23.

Economic Importance

The gymnosperms are predominantly woody plants. They are frequently

used in landscaping of parks and gardens because of their evergreen habit
and symmetrical appearance.

General Aspects
Various Cycas species are cultivated in the garden as palms.
Ginkgo biloba is grown in groups or as avenue trees. The male trees are
preferred, as the ripened ovules (on female plants) have a disagreeable
odour, like that of rancid butter. However, the male and female plants
cannot be distinguished in the vegetative state. The plant is exceptionally
resistant to attacks of insects and fungi and can be grown successfully in
modern cities.
The conifers are much valued, and several taxa are grown wherever the
climate permits; Thuja, Biota, Araucaria, Juniperus and Pinus are quite
popular. Cupressus funebris is commonly planted in China and India in
cemeteries. Cryptomeria japonica lends beauty to the groves and gardens
of Japan. It forms the famous avenue which leads to the temples and tomb
of Icyasu (founder of Tokugawa dynasty) at Nikko. The avenue, laid out
in the 17th century, has been maintained by replacing dead or damaged
trees. Much attention was paid to forest administration by the Tokugawa
Government. Tree felling was restricted. Certain trees, such as Chamaecyparis
obtusa, C. pisifera, Sciadopitys verticillata, Thuja standishii and Thujopsis
dolabrata, the celebrated "five trees of_Kisco" have been strictly preserved.
Agathis alba is grown as an ornamental tree in Java. Juniperus horizontalis-
the creeping juniper-spreads over the ground, and is used for covering
exposed banks. Several horticultural shrub varieties of J. virginiana have
been developed for ornamental plantings (Hemmerley 1970). They vary
widely in foliage colour which may be "white", gold-tipped or blue-green,
and turn purple in winter. The shape of the plant may be pyramidal, spreading
or globose. They need abundant sun, but can grow in sandy or dry soil
where other shrubs will not grow. Chamaecyparis obtusa var. compacta is
a dense-growing dwarf with very short branches and branchlets. C. obtusa
var. nana is a spreading green-leaved bush. Both the varieties are suitable
 Economic Importance 441

for rock gardens. Cephalotaxus is a spreading bush which makes excellent

screens in the garden; it withstands pruning well and is used as a hedge
plant. Taxus spp. are widely planted in gardens. It has several erect branches
from the base, stands clipping well, and is one of the best hedge plants,
used extensively in topiary work.
Various species of Abies, Picea, Pinus, Pseudotsuga and Juniperus are
popular as Christmas trees. In Europe Abies alba, and in the USA A. balsamea
are preferred (they hold the needles longer than other species). Before
World War II, Juniperus virginiana was the traditional Christmas tree
(Hemmerley 1970). Bonsai is an ancient Japanse art form (planting of trees
in shallow trays or pots). The trees or shrubs are grown indefinitely in
proportionately small containers and treated with certain miniaturization/
dwarfing techniques to impart in them an appearance of age. Cycas revoluta,
various species of Pinus and Juniperus are very popular for growing bonsai.
In Japan, Chamaecyparis obtusa, Pinus densiflora, P. parviflora, P. thunbergii
and Podocarpus nagi are largely used for dwarfing. However, almost any
conifer will make a dwarf plant.
Fresh or dried leaves of various cycads are utilized as decorative material.
The foliage of Cycas revoluta is used for making wreaths, floral decorations
and/or artificial palm trees for window display. The leaves are boiled in
water, soaked in a preservative solution for several days (Thieret 1958), or
plunged in boiling seawater. The leaves become leathery and do not break
on drying.
The gymnosperms are economically important fm: their timber, in the
manufacture of paper and board, resins, tannins, essential and fatty oils, as
food supplements and pharmaceuticals.

Woods
Most of the commercially important gymnospermous woods are obtained
from conifers and taxads. Anatmoically, these woods comprise tracheids,
xylem parenchyma and xylem rays. They lack xylem fibres for the most
part, and the high cellulose content imparts a softer texture than the wood
of angiosperms (seeP. Maheshwari and H. Singh 1960). In Larix decidua,
Agathis and Taxus, the wood is very hard. In conifers, the heartwood and
sapwood are not always well defined. The distinction between spring and
autumn wood is usually better marked in trees from temperate regions than
from warmer regions. A few coniferous woods have a definite taste, for
example bitter (Dacrydium colensoi) or astringent (Agathis australis), while
others are greasy tq the touch (D. colensoi, Taxodium distichum).
Most coniferous woods are straight-grained, light-coloured, light-weight
and strong in comparison to their weight. They can be easily worked, have
good nail-taking properties, take a fine finish with sharp tools, and polish
and paint well. These qualities make them suitable for a wide range of
work where strength and durability are not essential: furniture, cabinet
442 The Gymnosperms

making, flooring, interior decoration, for general carpentery, building purposes,

joinery, for boats and shipbuilding, poles, posts, railway sleepers, cooperage,
veneers, etc. Some of the taxa have scented wood or are beautifully figured
and are, therefore, specially valued for making chests, cabinets, and for
panelling. All species in a genus usually have the same odour, except
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis which is different from other species.

