THE

COMPLETE
SAILING
MANUAL
STEVE SLEIGHT
WITH L ARS LIPPUNER
CONTENTS Senior Production Controller Rachel Ng
Art Director Karen Self
Associate Publishing Director Liz Wheeler
Pre-production Manager Balwant Singh
Production Manager Pankaj Sharma

This American Edition, 2021

Publishing Director Jonathan Metcalf
First American Edition, 2012
Published in the United States by DK Publishing
DK INDIA 1450 Broadway, Suite 801, New York, NY 10018
FIFTH EDITION Project Editor Tina Jindal
Text copyright © 1999, 2005, 2012, 2017, 2021 Steve Sleight
DK UK Assistant Editor Chhavi Nagpal
Copyright © 1999, 2005, 2012, 2017, 2021 Dorling Kindersley Limited
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Senior Art Editor Gillian Andrews Managing Art Editor Sudakshina Basu Without limiting the rights under the copyright reserved above, no
Managing Editor Gareth Jones Jacket Designer Jomin Johny part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced
Jackets Editorial Coordinator Priyanka Sharma into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form, or by any
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 FOREWORD 8 Tacking 92
Jibing 96
THE JOY OF SAILING 10 Sailing a Course 100
Introduction 12 From and to the Shore 104
Mooring and Anchoring 110
FIRST PRINCIPLES 20 Coping with Capsize 112
Safety Afloat 22 Man Overboard 118
Parts of a Boat 24 Stowing After Sailing 120
Essential Equipment 30
How Boats Sail 32 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT
The Main Controls 36 SAILING 122
Points of Sailing 40 High-performance Boats 124
Ropes and Knots 42 Improving Your Technique 128
Blocks and Tackles 48 Sailing Exercises 134
Oars and Paddles 50 Using Trapezes 138
Moving Small Boats 52 Tacking and Jibing 142
Staying Clear of Others 54 Spinnakers 146
Weather Basics 56 Handling a Spinnaker 152
Inland or Sea 58 Asymmetric Spinnakers 154
Single-handed Sailing 158
SMALL-BOAT SAILING 60 Small Keelboats 162
Choosing a Small Boat 62 Sailing Small Keelboats 164
Protective Clothing 66 Moving Small Keelboats 166
Rigging the Boat 70 Catamarans 168
Reefing a Dinghy 76 Sailing Catamarans 172
Helmsman and Crew 78 Foiling 176
Turning Forces 80 Tuning Your Boat 178
Going Afloat 84 Rough-weather Sailing 184
Launching a Dinghy 86 Racing 188
Basic Techniques 88
CONTINUED

Published in Great Britain by Dorling Kindersley Limited Dedication This book was made with
Carsten and Tanya would like to dedicate this edition to the Forest Stewardship Council ™
A catalog record for this book is available certified paper—one small
memory of their late father, Steve Sleight. step in DK’s commitment
from the Library of Congress.
to a sustainable future.
PLEASE NOTE For more information go to
ISBN 978-0-7440-2749-5 www.dk.com/our-green-pledge
Outdoor recreational activities are by their very nature
DK books are available at special discounts when purchased in potentially hazardous. All participants in such activities must
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Learn as much as possible about the outdoor recreational
For the curious activities in which you participate, prepare for the unexpected,
WIND TIDE BOAT
and be cautious. The reward will be a safer DIRECTION DIRECTION DIRECTION
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CONTENTS CONTINUED
CRUISER SAILING 194 Rafting Alongside 272
Starting to Cruise 196 Berthing Bow- or Stern-to 274
Choosing a Cruiser 198 Pile Moorings 276
Cruiser Design 200 Moorings 278
Stability 204 Anchoring 282
Rigging and Sails 206 Passage Making 288
Above Deck 210 Avoiding Collisions 294
Down Below 214 Running Aground 298
Protection Afloat 218 Man-overboard Procedure 300
Cruiser Ropework 224 Sailing at Night 304
Basic Sail Skills 230 Sailing in Fog 308
Using the Tender 236 Rough-weather Sailing 312
Preparing to Sail 238
Handling Under Power 240 NAVIGATION 316
Handling Under Sail 242 Starting to Navigate 318
Tacking 244 Charts 322
Jibing 246 The Compass 326
Sail Balance 248 Plotting Equipment 330
Reducing Sail Area 250 Navigation Instruments 332
Increasing Sail Area 254 Pilotage 336
Berthing 262 Tides and Tidal Streams 342
Marina Berths 268 Shaping a Course 348
Plotting a Position 352 Engines 412
Fixing a Position 356 Running Repairs 418
Passage Skills 362
STAYING SAFE 420
WEATHER 366 Emergency Repairs 422
Causes of Weather 368 Distress Signals 426
Weather Systems 370 Abandoning Ship 430
Daily Changes 374
The Effects of the Land 376 GLOSSARY 432
Storms 378 INDEX 438
Fog 380 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 448
Forecasting 382
Beaufort Scale 386

PRACTICAL BOAT CARE 388

The Hull 390
The Deck 394
The Rig 396
The Sails 398
The Interior 400
Electrics 404
Plumbing 408
 FOREWORD
9

FOREWORD
Sailing is in my blood. My father Roddy was a keen sailor, and he
skippered Second Life in the first Whitbread Round the World Race
in 1973–1974. My own sailing career began at the age of 8, when
my family lived in Restronguet, Cornwall, England. My first boat
was an Optimist dinghy, and I joined the local sailing club and
began entering national youth events. What started as a hobby
quickly turned into a way of life.

A large part of my early success was due to the fantastic teaching

I received from my instructors and coaches. Sailing always centered
around having fun, and I believe this is really important when
training young people on the water. Whatever your age, it is vital
you learn the correct techniques and improve your skills through
good-quality training. This will help keep you safe and significantly
increase the pleasure and reward you get from this pastime.

Sailing is a complex sport. Not all of us have easy access to

instruction, but Steve’s book solves this problem. Whether you
want to sail dinghies or larger yachts, and whether you want to
race or cruise, Steve’s passion for sailing—and the comprehensive
information presented here—will enable you to get the most from
your time afloat.

Happy sailing!

Sir Ben Ainslie, CBE

Quadruple Olympic gold and silver medalist
Four-time ISAF World Sailor of the Year
America’s Cup Champion 2013
THE JOY OF SAILING
Unlike any other sport or recreation, sailing offers a sense of freedom and independence
that, once experienced, often leads to lifelong addiction. The sea always has something
to teach, and one never ceases to learn. What’s more, as any sailor will tell you, boats
have a life and personality of their own. This book is intended not only as a practical
guide to a wonderful sport, but also aims to convey the joy of being afloat.
 THE JOY OF SAILING
12

INTRODUCTION
Sailing is both the most relaxing pastime imaginable and the most complex sport
in the world. It is a serious competitive sport for some and recreation for others. But
the origins of both forms of sailing lie in the distant past and the days of exploration,
migration, and commerce across the oceans and seas.

The origins of sailing of Arabian dhows, were an efficient 19th century. Designed and built for
For thousands of years, the world sailing solution for the waters in speed, clippers raced across oceans
depended exclusively on sail power which they sailed. The Chinese to be first to market and capture the
for long-distance travel across water. solution to sail power was the best prices for their precious cargoes
Whether on great rivers, seas, or Chinese lugsail, commonly called of wool and tea.
oceans, sail power was the only the junk rig, while the Polynesian
alternative to muscle power applied islanders developed the proa—their Sailing today
to oars and paddles. In every part unique multihulled craft. Today, sailing throughout the world
of the world, local populations Designs for warships, merchant has evolved into a major sport and
devised their own solutions to the ships, and fishing vessels all evolved recreational activity. You can sail at
challenge of harnessing the wind and to suit their function, resulting in any age, gender is no barrier, and
building boats capable of carrying many types of boat, each with it doesn’t matter whether you are
people and goods long distances special strengths and advantages. able-bodied or disabled. You can
across bodies of water. Thousands of unique boat designs enjoy it for fun and freedom or let
These local solutions created evolved, each with its own specific the most complex sport in the world
unique craft, some of which still advantages to suit local conditions challenge your competitive skills.
survive. Viking longboats traveled and needs. World Sailing, which is the world
thousands of miles under oars and Perhaps the design pinnacle of governing authority for the sport of
their simple square sails. The huge cargo-carrying sailing ships was sailing, has 145 member nations,
lateen (triangular) sails, characteristic the magnificent clipper ship of the each represented by a national body.
World Sailing aims to promote the
sport internationally, managing
sailing at the Olympic Games;
accessible sailing
developing the International Yacht
Mobility isn’t a barrier to
sailing, with adaptations Racing Rules and Regulations for
such as electronic steering all sailing competitions; the training
and trimming assists. of judges, umpires, and other
administrators; and the development
of the sport around the world.

Recreational sailing
Recreational sailing is less structured
than the sporting side, although in
many countries, the World Sailing
Member National Authority is
involved in promoting the sport,
providing training programs, and
representing the interests of boat
racing at all levels
With many classes of team
and solo boats, sailing offers
opportunities to race ranging from
local fun regattas to professionally
crewed competitions.
 THE JOY OF SAILING
14
users at national government level These rewards make the sailing The massive expansion of the sport
and on a variety of international experience a perfect therapy for many in the mid-to-late 20th century came
bodies. But in general, boat owners people in recovery from illness or from the development of small-boat
do not have to belong to their emotional trauma, and an excellent sailing for leisure and sport, and the
national governing body—or even environment for pursuing personal story of its growth in popularity is
a club or association—to enjoy the development and as an activity for linked to the development of stronger,
recreational pleasures of sailing. In corporate team-building. lighter materials. First came plywood,
most countries, sailing and boating followed by the introduction of
are relatively unregulated. Small-boat sailing fiberglass and more sophisticated
The rewards of sailing include Sailing in small boats—dinghies and construction using advanced resins
the experience of self-reliance and small keelboats—is the core of the and fibers, such as Kevlar and carbon
responsibility, the learning of a sport. If you learn to sail in a dinghy, fiber and machine-molded plastics.
multitude of skills that have been you will learn faster than in a larger Today, dinghies are available for
evolving for thousands of years, the boat and will develop a more every type of sailing, from recreation
sense of freedom of being away from instinctive feel for a boat’s behavior. to high-speed and foilborne sailing
the land—if only for a short time— Many people start as children, which and racing. At the highest level, the
and the joy of being close to the is ideal, but it is possible to learn to most advanced boats require athletic
natural forces of wind and water. sail small boats at almost any age. skills at least the equal of any other
physical Olympic sport.

Cruising
developing skills
The use of yachts to cruise coastal
Sailing in small boats is lots of fun
and will teach you the basic skills waters and undertake ocean passages
faster than sailing in larger boats. dates back to the mid-19th century,
a time when the large racing yachts
of the day were sailed almost
exclusively by professional crews.
To such sailors, the idea of cruising
offshore in a small yacht bordered
on insanity, yet a few individuals,
most notably British sailor Richard
Tyrrell McMullen, pioneered yacht
cruising and inspired thousands of
others through their example.
McMullen sailed thousands of miles
around the British Isles from 1850.
He died at the helm of his yacht in
the English Channel in 1891.
Other notable pioneers include
London lawyer John Macgregor,
who cruised in a small sailing canoe,
and American Joshua Slocum, who
in 1898 became the first person
to complete a single-handed
circumnavigation of the globe,
aboard the 36 ft (10.9 m) Spray.
Many influential cruising sailors
followed over the ensuing decades
and, today, more and more people
 INTRODUCTION
15

cruising for pleasure

The joy of cruising is very different from racing.
With cruising comes the pleasures of self-reliance,
relaxation afloat, closeness to the environment,
and the freedom to sail anywhere you choose.

are discovering the joys of cruising, cruiser racing is still highly accessible dinghy, and yacht racing and
whether on coastal or offshore and a lot of fun, and the latest types the rapidly developing superyacht
passages or ocean voyages. of day-racing sports boats have industry. Today, much of the focus
brought growing numbers back to of training in the top sailing nations
Inshore and offshore racing small keelboat racing. is on the creation of a pool of highly
Inshore and offshore racing in boats skilled professional yacht crew.
that had a dual cruiser-racer role Professional sailing
became very popular in the 1970s. The growth in professional sailing Technology and techniques
Since then, this branch of the sport since the 1980s has had a significant Perhaps the key element in modern
has seen problems with handicapping impact on the sport. Starting with sailing has been the development of
rules, while escalating costs and the employment of top racing sailors new materials. Strong, stiff, and
increasing professionalism has by sail lofts and boatbuilders to lightweight materials, such as carbon
reduced the popularity of the sport. help customers and promote their fiber, have enabled designers to build
In recent years, there has been a products, the professional scene now ever larger yachts with ever larger
resurgence in cruiser racing, and includes professional racers, coaches, rigs. Lighter, larger boats now sail
the popularity of inshore Grand Prix- yacht skippers, and crews. A major faster than ever before. In fact, racing
style events for one-design big-boat support industry has grown up yachts now circle the globe nonstop
classes has increased. At club level, around the expansion in sailing, faster than any commercial ship
 high-performance thrills
Skiff-type dinghies provide high-speed excitement.
Here, the three-person, 18-foot skiff shows how
thrilling and challenging these boats can be.

could manage. The development Skiffs, multihulls, and foiling of the time, with the International
of much lighter and more powerful The fastest conventional single-hulled Moth leading the development. Foils
boats, both dinghies and large yachts, small boats today are the “skiff” type are even capable of lifting a large
and the growth of foilborne sailing of dinghies, which typically feature multihull completely clear of the
has brought about a new technique— very lightweight, narrow hulls; large water and allowing it to achieve
that of apparent wind sailing—and rigs designed for apparent wind unprecedented speeds.
the design of new rigs to handle it. sailing; and wide “wings,” often with
As boats go faster, their speed trapezes to allow the crew to Olympics
increasingly affects the strength and balance the rig’s power. One of the pinnacles of the diverse
direction of the wind in which they Multihulls constitute another sport of sailing is, of course, the
are sailing. These boats generate so design approach in which light Olympic Games. The Olympics have
much wind from their own speed that boats with two (catamaran) or three events for several different classes of
in consequence they almost always (trimaran) narrow hulls provide a boat for men and women, including
sail faster than wind speed and with boat that has great stability and can dinghies, single- and double-handed,
the apparent wind well forward. This carry a very powerful rig. A further heavy and light. Catamaran and
phenomenon has brought about new innovative development is that of windsurfing disciplines are included.
methods of sailing and new boats foilborne sailing, where the hull is The leading Olympic sailors are full-
and events to serve the sport. completely clear of the water most time, professional athletes who spend
 INTRODUCTION
17
hours in the gym and training on many became members of the first A different formula has been
the water. A successful Olympic generation of professional offshore followed by the premier single-
campaign can lead a top sailor sailors as sponsorship came to the handed, nonstop, around-the-world
into many other areas of the sport, sport of yacht racing. race, the Vendée Globe. This tough
including offshore and inshore yacht The Whitbread Round the World competition starts and finishes in
racing and the America’s Cup. Race has evolved into the Volvo France and follows the classic
Ocean Race, an event owned by its around-the-world sailing route south
Ocean racing sponsor in which there is no room of all the great capes.
In its amateur heyday in the 1970s for amateurs and no choice of yachts. The yachts are built to the
and 1980s, offshore and ocean racing The event is the summit of around- IMOCA 60 rule, which allows some
thrived through the stimulus of the-world, fully crewed racing and is freedom for development and a
adventure and competition. Offshore sailed on yachts in the Volvo 65 class. variety of design approaches. The
races in Europe, the United States, and These yachts are extremely powerful, leading boats use lifting foils to
Australia were highly popular and led fast, and brutal to sail offshore. The increase power and are capable of
to rapid design development and new crews are all full-time professional reaching speeds of over 25 knots.
equipment and techniques. racers who are recruited by heavily These boats are enormously fast and
The highlight of this era was the sponsored teams. The focus of the powerful yet have to be handled by
Whitbread Round the World Race, competition is now on delivering a lone sailor. This is the ultimate race
which provided plenty of adventure boat sponsors and audiences in key for the single-handed sailor, providing
and competition. Numerous amateur markets to the event, and the route the purest test of the individual
sailors made their names and of this race is quite different from the against the elements, as well as
reputations sailing in this race and traditional around-the-world course. against a large fleet of competitors.

racing across oceans

The fastest offshore yachts, such
as this competitor in the single-
handed Vendée Globe race,
develop huge power owing to
their light weight and large rigs
and can sail at 25 knots or more.
 THE JOY OF SAILING
18
Offshore and around-the-world racing the whole race or individual legs. Match racing, with its one-on-
can be hard for the individual to get Each race yacht is usually sponsored one format, is also ideally suited
into, but some organizations enable by a city or region, which also hosts to the stadium environment. A
individuals to pay to race aboard a one of the race stopovers. professional match-racing circuit,
skippered yacht, with training before the World Match Racing Tour, has
the race usually included in the price. Stadium racing evolved, complete with professional
The largest event of this type is At the opposite end of the sport from teams sailing partially foiling M32
the biennial Clipper Round the World around-the-world racing is the catamarans and live online coverage.
Race. In this event, a fleet of large intense action of match racing and
one-design yachts, all owned by the high-speed, stadium-type events. America’s Cup
event organizer and each with a The professional SailGP Series The America’s Cup is probably the
professional skipper, races around the has brought high-octane racing in best-known sailing event, since it
world on a course with a number of very fast F50 foiling catamarans to is the world’s oldest, continuously
legs. Individuals can pay to compete in shore-based audiences, with the contested sporting trophy. Unlike any
racing taking place often within a other sporting events, however, the
few yards of the shore or harbor America’s Cup is as much a contest
sailgp
SailGP is an annual professional series wall. These short-course, “crash-and- about money, ego, and lawyers as it
that performs in venues around the burn” events, with races that each is about sporting prowess. In fact,
globe. Foiling F50 catamarans race in last only a few minutes, have proven for many followers, the lead-up to
front of shore-side spectators at speeds a great success with spectators and the event, as well as the event itself,
of more than 50 knots. online audiences. can be as compelling as a soap opera.
 19
After over a century and a half
of competition, the latest format has
classic superyacht
a preliminary America’s Cup World
Restored or modern
Series in the lead-up to the main classic yachts are often
event and involves match racing in in the superyacht
radical 75 ft (22.8 m) foilborne AC75 category and require
mono-hulls capable of very high large, professional crews
speeds thanks to their huge foils, to sail and race.
rotating masts, and soft wings.
America’s Cup teams are funded
by a mix of superrich individuals
and corporate sponsors and include the
best design, support, and racing talent
in the sport. The top sailors from other
disciplines, including the Olympics and
match racing, often lead these fully
professional teams.

Superyachts and classics

The development of the superyacht
sector has been a significant change
in sailing in recent years. New
materials and technologies have led
to the ability to build much larger
and faster yachts than ever before.
Wealthy individuals have worked
with specialist designers and builders
to develop yachts, both power and
sail, that are larger than anything
previously seen, having more in
common with commercial shipping
than normal yachts.
The growing classic yacht a tremendous growth in the numbers people and organizations ready to
sector employs significant numbers of amateur sailors cruising the world help. If you have friends or family
of professional sailors and support on small and medium-sized yachts, who sail, show your interest and ask
staff. Some of the most historic and enjoying the self-sufficient, nomadic them to take you sailing. Find a club
beautiful yachts of earlier eras have lifestyle that only a cruising yacht or sailing school in your local area
been restored or recreated using the can provide. The availability of many and ask how to get involved. Read
best new materials. This has made it highly suitable older cruising yachts sailing books like this one, magazines,
practical to cruise, race, and charter on the secondhand market makes it and websites to find out more and
these yachts with relatively small possible to cruise long distances see where your interest leads.
professional crews. without high cost. A good way to start is by taking
a class for beginners at a club or sailing
Ocean cruising Getting started school. From there, you’ll find plenty
While the competitive side of sailing In this varied sport, it can be of advice and assistance to take your
gets the most attention, there are difficult to know where and how to interest further.
thousands of sailors for whom sailing get started, but when you begin to So if you think sailing could be
is a way of life and a means of explore the opportunities, you are for you, don’t hesitate—get started and
traveling the globe. There has been likely to find that there are lots of join us on the water!
FIRST PRINCIPLES
There are a number of basic principles and terms that are common to all types
of sailing—whether your boat is a small dinghy, an ocean-going yacht, or anything
in between. If you are new to the sport, you should acquaint yourself with these
principles so that you have a thorough understanding of the fundamentals of
good sailing before you go afloat for the first time.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
22

SAFETY AFLOAT
and water temperatures. Some
boats are wetter than others, but
whatever boat you are sailing, there
is always a chance that you will get
Water is a potentially hostile environment, so safety is wet, if only from spray, so choose
an important consideration whenever you go afloat. Sailing your clothing accordingly.

is not a particularly dangerous sport as long as a few sensible Staying warm

guidelines are followed, including wearing suitable clothing The key to comfort on the water is
and using appropriate buoyancy gear. You should aim to to stay warm. As a general rule, it
is wise to wear one more layer than
develop a healthy respect for the water and only sail within
you think you will need. Do not go
the limits of your experience. This will minimize any risks and sailing in only swimming gear. It is
help ensure that your sailing is not marred by accidents. never as hot afloat as you think,
unless there is no wind and baking
sunshine, in which case you risk
Choosing clothing sailing. Gain some experience in severe sunburn.
There is a huge variety of modern a boat first. This will help you decide For your first few sailing trips,
clothing and safety gear now available what sort of sailing attracts you you can make do with comfortable
for all types of sailing, from wind- most and, from this, you can choose pants and sweaters; avoid jeans and
surfing to offshore cruising. Do not the kind of gear that will be most cotton tops, as these become cold
be tempted to rush out and buy a appropriate for your needs. What when wet. Wool is the best natural
whole new wardrobe of expensive you wear when sailing will also material, but most effective of all are
gear as soon as you decide to try depend on the weather and the air garments made from synthetic pile,
which are very light and warm. They
wick water away from the skin and
dry extremely quickly.
wearing the right gear
Always wear clothing that is Heat loss is one of the biggest
appropriate to the type of sailing dangers that you face when sailing.
and the conditions. Here, the crew Prolonged exposure to cold will
is wearing light, inshore sailing quickly lead to exhaustion, and the
waterproofs and life jackets. speed with which this occurs always
surprises the inexperienced. If
immersed in water at 62°F (17°C),
even a healthy person, clothed
normally and not exerting himself,
will lose consciousness in two to
three hours. If the water is colder
or rough, survival time will be
considerably reduced. Even aboard
the boat, energy levels quickly
deteriorate if you allow yourself
to get wet and cold.

