Shell Energy Balances and

Temperature Distributions in
Solids and Laminar Flow
 = scope of lecture
diffusion Energy transfer
(Chapter 10)
heat production
convection (energy/(volume.time))

convective energy flux

molecular work flux molecular heat flux
(energy/(area.time)) due
(energy/(area.time))due (energy/(area.time)) due
to energy brought by
to velocity gradient in to temperature gradient
convection (fluid flow)
fluid in solids or liquid
(Fourier’s law)
work flux work flux due
kinetic internal due to shear to normal
energy flux: energy flux: heat flux:
stress stress q = -k dT/dx
½v2v Ûv
[.v]
By heat conduction
 Components of
Molecular stress = tensor velocity = vector

Vector summation

This work flux covers all One direction of momentum

directions of momentum transfer (in this case x direction )
transfer by vector summation
MOLECULAR AND CONVECTIVE
Unit of tensors: force/area or momentum
TRANSPORT flux (= force/area)

Table 1.7-1 Summary of components of convective

momentum flux

Direction of
momentum
transfer due
to velocity
difference

Direction of velocity
carrying mass
(momentum transfer)
 heat flux vector
work flux vector (=tensor.vector)

Convective energy flux

vector (=scalar * vector)
heat flux, work flux and energy flux are
vector, but energy rate is scalar
In Chapter 2 we saw how certain simple viscous flow
momentum problems are solved by a two-step procedure:
 (i) a momentum balance is made over a thin slab or shell
perpendicular to the direction of momentum transport,
which leads to a first-order differential equation that gives
the momentum flux distribution;
 (ii) then into the expression for the momentum flux we
insert Newton's law of viscosity, which leads to a first-
order differential equation for the fluid velocity as a
function of position. The integration constants that appear
are evaluated by using the boundary conditions, which
specify the velocity or momentum flux at the bounding
surfaces
In Chapter 10 we show how a number of heat conduction
problems are solved by an analogous procedure:
 (i) an energy balance is made over a thin slab or shell
perpendicular to the direction of the heat flow, and this
balance leads to a first-order differential equation from
which the heat flux distribution is obtained;
 (ii) then into this expression for the heat flux, we substitute
Fourier's law of heat conduction, which gives a first-order
differential equation for the temperature as a function of
position. The integration constants are then determined by
use of boundary conditions for the temperature or heat flux
at the bounding surfaces.
 The problems discussed in this chapter are set up by
means of shell energy balances. We select a slab (or
shell), the surfaces of which are normal to the direction of
heat conduction, and then we write for this system a
statement of the law of conservation of energy.
by heat
 For steady-state (i.e., time-independent) systems: conduction

by shear
and
normal
stresses
The energy production term in Eq. 10.1-1 includes
 (i) the degradation by potential difference of electrical
energy into heat
 (ii) the heat produced by viscous dissipation (when
fluid changes from laminar to turbulent), and
 (iii) the heat produced by chemical reactions. This
heat source will be discussed further in Chapter 19.
 Equation 10.1-1 is a statement of the first law of
thermodynamics, written for an "open" system at
steady-state conditions.
 pipe
P1 P2

P1 P2 P2

compressor P1

pump
The commonest types of boundary conditions are:
 The temperature may be specified at a surface, T =
T0.
 The heat flux normal to a surface may be given (this
is equivalent to specifying the normal component of
the temperature gradient), e.g. . q = q0
 At a solid-fluid interface, the normal heat flux
component may be related to the difference between
the solid surface temperature T0 and the "bulk" fluid
temperature Tb:
 q = h(T0 – Tb) (10.1-2)
 This equation is called Newton’s law of cooling
 The first system we consider is an electric wire of circular
cross section with radius R and electrical conductivity ke
ohm-1/cm length. Through this wire there is an electric
current with current density I amp/cm2 cross-sectional area.
The transmission of an electric current is an irreversible
process, and some electrical energy is converted into heat
(thermal energy). The rate of heat production per unit
volume is given by the expression.