Araucariaceae. The wood of Agathis is strong, durable, pale yellow to

yellow-brown with a silky, even texture and lustrous surface. A. australis
is the principal timber tree of New Zealand. The wood has several uses,
including making piano parts, artificial limbs, and reproduction of antique
furniture, especially in France (Whitmore 1980 a, b). Occasionally, the
wood of Araucaria araucana has dark brown fixed knots which contrast
strikingly with the rest of the wood. _Logs of A. angustifolia and
A. cunninghamia are used for plywood manufacture.

Cupressaceae. The wood of Callitris is fragrant and shows distinct

heartwood and sapwood. It is sometimes beautifully figured. Due to the
presence of phenol and other chemical compounds, the wood is resistant to
white ants. It is valuable as timber, and mostly the wood of C. glauca is
used. In Chamaecyparis, the wood is durable, finishes with a glossy surface,
and has a pleasant lasting spicy odour which repels moths and insects.
C. lawsoniana is one of the most valuable timbers of North America. The
fragrant essential oil present in the wood is a powerful diuretic, which
makes it necessary for workers in the saw plills to occasionally change to
other woods (Dallimore and Jackson 1966). The wood is also used for
aeroplanes, canoe paddle, and organ pipe making. C. nootkatensis is
considered to be one of the best woods for battery separators. C. obtusa has
white-, straw-coloured or pink wood and is popular in Japan. It is used as
a base for superior lacquer ware. Due to its straight and even-grained
nature, the wood can be cut up into very thin shavings and plated into hats.
The bark is used for roofing, as it is decay-resistant. C. pisifera is used for
bentwood articles. Cupressus wood is very durable, and has a spicy-resinous
odour which is insect-repellent. C. sempervirens (gopherwood) wood is
reputed to be one of the four woods used in the construction of the cross
upon which Christ was crucified (Baumann 1960). The wood lasts indefinitely
under water. It has been a favourite wood for coffins ever since the Egyptians
introduced it. It is considered an excellent furniture wood in France and
Italy. The doors of St. Peter's in Rome were made from this wood, and
lasted for nearly 1000 years (P. Maheshwari and H. Singh 1960). The
timber of C. torulosa is often used in India in temples. When burnt as
incense, it forms very little ash. The wood is suitable for second-grade
pencils, battery separators, and in aircraft manufacture.
Juniperus wood is fragrant, reddish or reddish brown, and rarely damaged
 Economic Importance 443

by insects. It is very durable and especially resistant to weather conditions.

J. virginiana has a cream-coloured sapwood with projections into the dark
red heartwood which gives it a distinct appearance. It is durable even when
in contact with the soil, and is resistant to microbial decay. It was the
standard wood for pencils until it became scarce. J. macropoda wood is
suitable for pencils in India; it is also burnt as incense. J. recurva and
J. wallichiana wood are also burnt in Buddhist temples. The wood of
Libocedrus is reddish brown, -resinous, fragrant, durable and easily worked.
The heartwood of L. decurrens contains a volatile oil and small quantities
of carvacrol and hydrothymoquinone-the last two highly fungicidal
(Anderson 1967). ·
All the high-grade woods are used in the .manufacture of lead pencils,
and venetian blinds. The wood of Thuja is fragrant, non-resinous, very durable,
and yellowish or reddish brown. The heartwood of J. plicata is very durable,
and contains tropolones (thujaplicins), which are extremely toxic to wood-
destroying fungi (Anderson 1955). The wood is used for glasshouse
construction, beehives, and outhouses. In the USA, native Americans used
it for canoes by hollowing out the wood, and splitting the trunks for their
totem poles.

Pinaceae. The colour of wood in Abies varies from white-yellowish to

reddish brown. It is light and used for packing cases, matchwood, wood
wool, aircraft work, light camp furniture, and plywood. The odourless wood
is much in demand for butter, lard and grocery boxes. Cedrus wood is very
durable, oily, fragrant, insect-repellant, and rot-resistant. The wood of
C. libani was extensively used for coffins and mummy cases by the ancient
Egyptians (seeP. Maheshwari and Biswas 1970). In India, C. deodara is
a general utility wood and is the strongest of the Indian coniferous woods.
Due to the presence of oil, the seasoned heartwood is very durable and
rarely attacked by white ants or fungi. It is, however, difficult to glue or
polish, and unsuitable for painting and varnishing, as resin oozes out from
the knots even after seasoning.
The wood of Larix is one of the heaviest, strongest and toughest of the
softwoods. It is durable even in contact with the ground. The wood is
extensively used for garden furniture, and outdoor feeding racks and troughs
for cattle. The plant has a naturally curving lower part which is ideal for
boat- and shipbuilding. Some of the important species are Larix decidua,
L. laricina, L. leptolepis and L occidentalis.
Picea wood is soft, odourless, long-fibered, white or pinkish, black or
dark-brown, works well, and finishes with a satiny surface. It is resonant
and is prized for making sounding boards of pianos and bodies of violin
and organ pipes. The timber of P. abies has a natural lustre, and is extensively
used for toys, carving, wood chips for hats, and fruit baskets. The wood
from Romania is excellent for making sounding boards for musical
444 The Gymnosperms