Keeping dry
As a general rule, to stay warm while
sailing, you need to keep as dry as
possible. This is achieved by wearing
a waterproof layer over your warm
 SAFETY AFLOAT
23
rather than racing, then you may
CONTROLLING HEAT choose to wear waterproofs. A SAILING ACCESSORIES
Wear several thin layers rather wetsuit is not appropriate aboard When sailing, it is important
than one thick one. Layers a larger boat where you can more to consider protection for your
increase insulation by trapping easily stay dry, so choose waterproof head, hands, and feet. You will
air; heat control is simply a matter pants and jacket. probably be able to make do
of removing or adding a layer. with what you already own
Avoiding sunburn until you gain some experience,
Protection from the sun is important then you can buy extra gear as
clothing. Multipurpose windbreakers when sailing because reflection from necessary to suit your needs.
and overalls will see you through the water, even in overcast weather,
your first few sails, but eventually quickly produces sunburn. Apply a Headgear
you will want to buy sailing clothing water-resistant sunscreen of factor A significant amount of body heat
is lost through the head, so a warm
suited to your specific requirements. 30+ or ideally 50+ to all exposed skin
hat or balaclava will add to your
The alternative to keeping warm before you go afloat, and reapply it comfort on colder days. On sunny
by staying dry is to wear a close-fitting at intervals. days, a hat will help prevent
neoprene wetsuit, which is designed Sunglasses that filter out the sunburn and sunstroke. Tie long
to trap a thin layer of water between sun’s ultraviolet rays are essential hair back or secure it under a hat.
the material and the skin (pp.66–69). to protect your eyes while sailing, This prevents it from blowing
The water is quickly warmed to near and it is often worth wearing a hat around and getting in your eyes or
being caught in the rigging—which
body temperature by your body to keep direct sunlight off your head.
can be painful.
heat. Sailors in high-performance Use a suitable retainer, such as a
dinghies commonly wear wetsuits, length of cord, to keep your hat Gloves
but if you are sailing for recreation and sunglasses secure. Wear gloves to protect your hands
and keep them warm. Specialized
sailing gloves—which have nonslip,
PERSONAL BUOYANCY reinforced palms and fingers to help
Personal buoyancy is essential for anyone using a small boat, whether your grip—will resist wear from
ropes. Open-fingered sailing gloves,
rowing a tender to a larger yacht, dinghy sailing, or windsurfing. Do not
which allow you to deal with more
go afloat in a dinghy unless you are wearing either a buoyancy aid or
intricate tasks, are also available.
a life jacket, and make sure that it is properly fastened. Fleece-lined mittens can be used
on cruisers when sailing in cold
Types of personal buoyancy weather, but they are too restrictive
A buoyancy aid is designed to provide some support when you are in the for use in a dinghy.
water with the minimum amount of physical restriction. A life jacket is more
cumbersome to wear, but it provides total support. It is designed to turn Footwear
an unconscious person face up to facilitate breathing. Correct footwear will protect your
feet and provide the grip you need
Buoyancy aids to stay upright and on the boat.
Buoyancy aids (p.69) use closed-cell foam in a vest or waistcoat-type Shoes and boots for sailing should
jacket that is comfortable to wear, which makes them the usual choice for have flat, nonslip soles without
racing-dinghy sailors or inland sailors. They are often worn over a wetsuit a heel. Do not sail in bare feet, as
(which also provides a degree of buoyancy). you will risk injury from deck gear.
Life jackets Sailing knife
Sea sailors may choose the additional security of a life jacket (p.221). These A stainless-steel sailing knife with
are available in a variety of styles to suit all shapes and sizes, but you must retractable blade and shackle key
make sure you buy a size that is suitable for your body weight. Some life can be attached to a length of line
jackets use closed-cell foam to provide all the buoyancy, but most use manual and tied to your waist. Keep the
or automatic gas inflation and are worn deflated until required. blade sharp for cutting rope and use
the key to fasten and undo shackles.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
24

PARTS OF A BOAT
range from simple ones on basic
dinghies to highly complex tackles
on high-performance dinghies and
yachts, to allow for adjustments to
Knowing and understanding the names used for the different sail shape and mast bend.
parts of a boat are important first steps in learning to sail. These
A DINGHY HULL
names, along with the terms used to describe the various Most dinghy hulls have a pointed bow,
maneuvers, are part of the language of sailing, which has but some smaller ones have a square bow
known as a pram bow, which increases
developed over centuries to define all aspects of seamanship. buoyancy forward and adds room inside.
All sailing boats have a number of parts in common, and, while Many have a foredeck covering the bow
area and sidedecks along the sides. A
it is not necessary to memorize the contents of the nautical
thwart provides a seat across the boat,
dictionary, it will help if you are familiar with the basic terms. and side benches often run under the
sidedecks. A case for a centerboard
or daggerboard runs fore and aft
The hull and foils side of the boat. Dinghy rudders can in the middle of the boat, with a
slot that allows the board to
The hull is the body of the boat, which either have a lifting or a fixed blade.
project through the bottom
provides the buoyancy to float itself, A lifting blade is useful, as it can be of the hull.
equipment, and crew. In most dinghies, raised when sailing to and from the
and in many larger boats, the hull is shore. A fixed blade is common in
commonly constructed of glass- racing dinghies, as it is lighter and
reinforced plastic (GRP), but dinghies potentially stronger, but it makes the
may also be built of wood or molded boat harder to sail in shallow water. Sidedecks
plastic. Cruiser hulls can also be made In larger yachts, the rudder is often Covered areas
for sitting on
of aluminum, steel, or ferro-cement. controlled by a wheel mounted on at the sides
To reduce sideways drift (leeway), a pedestal in the cockpit. of the boat

the hull of a sailing boat has a foil

underneath called a keel. Dinghies The rig and fittings Stern
Back of
usually have a movable keel called a The rig (p.26)—comprising a mast,
the boat
centerboard or a daggerboard. Larger boom, and sail or sails—harnesses the
Transom
boats have keels that are usually fixed wind and converts its force into drive Flat end at
permanently under the boat and, to push the boat forward. Details of the stern
unlike movable keels, provide stability rigs depend on whether the boat is a
through their weight. dinghy or a larger cruiser, and will also
A centerboard is adjusted by vary between individual models.
pivoting it within its case. It is brought In most boats, the mast is
up out of the way when launching or supported by a system of wires called Tiller
Length of wood
recovering a dinghy, and it is rarely the standing rigging. However,
or aluminum
removed from its case. A daggerboard single-handed dinghies often have a used to control
moves vertically. It is lifted out of its freestanding mast without any of the the angle
of the rudder
case when the boat is not in use, and it standing rigging found on other boats.
is often stored in a protective bag. Sails are hoisted and controlled
by ropes collectively known as the Rudder
The rudder running rigging. Blocks (pulleys) and Movable foil, under
the hull, which
A rudder is used to steer the boat. tackles (pulley systems) (pp.48–49) steers the boat
In a dinghy, it is controlled with the adjust and control the running
tiller, which usually has an extension rigging, while cleats (p.44) are used
that allows the helm to sit on the to secure ropes. Control systems
 PARTS OF A BOAT
25
buoyancy tanks
Port bow
All sailing dinghies should
Left-hand side
have some form of buoyancy of the bow
so that they float if capsized Port tank Starboard tank
or swamped. The buoyancy SEALED TANKS IN A DINGHY
is often provided by sealed Bow tank
compartments in the hull. Sealed area in
front of boat
Bow
Centerboard case Front of
Casing that houses the boat
Side benches the centerboard
Tiller extension Fore and aft seats
Length of wood or inside the boat Stem
aluminum attached Pointed edge
to the tiller by a at the bow
universal joint

Starboard bow
Right-hand side
of the bow

Stowage
compartment
Watertight lockers for
storing small items

Gunwale (or gunnel)

Outside edge of the deck

Thwart
Seat running
across the boat

Hull
Centerboard Body of
the boat
Foil that can be accessible dinghies
pivoted into its case Adaptations might include, for
example: capsize-proof hulls; swiveling
seats; or electronic furling and winches.

A SMALL KEELBOAT Sidedeck Locker

Narrow deck Stowage area
Larger and heavier than most dinghies, along the side with lifting lid Cuddy
small keelboats are often used for racing of the boat Access to
or day sailing at coastal venues. interior for
sail and
gear stowage
Features Keel
A weighted keel, which may be fixed (as Fixed foil
here) or retractable, gives a small keelboat under the hull

greater stability than a dinghy and minimizes

Rudder
the risk of the boat’s capsizing. The large Movable foil Mooring cleat Cockpit
cockpit provides room for several crew. under the hull Used to secure a mooring rope
Area from which
the boat is sailed
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
26
THE RIG
Many sailing dinghies are rigged as a Bermudan
sloop with a mainsail and a jib, both of which
are triangular in shape. The jib, which is set
on the forestay, adds drive and makes the
mainsail more efficient than it would be
alone. In addition, many dinghies carry
a spinnaker (pp.146–157) for increased
sailing downwind. Standing rigging wind indicator
includes all the wires and ropes that Small vane at the masthead
support the mast and boom, while to indicate wind direction. A
running rigging is used to hoist burgee (small pennant) may
and control the sails. be hoisted instead.

Battens Jib
Strips of wood or fiberglass that Triangular sail at the front of the
slip into pockets on the sail to boat, attached to the bow and
support its leech (curved outer hoisted in front of the mast
edge). Battens can be short,
as in the lower two here, or
full-length as in the upper two Forestay
Some small boats have a wire
that runs from the mast to
the bow to support the mast.
Others (as here) use a thin
rope, which is removable
when the jib is hoisted

Gooseneck
Universal joint
Spreaders
that attaches
Aluminum or wooden
the boom
tubes between the mast
to the mast
and shrouds for additional
mast support

Mainsail Mast
Large, triangular Upright pole, usually
sail set behind aluminum, that
the mast supports the sails
and may be stepped
on the deck or the
bottom of the hull

Boom
Horizontal pole,
usually aluminum, to
which the foot of the
Shrouds
mainsail is attached
Wires on port
and starboard
sides that support
the mast

Mast step
Socket in which the
heel of the mast sits
 PARTS OF A BOAT
27
Head
Top corner SAILS
Leech Most small boat sails are triangular and
Aft edge made from Dacron (a woven cloth) or
Mylar (a laminated film material). They
Luff often have reinforced patches in high-
Front,
leading edge load areas, such as the three corners.

Parts of a sail
Each edge of a sail has a name: the
luff is the leading edge; the leech is
the aft edge; and the foot is the
Cunningham
bottom edge. The corners are also control
named: the head, tack, and clew. Rope for adjusting
tension in the
REINFORCED Roach mainsail luff (and
CORNER Additional curved area on the leech sometimes the jib)
outside a straight line from head to clew

Clew
Foot Bottom,
Tack Bottom edge
Bottom, aft corner
forward corner

RUNNING RIGGING
Halyards hoist the sails, and sheets control them. The mainsheet controls the mainsail,
and it usually has a tackle system (p.49) that employs a combination of blocks
to increase the power the helmsman exerts on the sheet. The jib is a smaller sail,
so the jib sheets, which control it, do not usually require a tackle system.

Outhaul
Rope that adjusts
tension in the
mainsail foot Mainsheet tackle
A system of blocks used to increase
the power that the helm can apply
to the mainsheet—here, 4:1

Mainsheet
Rope used to pull in
or let out the mainsail
Jib sheets
Ropes attached
to the jib clew and
used for pulling in or
letting out the jib—one
on each side

Halyards
Used to hoist the sails, they
exit the mast near the bottom

Boom vang (or kicking strap)

Rope (or wire) and block system attached
under the boom and to the mast foot to
control the amount the boom can lift
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
28
SMALL-BOAT FITTINGS
Various fittings are attached to
the boat to help the crew control the
rig and sails. Fairleads, which may Control line cleats
be fixed or mounted on a track for Cleats (here, cam cleats) are
adjustment, are used to guide ropes. used to secure control lines
Cleats are used to secure halyards and allow easy adjustment
by the helm or crew
and control lines and are also often
used to secure the sheets so that the
helm and crew are not required to Block
hold them continuously. Other Blocks are used to alter
fittings include the toe straps, the direction of a rope.
which allow the crew to sit out, Here, the block is part of
the mainsheet tackle
and block-and-tackle systems
that help to control the
running rigging. Boats
intended for novices
usually have simple
fittings, but more
complex equipment
will be found on high-
performance boats. Toestraps
Retaining straps
for the feet of both
Transom flaps helm and crew
Flaps that open to drain
water from the cockpit
after a capsize or
swamping. They are
closed for normal sailing
and when stationary

Mainsheet block
The block that directs
the mainsheet to the
helm’s hand. It may have
a cleat attached, as here,
so that the helm can
secure the sheet
 PARTS OF A BOAT
29
Jib fairlead
Smooth eye or rotating pulley for
altering the direction of the jib RELATIVE TERMS
sheet. The sheet is led through On shore, we usually describe the position of things in relation to
the fairlead to a cleat. The fairlead
may be fixed or mounted on a track ourselves—“left,” “right,” “in front,” or “behind.” On the water, they
for adjustment (as here) are always described in relation to the boat or the wind.

The boat
The terms “port” and “starboard” relate to the boat.
Facing the bow, the port side is to the left and the starboard
side is to the right.

The wind
Windward and leeward relate to the wind. The windward
side of the boat is the side toward the wind; the leeward
side is the side away from the wind.

AHEAD
(IN FRONT OF THE BOAT)

Fore (for’ard)
Inside the boat
WIND
toward the bow
DIRECTION

Windward
Toward the
wind, upwind

Bow fitting
The fitting where the
forestay and jib tack
are attached. The Leeward
painter (mooring Away from
rope) may also be the wind,
fastened here, or to downwind
an eye on the stem (pronounced
loo’ard)

Port Starboard
Left-hand side Right-hand side
of the boat of the boat when
when facing facing the bow
the bow

Shroud adjusters
Metal plates that
secure the shrouds Aft
to the hull and allow Inside the boat
ASTERN toward the stern
adjustment to rake
the mast backward
(BEHIND THE BOAT)
or forward
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
30

ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT
As well as any removable rigging, there are several other items Bailers
that should be aboard when you go afloat, especially if you are All dinghies will get water in them
even if they do not capsize, and it
sailing without a safety boat present. In particular, there has to be is important to be able to remove
some means of propelling the boat if you cannot sail. There must it easily. Apart from making you
also be adequate buoyancy to keep the boat afloat in the event of wetter than necessary, water that is
allowed to build up in the bottom
a capsize, as well as bailing gear. An anchor and warp (anchor line)
of the boat will slop from side to side
are also important if you sail on the sea. All equipment must be and make the boat heel more.
stowed safely so that it stays in place if the boat heels or capsizes. Many modern dinghies have
open transoms that allow any
water in the boat to flow straight out
Paddles or oars Buoyancy through the stern. When the boat has
You must always carry at least one Buoyancy must be sufficient, but a solid transom, bailing may be done
paddle so that you can move the not excessive, and it must be automatically through retractable
boat in a calm. A pair of oars is distributed so that the boat floats self-bailers, which are lowered when
useful if you sail on the sea and level when capsized. Buoyancy is the boat is moving. The flow of water
have a larger, general-purpose dinghy usually provided either by tanks under the hull and past the bailer sucks
with the space to stow them. They that are permanently built into the the water out from inside the boat.
are more efficient than a paddle, but structure, as is the case with most Most have a nonreturn valve to
you will need a pair of rowlocks modern dinghies, or by removable prevent water from entering the boat
mounted in sockets on the gunwales. buoyant materials, such as inflatable when it slows down, but it is best to
Some oars are jointed in the middle airbags, which must be securely raise them if you stop. Remember
for easier stowage. attached to the hull. to retract them to avoid damage
when taking the boat out of the water.

HOW TO BAIL Anchor and warp

Automatic self-bailers fitted in the bottom can be opened to let the An anchor can be an important piece
water out when you are sailing fast. Some boats have transom flaps of equipment, particularly for sailing at
that allow the water to flow out after a capsize. Alternatively, you sea without safety cover. In the event of
can bail by hand using a scoop bailer. an accident, a foul tide, calm weather,
or even if you just need a rest, it allows
you to stop the boat in shallow water
without drifting on the wind or tide.
SCOOP A small, folding anchor (opposite)
BAILER can be a good choice because it takes
up little space, but when anchoring
for any length of time, a small burying
anchor should be used. A burying
bailing by hand anchor digs into the seabed and
Always bail over the leeward side of the boat or else the provides more security than a folding
water may be blown back on board (or into your face). transom flap
A bucket is best for removing a large amount of water Hinged flaps in the transom
anchor. You will also need an anchor
after a capsize; a scoop bailer is useful for smaller get rid of water quickly after warp, which can also be used if your
quantities. Get rid of the last few drops with a sponge. a capsize or swamping. boat needs to be towed. Be sure to
stow the anchor and warp securely.
 ESSENTIAL EQUIPMENT
31
Stowing gear Folding anchor Paddle Foredeck
Store this heavy Stow the paddle securely This general-
There is very little room for extra items in a small
item securely, near but where it can be purpose dinghy has
boat, so store everything carefully. If the boat has the centerline of reached quickly a foredeck under
a foredeck, use the area underneath for things that the boat which there is good
stowage space
you want to keep dry, such as spare clothes,
which are best put in waterproof bags Charts and clothes
beforehand. Secure heavy items, including the Stow important gear,
such as clothes and
anchor, near the middle of the boat so that charts, in plastic
they do not affect fore and aft trim. waterproof bags
Any space under the sidedecks
Bucket and sponge
can be used for storing Keep the sponge where
oars or paddles. it stays dry and use the
bucket for stowage

Anchor warp
Coil the rope
neatly, into a Flukes
bucket if possible, Flukes fold to
to prevent tangles save space

anchor
Buoyancy bags A grapnel is a lightweight anchor
If your boat has buoyancy
bags, make sure they are designed for use in small boats. Its OPEN FOLDED
secured firmly to the hull flukes fold away for easy storage. GRAPNEL GRAPNEL

EFFICIENT BOAT BUOYANCY

The ideal amount of buoyancy will
allow the boat to float level on its side
when capsized, with the centerboard
within reach. The boat will have
relatively little water in it when righted.

Checking built-in tanks

Most built-in tanks have removable bungs
that should be taken out when the boat is
not being used to allow trapped water to
drain away. Any inspection hatches should
also be removed when the boat is not afloat.

Checking buoyancy bags

Check buoyancy bags to be sure that there too little correct too much
are no leaks and that the fastenings are With too little buoyancy, With the correct buoyancy With too much buoyancy,
firm; there should be at least three straps the boat floats low in the in the hull, the boat floats the boat sits high in the
on each bag. When the boat is capsized or water. It is difficult to right level when capsized and is water and is likely to
full of water, the fastenings take an when capsized because of fairly easy to right. When invert, which makes
enormous load. It is vital that they do not the weight of water and righted (above), the boat recovery harder. When
break, as the boat could then sink or be comes up with a lot of comes up with relatively righted (above), there will
impossible to right. water on board (above). little water on board. be little water on board.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
32

HOW BOATS SAIL

Role of the keel
A keel, centerboard, or daggerboard
is used to resist the sideways force.
The keel’s area must be sufficient
When you begin sailing, it is not essential to know any of the to resist the sideways force created
theory of sailing, but it is a great aid to learning if you have some when close-hauled. In dinghies, the
keel’s area can be varied by raising
understanding of how sails work to drive the boat. By studying the centerboard, but a keelboat has
some of the theory alongside sessions on the water, you will a fixed amount of keel underwater.
spend less time learning by trial and error. Although the keel resists the
sideways force, it is not completely
eliminated, and on upwind courses,
Driving force Sideways force a sailing boat always slips sideways
Sailing boats derive their power Not all of the force produced by the slightly. The difference between the
from the wind flowing across the sails pushes the boat forward, except course steered and the course actually
curved surfaces of the sails. This is when the boat is on a run with the sailed is called leeway (opposite).
very similar to the way an airplane wind directly behind it. At other
wing produces lift to keep the plane times, the total force produced by Heeling force
in the air. A sail, like an airplane the sail has a sideways element that Because the sideways force
wing, works at its best at one attempts to push the boat sideways. generated by the sails acts some
small angle to the wind. Therefore, The strength of the sideways force distance above the waterline, it
efficient sailing requires constant sail depends on the point of sailing the has the effect of trying to heel the
adjustment (trimming) to keep the boat is on. The sideways force is at boat. The keel resists the sideways
sails at the correct angle to the wind. its greatest when the boat is close- force but acts under the water, so
If a sail is let out too far, it will simply hauled and diminishes as the boat the sideways resistance provided
flap like a flag and produce no forward bears away from the wind (p.35). by the keel increases the heeling
drive. If it is pulled in too much, the On all points of sailing, if a effect. The heeling force has
airflow over the sail’s surface will sail is pulled in too far so that it to be counterbalanced by a
break down and the sail will stall— stalls, the driving force drops rapidly, dinghy crew’s weight or by
just like an aircraft that tries to while the sideways force increases. The the weight of the keel in
fly too slowly. boat slows down and heels more. a keelboat.

Overtrimmed—
sail stalls, less drive Sideways
force Heeling
force

Sideways
Resistance force
to sideways
force Resistance to
Flapping—
no drive sideways force

Correctly trimmed
for maximum drive

the correct trim sideways force heeling force

To find the correct trim for a sail, let it out Part of the total force produced by The vertical separation between the
until it begins to flap at the luff, then pull the sails pushes the boat sideways. The sideways force from the sails and
it in until the shaking just stops. Repeat sideways force is resisted underwater the resistance from the keel causes
regularly to check the trim. by the centerboard or keel. a force that acts to heel the boat.
 HOW BOATS SAIL
33
TRUE AND APPARENT WIND UNDERSTANDING
True wind is the wind that we feel when stationary. When we sail, we feel LEEWAY
apparent wind, which is a combination of the true wind and the wind As you sail on upwind courses,
produced by our motion. Wind indicators on moving boats show apparent you will notice that your boat
wind, while wind indicators ashore show true wind. slips sideways to some extent.
Apparent
wind
Called leeway, this sideways
True wind True wind drift is at its greatest when
you are sailing close-hauled.

Minimizing leeway
Make sure that your centerboard
or daggerboard is fully down
when sailing close-hauled and
is set correctly on other points of
sailing. Leeway is most noticeable
Boat stationary when you are sailing slowly because
Wind caused by
boat motion the keel cannot work at maximum
Boat moving
efficiency, so maintain speed to
minimize leeway. When sailing
true wind apparent wind close-hauled, do not try to steer
The only time you feel the true wind When the boat moves, it creates its own farther to windward to counteract
afloat is when the boat is stationary. wind, which combines with the true wind leeway, as the boat will simply slow
Check the true wind direction by using to form the apparent wind. Apparent down and leeway will increase.
flags ashore or on moored boats or by wind is always farther ahead than the
smoke from chimneys ashore. true wind direction except on a dead run.