 The quantity Se is the heat source resulting from electrical

dissipation. The surface of the wire is maintained at To
shell
 For the energy balance we take the system to be a
cylindrical shell of thickness r and length L (see Fig.
10.2-1). Since v = 0 (no flow) in this system, the only
contributions to the energy balance are heat conduction
and heat production as follows:
 We now substitute these quantities into the energy
balance of Eq. 9.1-1. Division by 2 Lr and taking
the limit as r goes to zero gives

 The expression on the left side is the first derivative of

rqr with respect to r, so that Eq. 10.2-5 becomes
 This is a first-order differential equation for the energy
flux, and it may be integrated to give
 .

 The integration constant C1 must be zero because of the

boundary condition that
 B.C. 1:.
 Hence the final expression for the heat flux distribution
is
 .
 This states that the heat flux increases linearly with r.
 We now substitute Fourier's law in the form qr = -
k(dT/dr) (see Eq. B.2-4) into Eq. 10.2-9 to obtain
 .

 When k is assumed to be constant, this first-order

differential equation can be integrated to give
 .

 The integration constant is determined from

 B.C. 2:
 .
 .

 Equation 10.2-13 gives the temperature rise as a

parabolic function of the distance r from the wire axis.
 Once the temperature distributions and heat flux are
known, various information about the system may be
obtained:
 Integration over r 
an area where T
the heat flux r
occurs T0
R
 (i) Maximum temperature rise (at r = 0)
 .


 (ii) Average temperature rise

 .

 Thus the average temperature rise, averaged over the

cross section, is half the maximum temperature rise.
 (iii) Heat outflow at the surface (for a length L of wire)
There is, after all, a pronounced similarity between the heated
wire problem and the viscous flow in a circular tube. Only the
notation is different:
 A copper wire has a radius of 2 mm and a length of 5
m. For what voltage drop would the temperature rise at
the wire axis be 10°C, if the surface temperature of the
wire is 20°C?
 SOLUTION
 Combining Eq. 10.2-14 and 10.2-1 gives

 The current density is related to the voltage drop E

over a length L by
 Hence

 from which

 For copper, k/ke T0 = 2.23 x 10-8 volt2. K-2. Therefore,

the voltage drop needed to cause a 10°C temperature
rise is
 Repeat the analysis in §10.2, assuming that T0 is not
known, but that instead the heat flux at the wall is
given by Newton's "law of cooling" (Eq. 10.1-2).
 Assume that the heat transfer coefficient h and the
ambient air temperature Tair are known.
 The solution proceeds as before through Eq. 10.2-11,
but the second integration constant is determined from
Eq. 10.1-2:
To quantify C2

The air temp is known

instead of metal
surface temperature
 Next we consider the flow of an incompressible
Newtonian fluid between two coaxial cylinders as shown
in Fig. 10.4-1.
 The surfaces of the inner and outer cylinders are
maintained at T = To and T = Tb, respectively. We can
expect that T will be a function of r alone.
 As the outer cylinder rotates, each cylindrical shell of
fluid "rubs" against an adjacent shell of fluid. This friction
between adjacent layers of the fluid produces heat; that is,
the mechanical energy is degraded into thermal energy.
 Temperature profile
depends on velocity
shell profile
 If the slit width b is small with respect to the radius R of
the outer cylinder, then the problem can be solved
approximately by using the somewhat simplified system
depicted in Fig. 10.4-2.
 That is, we ignore curvature effects and solve the
problem in Cartesian coordinates. The velocity
distribution is then vz = vb(x/b), where vb =  R where 
is angle speed.
Obtained earlier from
momentum balance
 We now make an energy balance over a shell of thickness
∆x, width W, and length L.
 Since the fluid is in motion, we use the combined energy
flux vector e as written in Eq. 9.8-6. The balance then read