instruments. It is popular as dairy and kitchen table-top and dressers as the

wood can be washed and scrubbed to give a clean appearance. P. sitchensis
wood is the most valuable of all spruce woods because of its combined
qualities of strength and lightness. It is used for plywood for special laminates
in aeroplane and glider construction.
Pinus timber is commercially important and valuable. The soft pines
have a straight-grained, uniform, easy-to-work wood, comparatively free of
resin. The hard pines have resinous, heavy, hard, strong and durable wood;
heartwood and sapwood are well defined. The group is heterogenous, each
species has distinctive wood. It is highly inflammable and can be used as
a torch. P. lambertiana yields large quantities of unblemished, high-quality
timber. The wood of P. palustris has a world-wide reputation. It is very
hard, strong, durable, resinous, and occasionally has decorative markings.
It is esteemed for heavy construction work such as bridge and naval
architecture. P. roxburghii timber is moderately hard, resinous, light and
non-durable. It is extensively used for packing cases, cheap furniture and
charcoal. P. sylvestris wood is superior, and has excellent lasting qualities.
The treated best-grade wood, when laid on a good concrete foundation,
withstands very heavy wear, as shown by blocks which remained in use for
over 13 years on Westminster Bridge (London) where a continuous and
heavy traffic flows (Dallimore and Jackson 1966). Some other notable
timber-yielding species are: P. ponderosa, P. resinosa, P. taeda, P. strobus
and P. wallichiana.
Pseudotsuga wood is variable in character. The heartwood is reddish- or
brownish yellow and sapwood creamy yellow with a pronounced difference
in spring and summer wood. Resin ducts are usually present in groups. The
tracheids have spiral thickenings, otherwise superficially the wood resembles
Larix. The tall tree gives a clear timber which can be used for heavy
construction work. The wood is especially suited for bending. In the USA,
most veneer and plywood is made from this plant (P. Maheshwari and
H. Singh 1960). The brownish wood of Tsuga normally lacks resin ducts;
the heartwood is darker than sapwood. The wood is tenacious and holds
nails well, hence its value as a box wood. The important species are
T. heterophylla and T. canadensis.

Podocarpaceae. Podocarpus is commonly called yellow wood because

of its colour; occasionally it may be brown or reddish. The wood is not
economical for cheaper manufactures as it takes nails only when it is bored
and is more expensive to work. Several species are important timber trees
in their native countries. P. ferrugineus and P. totara wood resists teredo
(shipworm moluscs) and is used for marine work, such as piles for bridges
and dock. The yellow or reddish wood of Dacrydium is resinous, durable,
and occasionally beautifully figured. D. biforme wood is durable even on
contact with the ground. D. colensoi wood is of low specific gravity, very
 Economic Importance 445

strong, elastic and does not shrink much on seasoning. D. intermedium wood
is strong, durable, resinous, and highly inflammable.

Taxodiaceae. The wood of Cryptomeria japonica is fragrant, strong,

durable, coarse and variably grained, and is not readily attacked by insects.
It is a widely used timber in Japan. The heartwood of Sequoia sempervirens
is a rich dull red, and sapwood yellowish white. It is soft, fine-grained,
easy to work, and durable when exposed to weather or soil. It does not
warp or shrink readily. The wood has many uses, since it is available in
large dimensions free from defects. The plywood can also be used in exposed
situations. Sequoiadendron gigantea wood has a limited use. Both the trees
are preserved for their scarcity. Taxodium distichum wood is soft, straight-
grained, non-shrinking, and has a characteristic sour odour. The heartwood
varies from red to almost black, and the sapwood is white or yellowish
white. It is very durable in wet places, resistant to insects, and inimune to
white ants. It is used for construction of water tanks, water pipes, and is the
best all round timber for chemical tanks and vats, since it does not impart
any colour or taste to the products. It is particularly suitable for greenhouse
construction, cooling towers and roof planks of dye houses.

Taxaceae. The wood of Taxus is strong, oily, elastic, close-grained arid

very durable (tertiary spiral thickenings are present in the tracheids). It is
the heaviest of the softwoods, with good mechanical properties; it works
well, and finishes with a smooth glossy surface. The heartwood of T. baccata
is reddish brown, toning with age and exposure, the sapwood is pale yellow-
white. It has irregular growth rings, which give it a decorative value.
Transections of the base of old trees may show several distinct "hearts",
which are due to erect shoots growing from near the base, thickening and
being overgrown by the main trunk. Such sections are prized as tabletops.
In ancient times, the wood was popular for bows and it is still used in
archery. The wood of Torreya nucifera is lustrous, and durable under water.
It is used for water pails and Japanese chess men.

Ginkgoaceae. Ginkgo biloba wood is light and brittle. In China and Japan
it is used for chess boards and chess men.

Paper and Board

Paper can be made from any natural fibrous material depending on the
amount, nature, softness and pliability of the cellulose present in the cell
wall. At present, nearly 95% of the paper produced in the world comes
from wood, and in the USA and Canada (the largest paper producers), 85%
of the wood pulp is made from coniferous wood. Conifers are important
because of the greater average length of the fibres and larger percentage of
long fibres per given volume of wood.
446 The Gymnosperms

The wood is converted into pulp or fibrous mass by various processes:

(a) Ground wood or mechanical process, (b) Chemical processes.
In the mechanical process, the pulp is produced by pressing the logs
against revolving pulpstone in the presence of water. The resins, lignin and
other undesirable materials are not removed, and they resist bleaching agents,
which causes the paper to turn yellow. The fibres do not felt readily and
the pulp is poor in quality. Usuillly, the mechanical pulp is blended with
a varying percentage of chemical pulp to give the paper the necessary
strength. Ground-wood pulp is mostly used for newsprint (blended with
20% sulphite pulp).
In chemical processes, the wood chips are subjected to chemical treatment/
cooking which removes most of the lignin and other materials, and nearly
pure cellulose fibres remain. For pulping softwoods, the chemical processes
such as sulphite and sulphate or kraft are used. The sulphite process has an
acidic reaction. Bleached sulphite pulp is used in the manufacture of higher
grades of paper. The sulphate or kraft process operates under alkaline
conditions. This method is adopted for coniferous wood, especially pines,
which have a high resin content. The digesting solution dissolves resins,
wax and fat from the wood. The pulp is mostly used in the manufacture of
strong grades of paper such as kraft paper, used for wrapping, paper bags·
and paperboard. The important conifers used extensively for the manufacture
of paper and board are: Pinus sp. for kraft paper; Picea, Abies and Tsugd
for higher grades of writing and printing paper; Pinus, Picea and Pseudotsuga
for thermal and sound insulation boards. From Picea and Tsuga a number
of derived products are also obtained, such as transparent films, photographic
films, artificial sponges, sausage casings and lacquers. The bast fibre of
Sequoia sempervirens is formed into sheets for battery separators (Isenberg
1956). Other conifers used in the industry are: Thuja plicata, Agathis
palmerstoni and A. microstachya; Araucaria angustifoila, A. bidwilli and
A. cunninghami; Larix laricina, L. occidentalis and L. decidua.

Resins
Resins are complex plant exudates which vary in their chemical composition,
and are related to the terpenes or essential oils. They are insoluble in water
but are soluble in vegetable oils and organic solvents such as alcohol, ether
and carbon bisulphide. When heated, resins melt with progressive distillation
of volatile oils as the temperature increases. The conifers are one of the
major resin-yielders in the world. Resins harden gradually as their oil
evaporates, which makes them invaluable in industries like paints and varnish,
lacquers, paper-sizing and medicine. They are dissolved in solvents and
painted on the given surface; after the oil and solvent evaporate a thin
waterproof coating remains on the surface. Resinous substances have long
been used as waterproof coatings. The Egyptians varnished their mummy
cases with them. In most conifers, the resin remains mixed with either
 Economic Importance 447

abundant essential oil (oleo-resin) or very little of it (hard resins). In others,

the resin may be mixed with gum (gum resin) as in Araucaria and it is not
possible to separate them.

Hard Resins
The hard resins are usually solid, more or less transparent, and brittle. They
are an excellent source of varnish as they have a low oil content, and
dissolve readily in alcohol. Some of the uses are: (a) Printing inks. Resins
are ingredients of speciality inks which include gloss, non-rub, non-scratch
food carton, candy wrapper, cellophane, soap wrapper, gravure inks, etc.
These inks are applied to surfaces other than paper. (b) Adhesives,
(c) Pyrotechnics (fireworks industry), and (d) Linoleum.

Copal. The term copal is of Mexican origin, and is applied to a large

group of resins obtained from a variety of plants. It is of varying hardness,
and has relatively high melting point. The softer copals are almost completely
soluble in cold alcohol, and used as such for spirit varnishes. Harder copals
need heat treatment or "running" to render them soluble in drying oils.
There are three principal copals, two are from conifers.

a) Kauri Copal. This is obtained from Agathis australis, the most important
tree of New Zealand. The copal is chiefly fossil in nature and is collected
from sites of present or former kauri forests. It is dug up from ridges and
swamps which furnish the bulk of the supply, and the pieces may weigh as
much as 45 kg. The range gum is the best grade of kauri. An inferior bush
gum is obtained by tappping living trees. A small amount of resin exudes
naturally and forms green gum. The resin is extremely valuable for varnish
and especially suited for marine and outdoor work. It has a high depth of
gloss combined with elasticity and durability. For a long time, this resin
held a premier position in varnish trade. An inferior grade of kauri copal
is also used for making linoleum.

b) Manila Copal. This is obtained from Agathis alba distributed throughout

Malaysia. The first shipments of this copal were from Manila, and the
name has persisted. In Malaya, the trees occur only at higher elevations.
The tapped resin does not harden there for some unknown reason (Mantell
1950), and is known as syrup copal. The resin exudes naturally; during
high winds and storms, cracks and fissures are formed in the tree. The resin
flows out from them and accumulates as large lumps up to 18 kg in weight,
in the forks of trees from where it is collected. Resin is also obtained by
systematic tapping. The resin is present in the bark; pieces of it are removed
and the exposed surface is cleaned. After every collection, bark is removed
from upper edge of the wound for a new opening. Resin also occurs in a
fossilized state and is collected from the earth. It consists of large, irregular
448 The Gymnosperms

milky pieces with a yellowish interior. In Borneo, a semi-fossil grade

known as Pontianac is obtained and is the hardest variety of copal. The
resin is used in oil and spirit varnish and paints, lacquers and in making
linoleum. It is used as a sizing material and has numerous other applications
such as preparation of plastics, driers, adhesives, oil cloth, printing inks,
and waterproofing compositions.