Course
steered

Actual course
sailed due to leeway

the effect of leeway

Leeway is the difference between the
course steered through the water and
the course that the boat achieves, which
is to leeward of the course steered.

balance
The helm and crew of this dinghy
are sitting on the sidedeck to use their
weight to help balance the heeling
force while sailing on a reach.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
34
THE DYNAMICS OF SAILING
Sail force has to travel farther than that moving you might expect, the spoon will
A properly trimmed sail deflects the across the concave (windward) side be sucked into the stream by the
airflow, which splits at the leading and speeds up accordingly. When the water flowing past the spoon’s
edge of the sail. The airflow moving airflow moves faster, its pressure drops, convex surface.
across the convex (leeward) surface so the pressure on the convex side of
the sail is lower than the pressure on Sail shape
the concave side. The difference The curved shape of a sail determines
in pressure sucks the sail to leeward the amount the wind must bend
Spoon and creates a force at right angles around it and the force it produces.
to the sail at all points on its surface. The shape of a sail can be adjusted,
The sum of these individual forces on within limits, by tensioning the
feeling
the sail drives the boat forward. outhaul, halyard or cunningham, and
Force the force
To understand the effect when the sheet. Sails are adjusted to be flat
Test the effect of
a fluid flowing past a air flows around a sail, try this simple in very light winds (when the wind
curved surface with experiment: hold a spoon lightly, has insufficient energy to bend around
a simple experiment with its back to the stream of water a full sail), full in light to moderate
using a spoon and from a faucet. Rather than being winds, and flat again in strong winds
water from a tap. pushed away from the stream, as when the boat is overpowered.

airflow with two sails

When two sails are used, their interaction is critical to performance.
Center of Effort Although the jib is much smaller than the mainsail, it is potentially
(CoE) a more efficient sail because it does not have a mast in front of it
to disturb the airflow. The jib is trimmed so that the slot between
the jib leech and the mainsail luff is parallel all the way up. The air
flowing through the slot is compressed and will accelerate. This
further decreases the pressure on the
leeward side of the mainsail
and so increases drive.

Compressed and
Total force accelerated air stream

Individual forces

Leeward side

Jib leech
airflow with one sail
Total
As the wind flows across a sail, it moves faster on the force
Jib slot
leeward (convex) side, creating low pressure, and slower
on the windward side, which creates a high-pressure area.
This effectively sucks the sail to leeward and produces
forces acting at right angles to the sail’s surface at each Mainsail luff
point on the sail. The sum of these forces acts at what is
known as the sail’s Center of Effort (CofE).
 HOW BOATS SAIL : THE DYNAMICS OF SAILING
35
Drive with two sails centerline, which varies with
When a jib is added in front of a the angle to the wind at which the
mainsail, it creates its own drive in boat is sailing. When sailing on a
the same way as any single sail, but close-hauled course, the sails are Driving force

it also has the effect of increasing the pulled in tight, close to the centerline,
efficiency of the mainsail. It does this and the sideways force is greater
by directing a stream of air along than the driving force. When the
the convex (leeward) side of the boat turns onto a reach, the sails Total force
mainsail. As the air flows through are let out about halfway and the
the slot between the jib leech and the driving force increases, while
mainsail luff, it is compressed between the sideways force reduces. Turn
them, so it accelerates. This further farther away from the wind, onto Sideways force

reduces the pressure on the leeward a run, when the sails are let out CLOSE-HAULED
side of the mainsail and increases its fully, and the driving force acts
drive significantly. This is the reason almost directly forward and the
why most sailing boats are rigged sideways force is zero.
with a mainsail and jib.
To work efficiently, the jib
and mainsail must be trimmed so
that the curve of the jib leech matches
the curve of the mainsail luff on the
leeward side. This produces a smooth
slot between them and allows the
air to flow smoothly and accelerate
through the slot. If the jib is pulled
in too much, or the mainsail let out Driving force

too much, the slot will be constricted

and drive will be lost. If the jib is
Sideways force Total force
not pulled in sufficiently, or the
mainsail is pulled in too much, REACHING
the slot will be too wide, and drive
will again be reduced. drive and sideways force
The relative strength of the driving and
sideways forces depends on the angle
Forward drive of the sail to the boat’s centerline, which
All the individual forces that act on varies with the point of sailing. When the
a sail’s surface can be thought of as boat is close-hauled (top), with the sails
one force acting at a single point on pulled in tight, drive is less than when
the sail, which is known as the reaching (above), and the sideways
Center of Effort (CoE) of the sail. force is greater.
To help understand the way in
which the sails’ force pushes the boat
sideways as well as forward, the total
the slot
force generated by the sails can be
Whatever the size of boat, the slot
split into two elements at right angles
between the jib and the mainsail is
to each other: a forward, driving vital for efficient sailing. Both sails must
force and a sideways force. be trimmed together to keep the slot
The relative sizes of the driving parallel between the jib leech and the
and sideways forces depends on mainsail through which the airflow can
the angle of the sails to the boat’s accelerate smoothly.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
36

THE MAIN CONTROLS

Rudder, centerboard, sails, and crew weight are the main
controls in a sailing dinghy. They need constant adjustment to
keep the boat sailing efficiently, to steer, and to alter course.
Knowing how to combine these controls to manage the movement
of the boat is a very important aspect of learning how to sail.
When sailing with a crew, the helm is usually responsible for
the mainsail and the rudder (via the tiller and tiller extension),
while the crew takes care of the centerboard and the jib.

Using the rudder of the water moving across it.

The rudder is moved using the When the boat is moving forward,
dagger grip
tiller and the tiller extension, which the bow will turn in the direction
Hold the end of the tiller extension in
the helm usually holds in the hand opposite from the way in which the a dagger-style grip and pass the end
nearest to the stern. The extension is tiller is pushed. (When the boat is in front of your body.
best held in a dagger-style grip with the moving backward, the rudder action
end passing in front of your body. is reversed.)
The rudder is effective only if it has familiarize yourself with its effects
water flowing past it, so you can only Turning effect of the rudder by sitting on the side of the boat
steer with it when the boat is moving. The rudder is the main control opposite the sails and watching the
The quicker you are sailing, the more used to alter course. Practice using direction in which the bow turns as
effective it becomes due to the speed the tiller to turn the rudder, and you move the tiller.

straight course bearing away luffing up

The tiller is kept The tiller is pulled The tiller is
in the middle of Boat moves toward the helm  Bow turns Bow turns pushed away
the boat to sail straight ahead to bear away away from toward from the helm
straight ahead. (turn away from the wind the wind to luff up (turn
the wind). toward the
wind).

Tiller held in
central position Tiller
pushed
to leeward

Tiller
pulled to
windward
 THE MAIN CONTROLS
37
Using the sails
A sail works best at a particular
angle to the wind, known as
the angle of attack (p.32), so it
must be trimmed (adjusted) as you
alter course and checked regularly
while sailing to be sure the setting is
correct. To find the optimum angle,
ease the sail out until it starts to
shake at the luff (p.27), then pull
it in again just far enough to stop it
from shaking. Pull the sail in tight only
when the boat is sailing close-hauled
(p.40). As the boat turns away from
the wind, the sails are let out (p.40)
until, on a run, the sails are nearly at
right angles to the centerline.

run close-hauled
Sailing with the wind behind on a run When sailing close-hauled, the sails are
(p.40), the sails are let out fully and the pulled in tight, close to the centerline,
jib can be goosewinged. to achieve the correct angle to the wind.

Turning effect of the sails Pull jib in Bow turns away

from the wind
To learn about the turning effects of
the sails, let either sail out while
keeping the other filled correctly and
the boat upright. Allow the tiller
extension to move freely in your
hand and the boat will turn—toward
the wind if the mainsail is full and jib only
away from it if the jib is full. The mainsail is allowed to flap and the
jib is pulled in. Sailing with the jib alone
Bow turns makes the boat turn away from the wind.
into the wind

Let mainsail in

mainsail only
Let jib out The jib is allowed to flap and the mainsail is
Pull mainsail in
pulled in. Sailing with just the mainsail makes
the boat turn toward the wind.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
38
Using the crew’s weight
A dinghy sails fastest when it is
upright in the water and when the
heeling force (p.37) is balanced by
the weight of the helm and crew.
Their placement, fore and aft, also
determines the boat’s trim (how it sits
in the water). The helm sits on the
windward side, opposite the sails, so
that they have a clear view of the sails
and the course being steered. The
crew moves their weight according to
the point of sail and wind strength.
Depending on wind strength and
the point of sailing, the crew may
move from alongside the helm to
sitting on the opposite side to balance
the helm’s weight to windward. By
adjusting the position of their weight,
the crew can also heel the boat to
help it alter course.

sailing upright
Both the helm and crew use their weight
to keep this dinghy upright. They sit out
on the sidedeck with their feet under the
toestraps to balance the boat.

Turning using the crew’s weight

In addition to positioning the Bow turns Bow turns
away from toward
weight of helm and crew to keep
the wind the wind
the boat upright, their weight can
also be used to help the boat turn
when the helm wishes to change
course. A boat will turn in the
opposite direction from the way
it is heeled; if the boat is heeled to
windward by moving the crew’s
weight, it will turn to leeward.
Heel it to leeward and it will
turn to windward. Experiment by
moving around the boat to see
how it changes direction when it
is balanced differently. When sailing
with both a helm and crew, it heeling toward the wind heeling away from the wind
becomes the responsibility of the The helm moves their weight to heel the The helm moves their weight to heel the
crew to make any major adjustments boat to windward so that the boat turns boat to leeward so that the boat turns to
to the boat balance. to leeward (away from the wind). windward (toward the wind).
 THE MAIN CONTROLS
39
Using the centerboard of the boat. It should be raised when
The effect of the centerboard (or you are sailing away from the wind; TACKING AND JIBING
daggerboard) is altered by moving otherwise, it will make the boat The two most important
the foil to different depths in the slower and more difficult to control. maneuvers in sailing, tacking and
water. It is lowered when the boat is It must be lowered when turning jibing, involve using the main
turned toward the wind and raised toward the wind; otherwise, the boat controls together to make a
when the boat is turned away from will simply slip rapidly sideways, as significant course change.
the wind. The centerboard has a there is nothing to counteract the
significant effect on the performance sideways force of the wind (p.33).

daggerboard
A daggerboard moves Continue turning
vertically through its until the wind fills
the sails on the
case and protrudes other side
above deck as it is Fully down
raised. Unlike a
centerboard, it is not
fixed in the case, so
it can be removed
Turn the bow
and stored in a into the wind
padded bag to Half down
by luffing up
prevent damage
when the boat is not
in use. It should have
a retaining cord on its
top edge so it cannot tacking
be lost in a capsize. During a tack (pp.92–95), the bow of
Quarter down the boat is turned through the wind
using the rudder, sails, and crew weight.
DINGHY WITH DAGGERBOARD

centerboard
A centerboard pivots
on a bolt through the
centerboard case and
rotates into its case as
Bear away
it is raised. As the to run before
centerboard is raised Fully down the wind
by pushing the top
forward in the boat,
so its tip moves aft Turn until the
boom swings to
in the water. Unlike the other side
a daggerboard, a
centerboard’s surface Area moves aft as it is raised
Half down
area moves aft as it is
raised into its case.

jibing
During a jibe (pp.96–99), the stern of
Quarter down
Area moves farther aft
the boat is turned through the wind
using the rudder, sails, and crew weight.
DINGHY WITH CENTERBOARD
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
40

POINTS OF SAILING
close-hauled
Sailing as close to the
wind as possible is
called close-hauled.
The direction in which a boat is being sailed is The sails are in tight
and the centerboard
often described in relation to its angle to the wind.
is fully down.
Collectively, these angles are known as the “points
of sailing.” When you change from one point of
sailing to another, the sails, the centerboard,
and the position of the crew all need to be
adjusted to suit the new angle of the boat
in relation to the wind.

SAILING COURSES Close-hauled

Various terms and phrases
are used to clarify the direction
and type of sailing course that
Close reach
you are on and to describe
exactly what the boat is doing
in relation to the wind.

Luffing and bearing away

If you turn the boat toward the
wind, you are luffing (or luffing Broad reach Run
up); if you turn away from it,
you are bearing away.
Beam reach

Upwind and offwind

All courses that are closer to the
wind (heading more directly into
it) than a beam reach are called
upwind courses. Those farther
away from the wind than a beam
reach are known as offwind, or
downwind, courses.

Port and starboard tack

The boom’s position is used to
describe which tack you are on. If
it is over the port side of the boat, you
are on starboard tack. If it is over
the starboard side, you are on port
tack. Even on a dead run with the
wind directly astern, you are still on run
one tack or the other, depending Sailing directly downwind (running) can be done on
on which side your boom is on. either port or starboard tack. The centerboard is nearly
fully up and the sails are right out. The jib can be set on
the opposite side of the boat to the mainsail (known as
goosewinging) for more sail area and increased speed.
 POINTS OF SAILING
41
head-to-wind close reach
Turning too far into the Turning away from a close-
wind will bring the boat hauled course by about 20°
head-to-wind. The sails brings the boat onto a close
start to flap and the reach. The sails are eased out
boat will slow down, slightly and the centerboard
eventually starting is three-quarters down.
to drift backward.

Head-to-wind

no-sail zone
Close-hauled
Boats cannot sail directly into the
wind. The closest that most can
achieve is an angle of 40–45° on Close reach
either side of the direction of the
true wind. Progress toward
the wind is made by sailing
a zigzag course, which
is called beating
Beam reach
to windward.

beam reach
Broad reach Sailing with the wind blowing directly
over the side of the boat is known as
being on a beam reach—potentially
the fastest point of sailing in most
Training run
boats. The sails are eased halfway out
and the centerboard is halfway down.

training run
A training run is often used when teaching broad reach
novices. It is 5–10° off a true run but is safer On a broad reach, the wind comes
when you are learning to sail, as it avoids the over the port or starboard quarter
risk of an accidental jibe. The sails are eased right of the boat. The sails are well out and
out and the centerboard is only slightly down. the centerboard is a quarter down.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
42

ROPES AND KNOTS

Used to secure the boat and to hoist, trim, and adjust the sails,
ropes are an essential feature of all sailing boats. To sail safely and
efficiently, you need to understand how to handle rope and how control lines
Racing boats typically have many
to keep it neat when not in use. Learning a little about the different control lines, which are often led to a
properties of the various types of rope will enable you to select the central point where they are conveniently
located for adjustment by the crew.
most suitable rope for any particular task. It is also vital to know how It is helpful to color-code ropes and
to tie the small selection of knots that are most useful for sailing. mark their cleats to avoid confusion.

TYPES OF ROPE HANDLING ROPES

Rope can be made from many
Modern sailing ropes are constructed Choosing rope
different fibers and in a number
using synthetic materials, which It is important to choose the right
of ways. The material and the
are lighter and much stronger than rope and the right size for a
type of construction determine
how the finished rope behaves natural fibers. They are immune to particular job. Polypropylene rope
in terms of stretch, strength, rot caused by dampness—although makes a cheap mooring line and,
durability, and flexibility. nylon rope loses a significant amount because it floats, it is ideal for safety
of strength when wet—and are lines. However, it is not strong and
available in a range of colors for stretches a lot, so it is not appropriate
polypropylene
Polypropylene is used easy identification on the boat. for sheets, halyards, or control lines.
to make low-cost, There are two main types of rope Polyester rope is strong and has
three-strand rope. construction: three-strand rope, in fairly low stretch properties, so it is
which three sets (strands) of already suitable for mooring lines, sheets, and
polyester
twisted yarns are twisted together; and halyards. Prestretched polyester is also
Polyester rope can
be braided or three- braided rope, in which the yarns available for purposes—such as halyard
strand. It is strong, and strands are braided together. use—that require minimum stretch, but
with low stretch. Braided rope has taken over from it is less flexible and less comfortable
three-strand for most uses on small to use than standard polyester rope.
nylon
boats, especially for ropes made Nylon rope is strong but stretches
Nylon rope is strong
and elastic. It does
from high-performance fibers. a lot. This makes it inappropriate for
not float and loses The strength of a rope depends on use in halyards or sheets, but it is often
strength when wet. the material, the construction method, used for mooring or anchoring where
and the diameter of the rope. High- stretch is an advantage, as it allows the
aramid
performance ropes are exceptionally rope to absorb shock loads. It does,
Aramid rope is low
stretch, high strength, strong and have low stretch properties however, lose significant strength when
with good resistance compared to older synthetic materials, wet, and this must be accounted for
to high temperatures. so thinner ropes can often be used when selecting the size.
to handle the loads on sheets, Aramid and UHMWPE (ultra-high
uhmwpe
control lines, or halyards. However, molecular weight polyethylene) ropes
UHMWPE fibers, such
as Dyneema, provide very thin ropes are hard to hold, and are very strong and light and have little
the least stretch and it may be impossible to pull effectively stretch, but they are expensive. They
greatest strength. on a rope if its size is too small to are excellent for halyards, control lines,
handle comfortably. and sheets on high-performance boats.
 ROPES AND KNOTS: HANDLING ROPES
43
Coiling rope rope is coiled depends on the
When ropes are not in use, they method of construction. Three- ROPE CONSTRUCTION
should be coiled and secured so strand rope should be coiled in All rope, whether made from
that they are out of the way but equal-sized loops (below), natural or synthetic materials,
easy to use when necessary. If they whereas braided rope is best is made from short fibers that
are left loose, they will tangle coiled in figure-eights to balance are spun into yarns, then collected
quickly and be difficult to unravel the left and right twists of the into strands. The strands are then
when they are needed. The way braided strands (bottom). twisted or braided into the
finished rope. The way the yarns
are gathered into strands, and
COILING THREE-STRAND ROPE the way strands are formed into
To prevent kinks, three-strand rope is coiled in the same direction rope, help determine the rope’s
in which the strands are twisted, usually clockwise. As the loops are properties and how easy it is to
made, the rope must also be twisted slightly in the same direction handle, coil, splice, and knot.
to ensure that the coils lie flat.
Three-strand (laid) rope
1 Hold the rope 2 Finish coiling Three-strand or laid rope is made
in your left hand the rope, leaving by twisting yarns together in one
and make loops a long working direction to create the three strands.
with your right end. Wrap this The strands are then twisted
(reverse if you are several times together in the opposite direction
left-handed). Twist around the whole to create the rope. The opposing
the rope away from coil to bind the directions of the twists give it
you between thumb individual loops strength and the friction within
and index finger. together. the rope construction holds the
rope in shape.

Yarns are twisted into strands

3 Make a loop 4 Bring the Three strands are

with the remainder loop forward twisted together
of the working end over the top of to make rope
and push this the coil and
Twist remains
through the top of down to the in strand when
the coil, above the bound part, then it is unlaid
bound part. pull the working
end to secure it. Braided rope
Most modern rope is made by a
braiding process. A core of strands,
which may be braided or lightly
twisted together, is covered by a
braided sheath, which, depending
COILING BRAIDED ROPE on type, can provide the strength
Coil braided rope in figure-eight coils for the rope or may just protect
that balance the left and right twists the inner core.
that are put into the rope during
Inner core is made from Seamless sheath
construction. Secure as for three- loosely braided strands is made from
strand rope. braided strands
Yarns, made
from twisted
coiling
fibers, are
Coil the rope with your right hand, gathered or
if right-handed, and make figure-eight lightly twisted
coils into your left hand. into strands
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
44
Cleating rope rope, pull the end upward, out of Spend some time practicing tying
A cleat is used to secure a rope and the cleat’s jaws. If the rope is heavily the important knots so that your
prevent it from slipping. Cleats may loaded, it may need a pretty sharp technique is smooth and you are able
be of the cam, clam, or traditional pull upward to release it. to tie and untie the important knots
horn variety. The clam and horn To cleat a rope in a clam cleat, quickly and accurately.
cleats have no moving parts. simply pull it down into the V-shaped
Whichever type of cleat is used, it holding grooves. To uncleat, pull the
must be the right size for the size of rope upward, out of the grooved CLEATING A ROPE
the rope. If a rope is too large, it will body of the cleat. As with the cam ON A HORN CLEAT
not fit into a small cam or clam cleat, cleat, uncleating a heavily loaded The horn cleat is a common
and there will not be enough space rope may require a sharp tug. fixture on many sailing boats. 
on a horn cleat to put on sufficient To secure a rope to a horn Rope is secured on it by a round
turns. If the rope is too small for cleat, it must be wrapped around turn, followed by a series of
the cleat, it is likely to slip through the cleat in a series of turns to create figure-eight turns over and
a cam or clam cleat, although it sufficient friction between the rope and around its two horns.
can be cleated on a large horn cleat the cleat (right). To uncleat a rope from
provided sufficient turns are used a horn cleat, unwrap the turns. 1 Bring the rope’s
to create the necessary friction to working end to the
hold the rope in place. Maintaining rope back of the cleat,
then make a full
A rope is cleated in a cam cleat During use, and when a boat is left
turn around the
by pulling it down and through the unattended, rope collects dirt and salt base of the cleat.
spring-loaded cam jaws, which hold particles that become trapped within
it in place (below). To uncleat the the rope’s strands. Over time, the dirt
causes abrasion, weakens the rope,
and makes it stiffer and harder to
handle. Taking care of your ropes
will extend their life considerably and
make them more flexible and easier
to handle. Small ropes can be washed
in a washing machine, while larger
ones can be soaked in a bucket and
2 Take the rope across
cam cleat the top of the cleat, pass
A cam cleat has two spring-loaded cams scrubbed with a solution of warm it behind the upper horn,
with grooved faces that grip the rope water and mild detergent. Once they and then bring it back
when it is pulled down into the jaws. The have been washed, coil the ropes and across the front to form
rope must be sized correctly for the cleat. hang them to dry. a figure-eight.
To uncleat, pull the rope upward.
Knotting rope
Many thousands of knots have been
developed over the centuries, each
with its own name and practical or
decorative use. Fortunately, you need 3 Add several
to know only a few simple knots figure-eight turns to
when you start sailing. In fact, the make sure the rope
is secure. Finish off
reef knot, the sheet bend, the figure-
clam cleat with another full
A clam cleat has no moving parts but has eight, the bowline, the round turn turn around the
a grooved, V-shaped body. The grooves and two half hitches, and the clove base of the cleat.
grip the rope and, under load, it is forced hitch (pp.46–47) will take care of
farther into the cleat. To uncleat, pull the most of your needs throughout your
rope upward. sailing career.
 ROPES AND KNOTS: HANDLING ROPES
45
ROPE AND KNOT TERMS
There are several terms that are used to identify the and describe the different shapes that are made while
various parts of the rope during knot tying. Terms like knots are being tied. Learning to tie knots may seem
the standing part, the working end, bight, loop, and confusing at first, but the process becomes much easier
crossing turn distinguish the parts and ends of a rope once these terms are understood.

