraft, but also on the
orientation of its vertical axis.
During straight and level flight, the load factor is +1 if the
aircraft is flown "the right way up",]whereas it becomes -1
if the aircraft is flown "upside-down" (inverted). In both
cases the lift vector is the same (as seen by an observer
on the ground), but in the latter the vertical axis of the
aircraft points downwards, making the lift vector's sign
negative.
In turning flight the load factor is normally greater than +1.
For example, in a turn with a 60° angle of bank the load
factor is +2. Again, if the same turn is performed with the
aircraft inverted, the load factor becomes -2. In general, in
a balanced turn in which the angle of bank is θ, the load
factor n is related to the cosine of θ by the formula:[2][6]

Another way to achieve load factors significantly higher


than +1 is to pull on the elevator control at the bottom of a
dive, whereas strongly pushing the stick forward during
straight and level flight is likely to produce negative load
factors, by causing the lift to act in the opposite direction to
normal, i.e. downwards.

Design standards
Excessive load factors must be avoided because of the
possibility of exceeding the structural strength of the
aircraft.
Aviation authorities specify the load factor limits within
which different classes of aircraft are required to operate
without damage. For example, the US Federal Aviation
Regulations prescribe the following limits (for the most
restrictive case):
• For commercial transport airplanes, from -1 to +2.5
(or up to +3.8 depending on design takeoff weight) [9]
• For light airplanes, from -1.5 to +3.8 [10]
• For aerobatic airplanes, from -3 to +6 [10]
• For helicopters, from -1 to +3.5 [11][12]
However, many aircraft types, in particular aerobatic
airplanes, are designed so that they can tolerate load
factors much higher than the minimum required. For
example, the Sukhoi Su-26 family have load factors limits
of -10 to +12.[13]
The maximum load factors, both positive and negative,
applicable to an aircraft are usually specified in the pilot's
operating handbook.

Human perception of load factor


When the load factor is +1, all occupants of the aircraft
feel that their weight is normal. When the load factor is
greater than +1 all occupants feel heavier than usual. For
example, in a 2 g maneuver all occupants feel that their
weight is twice normal. When the load factor is zero, or
very small, all occupants feel weightless. When the load
factor is negative, all occupants feel they are upside down.
Human beings have limited ability to withstand a load
factor significantly greater than 1, both positive and
negative.
Unmanned aerial vehicles can be designed for much
greater load factors, both positive and negative, than
conventional aircraft because these vehicles can be used
in maneuvers which would be incapacitating for a human
pilot.

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