Amber. This is a fossil, water-insoluble tree resin which has attained a

stable state after various changes such as loss of volatile constituents, oxidation
and polymerization processes and a prolonged burial period. Amber is a
general word for resins which are heterogeneous and differ in chemical and
physical properties. It occurs throughout the world in widely separated
localities such as Burma, Japan, Alaska, North, Central and South America,
and many European countries as well as near-Eastern countries. When one
speaks of amber, it is primarily the fossil resin which is found chiefly on
the shores of the Baltic sea, and it is the most important commercial amber.
Chemically, it is a resin from a number of extinct conifers of which Pinus
succinifera is the principal source. These plants flourished during the Eocine
on the shores of a former sea.
Amber is exceedingly hard and brittle, the color varies from yellow to
brown or even black. It occurs in several forms, the most important is
succinite. When rubbed, it takes a high polish, becomes negatively electrified,
and emits a characteristic aromatic odour.
Amber was highly prized by the ancient peoples; the Greeks and Romans
for jewellery, beads and other ornamental purposes. Certain magical properties
were attributed to it. At present, it is used for the mouthpiece of pipes, and
holders for cigars and cigarettes. It is also used in medicine and X-ray
therapy. Human blood does not coagulate if kept in amber containers. The
darker grades yield a valuable varnish, but it is too expensive to be of much
use. Scientifically, amber is of interest because remains of insect or plant
material are occasionally embedded in it. These existed when the tree was
alive and the resin was fluid. This helps in the study of evolution of life
on this earth.

Sandarac. Sandarac is a pale yellow resin obtained from Tetraclinis

articulata (Vahl) Mast. (African Sandarc), or various species of Callitris
(Australian Sandarc). The resin is formed between inner and outer layers
of the bark and exudes as small "tears". The hard white, rather brittle, spirit
varnish is particularly adapted to the finishing of metal objects, to which
it gives a good lustre. One of its largest applications is as a primer for metal
surfaces, where it provides a high degree of adhesion. It is used as paper
and leather varnish, for glass and procelain cements, spirit varnishes and
lacquers for photographic work, and as a constituent of incense. Many of
its uses are in combination with mastic (resinous exudation of trees of
 Economic Importance 449

Pistacia, Anacardiaceae) and elemi (oleo-resins of different origin belong

to members of the Burseraceae). Mastic sandarc has been used for the
preservation of old paintings (Mantell 1950). An alcoholic solution of sandarc
on cotton wool is used as a temporary filling for teeth.

Oleoresins
The oleoresins have a substantial amount of essential oil which m~es it
almost liquid in nature, and they have a characteristic aroma. The two
components can be separated by distillation. Turpentine is an oleoresin
obtained exclusively from conifers.

Turpentine. The pine oleoresin is called pine gum, pine pitch or turpentine.
It is a viscous, honey-like liquid which is obtained, for commercial use, by
tapping living trees. On distillation the turpentine yields the essential oil
(spirits of turpentine) and rosin (also called colophony). Bqth of them are
immensely useful, and important industries have grown around them. The
turpentine or Naval Stores industry is one of the oldest forest industries. In
- _I
the 17th century, the wooden sailing vessels used large quantities of oleoresin
and gave the name·naval stores to the industry. The United States leads in
production, followed by France, whose products are of the highest quality.
Spain is third, followed by the European countries, India and East Asia.
In the USA, the major turpentine pines are Pinus palustris and P. caribaea;
some of the other species of importance are P. taeda, P. ponderosa,
P. lambertiana and P. contorta. In Europe, P. pinaster, P. halepensis,
P. nigra, P. pinea and P. sylvestries are the common yielders. In India,
P. rOitburghii, in the East Indies, P. merkusii, and in the Phillipines, P. khasya
are turpentined.
The trees are 'tapped for oleoresin. The method of tapping varies in
different countries although the basic principal is the same. In the USA, in
early days, tapping methods were very destructive and injurious to the tree.
Cavities known as "boxes" were cut near the base of the tree and the
oleoresin collected in them. Improved methods of tapping, called the Henry
system, which involves shallow chipping and the use of several types of
cup-and-gutter system followed. In a tree for turpentining (exceeding
23 em in diameter), basal incisions are made in the trunk and metal gutters
are slipped into it. These guide the oleoresin into a metal cup suspended
below the gutters. A strip. of bark and wood (approximately 1.75 em deep)
is removed just above the gutter for a distance of one-third of the
circumference of the tree. This stimulates the flow of resin and induces the
formation of J;Iew ducts. At present, the recommended practice is bark
chipping and acid treatment. The surface is prepared by removing a strip
of bark only by using especially designed scrapers, and no wood is removed.
The fresh streak is then sprayed with 50% H2S04 • The acid stimulates the
flow of resin by not allowing the wound to heal quickly (Andersort 1955).
4SO The Gymnosperms