Bight

Loop

Standing Crossing
part Working end turn

the parts of a rope bights, loops, and crossing turns

The part of the rope you are using to tie a knot is called the A bight is made by folding the rope back on itself. A loop is made
working end. The rest of the rope (the part that remains by forming a circle without crossing the rope. A crossing turn is
unaffected) is called the standing part. made by crossing one part of the rope over or under another.

round and simple turns

A round turn takes the rope
one-and-a-half times around
the object, whereas a simple
turn involves passing the rope
around just one side of an object. Round turn Simple turn

Sealing rope ends

If a rope end is left unfinished, it will
quickly fray. Frayed rope ends are not
only messy-looking, but are wasteful of liquid whipping plastic tubing
expensive rope, will jam in blocks and Commercial liquids are Slide a suitably sized heat-
fairleads, and make knotting and cleating available that will seal a rope’s shrink tube over the rope end
more difficult. If not dealt with promptly, end. Simply dip the end in the and apply heat until it shrinks
liquid and leave to dry. tightly around the rope.
the rope will continue to fray or unravel
and may become useless. The best and
most permanent way to seal a rope end is
with a whipping (p.226), but a quicker, if
less effective, seal can be made with
adhesive tape, shrink tubing, and glue adhesive tape
commercial sealants. Check all your rope Dip thin ropes into a latex- Wrap adhesive tape tightly
ends at regular intervals and repair any based or polyvinyl acetate around the rope end to
fraying as soon as possible to avoid adhesive and leave it to dry form a temporary seal. This
permanent damage. for a short period. is useful when splicing rope.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
46
SIX BASIC KNOTS
Left
REEF KNOT working end

Used for tying the Left

ends of rope of equal working
diameter, the reef end

knot is named after its

most common use:
tying the ends of a 1 With the rope under the object, cross 2 Now bring the left working end
the two ends of the rope with the left up, over, and pass it behind the right
sail’s reef lines when
working end over the right working end. working end.
putting in a reef
(p.76). It is easy to
tie it properly; just
remember the rule:
left over right, then
right over left.

3 Bring both working ends up and tuck 4 Tighten the knot by pulling on
the now right working end over the left both the working ends, producing the
working end and through the middle. distinctive square-shaped reef knot.

SHEET BEND Working end Working end

A sheet bend is one

of the best ways of
joining two ropes
together. If they Loop Short end of loop
are of different
diameters, make the 1 Make a loop in the blue rope, then 2 Pass the working end of the white
pass the working end of the white rope rope around and under the short end of
loop in the thicker
through the loop from below. the loop in the blue rope.
rope. For more
Standing part
security, tie a double Working end
sheet bend by taking
an additional turn
around the loop Working end
Loop
(repeat steps 2 and 3).
3 Bring the working end of the white 4 Finally, tighten the sheet bend by
rope over the long end of the loop, back pulling on the loop and the standing part
to the top, and then under itself. of the white rope.

FIGURE-EIGHT Crossing turn Crossing turn

A figure-eight is a Working end
stopper knot used in
sailing to stop a rope
end from running out
Standing Standing
through a block or part
part
fairlead. It is simple
to tie, does not jam, 1 Make a crossing turn, bringing the 2 Bring the working end up to the top
and is easily undone. working end of the rope over and then of the knot and then pass it through the
under the standing part. center of the crossing turn. Pull tight.
 ROPES AND KNOTS: SIX BASIC KNOTS
47
Standing part Standing part
Working end Standing part

Working end
Rotate
this hand

Working end

BOWLINE
If you learn only one knot
before you go sailing,
make it this one. The
bowline (pronounced
1 With the working end of 2 Turn the hand and the 3 Finally, pass the working
the rope held in the palm of the working end so that a crossing end behind the standing part
bow-lynn) is used to make hand over the standing part, turn is created around the and then down through the
a loop in the end of a rotate the hand so the working hand and the working end. crossing turn. Tighten the knot
rope or to tie to a ring or end is pushed under the by pulling on the standing part
post. The bowline cannot standing part as the palm turns and the doubled working end.
be untied under load. face up.

ROUND TURN AND CLOVE HITCH

TWO HALF-HITCHES The clove hitch is used for
This knot is very useful for short-term mooring to a
tying a rope to a post, rail, ring or post or for hitching
or ring. It is easily untied, fenders to a rail. Make it
even when under load, so more secure with a long
it is good for moorings. working end.
Working end

1 Form a round turn by Standing part Working 1 Make a turn Standing part
bringing the working end of end around the post,
the rope up through the ring bringing the working
(or around a post or rail), end up over the
from bottom to top, twice. standing part.

Working end
2 Take the working end 2 Use the working end Working end
over the standing part. Pass it Standing to make a second turn
part Standing part
below the standing part, then in the same direction,
bring it to the top again and taking it behind the post
tuck it under itself, making a and bringing it around
half-hitch. to the front again.

Working end
3 Pass the working end 3 Tuck the working Standing part
Working end

below the standing part again, Standing end under the second
part
then bring it to the top and turn. Pull on the
tuck it under itself again, working end and
making the second half-hitch. the standing part to
Pull both ends to tighten. tighten the knot.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
48

BLOCKS AND TACKLES

Sailboats rely on pulleys, called blocks, to change the direction of
sheets, control lines and halyards, and on tackles to increase the
power of human muscles and to control loads. Manual, electric,
and hydraulic winches (pp.232–233) are also used on larger boats.
As well as controlling sails, a tackle can be used to lift a person
out of the water or hoist a dinghy or heavy stores aboard.
attachment
A block is often attached by a shackle
to the place where it is needed. Be sure
Blocks Some have a becket (a fitting that that the shackle pin is tightened securely.
A block has a sheave, a wheel that allows their use as part of a tackle).
rotates on an axle or a bearing Dinghies and cruisers typically use
between two side plates called cheeks. plastic or metal blocks, while racing Attachment options
Blocks range from simple ones with craft use carbon fiber and titanium Blocks are available with fixed,
a plain axle to ones with roller or blocks with roller or needle bearings adjustable, or swivel heads and
needle bearings to minimize friction. for strength and minimum friction. a snap shackle or hook for easy
attachment. Some are mounted
permanently on eye straps or bolted
Fixed head Swivel head
to the structure of the boat, but they
are often fixed to deck fittings using
Cheek
a removable metal fitting called a
shackle. A strong and light alternative
Sheave
is to use a soft shackle or a loop.
Becket
Types of shackle
single block double block triple block A D shackle has a simple U-shaped
A single block has one A double block has two A triple block has three
flat or round metal bar closed with
sheave and a fixed or sheaves side by side. It sheaves side by side.
a screw-in pin. Other styles include
swivel attachment point. may have a fixed or swivel It may have a fixed or
It may also have a becket attachment point and swivel attachment point bow, long, twisted, and snap shackles,
beneath the sheave. may have a becket. and may have a becket. which can be opened and closed
quickly and easily.
Soft shackles are made from high-
performance ropes such as Spectra
and Dyneema. They are much lighter
and softer than a metal shackle,
quicker to attach, do not require
tools, and are easy to make yourself.

DYNEEMA
fiddle block through-deck blocks with cleats SOFT
A fiddle block has two blocks For some applications, SHACKLE
sheaves, one above the A through-deck block such as mainsheets, a
other. It is less likely to is used to run a rope cleat is incorporated into
create twist in a tackle through a deck, a a block. Cleats may be a
than a double block. bulkhead, or a coaming. V, clam, or cam cleat. BOW SHACKLE
 BLOCKS AND TACKLES
49
Tackles
A tackle is a system of blocks and
rope that increases the power when
you pull on the tail of the rope.
However, by increasing the amount
of power, also called the purchase,
the amount of rope you have to pull
to move the load also increases. A
powerful tackle will involve a long simple whip 2:1 3:1
length of rope, especially if the range The simplest form of This tackle, which Midsized dinghies may
of movement required is large. tackle, the whip has a doubles the power, is use a 3:1 tackle for a
Friction can greatly reduce the single turning block to often used for mainsheets mainsheet tackle or for
amount of power gained by a tackle. change the direction of on small boats and for jib some control lines. It
The amount of friction depends on the pull. Its power is 1:1. sheets on large boats. triples the power applied.
the type of rope and blocks used. A
tackle of three-strand rope running multipart
over blocks with simple axle bearings tackles
creates more friction than one made Tackles can
from smooth, braided rope running be combined
to provide
over low-friction blocks with needle
coarse and fine
or roller bearings. On racing boats,
adjustments, to
high strength, low stretch, and low increase power,
friction are essential. Use ropes and 4:1 6:1 and to reduce
blocks appropriate to your needs. This tackle quadruples the This powerful tackle is the amount of
The power of a tackle can be power applied. Dinghies often used as a mainsheet line in use.
quickly determined by counting the with powerful mainsails purchase on catamarans
number of parts of the rope that often use this system to to control the high power
come off the moving block. control the mainsheet. the mainsail generates.

Low-friction rings Cascade control systems cascade

Low-friction rings can replace blocks A control system using low friction A cascade providing 8:1
in some situations. They can be used rings, known as a cascade system, is power from three 2:1
to change the direction of a line and similar to a tackle but is considerably purchases in line.
also in cascade systems. The rope lighter and can be more flexible for Ring attached
being controlled passes through the certain applications. Depending on to rope being
adjusted
eye of the ring. Another line, spliced how the rings are arranged, a cascade
or whipped tightly around the system can incur more friction than
circumference of the ring, is used a tackle incorporating high-quality First 2:1
to attach the ring in the required blocks and rope, but it has no purchase
location or to adjust its position. moving parts. Friction can be reduced
by ensuring that the rope passing
Second 2:1
through the rings does not turn purchase
through more than approximately Secured to a
Adjusting 120 degrees. It is also possible to fixed point
line spliced combine a tackle using blocks with Load is applied
around ring to the tail: third
a cascade using rings to provide 2:1 purchase
the power and fine adjustment
you may require.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
50

OARS AND PADDLES

The way in which you handle a dinghy under oars is one of the Sculling
best indications of your seamanship skills. Rowing a dinghy that Sculling involves moving the
boat by using a single oar over the
has been specifically designed for the purpose is a very satisfying transom. The sculling oar is retained
exercise; good rowing boats are easy to row and move straight and in a oarlock, or in a sculling notch
well under oars. Larger rowing dinghies can also be moved with cut into the transom. If rowing is an
art, then sculling is sublime. Little
one oar, using the impressive art of sculling. However, sailing
is more striking than watching an
dinghies are rarely designed for rowing or sculling, and paddling experienced boatman sculling a
may be the only viable option. dinghy with casual aplomb. Sculling
is best learned in a heavy dinghy
when there is no wind or waves.
Rowing There are some basic points to bear in It is one of those skills that seem
The easiest craft to row are long, mind when rowing. To come alongside to be impossible at first, but simply
relatively narrow dinghies, which are another boat or a pontoon, you must require some dedicated practice
stable in the water. The worst are turn parallel to it and then unship the before you are rewarded with a
inflatables, which are flat-bottomed inboard oar so that it does not get great sense of achievement.
and badly affected by wind. You will trapped or broken. As soon as the
need the longest oars that can be used boat is secured, unship the other oar. Paddling
with the boat and a pair of oarlocks If you are rowing in choppy water, With many dinghies, the most
or crutches, which slot into plates on the blades may get caught by waves convenient alternative to sailing is
the gunwales and act as pivot points as you swing them forward. To reduce paddling. Paddles take up less room
for the oars. Remove oarlocks when this problem, feather them (turn them than oars and do not need oarlocks.
alongside a boat or pontoon, or else so that they are parallel to the water’s Paddling requires relatively little skill,
they may cause damage. surface) as you complete the stroke. but bear the following points in mind
for increased efficiency: keep your
HOW TO ROW arms straight as you pull on the
Sit on the thwart in the middle of the boat facing the stern. If you have one paddle, lean well forward to put the
passenger, he should usually sit in the stern. If you have several passengers,
blade into the water, and use your
position them to keep the dinghy level.
torso rather than just your arms to
provide the power for each stroke.
Lean forward, Apply equal force to Lift the blades
keeping your arms each oar to keep a just clear of the
straight and your straight course water surface
hands low

1 Place your hands shoulder-width 2 Lean back, pulling on the oars and 3 Push down gently on the oars to lift
apart and lean forward. Then dip the oars keeping your arms straight. As you lean the blades clear of the water, then lean aft,
into the water so that the blades are at fully back, bend your arms in to your swinging the oars forward clear of the
right angles to the surface. chest to complete the stroke. water, and repeat steps 1 and 2.
 OARS AND PADDLES
51
how to SCUll 2 Twist the oar so that
To scull, stand upright in the the blade is slanted to one
Twist your wrists
dinghy facing aft, with your side, then move your hands
legs apart so that you are sideways—in the opposite
balanced. The basic direction of the way the
sculling stroke is a oar blade is slanted.
figure-eight made from
side to side across the
stern. Place passengers 3 At the end of the
Pull the oar
in the middle. stroke, roll your wrists to
across your chest
twist the blade in the
opposite direction and
move your hands across
Sculler your chest toward the
Stand at the stern, other side.
legs apart

4 Repeat steps 2 and 3

to keep the boat moving
1 Hold the oar with both forward. The motion of
hands, thumbs underneath, at the blade through the
shoulder level. Make sure the blade water should be smooth
The oar blade moves
is vertical and fully immersed; the oar and steady throughout through the water in a
should be balanced, its weight taken the stroke. figure-eight motion
by the sculling notch or oarlock.

How to paddle
If you are alone, you can paddle facing Sails
If sails are hoisted,
forward, with the sails down and rudder
allow them to flap
stowed or held against your knee (below).
Sails
Alternatively, paddle stern first, kneeling Lower the sails when
at the transom, and make drawing paddling alone Crew
Take long,
strokes that pull the boat backward.
strong strokes
With two people, both can paddle,
or else one person can steer using Paddler
Start the stroke leaning
the rudder while the other well forward with arms
paddles—the paddler sits straight, and keep knee
forward, on the opposite side against tiller

from the helm.

paddling alone paddling with two

Sit well aft. Move the paddle The crew paddles
through the water, turning from just aft of the
the blade away from the side shrouds, while the
of the boat at the end of the helm uses the rudder
stroke. This helps prevent to keep the boat on
the boat from turning course. When both
away from the paddle— helm and crew
an effect that can also are paddling, both
be reduced by lowering should sit just aft
the centerboard of the shrouds on
or daggerboard. opposite sides.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
52

MOVING SMALL BOATS

The majority of small boats are kept ashore between sailing Rollers
trips, as they are not stable enough to be left on moorings and Solid or inflatable rollers are a
good alternative to carts or trailers
would be vulnerable to damage if left afloat. They are easily for short trips across beaches or up
transported between venues on a car roof rack or a road trailer to boat parks. They are particularly
towed behind a car. However, the boat is at its most vulnerable useful for moving heavy boats across
sand or gravel. At least three rollers
to damage when it is on land, so it is important to know how to
are required. They are placed under
move it safely. Learning a few basic lifting and moving techniques the bow and the boat is pushed over
will also protect you from personal accidents and injuries. them. Each roller is retrieved as it
reappears behind the stern and
is placed in front of the bow to
Road trailers loaded and unloaded by lifting the continue the movement until
The road trailer should be designed cart handles and wheeling it onto the destination is reached.
for the boat, with plenty of chocks or off the trailer from the back.
and rollers to provide adequate
support. Overrun brakes, which Roof racks LIFTING A BOAT
cut in when the car brakes, should Smaller and lighter dinghies Dinghies can be heavy and
be installed on the trailer if it has are usually transported on a roof awkward to lift—several pairs of
to carry a heavy dinghy or keelboat. rack, which should be sturdy and willing hands make lighter work
Always make sure the boat is securely attached to the vehicle. Pad of it. Some dinghies have lifting
handles, but with most, you will
securely attached before driving the rack and ropes to prevent damage
have to grasp the inside or
away. Tie the mast and any other to the boat. It is usually best to carry
outside edges of the sidedecks.
removable equipment to the boat the boat inverted on the rack with the
Place the boat
or the trailer. bow facing forward. Tie it securely to at an angle
Some road trailers have an the rack or strong points on the car to the car
integral launching cart that rides using rope or straps. Lash the mast
on top of the trailer when the boat and boom to the roof rack, alongside
is transported on the road. The the boat, and stow all other removable
boat sits on the cart, which is equipment in the car.
1 First, turn the boat over. Make
using roof racks sure that the bow is facing forward
A roof rack should be fixed before leaning the boat gently against
securely to the car so it the back of the car.
cannot move under the
weight placed on it. Lash the Then slide the boat
on from the back
boat using ropes or specially
made webbing straps.

2 Slide or lift the boat onto the

rack either from the side or from
behind the car, depending on which
is easiest with your vehicle.
 MOVING SMALL BOATS
53
AVOIDING DAMAGE
A boat is most likely to be
damaged when it is being
transported on land or when
it is being launched or recovered
The front roller from the water. Most damage
is ready to can be avoided by following
move the a few simple rules.
Take the roller from boat forward
the back of the boat
and move it to the front While launching
When you are launching the
boat using a cart, always push the
using rollers cart handle. The ease with which
cart into the water until you can
At least three people and three rollers your cart moves depends on the type
float the boat off. Never drag the
are needed to roll a boat smoothly. of wheels. Small solid wheels work boat off the cart, since this will
Place each in turn under the bow of well only on hard surfaces. If you scratch the hull. Similarly, when
the boat, then roll the boat forward, need to launch across a sand or recovering, float the boat onto the
removing each roller as it appears at cart rather than dragging it on.
gravel beach, choose larger wheels,
the stern.
preferably with inflatable tires.
While on land
To launch, push the cart into
Avoid stepping into a single-
Launching carts the water until the boat floats off. skin dinghy while it is ashore or
A launching cart is the usual Make sure that someone keeps hold on its launching cart. Without the
means of moving a dinghy from the of the painter. Take the cart above support of the water underneath
boat park to the water, and it is often the high-water mark, out of the way it, the bottom of the boat may be
used to store dinghies on the shore. of others. Reverse this procedure to deformed or holed by your weight.
Before moving a boat (or storing it) bring the boat ashore, tying the boat
While carrying
on its cart, make sure it is sitting to the cart handle and making sure You will need at least four people
correctly on the chocks and that it is that it is on its chocks before pulling to carry an average dinghy. Most
tied securely with its painter to the it out of the water. of the weight is concentrated in
the front part of the boat, so if you
need to carry it over any distance,
make sure you distribute the lifting
combi trailer power accordingly.
Some road trailers incorporate a
launching cart. Here, a small keelboat While moving
is easily launched on its cart without Always look up before you
immersing the road trailer and risking move boats to check that your
water damage to the wheel bearings. tall aluminum or carbon-fiber mast
is not about to become entangled
with a high-voltage cable. People
have been electrocuted when
moving their boats, so be aware
of your surroundings.

While not in use

Whenever you leave the boat for
any length of time, clean and dry
the sails and all other equipment
and stow everything neatly, then
cover the boat to protect it from
the elements (pp.120–121).
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
54

STAYING CLEAR OF OTHERS

Every type of craft on the water, from the smallest dinghy When one vessel is in the
to the biggest supertanker, is governed by the International process of overtaking another,
the overtaking boat must keep
Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, often referred to
clear until completely passed,
as the “Col Regs” or “the rules of the road.” Additional rules, set even if it is a sailing boat that
by World Sailing, govern boats when racing, but the Col Regs is overtaking a powered vessel.
always take precedence.
Negotiating channels
When proceeding along a
Keeping clear to keep clear, it is important channel or fairway, all boats
It is crucial to remember that the that you do so in plenty of time. should stay close to the starboard
overriding principle is the prevention Make a large alteration to your side of the channel in whichever
of collisions. This means that, even course so that your intentions are direction they are going. Avoid
if you are the “stand-on” vessel, you obvious to the other vessel and crossing busy channels or shipping
may be obliged to deviate from these pass astern rather than ahead of lanes. If you must do so, always
rules in order to avoid a collision. it. When you are underway, keep a cross as nearly as possible at
Maintain a careful watch all safe distance from boats at anchor a right angle to the traffic flow.
around and try to anticipate the or on a mooring. Always give a Do not pass close in front of
actions of others. Remember to wide berth to boats that are fishing vessels that are moving along
look astern regularly—novices are or trawling to avoid the possibility the channel, and make sure that
often startled by unseen overtaking of becoming entangled in nets you complete the crossing as
boats. When it is your responsibility or lines. quickly as possible.

STARBOARD-TACK RULE
A sailing boat that is on port tack (with the boom
to starboard) must give way to a sailing boat on
starboard tack. When you first start sailing, it is
sometimes difficult to remember which tack you
are on. Solve this problem by marking the boom
as shown below.
Boats pass
port to port

Overtaking
boat alters Star
boa Way
course to rd–O
—Give
K Port
keep clear

channel rule (rule 9) overtaking rule (rule 13) marking your boom
All vessels, whether under sail An overtaking vessel must keep Mark your boom “Starboard—OK” on the starboard side and
or power, must stay close to clear of the one being passed “Port—Give Way” on the port side. This will remind you which
the starboard side of channels even if it is a sailing boat that tack you are on and the right-of-way rule that applies.
so that they pass port to port. is overtaking a power boat.
 STAYING CLEAR OF OTHERS
55
AVOIDING COLLISIONS
Whenever two boats—whether under sail or power— stands on. The “stand-on” vessel must maintain its
meet in a potential collision situation, there is a rule that course, while the other boat, known as the “give-way”
specifies which one has to give way and which one vessel, is obliged to keep clear.

Stand-on Alter Windward

vessel course to boat
starboard

Starboard tack

Alter
Leeward boat
Give-way vessel course to
Port tack
starboard

power boats crossing power boats head on sailing boats sailing boats on
(rule 15) (rule 14) on opposite  tacks the same  tack
The boat on the other vessel’s When power boats meet head (rule 12) (rule 12)
starboard side is the stand-on on, both must give way—by The boat on the port tack alters The windward boat must keep
vessel; the give-way boat alters steering to starboard so as to its course to pass behind the clear and steers to pass behind
course to pass behind it. pass port to port. boat on the starboard tack. the leeward boat.