 Since we do not know any boundary conditions for ex, we

cannot evaluate the integration constant at this point.
 We now insert the expression for ex from Eq. 9.8-6. Since
the velocity component in the x direction is zero (no
convection), the term (1/2 v2 +  U)v can be discarded.
 The x-component of q is -k(dT/dx) according to Fourier's
law.
 The x-component of [· v] (momentum transfer in x-
direction) is, as shown in Eq. 9.8-1, xxvx + xyvy + xzvz.
 Since the only nonzero component of the velocity is vz
and since  xz = - (dvz/ dx) according to Newton's law of
viscosity, the x-component of [ · v] is -  vz (dvz/ dx).
 We conclude, then, that Eq. 10.4-3 becomes
 Velocity distribution
governs temp
distribution because
the former was
obtained earlier in
momentum balance

Heat flux due to heat Work flux due to

conduction in fluid shear stress
 In Fig. 10.6-1 we show a composite wall made up of three
materials of different thicknesses, x1-x0, x2-x1, and x3-x2 and
different thermal conductivities k01, k12, k23. At x = x0,
substance 01 is in contact with a fluid with ambient
temperature Ta, and at x = x3 substance 23 is in contact with
a fluid at temperature Tb.
 The heat transfer at the boundaries x0 and x3 is given by
Newton's "law of cooling" with heat transfer coefficients h0
dan h3 respectively.
 The anticipated temperature profile is sketched in Fig.10.6-
1.
shell
 Since we are dealing with heat conduction in a solid, the
terms containing velocity in the e vector can be discarded,
and the only relevant contribution is the q vector,
describing heat conduction.
 We first write the energy balance for a slab of volume
WH x

 which states that the heat entering at x must be equal to

the heat leaving at x + x, since no heat is produced
within the region. After division by WH x and taking the
limit as x 0, we get
 Integration of this equation gives

 The constant of integration, q0, is the heat flux at the

plane x = x0.
 The development in Eqs. 10.6-1,2, and 3 can be
repeated for regions 12 and 23 with continuity
conditions on q, at interfaces, so that the heat flux is
constant and the same for all three slabs:
 Regions 01,12,23:.
 with the same constant for each of the regions. We may
now introduce a Fourier's law for each of the three
regions and get
 .

 We now assume that k01, k12, and k23 are constants. Then
we integrate each equation over the entire thickness of the
relevant slab of material to get
 .

 In addition we have the two statements regarding the heat

transfer at the surfaces according to Newton's law of
cooling:
 .
 Addition of these last five equations then gives
 .

 or =1/R
Analogous to I = V/R in
electricity
 Sometimes this result is rewritten in a form reminiscent
of Newton's law of cooling, either in terms of the heat
flux q0 (J/m2 s) or the heat flow Q0 (J/s):
 The quantity U, called the "overall heat transfer
coefficient," is given then by the following famous
formula for the "additivity of resistances":

 Here we have generalized the formula to a system with

n slabs of material.
 Equations 10.6-15 and 16 are useful for calculating the
heat transfer rate through a composite wall separating
two fluid streams, when the heat transfer coefficients
and thermal conductivities are known (Chapter 14).
 Develop a formula for the overall heat transfer
coefficient for the composite cylindrical pipe wall
shown in Fig. 10.6-2.
 SOLUTION
 An energy balance on a shell of volume 2rL r for
region 01 is
 .

 which can also be written as

 .
shell
 Dividing by 2 rLr and taking the limit as r goes to
zero gives

 Integration of this equation gives

 . constant
 in which r0 is the inner radius of region 01, and q0 is
the heat flux there. In regions 12 and 23, rq is equal to
the same constant. Application of Fourier's law to the
three regions gives
 .

 If we assume that the thermal conductivities in the three

annular regions are constants, then each of the above
three equations can be integrated across its region to
give
 .
 At the two fluid-solid interfaces we can write Newton's
law of cooling:
 .

 Addition of the preceding five equations gives an

equation for Ta - Tb. Then the equation is solved for q0 to
give
 .
 We now define an "overall heat transfer coefficient based
on the inner surface" U0 by
 .

 Combination of the last two equations gives, on

generalizing to a system with n annular layers,

 The subscript "0" on Uo indicates that the overall heat

transfer coefficient is referred to the radius r0.