A similar effect :5 shown by inoculation of Fusarium lateritum f. pini (Clapper

1954). Such streaks produce 50-100% more oleoresin during the first week,
and continue more than normal yield during the second and third week.
The interval between chipping can be increased from the usual 1 week to
2~3 weeks. This technique leaves the tree base in better condition for
subsequent utilization as plywood or lumber.
Much turpentine and rosin are also obtained from old pine stumps and
logging waste, by steam and solvent processes.
The. oleoresins collected in the cup are emptied into larger vessels and
transported to the factory, where they are washed and cleaned before
distillation. The distillate is collected in barrels, where the oil of turpentine
rises and is run off for storage. The residue (rosin), while still hot, is run
through a series of screens to remove impurities and is transferred to a
cooling vat. It is then put into slack barrels where it completely hardens
within 24 h.
The oil of turpentine has many uses. Due to its properties as a solvent,
it acts as a thinner in the paint and varnish industry. It is useful for printing
cloth, especially cotton and wool, in perfumery, pharmaceutical and allied
industries, and as a solvent for rubber and gutta-percha.
Rosin is even more important in industry. Depending on grade and quality,
it has several uses, such as in the manufacture of soap, varnishes, paint
driers, oil cloth, linoleum, sealing wax, adhesives, plastics, etc. Superior
grades are used for paper sizing, enamels and ointments. Palustric acid has
been discovered from rosin which is useful in paper sizing.

Canada Balsam. This oleoresin is obtained from Abies balsamea

(balsam fir), the most widely distributed conifer in North America and
Canada. The oleoresin is located in elongated, schizogenous ducts or blisters
on the bark. It is collected by using a pot with a spout, cut at an angle,
which is forced into the blisters, and the oleoresin drains out. Most of the
collection is made in the province of Quebec in Canada. Each tree yields
approx. 230-285 g in a year. Canada balsam is a viscid, yellowish or
greenish substance which does not granulate or crystalize on drying. It is
transparent, and has a high refractive index, approximating that of glass.
This property makes it extremely suitable as a mounting medium for
microscopic objects, and as cement for lenses in optical work. It is also
used as a fixative for soap and perfumes and as a component of collodion
and several plasters. Pseudotsuga taxifolia and Tsuga canadensis also have
oleoresin with similar properties and uses.

Venice Turpentine. This is obtained from Larix decidua. The resin ducts
are located in the heartwood of the tree. To collect the resin, a hole is bored
into the trunk; one single hole may suffice for the whole life of a tree. The
trees are tapped in spring. The oleoresin is a yellowish/greenish liquid and
 Economic Importance 451

has a characteristic odour and taste. It is used in varnishes, lithographic

work, veterinary medicine and histology.

Tannins
Tannins are organic compounds, glucosidal, have an acid reaction, and are
astringent. They are useful because of their ab~lity to unite with the proteins
of animal skin to form a strong, flexible, resistant insoluble substance
known as leather. Tannins also react with salts of iron to form dark blue
or greenish black compounds which form the basis of common inks. They
are useful in medicine because of their astringent nature. Tannins are used
in the petroleum industry as a dispersant to control the viscosity of mud in
oil-well drilling. The bark of Tsuga canadensis has 8-14% of tannin and
has been in use in the USA as the chief domestic source. In Europe, Larix
decidua, Picea abies, and in New Zealand Phyllocladus trichomanoides are
used. The latter is utilized for glove leather, as it contains a bright orange-
yellow dye in addition to tannin, which gives the kid gloves their particular
shade.
Conifers do not form very important tannin yielders but small industries
develop wherever large quantities of the bark are available.

Essential Oils
Almost all conifers with resin ducts can yield essential oils, but they are
not always commercially important. Steam distillation of the young branches
and adherent leaves,. wood and sawdust yields the oil, which is used
extensively in preparations of deodorants, room sprays, disinfectants,
preparations of bath salts, perfumery and medicine. Some other uses of the
oil are: Himalayan cedarwood oil (Cedrus deodara) and red 'cedarwood oil
(Juniperus virginiana) are used for clearing tissues in histological work,
and for use with the oil immersion lens of the microscope. Oil of juniper
(J. communis) is used as an essence for flavouring several European liquors,
such as gin, which owe their characteristic aroma to it. Oil of cade
(J. oxycedrus) is widely used in the treatment of chronic eczema, other
skin diseases, preparation of medical soaps, and healing of cuts and cutaneous
diseases of animals. Oil of .savin (J. sabina) was once used as an
antirheumatic, and vermifuge but has lost much of its importance due to its
disagreeable odour, irritating effect and toxicity. Huonpine wood (Dacrydium
franklinii) oil is highly germicidal, and is used as a preservative of casein
and other nitrogenous products; it exterminates powder pests and furniture
borers, and is an effective insect-repellant; also used in scenting transparent
soaps.

Fatty Oils
The seeds of several gymnosperms have fatty oils, mostly not available for
oil-milling, as the seeds are eaten either raw or roasted. The fleshy layers
452 The Gymnosperms

of seeds of Macrozamia contain a bright orange oil, which resembles palm

oil in its physical ·and chemical properties. Cephalotaxus drupacea seeds
yield a fatty oil which is used as an illuminant, and is of local importance
in Japan. The small brown seeds of Torreya nucifera yield an oil called
kaya-no-abura, which is used traditionally for cooking in Japan (Burke
1975). It is also used for paints and other technical preparations (Eckey
1954). The seed kernels of Gnetum ula yield 14.2% fixed oil. It is used in
South India for massage in rheumatism, as an illuminant, and for edible
purpose.
Tall oil is a by-product of the sulphate pulp industry. The waste liquor
from pine pulp mills, after treatment, results in the crude tall oil which is
refined by steam distillation. The composition of the crude oil is approximately
20-60% fatty acids, 10-60% resin acid and 5-24% unsaponifiable material,
mainly sterols (Hildititch 1956). It has innumerable uses. Products made
with the oil are asphalt emulsions, wetting agents, binders, cement addition
agents, waterproofing agents, boring oils, cutting oils, sulphonated oils,
mould lubricants etc. During World War II, for the quickly constructed
landing fields laid out in swampy land to be strong enough for bombers,
a small amount of tall oil was used in the paving, which induced the wet
earth to dehydrate and stick to the asphalt. Tall oil is the lowest-priced of
all organic acids and also a source of components such as abietic acid in
unpolymerized form, oleic and linoleic acids and sterols.