Giving way
In general terms, a power vessel
yields to a sailing vessel. However, in in a channel
practice, this is not always the case. In some sailing areas, dinghies and
For example, the rule does not apply yachts share the same waters as large
to large ships in confined waters, vessels. If crossing a channel, pass
which are usually restricted in their behind ships and give them as wide
ability to maneuver. Fishing boats are a berth as possible.
also a special case, and you must stay
clear of them. Large ships may have
a blind spot under their bows, where
a boat will be hidden. In such
circumstances, it is the responsibility
of the small-boat sailor to get out of
the way as quickly as possible.
In a narrow channel, such as on
the approach to a marina, even a
small yacht under power may not
have room to alter course, so dinghies
should keep clear. In fact, unless the
power vessel is about the same size
as your boat, it is always best to stay
out of its way. Remember, too, that
a dinghy under oars is classed as a
power-driven vessel and must keep
clear of sailing boats.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
56

WEATHER BASICS WEATHERWISE

Study the strength and direction
of the wind before you go afloat,
The most important factor to take into consideration when and check local forecasts for any
imminent changes in the weather.
you go sailing is the weather, especially the strength and direction
of the wind. Once you are on the water, the complexity of the
weather—how quickly it can change and how variable the wind other hand, is vital, and you should
direction and strength can be—may surprise you if you are not constantly be aware of its direction
and strength. Check it before you
used to sailing. You need to be able to recognize onshore and
go afloat, and continue to monitor
offshore winds because they determine the ease or difficulty of it once you have set sail.
leaving and returning to shore, as well as conditions farther out.
Wind indicators
As you gain experience, you
Weather forecasts information and advice from more will find that you automatically
Always check the weather forecast experienced sailors with extensive register wind direction by the
before you sail. Although forecasts are local knowledge. Always bear in feel of it on your face. Until this
available from many different sources, mind your sailing capabilities and becomes second nature, however,
not all will give specific information the limitations of your experience. you must try to estimate the wind
on wind conditions, so it is advisable If in doubt, stay ashore. direction and force by studying
to use a sailing forecast that covers all available signs. Look at the
your area in as much detail as possible. Wind direction wind indicator at the top of
In ports or harbors, the offices of the It is always more pleasant to sail your mast, if installed, or those
harbor master often display the local in warm sunshine than cold drizzle, on other boats, and study the
forecast. Sailing clubs may also provide but neither temperature nor rain are movement of flags ashore. Smoke
forecasts. At clubs, you can also seek critical to sailing. The wind, on the from chimneys will blow in the
direction of the wind, and the
angle of the smoke will give an
indication of its strength. Moored
changeable conditions
Wind strength can increase quickly boats often point into the wind,
and dramatically. Make sure you and but remember to take into account
your crew are prepared for sudden any tides or currents.
changes in the conditions. Bear in mind that the wind
shifts very frequently, even if
the weather is apparently stable,
and it can be bent from its true
direction by trees, tall buildings,
or hills. A river valley will often
affect the wind, causing it to
blow up or down the river.

Offshore wind
When you are planning a sailing
trip, do not underestimate the
strength of a wind that is offshore
(blowing from the land across the
shore and out over the water).
 WEATHER BASICS
57

WIND STRENGTH
Learn to recognize when it is safe to set sail by studying control of your vessel. Anything less than a Force 3 will
the Beaufort Scale, which indicates the strength of the cause the boat to move slowly and lack responsiveness;
wind and describes its visual effects. For initial outings, a anything more and beginners should be wary of going
Force 3 is the ideal wind strength. Seven to 10 knots will out. A Force 6 is a dinghy-sailor’s gale; only experienced
fill the sails but will be gentle enough to allow you to keep crews should sail in winds that can reach 27 knots.

force description effects on sea signs on land wind speed

Calm Mirror-smooth water. Dinghies Smoke rises vertically and flags Less than 1 knot
0 tend to drift rather than sail. hang limp.

Light Air Ripples on water. Sufficient Smoke drifts slightly, indicating 1–3 knots
1 wind to maintain motion. wind direction.

Light Small wavelets with smooth Light flags and wind vanes 4–6 knots
Breeze crests. Sufficient wind to sail respond with small movements.
2 steadily but upright. Wind is Leaves rustle.
felt on the face.

Gentle Large wavelets with crests starting Light flags extend fully and 7–10 knots
3 Breeze to break. Ideal conditions for leaves and small twigs are set
learning to sail a dinghy. in motion.

Moderate Small waves with fairly Small branches move on trees, 11–15 knots
Breeze frequent whitecaps. The and dust and paper are lifted
4 crew will be working hard. off the ground by the breeze.
Boats plane easily. Beginners
should head for shore.

Fresh Moderate waves with frequent Small trees sway visibly and the 16–21 knots
5 Breeze whitecaps. High risk of capsize tops of all trees are in motion.
when dinghy sailing.

Strong Large waves start to form and Large trees sway and the 22–27 knots
Breeze spray is likely. This is a dinghy- wind whistles in power lines.
6 sailor’s gale. Only experienced It becomes difficult to use
crews with good safety cover an umbrella.
should race.

Offshore winds can be very out are more severe than you different sailing challenges. Attempting
misleading, as there is likely anticipated, you may experience to launch the boat and leave the
to be a calm patch close to the difficulties returning home. shore through breaking waves can
shore, but beyond this the wind be difficult with the wind against
will be stronger and the waves Onshore wind you. However, away from the beach,
much larger. If you set sail in an When the wind is onshore, you will the waves should calm down. You
offshore wind and then discover feel its full force and waves may break will also find that it is easier to
that the weather conditions farther on the shoreline. Onshore winds bring return to base in an onshore wind.
 FIRST PRINCIPLES
58

INLAND OR SEA
The horizontal movement of water
produced by the tides is called a tidal
stream. This flows along coasts and
up and down estuaries and rivers.
Whether you sail on inland waters or on the sea depends on When the tide is rising, the stream is
the type of sailing you want to do, as well as on where you live. said to be flooding; when it is falling,
the stream is said to be ebbing. Flood
Learning to sail is usually easier and safer on inland waters, but tides run up rivers and estuaries,
once you have gained some experience, you will probably want while ebb tides run back toward the
to be more adventurous and try sea sailing. In many parts of the sea. The speed of the tidal stream is
affected by the difference in the height
world, sailing on the sea involves dealing with tides. It is important
of the water surface between low tide
for both your safety and enjoyment that you understand how to and high tide. It runs much faster
check tidal information and how tides affect sailing at sea. during spring tides than during neaps
and is at its strongest during the third
and fourth hours of the flood or ebb.
Inland waters All types of inland waters have their
Inland waters vary from small lakes own characteristics and potential Sea sailing
and reservoirs, which are often made hazards, so ask for advice at a local If you are planning to sail at sea,
from flooded gravel pits, to more sailing club before you go afloat. If make sure that you have all the tidal
significant stretches of water, such you plan to sail without safety cover information you need. Details about
as large lakes and wide rivers. on a large stretch of inland water, the times of high and low water can
Remember that some inland waters make sure that someone knows your be found in a local tide table, and a
are privately owned, so if the stretch plans before you set sail. Look for tidal atlas for your area will show the
of water is new to you, find out bridges and overhead power lines direction of the stream for each hour
whether you need to get permission that may be lower than the mast, of the tidal cycle.
to sail there. Look for notices on the and check for signs indicating dams Remember that when a tidal
banks and shorelines. or locks. stream flows through deep channels
The rules of the road (pp.54–55) or around headlands, it is at its
apply wherever you are sailing. In strongest. If it is constricted in any
Gravitational pull is
constricted waters, such as a narrow way, such as by a headland, an
strongest on the water
surface closest to the Moon river or small lake, you may find that uneven bottom, or rapidly shoaling
the sailing conditions are congested, water, then you can expect tidal races,
MOON which will test your maneuvering eddies, and overfalls. Stay away from
C B A skills. When you are sailing on a river, these in a small boat, especially if the
be aware that you are likely to have to wind is strong or is blowing against
contend with a current as the water the stream. It will be apparent when
EARTH
flows downstream toward the sea. On the wind blows in opposition to a
some rivers, these can get very strong, tidal stream, as it will kick up waves
especially if there has been heavy rain that are bigger and steeper than you
upstream. Some rivers, especially large would otherwise expect. When the
gravitational pull ones, also have a tidal flow that may tide turns to run with the wind, these
The gravitational pull of the Moon
reach some way inland from the sea. waves will quickly die down again.
(strengthened or weakened by that of
When going sailing in tidal waters,
the sun) attracts the water on the near
side (A), Earth itself (B), and the water on Tides always make sure that someone ashore
the far side (C) by decreasing amounts. Tides are vertical movements of knows your plans, and store an anchor
This pull causes two bulges in the surface the water due to the gravitational aboard so that you have the option of
of the water on opposite sides of Earth. attraction of celestial bodies (primarily anchoring in shallow water if the wind
We experience these bulges as tides. the Moon) on Earth’s surface. drops or if you get into difficulties.
 INLAND OR SEA
59
THE CAUSES OF TIDES TIDE INDICATORS
Tides are caused by the Moon’s gravitational pull (and to a lesser extent When you are sailing in tidal
that of the Sun) on the surface of the water. The combined influence of waters, it is important to know
these two celestial bodies determines tidal ranges. when the tide turns. When the
tidal stream runs in your favor,
Tidal ranges it is easy to make progress over
The gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun produces two high tides and the ground, but if it runs against
two low tides in most places every day. The difference in height between a you, progress may be slow or
low tide and the next high tide is called the tidal range.
impossible until the tide turns.
Spring and neap tides Checking the direction
The juxtaposition of the Sun and Moon affects the height of the tides at different One of the easiest ways of checking
times of the month. At the times of a full and new moon, when the Sun, Earth, the direction of the tidal stream is
and Moon are in line, the gravitational pull is largest. This causes spring tides, to look at boats at anchor or on a
with the largest range between high and low tides. When the Moon is in its mooring. They will usually point
first and last quarters, the Sun, Earth and Moon are at right angles to each other into the stream, unless they have
and cause neap tides, with the smallest range between high and low water. The a shallow draft (like dinghies or
strength of tidal streams depends on the range, so expect strong streams at spring motor boats), in which case they
tides and weaker ones at neaps. are more likely to lie head-to-wind,
especially if the wind is strong.
spring tides
Look at deep-keeled cruisers for
an accurate indication of the tidal
During spring tides, there is a New moon Full moon
stream. The tide also flows around
significantly larger difference
buoys and posts, or any other fixed
between the water’s height at
object in the water, and reveals its
low tide and high tide.
direction and strength by the wake
that streams downtide of the object.
SUN

HIGH WATER
RANGE

LOW WATER

neap tides Last quarter

During neap tides, the height of
the water’s surface changes least
between low and high tide.

SUN First quarter

RANGE HIGH WATER buoy in a tidal stream

Buoys are very useful indicators of the
LOW WATER direction of a tidal stream because they
often lean away from the direction of
a strong stream. A tidal stream also
produces a wake or bow wave as the
water sweeps past the buoy.
SMALL-BOAT SAILING
Dinghies offer the best introduction to sailing because they are so responsive
to wind and waves and to your actions on the tiller and sheets. General-purpose
dinghies are ideal for learning the basics about rigging and launching, experiencing
the different roles of the helm and crew, and becoming proficient in all the
important sailing maneuvers.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
62

CHOOSING A SMALL BOAT

There are literally hundreds of different types of dinghies First steps
and small keelboats on the market. They are available in a General-purpose boats are usually
the most appropriate type of
huge variety of designs for a wide range of sailing activities, dinghy when you are first learning
from relaxed day-cruising to highly competitive racing. Most to sail. These boats are relatively
modern boats are built with strong, lightweight materials, and stable, so any mistakes are easier
to rectify without mishap than
many offer tremendous performance potential while requiring
they would be in a sensitive,
little maintenance. You are bound to find one that will suit your high-performance dinghy. Most
level of skill, experience, and ambition, as well as your budget. sailing clubs and schools use
general-purpose dinghies for
teaching because they often have
enough space for an instructor and
two students, but some also offer
courses in single-handed dinghies.
This is often the fastest way to
learn, but it can be hard work
sailing alone while learning.

Expanding your horizons

Once you have progressed and are
sailing confidently, you will probably
consider buying your own boat.
Because the choice is so vast, it is
best to draw up a detailed short list
StArter boAtS
Modern general-purpose designs are of your specific requirements. For a
good for beginners to learn in and are still start, think about where you are
rewarding for more experienced sailors. going to do most of your sailing
and what type of sailing you want
to do. High-performance racing
boats (pp.124–127) are great fun

hull ShAPe
The shape and depth of a dinghy’s
hull when seen from behind provides
a good indication of the purpose
for which it is designed. A flat,
shallow, usually rounded hull shape
indicates that the dinghy is intended
for high-performance sailing and
racing. Wider hulls are more stable round-bilge hull double-chine hull
than narrow ones, and deeper and If the hull is shallow, usually with a round If the hull is deep, the boat is likely to have
heavier hulls are more often used bilge (curved shape), it is probably meant been designed as a general-purpose dinghy.
for general-purpose boats that are for racing. The shallower the hull, the Also, general-purpose hulls may have one
ideal for beginners. more likely it is to be designed for speed. or two chines (angled, flat panels).
 CHOOSING A SMALL BOAT
63
and very exciting to sail, but they are
not suitable for family picnics or for
use with oars or an outboard motor.
If you want to race, make sure you
choose a boat that is popular where
you are going to do your sailing, and
check that there is a good club fleet
in which to start racing.
Do not pick a high-performance
boat until you have the experience to
handle it. It is certainly not necessary
to choose a high-performance boat to
get good racing. In fact, many
general-purpose dinghies have
very committed and competitive
racing fleets and are a good option
to start racing. If you are unsure
as to whether you are ready to race
your own boat, consider crewing
for someone else in order to gain
experience and develop skills. buying your own boat, because adaptable for accessibility
If you want to day-sail or cruise, this will enable you to meet more Some dinghies can be adapted to suit
choose a strong and stable boat that experienced sailors who will usually both able-bodied and disabled sailors,
is specifically designed for this type have sailed in a range of small boats. with optional fixed seating and all lines
of sailing. A good cruising dinghy Crewing for club members in as wide feeding into the cockpit.
will have plenty of room inside a deep a range of boats as possible is a very
and stable hull and will have space good way of adding to your sailing what kind of sailing they focus on.
for stowing additional equipment you experience at low cost. Depending on Check out what types of boat they
may need, such as a cockpit tent and where you live, you may find several sail and talk to as many members as
cooking gear. sailing clubs in your vicinity. Some possible. Pick a club that sails small
may be primarily dinghy and small boats and try to find one that has
Joining a club keelboat clubs, while others may a training program to introduce
You will need to join a club in order concentrate on yacht racing and newcomers to small-boat sailing and
to participate in races. In fact, it is cruising. Before you join a club, visit help them develop their skills and
worth joining one anyway, before the ones in your area and find out broaden their experience.

modern general-purpose dinghy single-handed dinghy modern fun boat

The hull is shallower, with a flatter The hull shape is shallow and the bottom Some small, modern designs are designed
bottom than older designs, but is is very flat at the stern. The narrower for fun sailing and occasional racing. Some
quite wide and so has better stability hull offers less stability than wider designs can be sailed by one or two people and
than narrower types. but can offer higher performance. are popular at vacation sailing centers.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
64
Buying a small boat well established in the area you plan price for the types of boats you are
When you first start sailing, it is to sail, as these will maintain their interested in. When you have found
not necessary to buy your own value best and be easy to sell again. one or more possible boats that
boat. In fact, it is best not to Once you have a shortlist, seem to suit your requirements, ask
consider buying until you have arrange to take a trial sail in each an experienced small-boat sailor to
some experience of different boats of the boats you are interested in. view them with you and advise you
and have decided on the type of If the manufacturer cannot arrange on their condition and suitability
sailing that interests you most. this, contact the class association, for your experience and ambitions.
Before you buy a boat, try to which will be able to help you set Once you have bought a boat,
get some experience sailing as up a sail with an existing owner. it is a very good idea to join the
many different dinghies or small Details of class associations can be class association, as this will help
keelboats as possible. found through your national sailing you meet other owners, join in
When you decide to buy a boat, authority, or you can search for organized class racing, and learn
make a shortlist of the ones that their websites online. tips about your particular boat.
seem suitable. Read boat reviews in If you plan to buy a secondhand The association may also offer
sailing magazines and on websites boat, which is often a very good way low-cost insurance policies and
and visit boat shows to view to get started, look in magazines and other benefits, such as organized
different boats. Try to pick boats for sailing websites for boats that match training sessions, that make it
your shortlist that are popular and your shortlist and to find the average well worth joining.

multipurpose boats
If you are looking to buy a boat
that offers flexible usage, there
are dinghies available that can be
sailed single-handed or with a
crew (with a jib fitted), as here.
 CHOOSING A SMALL BOAT
65

TYPES OF DINGHIES AND SMALL KEELBOATS

There is a wide range of small boats that are suitable cannot be raced; in fact, many of the popular classes
for beginners and recreational sailing, as well as a varied have strong racing fleets. Small day-sailing keelboats
selection for single-handed sailing or for children and are not classed as dinghies, as they have weighted keels.
young adults. Although not necessarily designed for However, they do offer good performance but with
racing, there is no reason why a general-purpose boat a much-reduced risk of capsize.

general-purpose dinghies boats for children

The Wayfarer is a classic general-purpose The Optimist is a favorite for children.

dinghy. A relatively heavy boat, it is large A small, light single-hander with a simple
and stable enough to be kept on a mooring. rig, it is ideal for starting to sail and is
There is good racing, and Wayfarers have raced very competitively all over the
WAYFARER cruised long distances. OPTIMIST world. It is an international class.

The Vanguard 15 is a double-handed, The Topper is a very popular,

one-design dinghy that is simple, durable, international single-hander that is
and lightweight. This easy-to-transport, particularly suitable for children.
popular boat can be used for racing or It is built from molded plastic
VANGUARD 15 for family leisure sailing. TOPPER and is virtually indestructible.

The Feva is a modern, multipurpose The Laser Pico is a durable, plastic boat
dinghy that has the option of being that can be sailed by everyone. It’s ideal
sailed single-handed or with a crew, for children and entry-level sailors and
with just a mainsail or with the addition is equipped with a removable jib and
FEVA of a jib and gennaker. PICO reefing mainsail.

small keelboats boats for young adults

The Flying Fifteen is a popular, double- The 420 is an international class that is
handed international class that is used ideal both for beginners and for young
mainly for racing. It has a weighted keel sailors starting to race. The 420 provides
yet is light enough to plane. It has a a good introduction to the use of a
FLYING FIFTEEN mainsail, jib, and spinnaker. 420 trapeze and a spinnaker.

The Sonar is a popular keelboat that Based on the same hull and equipment as
is ideal for day-sailing and competitive the Olympic Laser (pp.158–159), the Radial
racing. It is used for international has a smaller sail and more flexible lower
women’s, youth, and disabled racing mast that makes it an ideal single-hander
SONAR in match, team, and fleet racing. LASER RADIAL for young adults.

The Squib was designed as a one-design The 29er is a high-performance

keelboat for club racing and family skiff for youth sailors. It has a single
sailing. It offers easy handling and trapeze and an asymmetric spinnaker.
good performance, while its ballast Sailing this exciting boat requires
SQUIB keel removes the risk of capsize. 29ER coordination and agility.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
66

PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
When you sail in small boats, you are very exposed to the zipper, but is harder to put on
elements, so it is important for your comfort to wear clothing or take off, as it must be pulled
over the head. Waterproof pants are
that keeps you warm. Although the choice of what to wear is available in waist-high or chest-high
very wide, there are only two basic approaches. One is to wear designs. Waist high are quicker
a drysuit or waterproofs over warm clothing; the other is to to put on, but chest-high pants
have suspenders that prevent them
wear a wetsuit. If you sail a dinghy, it is inevitable that you will
from slipping down and also offer
sometimes find yourself in the water, so it is also vital that you extra protection that means they
have a buoyancy aid to help keep you afloat if you capsize. can often be worn without a jacket.

Materials
Starting off If your boat is kept on a mooring Waterproofs are usually made
If you learn to sail at a sailing club or or pontoon, it is practical to wear with an outer layer of nylon for
school, you will probably be provided waterproofs, but if you have to extra strength and an inner,
with waterproofs and a buoyancy launch from a slipway or beach, waterproof layer that is bonded
aid. Normal casual or sports clothing waterproofs will not keep your legs to the nylon. The waterproof layer
will suffice under the waterproofs, dry when you wade into the water might be PVC, which is fairly cheap,
and you can wear athletic shoes on to launch the boat. Even if you wear or a breathable fabric, which will
your feet. If you learn to sail in a sailing boots, it is likely that the water be considerably more expensive.
small dinghy, you may be provided will come over the top of your boots However, breathable fabrics do
with a wetsuit, as it is inevitable that during launching. If this is the type of offer superior performance, allowing
you will get wet and waterproofs will sailing you do, then consider wearing
not provide sufficient protection. a wetsuit or drysuit, or be prepared
Once you start to sail your to have wet legs before you start
own boat or to crew for others sailing. In a warm or hot climate,
on a regular basis, you will want wet legs are no hardship, but if you
to invest in some specialty clothing, sail in a cooler climate, you will want
but you should get some experience to stay as dry as possible, especially
first so that you can choose the type at the start of your trip afloat.
of clothing that will suit the sailing You can choose from a one-piece
you wish to do. Ask experienced waterproof suit or separate jacket
sailors for their recommendations and pants. A one-piece suit has
and visit a sailing pro shop to try fewer water entry points, but
on a range of types. separates allow you to wear the
jacket or pants alone when required
Wearing waterproofs and so may be more useful if you
Waterproofs are most suitable for are sailing for recreation rather
sailing in small keelboats or stable than racing. Waterproof jackets are
general-purpose dinghies that are available with a front zipper or as
unlikely to capsize. They have the a smock type. A zippered jacket is
advantage over a wetsuit or drysuit easier to put on and can be worn high pants
that they are easier to put on and unzipped when you need to regulate High-fit waterproof pants have
take off, and it is easier to control your temperature. The smock type suspenders for security and can be
your temperature. is more waterproof, since it has no worn without the jacket if preferred.
 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
67
water vapor and perspiration to for extra warmth. Full suits have Some sailors also wear a thin
escape rather than accumulate and a zipper entry system, usually in the windproof vest over their wetsuit
eventually soak your clothing. back of the torso, and good suits to protect it from damage and to
have adjustable ankles and wrists. prevent wind chill when sailing.
Wearing a wetsuit Most good wetsuits have thin Wetsuit socks can be worn
When you are likely to get wet while inner and outer skins of a stretchy, under dinghy boots to keep feet
launching or sailing, a wetsuit offers nylon-based material bonded to the warm; neoprene sailing boots
you a means of staying warm without neoprene to protect it from damage. with zippers and nonslip soles are
worrying about how to stay dry. It is advisable to wear a rash vest, also available. Neoprene gloves will
Wetsuits are made from neoprene, made of Lycra or thin neoprene and keep the hands warm, and a wetsuit
which is composed of numerous Lycra, under a wetsuit to protect hood will prevent heat loss through
small cells, each of which holds a your skin from abrasion and rash. the head in the coldest weather.
small bubble of gas. These bubbles
give the material its insulation
properties, making it difficult for the
heat from your body to escape. Latex seal at neck
Wetsuits are tailored to be very
close-fitting to ensure that only a
thin layer of water can penetrate
between the neoprene and your skin.
A light dusting of talcum powder Short sleeves

makes it much easier to put on a

tight wetsuit. When you get wet, this
thin layer of water is trapped and is
quickly warmed up by your body Reinforced
knees
heat. The thin layer of warm water
and the insulation of the neoprene
Full-length
protect you from the cold. legs

Dinghy boots
Types of wetsuits
Different weights of neoprene are
available, and suits for sailing usually full wetsuit
range between 3 mm and 5 mm, Wetsuits are available
although suits as thin as 0.5 mm are in a variety of styles.
also available. Thicker suits are used Choose a good-quality,
for winter sailing, while the thinner well-fitting suit to ensure
that you stay warm
ones are adequate for sailing from
and comfortable.
spring to fall in most climates.
Some suits use thicker neoprene
in the torso with thinner material in
the arms and legs to allow for easier
movement. Suits for small-boat sailing
should have reinforced patches on
short wetsuit
the seat, shins, and knees.
For summer sailing, Neoprene
Wetsuits are available in a variety a shorty wetsuit is boots
of styles, including full-length, shorty, often more appropriate
and long-john designs. Separate than a full suit. Wetsuit
jackets are also available, which can boots are ideal for
be worn over a shorty or long-john dinghy sailing.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
68
Wearing a drysuit you are likely to get your feet wet used, as its brim helps protect the
A drysuit is a type of waterproof suit when you wade in the water to eyes from glare. Add a retaining
that is designed to prevent any water launch and recover your dinghy. strap to stop the hat from being
entry, even when you are immersed Gloves help protect the hands blown or knocked off your head
in water. The drysuit prevents water when handling ropes and help keep while sailing. A wide-brimmed hat
from entering at the wrists, ankles, them warm when sailing in cold will provide more shade for head and
and neck by using seals, usually conditions. Sailing gloves are shoulders in very sunny conditions
made of latex, that fit tightly to the available in short- or long-fingered but is more vulnerable to being
skin. Drysuits are generally made as varieties. The short-fingered ones blown off your head in windier
one-piece suits, but two-piece versions allow you to handle intricate tasks, conditions. In winter, a thermal
are also available. In this case, the such as fastening a shackle or tying balaclava will help prevent heat loss
pants and smock have latex seals at a knot, but long-finger ones from the head, which otherwise can
the waist that are rolled together to provide better protection for the account for a significant amount of
prevent water from entering between hands. A compromise is a pair with body cooling.
smock and pants. One-piece suits full-length fingers on all but the In sunny conditions, always
have a zipper system with the zipper index finger and thumb. Most sailing wear a pair of high-quality sunglasses
sometimes fitted diagonally across the gloves are made of a supple leather to protect the eyes from glare from
chest or the back. Zippers in the front or synthetic alternative with an the water’s surface, which can be
make entry and exit. Good suits have elasticated back and loop and considerable. Pick a pair that covers
reinforced seats, knees, and shins to hook wrist closure system. the eyes well to prevent light from
protect these high-wear areas. seeping in around the edges, and
To control your body temperature Protect the head use a retaining strap to prevent loss.
when wearing a drysuit, you need to A hat is useful for protecting the Polarized lenses are best for reducing
take care when choosing the clothing head from the sun in the summer and glare, and they also make it easier to
you wear underneath. Shorts and helping prevent heat loss in colder see the signs that wind shifts and
a T-shirt often suffice in warm conditions. A baseball cap is often gusts make on the water’s surface.
weather, but thin thermal clothing
is better in colder conditions. If you Caring for your equipment
decide to use a drysuit, choose one Sailing clothing can be a considerable
made from breathable fabric, which investment, so it pays to take care
allows your perspiration to pass of your equipment. Always rinse
through the suit. It is easy to overheat out all your clothing thoroughly in
when wearing a drysuit, and if the fresh water after each sail and hang
material is not breathable, you will up to dry. Some clothing can be
quickly become wet inside the suit washed in a washing machine at low
from the perspiration you produce or medium temperature, but always
when you are working hard. check the manufacturer’s instructions.
Most clothing should not be tumble-
Hands and feet dried, but water-repellent coatings
It is very important to protect the can be reactivated by a light tumble-
extremities from injury and cold dry. Never use solvent-based cleaners
when sailing, so take care to choose to remove stains, as these are likely to
good footwear, gloves, and a hat. damage the fabric.
Footwear can consist of deck shoes, Do not leave your waterproofs,
dinghy boots, or long sailing boots. drysuit, or wetsuit in direct sunlight, as
Deck shoes and long sailing boots are protect the head and eyes this will cause the fabric to deteriorate.
fine for keelboat sailing, but for dinghy A peaked cap will keep sun off the head Lightly lubricate zippers with
sailing, it is better to choose a pair of and a good pair of sunglasses will protect petroleum jelly and close zippers and
dinghy boots or wetsuit boots, since the eyes from glare from the water. fold clothing neatly for storage.
 PROTECTIVE CLOTHING
69
dinghy drysuit Collar
A one-piece drysuit has close-fitting latex cuffs, Latex seal prevents
water ingress at BUOYANCY AIDS
collar, and ankles, which are designed to form the neck Buoyancy aids—as opposed
a waterproof seal, thus keeping the wearer dry.
to life jackets—are the usual
Loose cut
choice for dinghy sailors,
For freedom especially for racing and inland
of movement sailing. They are available in
a variety of designs to suit all
Entry zipper shapes and sizes.
A long zipper on the front
(or sometimes on the back)
of the torso makes it easier to Choosing a buoyancy aid
put the suit on and take it off Make sure the buoyancy aid you
choose is of a type that is approved
by your national standards
authority. Also, make sure that the
size of the buoyancy aid is suitable
for your body weight. A range of
styles is available to suit all types
of dinghy sailing and small-boat
activity, with special sizes available
for children (and even for pets).
Try the buoyancy aid on before you
Wrists
Latex cuffs form seal at wrist
commit to buying, and make sure it
to stop water from entering fits comfortably over your wetsuit,
waterproofs, or drysuit. If you use a
trapeze harness, check the buoyancy
aid with the harness.

Ankles Closed-cell foam

Velcro and Provides a minimum
fabric tabs of 50 Newtons
seal the (11 lb/5 kg) buoyancy
drysuit over
dinghy boots

Feet
Some drysuits have built-in latex socks,
as here, while others have ankle seals
that are similar to wrist seals

VEST STYLE

Nonslip sole
A razor-cut tread improves
grip on wet surfaces
Waist belt
Reinforced instep Always
Resists wear from dinghy fasten and
toestraps when hiking tighten the
gloves waist belt
Good sailing gloves have reinforced dinghy boots for security
palms and fingers for gripping rope Rubber sailing boots with molded soles
securely—even when wet—and are popular for dinghy sailing because WAISTCOAT STYLE
protecting the hands. they protect the feet and give good grip.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
70

RIGGING THE BOAT

length is adjusted with a rigging link
or bottlescrew. A forestay, which runs
from the hounds to the bow-fitting,
stops the mast from falling backward.
Before going afloat, you must rig the boat, which involves fully On some small dinghies, the forestay
preparing it for sailing. If you sail a dinghy that is kept ashore, rigging is is removable once the jib is hoisted.

usually done in the dinghy dock before moving the boat to the water. Stepping the mast
If your boat is stored in a dinghy dock or kept afloat on a mooring, the Before you attempt to step the
mast is usually left in place. However, if you have transported the boat mast, make sure that it will not hit
any overhead obstructions, such as
to the sailing area on a roof rack or trailer, you will need to step the
power lines, when you lift it into place.
mast and attach and adjust the standing rigging before the sails can It is quite often possible to step the
be hoisted. The sails are then rigged, and all the running rigging mast on small dinghies on your own,
(sheets, halyards, and control lines) are attached and checked to be but the job is much easier and much
safer with two people. Although most
sure that they are led correctly. Finally, you should gather up any dinghy masts are light in weight, their
other gear you need to take afloat and stow it securely in the boat. length and windage (resistance to the
wind) can make them unwieldy to lift
in and out of the boat. It helps to have
Unstayed masts called standing rigging, which are the dinghy on its cart in a bow-down
Boats that have unstayed masts attached to the mast at the hounds position so that the mast will lean
(p.161) in most cases are stored with and to the boat at the chainplates. The forward against the support of the
the mast unstepped, particularly if the shrouds brace the mast to port and shrouds when it is placed in its step.
mainsail is attached to the mast via a starboard. They run through the ends Make sure that the tails of all halyards
sleeve. (The sleeve slides over the mast of the spreaders, which are attached to and other rope ends are tied out of the
and the sail can be fitted or removed the mast at about midheight. Shroud way so that they cannot be trapped
only when the mast is unstepped.) under the mast heel. When lifting the
Unstayed masts are often made in mast, keep it as close to vertical as
two sections that are slotted together. possible and position your hands
The sail is fitted to the mast, which is very wide apart on it to give better
then lifted vertically and lowered into leverage. Check whether the design of
the mast step. There is normally a your boat will allow you to stand in it
locking arrangement fitted in the step, when ashore. Modern, double-floored
which is used to secure the mast in dinghies are usually strong enough,
place. Alternatively, a rope downhaul but older designs may be damaged
or cunningham line is used to secure if you stand in them.
the sail and mast to the boat.
Raking the mast
Stayed masts Once you have stepped the mast, you
Masts with stays can be stepped either may need to adjust the shrouds and
on the keel, on the foredeck, or on a forestay to set the correct mast rake.
bow tank. In all cases, a mast step is Most boats sail best with their masts
attached to the boat to accept the raked aft slightly, but the mast must
stepping an unstayed mast
mast’s heel fitting. The fore-and-aft With the sail sleeved over the mast from be upright in a sideways direction. For
position of the step can sometimes the top, the mast is lifted into a vertical general sailing, the amount of rake
be adjusted to allow alterations to the position and lowered into the mast step. is not too critical, but when you
mast position and rake (lean). In all Place your hands some distance apart start racing, you should set the rake
cases, the mast is supported by wires, on the mast to give more leverage. according to your class’s tuning guide.
 71
STEPPING A STAYED MAST
KEEL STEPPING
Boats with keel-stepped masts are usually Forestay
Pull on the forestay Forestay
quite easy to step because the mast heel can
until the mast Fasten the
be positioned into its step before it is pulled is upright forestay
into the upright position. Once the mast is in to the
the mast gate, it is held pretty securely. bow-fitting

Mast gate
Mast step Guide the
Locate the heel mast into
in the mast step the mast gate

Shrouds
Attach the shrouds
to the chainplates

1 Lay the mast and rigging on 2 One person lifts the mast and positions 3 Attach the forestay and close the
the boat, with the mast heel resting on the the heel into the mast step. When the mast deck-level mast gate. Check the mast rake.
mast step and with the front side of the mast heel is in the step, the other pulls on the Make sure that the halyards are not twisted
uppermost. Attach the two shrouds to the forestay. The person supporting the mast around the rigging and that they are led
chainplates on the sidedecks. guides it into the mast gate. correctly to their respective cleats.

DECK STEPPING
Deck-stepped masts do not have
Mast Mast
the additional support of a mast Slot the mast into Push the mast forward
gate. They must be lifted vertically the mast step to attach the forestay
before being located into the
mast step, and have less support
until all the rigging is secured.
Forestay
Hold the forestay taut,
but do not pull hard

Mast Shrouds
Lay the mast Attach shrouds
along the boat to chainplates

1 Lay the mast on the 2 If the boat has a double floor, one 3 Allow the mast to lean forward, held by the
boat with the fore side person can get into the boat to lift the mast shrouds, and attach the forestay to the bow-fitting.
uppermost and the heel into position. In an older boat with a single Next, adjust the shrouds and forestay to get the desired
toward the bow. Attach the floor, do not get into the boat when ashore. rake. Finally, make sure the halyards are not twisted
shrouds to the chainplates. Lift the mast in from the side of the boat. and that they are led correctly to their respective cleats.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
72
MAINSHEET SYSTEMS
The mainsheet is used to adjust the tackle. Also, make sure the mainsheet more load than an aft mainsheet, so
position of the boom and to help has a figure-eight knot (pp.46–47) in extra blocks are needed in the tackle.
control the shape of the mainsail. the end to prevent it from running The lower block may be attached
When the mainsail is full of wind, out through the mainsheet blocks. to an athwartships-track, which runs
there can be quite a heavy load on across the middle of the boat, or it
the mainsheet, so it is run through a Aft-mainsheet systems can be fitted on the floor, on a raised
system of blocks, called a mainsheet In an aft-mainsheet system, the hoop, or on the centerboard case.
tackle, to make it easier for the helm top block of the tackle is normally There is usually a cleat attached
to hold and adjust. attached to a swivel plate at the end to the lower mainsheet block so that
There are two main types of of the boom. The bottom block is the sheet can be cleated when the
mainsheet systems: center and aft. often attached to a traveler that helm chooses. If an athwartships
On the former system, the end of the runs on a track across the transom. track is fitted, the mainsheet tackle’s
sheet leads to the helm’s hand from Other, simpler designs may be found: lower block is attached to a traveler
a block forward of the helm. In aft- sometimes the lower mainsheet block that runs on the track. The position
mainsheet systems, the sheet is led is attached to a rope bridle attached of the traveler is usually controlled
from aft of the helm. Either type may to the transom corners. If a traveler by lines led from the traveler to
have a traveler on a track, which can is used, it may have control lines to the sidedeck within easy reach
be used to position the mainsheet adjust its position on the track. of the helm.
athwartships. Center mainsheets are Aft-mainsheet systems do not
common on racing boats, as they offer usually have a jamming block for
more control of the sail. Boats with the mainsheet, but they may have
aft-mainsheet systems have more a ratchet block to reduce the load
room in the cockpit, which makes that the helm has to hold. Because
them the most popular design for the mainsheet leads from aft, the
general-purpose dinghies. helm must face aft when tacking.
Mainsheet systems are usually
left in place when the boat is not Center-mainsheet systems
being sailed. When rigging, make In most center-mainsheet systems, the center-mainsheet traveler
sure the fittings are secure and the top block of the mainsheet tackle is This center mainsheet has an athwartship
sheet runs correctly and smoothly attached to the middle of the boom. track with a mainsheet traveler, the position
through the various blocks in the This means it has less leverage and of which is adjusted by control lines.

center lead with aft tackle aft mainsheet

In this Laser II, the mainsheet tackle is attached near the end of the In this conventional aft-mainsheet arrangement, the lower block is
boom with the lower block on an adjustable rope-bridle system. attached to a traveler running on a track mounted on the transom.
The sheet then leads forward along the boom to a central block. The traveler position may be adjusted using control lines.
 73
RIGGING THE JIB
Rigging the jib is a one-person job that ATTACHING THE JIB roller furling
is usually carried out by the crew, who Remove the sail from its bag and lay Some dinghies and
is responsible for handling the sail. It is it on the foredeck. A wire-luffed jib small keelboats have
always good practice to check the sail will have been stowed by coiling the a jib roller furling
for damage as you unfold it and while luff in circles to prevent the wire from system that allows the
kinking. Uncoil it carefully, and make jib to be rolled up
you are attaching it to the boat. In
sure that there are no twists in the sail when not required.
particular, check the corners and seams
by running your hand along the luff
for worn or frayed stitching.
from tack to head. Take care that the
sail does not blow off the boat, and
Jib fittings try to keep the sail clean while you
The details of jib fittings and the way are handling it.
it attaches to the boat vary according
to the design and size of the boat. In
all cases, the jib tack is attached to the
bow fitting, usually with a shackle,
and its head is attached to the jib
halyard, using a shackle or by tying a
knot (usually a bowline). Jib sheets are
attached to the clew and led through
the fairleads on each side of the boat.
On many boats, the jib luff is
attached to the forestay using webbing
straps, or metal or plastic clips called
hanks, that are clipped around the 1 Attach the tack of the jib to the bow 2 Attach the jib sheets. If they are one
fitting on the dinghy, usually just behind the piece, as here, make a loop in the middle
forestay. Alternatively, the jib may not
point where the forestay is fastened. This is of the sheet, push it through the cringle,
be attached to the forestay, which may usually done with a shackle or lashing. On then pass the ends through the loop. Pull
be removable once the jib is hoisted. some boats, as here, the forestay is removed the rope through to tighten. If there are
In this case, the jib will usually have a once the jib has been hoisted. two sheets, tie them to the clew cringle.
wire sewn into the luff to take the high
loads. In other cases, a low-stretch
tape or rope reinforcement is used.
Some jibs are fitted with a roller device
at the tack to allow them to be rolled
up around their luff when not in use.
Start rigging the jib by removing
it from its bag and finding the tack,
which can usually be identified by the
sailmaker’s label. Attach the tack to
the bow fitting, then hank the jib luff
to the forestay if this system is used
in your boat. Start hanking from the 3 Run a hand along the 4 Hoist the jib by pulling 5 Cleat the halyard or
luff to make sure it is not on the halyard. Make sure attach it to the adjuster.
tack and work upward, making sure
twisted. If your jib has luff the sheets are loose so it Here, the adjustment tackle
the luff is not twisted between the
hanks, attach them to the can flap. Some small is hooked into a loop in
hanks. Attach the sheets to the clew. forestay. Check the halyard dinghies have a simple cleat the end of the wire part of
Finally, attach the halyard to the sail for tangles and attach it to for the halyard, but others, the halyard. Coil up the
when you are ready to hoist it. the head of the sail. as here, have an adjuster. rope tail and stow neatly.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
74
RIGGING THE MAINSAIL
Full-length
If you are sailing a boat with an BATTENS batten
unstayed mast (p.70) and a sleeved Battens are made of wood, fiberglass, or plastic.
sail, you must fit the mainsail onto They slot into pockets sewn into the sail and are
the mast before it is stepped. In most either tied into the pocket or slipped under a flap
boats, however, the sails are attached sewn into its outer end. Battens are often made for
only after the mast has been stepped. specific pockets, so make sure that they are inserted
the right way around and in the correct pocket.
A mainsail is attached to the mast
along its luff and to the boom at its Slide batten,
foot. There are two methods that most flexible Make sure batten
end first, is properly secured
are used to attach the mainsail to the into pocket in its pocket
boom. In many boats, the mainsail is
fitted by sliding its foot into a groove
in the top of the boom. In this case,
the sail will have a boltrope sewn
in a hem at the foot. Other designs
have a loose-footed mainsail, which
Short batten
means that the sail is attached to the
boom only at the tack and clew.
1 Insert the batten, 2 Push the batten firmly mainsail Battens
inner end first, into the in and secure it in place This mainsail has two full-length
Mainsail fittings correct pocket and slide with the fastener provided, battens at the top and two short
A mainsail usually has three or more it in to its full length. here a Velcro strip. battens lower down the leech.
battens that support the roach (the
curved shape of the leech). Without
them, all the sail that is outside a direct
ATTACHING A CONVENTIONAL SAIL TO THE BOOM
line between head and clew would curl Take the mainsail out of its bag and unroll it inside the boat, with the luff
closest to the mast. Make sure you have the requisite number of battens and
over and be ineffective. Some mainsails
that they are all in place (above). Once you have fitted the mainsail to it, put the
have full-length battens that run from
boom inside the boat until you are ready to hoist the sail. Do not put the boom
the leech to the luff, while others use onto the gooseneck until after the sail is hoisted. The boom is likely to slide off
short battens or a combination of both. the gooseneck if it is fitted before the sail is hoisted.
Some jibs are also fitted with battens.
Battens may differ in flexibility,
Pin Clew cringle
depending on which batten pocket
they are made for, and the inner end
of the batten may be more flexible
than the outer end to match the curve
in the sail. If this is the case, the
battens should be marked to show
which pocket they belong in and the Clew
Tack cringle
end that should be inserted first. Boltrope outhaul

Boom fittings 1 Holding the clew, slide 2 Pull the clew until all 3 Pull the foot of the sail
the boltrope into the groove the foot of the sail is in the so that it is taut, and fasten
The boom is attached to the mast
at the forward (mast) groove. Fix the tack to the clew outhaul, which is
via a gooseneck and a boom vang. end of the boom. Make the forward end of the used to adjust the tension
The gooseneck locates it and allows sure that none of the sail boom (often by sliding a in the foot of the sail. It is
it to pivot from side to side, while the cloth gets caught in the pin through the tack usually adjustable but may
boom vang prevents it from lifting. groove with the boltrope. cringle and the boom). be fixed at the boom end.
 75
ATTACHING A LOOSE-FOOTED SAIL TO THE BOOM
Unroll the sail and make sure the battens are in their pockets. Because the foot
of the sail is not attached to the boom along its length, you need only attach
the clew and the tack. The clew is attached to the outer end of the boom
with the clew outhaul, while the tack is either fastened to the gooseneck, with
a pin or a lashing, or secured with an adjustable rope called a tack downhaul.
Do not put the boom onto the gooseneck until the sail is hoisted.

1 Remove the sail from its bag and 2 Put the metal “slug” fitted at the clew 3 Pass the clew outhaul through the clew
unroll it on the boat. Find the two lower into the cutout in the boom’s groove. Slide cringle and fasten its end at the end of the
corners, the clew, and the tack. it out to the end of the boom. boom, here by hooking a knot into a slot.

4 Attach the halyard to the head. If a ball 5 To hoist the sail, one person pulls on 6 Attach the boom to the gooseneck
is fitted, as here, push a loop through the the halyard while the other feeds the sail’s (above). Pass the tack downhaul through
cringle, then put the end through the loop. boltrope into the mast groove. the tack cringle and secure the end.