Food Supplements
Young succulent leaves of various Cycas spp. (C. circinalis, C. pectinata,
C. revoluta, C. rumphii, C. siamensis), and Gnetum (also the inflorescence)
are cooked and eaten as vegetables in their native countries.
The starch present in the pith and cortex of the stem and endosperm of
the seeds of cycads is extracted and used as a food. Most cycads yield a
large amount of starch (from the stem) at about 7 years of age; the best
time for extraction is prior to a flush of new leaves. The male plants have
more starch than female, and the starch content also varies from season to
season. The plant is felled and the innermost cylindrical axis of the stem
is removed. It is sliced into thin, oval or circular discs, spread upon mats
and sun-dried. When crisp, it is pounded into flour, sifted and mixed in
water and poured into a vessel, allowed to stand till the starchy substance
is deposited at the bottom. The clear liquid is drained off, and the precipitate
rolled about between boards until spherical pellets called sago are formed.
Various grades such as bullet sago and pearl sago are formed. The majority
of the manufacturers make an amorphous flour, which is stored. The starch
is, however, a poor man's food, or used in times of scarcity in several areas
in southern and southeastern Asia, New Caledonia, Indo-China, Malaya,
India, Burma, Sri Lanka and Fiji.
It is more economical to extract starch from the seeds than from the
 Economic Importance 453

stem; for the latter the entire plant has to be destroyed. A Cycas plant produces
annually about 550 seeds, which yield 11early the same amount of starch
(ca. 2.26 kg) as a 1.25-m-long stem (Thieret 1958).
The various parts of the plants and the starch extracted from cycad seeds
and stems often contain a toxic principle, which should be removed before
using it as food.
The pith of Encephalartos is used to make kaffir bread by the aborigines
of South Africa. The pith is scooped out and buried in the earth to rot for
2 months. It is taken out, kneaded with water, made into cakes and baked
in embers under the ashes. Dutch colonists of South Africa gave the name
kaffer brood boom, hottentot brood boom or simply brood boom (bread
tree) to several Encephalartos spp. These names are still in use.
Roasted seeds of Ginkgo are eaten at feasts in China and Japan to promote
digestion and diminish the effects of drinking wine (Dallimore and Jackson
1966).
Pine seeds are rich in fats and proteins. The seeds of several species are
large enough, have a good flavour, and are edible. Some of the species are
P. pineae (Europe), P. cembra (Europe, Siberia), P. armandi (China),
P. gerardiana (India, Afghanistan), and P. cembroides, P. edulis,
P. monophylla, P. sabiniana, P. parryana and P. counteri (North America).
P. pineae has been used as a food item in the northern Mediterranean
region for over 2000 years. The nut is referred to as pignolia (England),
pinone (Italy) and pignon (France).
In Italy, the kernels are largely used for maKing confectionery. Chocolate
manufacturers mix them with cocoa (Theobroma cacao) and the product is
a great delicacy. Traditionally, the kernels are used in soups. Raw or roasted
kernels are also eaten as dessert. In North America, the processing of nuts
has been mechanized. The kernels are dried or roasted in oil or manufactured
into nut-coffee and other sweets and candies. The seeds of Pinus edulis
were a staple diet of the Navajo Indians.
The Aborigines in Queensland depend on the ripe seeds of Araucaria
bidwilli for food. They travel long distances to the groves or forests and
feed on the seeds, which are very fattening. There is a restriction by the
government upon felling these trees in one tract of hilly country, where
several trees are reserved for the natives. They apportion the trees among
themselves, so that each tribe has its own trees, which are again divided
amongst families. The trees are thus handed down from generation to
generation (Dallimore and Jackson 1966). A. araucana seeds are similarly
used by the natives of Chile, and A. angustifolia in Brazil (Howes 1948).
The seeds of Torreya nucifera are an important article of food in Japan.
The seeds of Gnetum ula and G. gnemon are eaten roasted or cooked. The
seed kernel is mashed, moulded into cakes or biscuits, dried in the sun and
fried in boiling oil (P. Maheshwari and V. Vasil 1961a).
454 The Gymnosperms

A sugary exudation with cathartic properties is obtained from the

heartwood, particularly from charred and wounded trees, or from sawed
wood of Pinus lambertiana (s\Igar pine). It is sometimes used as a substitute
for sugar.

Spruce Beer. This is a fermented liquor made from an extract of twigs

and leaves of Picea abies. It is then mixed with treacle or other sugary
substances (Dallimore and Jackson 1966).