The gooseneck The boom vang

The gooseneck is a hinged fitting that The boom vang, or kicking strap, usually consists of an adjustable tackle
attaches the boom to the mast. It can of rope (or wire) that stops the boom from rising under the pressure of wind
pivot to left and right and up and in the mainsail. The vang is attached to the boom some way back from the
down and allows the boom to move gooseneck and to the mast just above the heel, making an angle of about
freely in these directions. When fitted 45 degrees between mast and boom.
into a socket in the boom end, it
prevents the boom from rotating.
Hook fits
into eye

the vang tackle solid vang

The boom vang usually consists of a Some boats have a solid vang fitted above
fitting the boom rope tackle attached to the boom by the boom, between it and the mast. The
The gooseneck is usually fixed in position, a hook (above left) or a key and slot mast end is pivoted, and the boom end
although some can be slid up or down system. The other end of the tackle is runs on a track along the boom. The vang
to adjust the boom’s height. Its pin is attached near the base of the mast, and is adjusted by a tackle running between the
inserted into the socket on the boom end. the control line runs aft (above right). lower end of the vang and the gooseneck.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
76

REEFING A DINGHY
If the wind increases beyond Force 3, many sailing dinghies start to
become harder to handle. Reducing the sail area, known as reefing, makes
the dinghy more stable and easier to control in stronger winds. There are
three main methods of reefing a mainsail: traditional slab reefing, rolling
the sail around the boom, and rolling the sail around the mast. The
method you use will depend on the design of your dinghy. A jib can
be exchanged for a smaller one or rolled around the forestay. A MAINSAIL REEFED ASHORE

Reef point
When to reef traditional slab reefing
Racing dinghies are hardly ever The traditional method of reefing is Luff cringle tied
to take a “slab” (portion) out of the to gooseneck
reefed, and races are frequently
postponed in strong winds. When mainsail. This is done by partially Mainsail reefed
sailing for recreation, however, reefing lowering the sail and then tying with slab tied up
down a luff cringle and a leech using reef points
allows you to sail under control in
cringle, leaving a fold of sail
strong winds and reduces the risk of Leech cringle
parallel to the foot, along
capsize. You can reef while you are the boom. The fold may
tied to boom

afloat if your boat has slab or boom be left hanging, or it

roller reefing, but it is much easier to can be tied up using
reef ashore before you set sail. A reef points or laced
single-handed dinghy with a sleeved with a line led
sail should be reefed before sailing. through a row
When reefing a dinghy that has a of reef cringles
mainsail and a jib, you should change across the sail. UNREEFED SAIL SAIL WITH ONE REEF
to a smaller jib, if possible, when you
reef the main in order to keep the ROLLING THE SAIL AROUND THE BOOM
sail plan balanced. Rolling the mainsail around the boom is used for aft-mainsheet systems (p.72).
It requires one person at the gooseneck and one at the aft end of the boom. A
Methods of reefing tuck is put in the leech to stop the boom from drooping after reefing. The
Slab reefing involves taking a portion rolled sail covers the boom vang fitting, so a replacement is created using a sail
out of the mainsail, and dinghies bag, a length of rope, or a webbing strap tucked into the sail as it is rolled.
designed for this method will have
Tuck part of
one or two rows of reef points (thin
the leech
ropes stitched to the sail) or cringles under the
(reinforced eyes in the sail) for lacing boom

a reefing line. Dinghies with unstayed

Sail bag used
masts can be reefed by rolling the sail as vang strop
around the mast, although this is not
easy to do afloat. Dinghies with
aft-mainsheet systems are most 1 Slacken the halyard. Take the boom 2 Three turns before you finish the
off the mast, make a 6-in (15-cm) reef, insert the temporary vang strop.
commonly reefed by rolling the sail
tuck in the leech, pulling it tightly aft, and Complete the reef, replace the boom on
around the boom—a method that wrap it around the boom. Holding the the gooseneck, tighten the halyard, and
cannot be used when the mainsheet tuck in place, rotate the boom, pulling the tie the vang to the strop.
is attached in the middle of the boom. sail taut at both leech and luff as you go.
 REEFING A DINGHY
77
REEFING A CENTER-
MAINSHEET BOAT
Some dinghies with a center-
mainsheet system are designed
to be reefed. They often have a
loose-footed mainsail that attaches
to the boom only at the tack and
clew. To reef with this system, hoist
1 With one person at the luff and one at 2 Holding the rolled-up sail, put both
the leech, roll the sail up tightly parallel the clew slug and the reefing slug into the
the sail partway up the mast and, to the foot and smooth out any creases. groove in the top of the boom.
with one person at the tack and
the other at the clew, tightly roll the
sail up from the foot until you reach
the leech and luff cringles. Slide the
new clew slug into the boom and
attach the clew outhaul through
the leech cringle, then attach the
tack downhaul through the luff 3 Pass the clew outhaul through the 4 Pass the tack downhaul through the
cringle. Hoist the sail until the leech reef cringle and fasten its end back at luff reef cringle and the old tack cringle
luff is taut and cleat the halyard. the boom end. Pull the clew outhaul tight. and fasten its end under the gooseneck.

ROLLING THE SAIL AROUND THE MAST

A mainsail rigged on an unstayed mast (p.70) is reefed Roll the
by rolling the sail around the mast. Boats with unstayed mainsail around
masts usually have a loose-footed mainsail, which is the mast
attached to the aft end of the boom by the clew
outhaul. The outhaul must be released before the sail
can be reefed. With the sail free to flap like a flag,
it can be passed around the mast a number of times,
or the mast can be rotated to roll it up. Once
sufficient sail has been rolled around the mast,
the clew outhaul is reattached and the clew
pulled out to tighten the foot. The clew
outhaul should be fastened around the
boom, as well as to the end to hold
the clew close against the boom. REEFED SAIL UNREEFED SAIL

Tie the clew outhaul

around the boom
1 Release the clew outhaul and to its end
and remove the boom from
the mast. Wrap the sail
around the mast or rotate
the mast to roll the sail up.
In the latter case, release the
mast lock or the downhaul
(depending on which system
the boat employs) to Clew

allow the mast to 2 Fit the boom back onto the mast
rotate, resecuring and refasten the clew outhaul, ensuring
the mast that you pass it around the boom to
when the sail hold the clew close to the boom. Tighten
has been reefed. the boom vang.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
78

HELM AND CREW

In a two-person boat, both crew members have distinct roles that
Helm
must be carried out if the boat is to sail safely and efficiently. The Sit on the windward
helm is in overall charge of the boat. They are also responsible for sidedeck, aft of
the crew
steering the boat and trimming the mainsail. The crew follows the
helm’s instructions and is responsible for trimming the jib and
adjusting the centerboard. Both crew members must be prepared to
move their weight to keep the boat balanced and correctly trimmed,
although the main balancing work is the responsibility of the crew.

The helm’s role place from which to control the

The windward sidedeck is the best rudder and trim the mainsail. To
position for the helm. They should perform their role as chief decision-
sit far enough forward to be clear of maker, the helm must have a good Crew
Sit where necessary
the end of the tiller while holding the knowledge of the rules of the road
to balance the boat
tiller extension in their aft hand and (pp.54–55) so that they know when
the mainsheet in their forward hand. to keep clear of other boats and
This position allows them the clearest when they have right of way. of wind and water. They must also
view of the water all around the boat, Their instructions to the crew be given early enough for the crew
as well as affording a clear view of must be clear; they must be loud to be able to respond in good time.
the sails. It is the most comfortable enough to be heard over the noise Although they are in charge of the
boat, the helm should encourage input
from their crew and must be prepared
to listen to information and advice.
communication
The helm and crew should aim
for good communication to help them The crew’s role
coordinate their movements to keep The crew sits just forward of the
the boat upright and balanced. helm but must be ready to move in
and out of the boat to keep it upright
while allowing the helm to stay on the
windward sidedeck. They must learn
to anticipate changes in the direction
or strength of the wind and should be
ready to counteract their effects
by altering their position quickly.
When sitting out, helm and
crew tuck their feet under toestraps
to allow them to lean out without
overbalancing. The toestraps should
be adjusted so that both can sit out.
The crew should trim the jib to
match any changes in wind direction
or the boat’s course. They should
 HELM AND CREW
79
UNDERSTANDING HEEL AND TRIM
One of the most important factors contributing to fast, efficient, and easy
sailing is the correct sideways balance and fore-and-aft trim of the boat.
Much of the effort expended by the helm and crew during sailing goes into
maintaining the ideal balance.

Correcting heel
When sailing in light winds, upwind, or on a reach, the helm sits to windward
and the crew corrects heel by sitting to leeward. If the wind increases, the
crew moves first into the middle of the boat, then to sit out beside the helm.
When sailing downwind, the heeling force is almost zero, so the crew sits in
the middle of the boat or to leeward, opposite the helm.

Correcting trim
In moderate winds, the boat should be level fore and aft when the helm and crew
sit side by side, with the crew sitting just behind the windward shroud. By sitting
position of the crew close together, they reduce the windage of their bodies and also keep their weight
When sailing in medium conditions, centered, which allows the bow and stern to lift easily to pass over waves. If their
the helm and crew usually sit side by weight is too far forward, the bow is depressed and steering can become difficult.
side on the windward sidedeck, with If their weight is too far back, the stern is depressed and the transom digs into
the crew being prepared to move as the water, which makes the boat slow down and difficult to sail upwind.
necessary to keep the boat balanced. When sailing upwind in very light winds, the helm moves forward to just
behind the shroud, and the crew sits in the middle or to leeward. This lifts
the flat, aft sections of the boat and reduces drag. When sailing downwind
raise and lower the centerboard in strong winds, the helm and crew move aft to lift the bow, but not so far
as to make the stern drag.
(or daggerboard) to suit the point
of sailing. They should also keep a
correct trim
good lookout all around the dinghy, The helm and crew sit close
especially to leeward, where it can together to minimize the
be difficult for the helm to see. windage of their bodies. They
They must warn the helm about position themselves to trim
the boat fore and aft so that
any potential collision situations
the transom is just clear
in good time. An experienced crew of the water. In lighter winds,
will also discuss sail trim with they would move forward
the helm. slightly to lift the stern, and
in stronger winds, they would
move aft to lift the bow.
Coordination
It is important that the helm and
correct balance
crew learn to coordinate their The crew moves their weight
movements. When the boat heels, the to balance the boat and allow
crew should move first to adjust the helm to sit to windward
the balance—the helm moves only from where they have the
best view of the sails and
if there is a large change in trim.
course. Here, the boat is on
When a course change is required, a broad reach in light airs,
good crews move together smoothly so the crew sits to leeward,
to assist the turn and to maintain under the boom, to balance
balance and speed. This teamwork the boat. From here, they
can see the jib trim and
becomes increasingly important
hazards to leeward.
when sailing in high-performance
dinghies and when racing.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
80

TURNING FORCES
must coordinate their actions in
trimming the mainsail and jib in order
to achieve the desired turning effect.

A sailing boat’s performance is determined by the efficient The centerboard

interaction of the main controls—hull balance and trim, sails, A centerboard or daggerboard is used
to resist sideways force (pp.34–35).
rudder, and centerboard. When used correctly, these make the It also acts as the pivot point around
boat easy to steer and sail efficiently. However, the hull, sails, which the boat turns.
and centerboard can produce powerful turning forces, which, Most dinghies are equipped with
a centerboard that pivots inside a
in extreme cases, may overcome the effects of the rudder. You
case. When it is raised and retracted,
need to learn how to keep all these forces in balance; otherwise, its tip moves back and upward. This
the boat will slow down and become more difficult to sail. decreases the area of centerboard
under the boat and also alters its
position along the fore-and-aft line,
Balance and trim tend to turn toward the wind. If the which affects steering. When it is in
Although the sensation of speed may crew moves their weight aft, the stern its correct position, the turning forces
be greater when your dinghy is heeled will be depressed and the bow raised. of the jib and mainsail are balanced
well over, sailing this way is actually This is often done when sailing around the pivot point. If the
slower than sailing with the boat downwind in strong winds or when centerboard is raised, the boat will
upright. A dinghy hull is designed to planing (p.128) to prevent the bow turn away from the wind as the pivot
be at its most efficient when it sits on from digging into the water. In other point moves aft. If it is lowered, the
its natural waterline, level sideways situations, however, it will slow the pivot point moves forward and the
(balance) and fore and aft (trim). boat down and tend to make it turn boat will tend to turn into the wind.
When it is balanced and trimmed in away from the wind. Daggerboards move vertically
this way, the boat will sail fast and inside their case. When a daggerboard
will tend to move in a straight line. The sails is raised, the area under the boat is
Balance is achieved by the crew A boat’s sails are trimmed to create reduced but its position along the
moving their weight in and out of the force that drives the boat forward, fore-and-aft line remains the same
the boat to port and/or starboard in but they can also be used to help and has no turning effect.
order to counteract the heeling force change direction. Most small boats
of the sails. When the boat is upright, have two sails: a mainsail behind the The rudder
the shape of its underwater section mast and a jib forward of it. When The primary control for changing
is symmetrical and it will move in a both are trimmed correctly (and the direction is the rudder. In addition,
straight line, and when allowed to heel, hull is upright and the centerboard in whenever it is moved off-center by
the shape changes and it will try to turn. the correct position), the boat will be more than four degrees, it acts as a
The fore-and-aft trim of the boat well balanced and will require little brake, as well as a turning control. The
is just as important as its sideways use of the rudder to keep it on course. farther the rudder is turned, the greater
balance. The amount of the hull in the Most of the time, you will trim the the braking effect. Rudders work most
water—its waterline shape—can be sails to work efficiently together and efficiently when the boat is moving
altered by the crew moving forward or eliminate their turning effects. When quickly. The braking effect is, likewise,
aft, and this shape will have an effect you want to change course, however, most dramatic at high speed, when
on the way the boat handles. If the the sails can be a very useful aid in careful handling is required. At slow
crew moves forward in the boat, this making the maneuver as smooth and speeds, the rudder’s effect is reduced
will depress the bow while lifting the efficient as possible. By using the because the water moves past it more
stern. This can be useful to reduce hull sails to help turn the boat, you will slowly, and it has no effect when the
drag in very light winds, but it is slow reduce the amount you need to use boat is stopped. Its effect is reversed
in other conditions, and the boat will the rudder (p.83). The helm and crew when the boat moves backward.
 TURNING FORCES
81
Boat trim The waterline shape The waterline shape The waterline
is the natural one moves forward shape moves aft
The natural tendency of most
beginners is to sit too far aft in the
boat. In normal conditions, the helm
should sit forward of the end of the
tiller so that they can move it freely HULL LEVEL BOW DEPRESSED BOW LIFTED
without it hitting their body. The
crew should sit just forward of the
helm, which in most dinghies will
mean they sit just aft of the shrouds.
Helm and crew should sit close
together to keep their weight centered
in the boat and to reduce the wind
resistance of their bodies. In light
winds, they should move forward
to lift the stern and reduce hull
drag, especially when sailing on hull level bow down bow up
a windward course. In strong winds, The crew trims the boat so The crew moves forward to By moving aft, the crew
and especially when sailing that it sits in the water on its depress the bow and lift the depress the stern and raise
downwind, they should move aft natural waterline. This is the stern. The boat will tend to the bow. The boat tends to
to lift the bow. best trim in most conditions. turn toward the wind. turn away from the wind.

Boat balance Bow turns Bow turns

to leeward to windward
When the hull is level in the water, sideways as well as
fore and aft, it has a symmetrical waterline shape and will
tend to sail in a straight line. However, if the boat heels
to windward or to leeward, the shape of the waterline
becomes asymmetrical, which makes the boat try to turn.

Bow turns Bow turns

to leeward to windward

Underwater shape
heeling
As the boat heels, the underwater shape changes and the rudder
and centerboard become off-center in the underwater area. This
makes the boat try to turn in the direction opposite of the heel.

waves on the beam

The turning effect also occurs when a wave passes under the hull
from the side. First, the windward side is more immersed and
the boat tries to turn away from the wind; then, the leeward side
is more immersed and the boat tries to turn toward the wind.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
82
Using the sails turning effect
Both the mainsail and the jib can be of the jib
used separately to create a force that If the jib is pulled in while
will turn the boat. Because the jib is Jib the mainsail is allowed to
smaller than the mainsail, its turning The jib is sheeted in flap, the boat will move
to turn the boat away forward and will turn away
effect is not quite as large as the from the wind—in this
from the wind. You can also
mainsail, but it will still be significant. case, to starboard
produce this effect if you
The jib used alone acts in front of the sheet in the jib too much
centerboard’s pivot point, so it pulls the when the mainsail is not
bow away from the wind. The mainsail sheeted in enough.
Crew
used alone acts behind the pivot point, Sheet in
so it pulls the stern away from the wind the jib

and the bow toward it. The turning

effect of each depends on the other
sail being let out.

turning effect of the mainsail

If the mainsail is pulled in while the jib is
allowed to flap, the boat will move forward
and turn to windward. The more quickly you
pull in the mainsail, the faster the boat turns.
You will also produce this effect by sheeting
in the mainsail too much when the jib is not
sheeted in enough.

Mainsail
The mainsail is allowed to
flap freely, so that it has no
Jib
turning effect on the boat
The jib is allowed
to flap freely, so that
it has no turning
effect on the boat
SAIL SETTING USING TELLTALES
Telltales are light strips of wool or nylon sewn or glued
about 6–9 in (15–25 cm) in from the luff on both sides
of the sails. They indicate whether the air stream at the
sail surface is smooth or turbulent.

How telltales work

If the sail is trimmed correctly, the telltales on both sides
will fly parallel. If those to windward fly higher, pull in
the sheet; if those to leeward fly higher, let out the sheet.

Telltales Windward Leeward

fly parallel telltale telltale
Mainsail
higher higher
The mainsail is
sheeted in to turn
the boat into the
wind; in this case, it
CORRECT TRIM UNDERTRIMMED OVERTRIMMED
will turn to port
 TURNING FORCES
83
Using the centerboard lower the board when sailing away
The centerboard or daggerboard from land or when turning onto a USING ALL THE
provides most of the resistance to close-hauled course. If you try to sail TURNING CONTROLS
sideways movement, so it is vital close to the wind with the board up,
To understand fully how all the
that the centerboard or daggerboard the boat will move as fast sideways as
turning forces work in practice,
is used properly, especially if you are it does forward, resulting in a crablike try the following exercises when
sailing close-hauled (when it should be course and making it difficult for the you go afloat. Start by sailing on
fully down). Beginners often forget to helm to steer a course. a beam reach, then make sure
centerboard that both sails are only partly
If the centerboard is not lowered full of wind, the centerboard
sufficiently, the sideways force will Centerboard is half down, and the rudder is
fully down
not be resisted and the boat will centered. Now run through
slide sideways. This leeward these two sequences.
motion is most apparent when
sailing upwind, when full Turn toward the wind
centerboard is needed. • First, the helm gently pushes the
tiller away from them.
Centerboard
not fully down
• The crew lowers the centerboard.
• Next, the helm pulls in the
mainsheet to trim the mainsail
centerboard marking and the crew lets out the jib.
Marking the centerboard case • At the same time, heel the boat
quarter down, half down, and slightly away from the wind.
so on is a good way to indicate
how much of the centerboard is Turn away from the wind
protruding below the hull at any • The helm gently pulls the tiller
given time. Position the leading toward them.
edge against the marks. If your
1/4 • The crew raises the centerboard.
1/2 DOWN
dinghy has a daggerboard, mark 3⁄4 DOWN
• The crew pulls in the jib and the
DOWN helm lets out the mainsail.
the daggerboard itself, not its case.
• At the same time, heel the boat
slightly toward the wind.
Using the rudder away from the wind, pull the tiller
Sitting in the helm’s position on the toward you. As the boat turns farther
windward side of the boat, push the downwind, the sails must be let out
tiller away to turn the boat toward to keep them set correctly.
the wind. As the boat turns, the sails Keep your actions smooth. When
should be trimmed for the new course. the rudder turns, it acts as a brake
If the turn continues, the boat will as well as a turning device, so avoid
reach head-to-wind and stop. To turn jerking it backward and forward.
steering
Sit to windward opposite the sails Tiller away
when steering. Gently push or pull from wind
the tiller to move the rudder and under control
turn the boat. When moving Here, the crew is sailing fast
Boat turns downwind under full control by
forward, the bow always turns the toward wind
opposite direction from the way keeping the boat correctly trimmed
and balanced and using sail trim to
you move the tiller. Tiller toward wind
help steer the boat as it surfs down a
Boat turns wave front. The boat is well balanced,
away from wind so it is easy to steer.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
84

GOING AFLOAT
When you arrive at the sailing area,
take a careful look at all the wind
indicators to help you build a
picture of the conditions. Check
The first time you set sail, whether it is alone or with an flags, both ashore and on moored
instructor, you will begin to appreciate the challenges, rewards, boats, and the direction of any
smoke from chimneys, and the
and responsibilities of sailing. When you are learning with an way trees move in the wind. Look
instructor, you need concentrate only on acquiring new skills, at the waves on the water, which
leaving the safety aspects to them. If you sail off alone, however, usually run at right angles to the
wind. It is also very important that
you are in sole charge of your destiny. This is one of the greatest
you know whether the wind is
attractions of sailing, but you must be aware of the risks and take onshore or offshore, as it can make
sensible precautions if you want to enjoy the experience. a big difference to your trip.