Pharmaceuticals
Ephedra, known as ma-huang, has been a common medicine in China for
over 5000 years (see Trease and Evans 1983).
The chief sources of the drug are E. sinica, E. equisetina, E. intermedia,
E. gerardiana and E. major. The ephedras contain ca. 0.5-2.0% of alkaloids,
which varies with species, seasons and age of the plant. The maxium is
reached when the plants are ca. 4 years old, and still flowering. The alkaloids
present are 30-90% ephedrine (and its isomers) and pseudoephidrine, which
were isolated in 1887, although their pharmacological value was discovered
only much later, and have been in extensive use during the present century.
Physiologically and chemically, ephedrine resembles epinephrine (adrenaline).!..
a hormone-like substance with a stimulating action on the sympathetic
nervous system~ The roots also contain a number of macrocyclic alkaloids
(ephedradines) which have hypotensive properties. However, the medical
properties of root and stem are in opposition to each other (Shiu-Yiilg Hu
1969). The root is prescribed for checking excessive perspiration in a weak
patient.
Green branches of Ephedra are collected in autumn when it has the
highest level of ephedrine. They are dried completely, first in shade and
later in the sun. The best material is dry, thick, light green, solid with a
bitter taste and little odour.
Ma-huang is hot, bitter and warming. It is prescribed for typhoid, bad
colds, fe_ver without sweat, pain all over the body, in joints, swelling of
ankles, short breath, etc. The anti-inflammatry action is due to a recently
discovered oxazolidone related to ephedrine (Trease and Evans 1983). Among
the main clinical applications of ephedrine are for bronchospasm, as a nasal
decongestant, and in certain allergic disorders.

Taxol. Taxol is a drug obtained fro!Il the dried inner bark (phloem-cambial
tissues) of Taxus brevifolia (Pacific yew). It has unique therapeutic qualities
against ovarian cancer, breast cancer, non-small-cell lung cancer, melanoma
and colon cancer. Taxol is a complex diterpene-a 20-carbon taxane
containing a .rare oxetane ring and an amide side-chain with antineoplastic
properties (see Edgington 1991). Wani et al in 1969, discovered and named
it 'Taxol' (Wanf et al. 1971, Edgington 1991). It is considered to be the
 Economic Importance 455

most important novel natural anticancer drug after 15 years search by the
National Cancer Institute (NCI) in USA. It is regarded as the prototype of
a new class of cancer chemotherapeutic agents (Cragg et al. 1993, Chen
1990). The drug has been approved for clinical treatment of ovarian and
breast cancer by the Food and Drug Adrninstration (FDA) in the USA (see
Zhong 1995).
Taxol catalyzes rapid microtubule formation, stabilizing them against
depolymerization. This gives the drug two tumour fighting mechanisms:
(a) It freezes the mitotic spindle, prevents the depolymerization that
pulls the chromosomes into the two halves of the rapidly 'dividing tumor
cells. This suspends the cells at G 2 or M phase, ultimately killing it.
(b) Taxol inhibits cell migration, which may prevent the spread of
metastatic cancer cells (Edgington 1991).
Taxus is a slow-growing plant of restricted geographical distribution.
The amount of taxol in the bark is relatively low - ca. 0.01% of the dry
weight. Ca. 7000 kg bark is required to produce 1 kg of taxol by current
bark extraction procedures (Cragg et al. 1993). To produce 1 g of the
substance, 3 or 4 trees (at least 60 years old) are required. T. brevifolia is
the only commercial source for the drug at present. However, other species
of Taxus (or Austrotaxus - see Zhong 1995) also produce taxol and are
potential sources (Fett-Neto et al. 1992).
Total synthesis of taxol has not been achieved; semi-synthetic methods
have been developed. The tissue of T. brevifolia has been successfully
cultured to produce taxol, related alkaloids and alkaloid precursors
(Fett-Neto et al. 1992). Tissue and cell cultures of other species of Taxus
have also been established (see Zhong 1995)- T. cuspidata, T. canadensis,
T. baccata, T. yunnanensis, T. chinensis, T. chinensis var mainei, T. globosa,
T. wallichiana, T. floaridana. Most of them contain taxol or taxol-like
compounds (Kang and Hou 1993). In in vitro cultures, callus can be induced
from any tissue from any part of the plant - bark, cambium, needle, stem,
seed, aril and roots. For optimum yield of taxol, the bark or cambial tissue
is preferred (Fett-Neto et al. 1992). Due to the slow growth of Taxus spp.,
tissue and cell cultures of Taxus are also recalcitrant and require continuous
effort for the production of taxol. The possibility of commercializing large-
scale 'yew' cell culture is being considered as the demand for taxol is
continually increasing (Taxus species may become extinct if its exploitation
continues).
Scientists are also exploring alternative sources for taxol. Taxomyces
andreanae, an endophytic hyphomyceteous fungus associated with the phloem
of Taxus brevifolia, also produces taxol. The fungus is cultured in semi-
synthetic liquid medium and produces taxol and related compounds.
Biotechnology may ultimately enhance the production of taxol by Taxomyces
andreanae (Babu et al. 1993).
In Cycas a mucilaginous and transparent gum exudes from the stem
456 The Gymnosperms

when it is wounded. Later, it hardens and turns light brown. The gum
swells when placed in water, becomes colourless and transparent. It produces
rapid supuration when applied to malignant ulcers. The gum is also used
as an antidote for snake and insect bites. Other gum yielders are Dioon,
Encephalartos and Macrozamia.
The gymnosperms are indeed very useful in our daily life.