Sailing in onshore winds

Before launching complicate matters. Help is usually If the wind is onshore, it will feel
Whenever you decide to go sailing, close at hand, too, should you find stronger. If it is moderate or strong,
choose a suitable location and only yourself in difficulties. However, it will cause waves to break on the
go afloat when the weather and water there is no reason why you should beach. An onshore wind makes it
conditions are appropriate to your not learn how to sail on the sea, harder to launch and sail off because
level of expertise. When you arrive at provided that you are prepared to it will tend to blow you back onto the
your chosen sailing area, be prepared take sensible safety precautions. shore. On the other hand, it is easy
to ask local sailors for their advice to return to the shore in an onshore
before you go afloat, since they will Assessing the wind wind, and you will not be in danger
have experience of the prevailing For your first trip alone, pick a day of being blown away from your base.
conditions. Make sure that they are when the wind is Force 3 or less.
aware of your level of experience. Check the weather forecast, paying Sailing in offshore winds
Many people start learning to the most attention to the local area If the wind is offshore, it can
sail on inland waters, as they are sailing forecast. Do not hesitate to be very difficult to judge its true
generally more sheltered than the cancel your trip if you are not sure strength while you are on land. As
sea and there are no tides to that the conditions will be right. you sail farther from the shore, its
strength is likely to increase and
may be more than you are happy
with. In an offshore wind, it is easy
no wind
If there is no wind, wait until it rises, to launch and sail away, as there are
especially if a tidal stream is present, no waves on the beach and you will
as shown here by the moored boats. be blown clear of the shore. Getting
back, on the other hand, could be
more difficult, and there is a danger
of being blown away from your
base and unable to return.
If you are sailing on the sea,
avoid going afloat in offshore winds
on your first few trips. On inland
waters, make sure that another
boat is nearby or that a safety
boat will be available if you need
a tow back to base.
 GOING AFLOAT
85
FINAL PREPARATIONS
Before you go afloat, there are
several checks that you should run
through to ensure you have a safe,
enjoyable sail and an easy return.
Do not be tempted to ignore
these, even if you are in a hurry—
your safety may depend on them.

onshore wind offshore wind Conditions check

Even a Force 3 blowing onshore will A Force 3 wind causes very different Before you decide to sail, ask
cause waves to break on the lee shore. If conditions when blowing offshore than it yourself about the conditions.
the water is shallow a long way out, the does blowing onshore. Close to land, the • Is the wind strength suitable
waves will break first some distance from sea is sheltered and there will be no waves. for your level of experience?
the beach; if the shoreline is steep, the Farther out, the conditions may be much • Is the wind onshore or offshore?
• Is the wind strength forecast to
waves will break on the shore. rougher than they appear from the beach.
increase or decrease?
• Do you know the state of the
tide, and will you be able to return
Checking the tide responsibility as skipper of your without having to fight the current?
If you are sailing on a river or the own boat to be familiar with these • Are there other sailors nearby
sea, you may have to deal with tidal rules of the road. who can help you if necessary?
conditions (pp.58–59). Obtain a copy When you are learning to sail,
Tell someone your plans
of the local tide tables and check it avoid busy shipping channels.
Once you have decided that it is
for the times of high and low waters. Keep to the shallower water at safe to sail, you need to make sure
Again, experienced local sailors will their edges where you will not a responsible person knows your
be able to give you advice. meet larger boats. If you do have plans—where you expect to sail
Before you go afloat, make sure to cross a channel, remember to and when you plan to return.
that you know the state of the tide. do so at right angles so you get When you do get back from your
Find out the direction of the tidal across as quickly as possible. sail, remember to tell them you are
back safely or they may notify the
stream and what time it will turn. If you think you are in a potential
rescue services unnecessarily.
Plan your trip so that you can sail collision situation and you are not
back to your base with the tide sure of the rules that apply, then it Equipment check
when you are ready to return. is safest to assume that you have to When you are at the shoreline and
keep clear. Make a large alteration ready to sail, make sure you are
Avoiding collisions of course to pass behind the other fully prepared to go afloat.
Before you go afloat, remind boat so that your intentions are • Is your clothing adequate?
• Are all the crew wearing personal
yourself of the procedures for the obvious to the other skipper.
buoyancy—fastened correctly?
prevention of collisions on the Remember to check regularly • Is all the sailing gear rigged
water (pp.54–55). It is your all around the boat. Beginners often properly and in good condition?
forget to look astern and are startled • Are all the bungs and hatches
TIDAL TIPS when another vessel suddenly in position?
appears. The area behind the jib • Are the oars or paddles on board
Verify information given in tide and tied securely?
and mainsail can be hidden from the
tables by observing the shoreline: • Are there an anchor and warp
a wet shoreline means that the helm and crew when they are sitting
aboard tied in securely?
tide is going out, while a dry one out to windward. Check this area
• Is all personal equipment stowed
signals that it is coming in. regularly, asking your crew to move neatly in waterproof containers
to leeward briefly for a clearer view tied in securely?
if necessary.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
86

LAUNCHING A DINGHY
A well-planned routine for preparing and launching your put the rudder in the boat for
dinghy will ensure that you rig it properly and that all the launching, put it under the boom and
mainsail; otherwise, it may be thrown
necessary equipment is on board and in good working order. around when the sail is hoisted. The
A launching cart is the usual means of moving a dinghy to the centerboard should be up when you
water, and how you launch from there depends on whether it launch; if you have a daggerboard, lay
it in the bottom of the boat, under the
is a beach or slipway launch or a pontoon launch. Whichever
boom and mainsail, until you go
it is, work out a system with your sailing partner to build on afloat. In most situations, hoist the jib
the teamwork that will make you good sailors on the water. before you launch unless its flapping
will be a nuisance while launching.
If the boat can be kept head-to-
Using a launching cart from a pontoon, you may wish to rig wind when launching, you can also
Most damage is done to dinghies them after launching. A lifting rudder hoist the mainsail; otherwise, it is
when they are moved while ashore, so can be fitted before launching, but a hoisted when you are afloat. Do a
it is important to move the dinghy and fixed blade must be left until you are final check around the boat to ensure
launch it in a way that prevents the afloat. Only fit a fixed rudder when you have everything you need. Wheel
hull from coming into contact with you have moved the boat into water the boat to the water and launch,
the ground (pp.52–53); a launching deep enough to take the rudder blade following the instructions for a beach,
cart is ideal for this. Dinghies are without it hitting the bottom. If you slipway, or pontoon (pp.104–107).
very heavy and awkward to lift, so
if it has been transported on a roof
rack or road trailer, find a few people
FITTING THE RUDDER
who are willing to help lift it onto its Both fixed and lifting rudders are secured to the boat by means of
fittings on their stock. Fit a lifting rudder before launching. Fit a fixed
cart to make the job easier.
rudder after launching, making sure the water is sufficiently deep first. If
Position the boat so that there
it has a removable tiller, fit the rudder to the boat, then fit the tiller. If you
is not too much weight on the front fit the rudder and tiller before hoisting the mainsail, make sure that the
of the cart when you lift it by the sail and boom do not catch under the tiller when the sail is hoisted.
handle, and tie the painter around
the cart handle to prevent the boat Tackle under tiller pulls
from sliding off. If the cart has a lifting rudder down 1 Slide the fittings on the stock onto their
when boat is afloat counterpart fixings on the boat’s transom.
T-shaped handle, you can secure the Make sure that the blade is held up so it
rope with figure-eight turns. cannot scrape on the ground. If you have
a removable tiller, go on to steps 2 and 3.
Preparing the boat
Step the mast if necessary (pp.70–71),
and make sure all the bungs are in
position. Collect all the equipment,
including the sails, rudder, paddles,
and any other important removable
gear, before you move the boat close
to the launching point. 2 Slide the tiller 3 Secure the
into the fitted tiller—usually with
Sails are usually rigged (and lifting rudder head and a pin that passes
Fittings on rudder stock
rudders fitted) before launching but, in engage with matching make sure it is a through the rudder
some circumstances, such as launching fittings on transom tight fit. head and the tiller.
 87
Hoisting the sails One person Jib hoisted and
feeds the rolled up
With the boat head-to-wind, the sail into the
sails can be hoisted ashore. To luff groove
hoist the jib, one person pulls on
the jib halyard until the sail is up
and then secures it to its cleat
One person hoists the
or other fitting provided. mainsail by pulling
Some boats have a jib furling on the halyard
system so the jib can be rolled
up once it is hoisted (right). To
hoist the mainsail, one person
guides the boltrope into the mast
groove, while the other hoists the
sail with the halyard. Once the
sail is fully up, the boom is slid
onto the gooseneck. Make sure
both main and jib sheets are free
to run so the sails do not fill.

Boom lying in boat,

HOISTINg SAILS ASHORE not attached to mast
If you are able to launch the boat while keeping it until sail is hoisted
head-to-wind, you can hoist the sails ashore. Turn
the boat head-to-wind so the sails can flap freely.

BEACH OR SLIPWAY LAUNCH PONTOON LAUNCH

To launch from a beach or slipway, use the cart to If you have to launch over the side of
wheel the boat into the water. Wheel it deep enough a pontoon, it is best to do it before
for the boat to float clear of the cart. As soon as the hoisting the sails. Pontoon launches
boat floats free, it will come under the influence of need at least two people, one on
the wind and waves, so hold it firmly by the bow. For either side of the boat.
beach launches, you will need balloon tires on the
cart to cope with the soft surface. 1 With one person
holding the painter, lift
the boat until its stern is
over the water. Lower the
Untie Steady the
the painter boat at stern into the water, then
bow gently push the boat back
until the bow can be Lower the stern
into the water
lowered over the side.
Launch the boat gently to
avoid water flooding in
over the transom.
Turn the boat
head-to-wind

1 Push the cart into the 2 One person holds the boat 2 Lead the boat to the
water until the boat floats off. by the bow, to one side of the end of the pontoon and
Never push or drag the boat slipway and clear of other users. turn it head-to-wind. Secure
off or you will scratch its hull. The other takes the cart to the painter on the pontoon
Untie the painter to release above high-water level and before hoisting the sails and
the boat from the cart. parks it clear of the slipway. fitting the rudder.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
88

BASIC TECHNIQUES
stable option, as the boat will simply
drift until you pull in the sails. In
a head-to-wind position, the wind
will push the boat backward due
In order to become proficient at handling a boat, you need to to the windage of the flapping sails,
practice using the main controls (pp.36–39). You must learn how and the bow will start to turn in
one direction or the other (depending
the boat reacts to the wind on all points of sailing, and you must on the position of the rudder) until
be able to change course smoothly and efficiently. You will also the sails fill and the boat starts to
want to know how to stop the boat. When you start sailing, you sail. This method is used mainly when
you need to stop alongside a mooring
will not yet have the skills needed to leave and return to the shore
or pontoon or other boat.
under sail, so on your first few trips afloat, row or paddle away When you are confident with these
from shore, then hoist the sails once you are in clear water. two ways of stopping, you can try the
more controlled heaving-to (p.102).

FIRST SKILLS No-sail zone

The head-to-wind method of stopping
As soon as you launch a dinghy, the most complicated, is heaving-to. Two exploits the fact that there is an area
wind will act on it and it will begin further simple techniques for stopping of about 45º on either side of the
to move. There are three basic ways a boat are the lying-to method and wind direction into which it is
of stopping it from moving in the the head-to-wind method, both of impossible to point the boat and
water, each of which involves making which work by emptying the sails keep sailing. This area is known as
the wind work in your favor. The of wind so that they flap and lose the no-sail zone. When the boat is
most controlled method, but also the forward drive. Lying-to is the more close-hauled, you are sailing along

Using the wind to stop and start

To lie-to, turn the boat onto a close reach (p.41) and let
both sails out fully. It is not possible to lie-to when the boat
is pointing farther offwind because, as you let out the mainsail,
the boom hits the shrouds and the sail refills with wind. To sail head-to-wind method
away from the lying-to position, sheet in both sails and the boat Turn the boat using the tiller
will move forward. until the bow is pointing
To stop head-to-wind, turn the dinghy until the bow points into directly into the wind.
the wind. This makes the sails shake along the centerline of the The sails will flap and
the boat will come to
boat and it will come to a stop. To sail away from a head-to
a stop before starting
wind position, decide which way you want the bow to move
to move backward and
and pull the jib across to the opposite side. This is known gradually turning away
as backing the jib and will push the bow in the desired from the wind.
direction. When the boat has turned, trim both sails
correctly and sail off.

lying-to method
Turn the boat using the tiller until the wind is
blowing from a point just forward of a beam. Let
both sails out fully so that they flap. The boat will
stop and drift gently until you pull in the sails.
 BASIC TECHNIQUES: FIRST SKILLS
89
the edge of the no-sail zone. If you
try to point closer to the wind, BOAT SPEED
turning into the no-sail zone, the The speed at which you can sail is dependent on a number of factors,
sails will shake and the boat will including the strength of the wind, the point of sailing you are on
slow down and stop. (pp.40–41), the type of boat you are sailing, and how well you are
To get to a point upwind within sailing it. Tidal streams and waves will also affect speed (pp.58–59).
the no-sail zone, it is necessary to sail
a series of zigzags, first on one tack, speed vs. point of sail
then on the other, making progress to Potential boat speed on specific
Close-hauled
windward with each tack. This process points of sailing and in a particular
is called beating to windward (p.94). wind strength are shown using a
polar diagram. The concentric circles Close
reach
represent potential boat speed in a
Starting to sail given wind strength. The farther away
When you first start sailing, it is from the central circle you are, the Beam
reach
easiest to get accustomed to using faster the boat is sailing. The precise
the main controls while sailing on shape of the performance curve
a beam reach. This is the fastest and depends on the design of boat. The
diagram shows the performance curve
easiest point of sailing. It does not of a typical general-purpose dinghy. It Broad reach
demand very accurate steering, sail reaches its maximum speed on a beam Run
trimming, centerboard positioning, reach and sails slowest when on a run.
or crew balance.

THE FIVE ESSENTIALS

There are five essential elements to sailing efficiently: changes, you should quickly review the other four and
sail trim, centerboard position, boat balance, boat correct them if necessary. Remember to check the five
trim, and the course made good. Whenever one essentials every time you make a course alteration.

Sail trim Boat balance Course made good

To check trim, ease the sails out The heeling force increases as you Always remember to keep
until they shake along their luffs, sail closer to the wind, so the helm an eye on your course. Your
then pull them in until the shaking and crew must both sit out in most objective is to sail the fastest
just stops. Make it easier to check wind strengths to keep the boat upright. route to your destination. This
trim by fitting telltales, which If the wind strength or the course is not necessarily the straight-line
show the wind flow across the change, the crew should move first course. If your objective is to
sails (p.82). to balance the boat. windward, for example, you will
have to sail a zigzag course to
Centerboard position Boat trim reach it. This means that you must
The centerboard is used to Always make sure the boat is decide when to tack, and you will
counteract sideways force (p.83), trimmed correctly in a fore and also have to allow for leeway (p.33).
which is greatest when you sail aft direction. In light winds, trim Even when you are sailing on a
close-hauled. So the closer you the boat slightly down by the bow; reach, the sideways force will cause
sail toward the wind, the more in strong winds, move back slightly. a small amount of leeway, and
you must lower the centerboard, Check that the wake is not very your actual course through the
and the farther you turn away disturbed, which indicates that you water will be slightly to leeward
from the wind, the more you must are sitting too far aft. Helm and of the course you are steering.
raise the centerboard, until it is crew should sit close together to Allow for this by steering upwind
almost fully up on a run. Always keep their weight concentrated of your objective by a small
keep it down at least a small in the middle of the boat. This amount. Be aware, too, of any
amount to provide a pivot point allows the bow and stern to lift tidal stream that may push you
around which the boat can turn. easily with the waves. off your intended course.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
90
CHANGING COURSE
Learning to change course introduces and lowers the centerboard. As the out the jib and raises the
you to all the different points of boat turns toward the wind, the centerboard. As the boat turns farther
sailing (pp.40–41). The best way to apparent wind (p.32) increases in away from the wind, the apparent
go through a complete change of strength and the heeling force (p.32) wind decreases in strength and the
course—from sailing toward the wind also increases, so the crew needs to  heeling force reduces, so the crew
(an upwind course) to sailing away sit out even farther to keep the boat must move inboard to keep the boat
from it (a downwind course)—is to upright and sailing at its best speed. level or prevent it from heeling to
start on a beam reach with the boat Continue to luff until the boat is windward. Continue to bear away
sailing directly across the wind. on a close-hauled course. until the boat is sailing on a run.

Starting to luff Starting to bear away

Turning the boat toward the wind Turning away from the wind is called
is known as luffing (or luffing up). bearing away. Whenever you want to
Whenever you want to turn onto a turn onto a more downwind course,
more upwind course, you have to luff. you have to bear away. Helm
To luff, the helm pushes the tiller To bear away, the helm pulls Adjust the
mainsheet
gently away from them and sheets in the tiller gently toward them and and tiller
the mainsail. The crew sheets in the jib lets the mainsail out. The crew lets continually

LUFFING: TURNING TOWARD THE WIND

Luffing up requires coordinated action with the tiller,
centerboard, sail trim, and boat balance. The crew should
lower the centerboard before the turn, then concentrate on
keeping the boat level and sheeting the jib in as the helm
turns the boat and sheets in the mainsail.
Crew
Sit out to balance
Helm the boat
Set the
mainsail so
that it is
halfway out 4 Steer along the
Helm edge of the no-sail zone
Sheet in the by alternately luffing up
mainsail until it and bearing away slightly.
is still at the luff
Luff up until the jib luff
starts shaking, then bear
away slightly until the
shaking just stops.

3 Luff up to very nearly

close-hauled, sheeting both sails
in tightly. Lower the centerboard
fully and sit out even farther.

2 Luff up to a close reach by pulling

in the sails and pushing the tiller away
from you. Lower the centerboard until
1 Sail on a beam reach with the sails set it is three quarters down, and sit out more
correctly (p.41), the tiller centered, the boat to counterbalance the increased heeling
upright, and the centerboard halfway down. force in the sails.
 BASIC TECHNIQUES: CHANGING COURSE
91
BEARING AWAY: TURNING AWAY FROM THE WIND
Make sure the boat is upright before the maneuver because TECHNIQUES FOR SHEETING
any heel to leeward will make it difficult to bear away. Let THE MAINSAIL IN AND OUT
the sails out as the boat turns and raise the centerboard.
The technique for sheeting the mainsail in and
out varies according to your mainsheet system.
Both methods require the helm to make
Crew adjustments while keeping the tiller still to
Adjust your avoid altering course unintentionally. To ease
weight to
balance the boat
the sheet, let it slide out through your hand.

Center mainsheet
Use sheet Grasp the sheet near
hand to the block and pull
Crew
pull in
Raise the centerboard
mainsheet

1 Sail on a beam reach with

the centerboard, sails, and tiller
set as for luffing.
1 Pull in the 2 With sheet and tiller
mainsheet using your extension in your
sheet hand. Holding tiller hand, swing the
the tiller extension in extension aft. With
2 Bear away to a broad reach, letting your tiller hand as if your sheet hand, grasp
the sails out and raising the centerboard it were a dart, swing the sheet at a point near
to the quarter-down position. the extension across the block and pull as far
your body and down as you can. Repeat
to grasp the sheet. as necessary.

3 Bear away to a training run. Ease

Aft mainsheet
the sails out without letting them flap.
Pull in the Secure sheet
Raise the centerboard almost fully. mainsheet as under the
far as possible tiller thumb
Crew
Move into
the middle
4 Let the mainsail out until of the boat
the boom is just clear of the
shroud, and continue to ease
the jib. Center the tiller.

Crew
5 Continue on a run, setting Continue to 1 Keep your tiller 2 Trap the sheet under
the jib on the opposite side balance the boat hand steady on the the thumb of your tiller
of the boat from the mainsail to tiller extension. With hand. Let go of it with
goosewing for maximum speed. your sheet hand, pull your sheet hand, then
in the mainsheet as far reach across your body
as possible, bringing to grasp the sheet and
Crew the sheet across your pull it again. Repeat
Sit on the
opposite side to
body from the stern. these steps as necessary.
the helm
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
92

TACKING 7 Helm and crew trim the

sails to suit the new course and
balance the boat accordingly.

One of the key sailing maneuvers, tacking is used to change

direction by turning the bow of the boat through the eye of the
wind. It requires good coordination between helm and crew. A
tack can be performed from any upwind course but is most often
employed to change direction from one close-hauled course to
the other. When tacking an aft-mainsheet boat, the helm faces aft;
if a center mainsheet is fitted, they must face forward to handle
the mainsheet. The movements of the crew remain the same.

Rudder is centered
Tacking roles in the jib on the new side as the boat
The helm decides when to tack. They completes the turn. The crew must be
and the crew must turn the boat, trim alert to helm’s instructions and must TACKING A CENTER
MAINSHEET BOAT
the sails, and move their weight across confirm that the new course is clear
This sequence shows a boat with a
the boat while keeping it as upright before committing to the turn.
center mainsheet being tacked from
as possible. The helm checks that the
a reach to a reach. The boat must be
new course is clear and that the crew The tacking maneuver sailing fast before the tack, and you
is ready. During the tack, they must Tacking is actually a prolonged luffing must steer it firmly through the turn,
change hands on the tiller and maneuver in which the boat turns or else it may fail to complete the tack,
mainsheet while moving across the sufficiently for the sail to fill on the stopping head-to-wind—a position
boat, controlling both at the same time. opposite course. The maneuver begins known as being “in-irons” (p.95).
After the tack, they must check sail with luffing up (p.90). The tack itself
trim, boat balance, and the new course. occurs when the bow of the boat
The crew is responsible for releasing passes through the eye of the wind,
the jib sheet, picking up the new one, and the maneuver is complete when
and moving across the boat to sheet you are sailing on the new course.

TACKING FROM A REACH TO A REACH Helm

When you are learning to tack, you will start by sailing on a beam reach Check the
course before
with the wind on one side of the boat, then tack onto the opposite beam starting to tack
reach with the wind on the other side.
beam-reach tack
Tacking from a beam reach to the
opposite beam reach involves a turn of
180°. Turning through such a large angle
gives the helm and crew more time to
cross the boat before the sails fill on the Dinghy sailing
new side. It does, however, require on port tack
the boat to be sailing fast before the tack
so that it has sufficient momentum to 1 Sail on a beam reach, trim the
complete the turn. The helm must make sails, and put the centerboard half-
sure the tiller is held over until the boat down. The helm checks that the course
has passed head-to-wind. is clear of obstructions, then calls
“ready about” to warn the crew.
 TACKING
93
6 As the boat comes onto the 5 The bow turns through the wind
new course, the helm changes hands and the jib blows across to the new
on the tiller extension and mainsheet, leeward side. The crew pulls in the
then centers the tiller. The crew new jib sheet and balances the boat.
balances the boat.
Helm
Sitting on the new deck, steer onto the new
Helm Boat on starboard course with the tiller behind you. Bring your
Release the tiller tack—boom on sheet hand (still holding the mainsheet)
from the old tiller the port side back to grasp the tiller extension
hand and grasp the
mainsheet. Bring
the tiller extension
in front of you using
the new tiller hand 4 As the boat turns
head-to-wind, the helm
keeps the tiller pushed
over and crosses the
boat facing forward.
The crew moves to
the middle of the
boat and prepares to
pull in the new jib sheet.

Boat turns
through the wind

Helm
Start the tack by
Helm pushing the tiller Helm
If the mainsheet extension away, As the boom swings into
is cleated, moving it about 30º the center of the boat,
uncleat it from the centerline move into the middle,
ducking under it. Lead
with your rear foot

Boat on port
3 The helm calls “lee-oh” and
pushes the tiller to leeward to
tack—boom on the
starboard side start the turn. As the jib flaps,
the crew lets out the old jib
sheet and picks up the new one.
2 The crew checks the area
and, if all is clear and they are
ready, replies “ready.” They
then uncleat the jib sheet but
do not let it out.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
94
Sailing to windward Pull the tiller gently toward you to taCKing an
Once you have learned how to tack, turn away from the wind and resume aFt-MainSHeet  boat
you can experiment with sailing to sailing efficiently. Do not bear away This sequence shows an
windward. Although you can sail too far, however, or you will give up aft-mainsheet boat tacking
close-hauled along the edge of the valuable distance. To reach a point from close-hauled on port tack
no-sail zone (p.40), if you turn closer upwind, within the no-sail zone, to close-hauled on starboard
to the wind, into the no-sail zone, the you will need to follow a zigzag tack. Because it is an aft mainsheet,
luffs of the sails will start to flutter course—a process that is known the helm must cross the boat
and the boat will eventually stop. as beating to windward. facing aft and change hands on
the tiller extension and mainsheet
NO-SAIL ZONE NO-SAIL ZONE before the tack. The crew crosses
the boat facing forward as usual.
The boat turns through only
90 degrees, so the maneuver
Zigzag to happens very quickly compared
Keep sailing windward
to tacking from a beam reach to
along the edge of
the no-sail zone a beam reach (p.92). The crew and
helm must cross the boat swiftly
before the sails fill.

edge oF tHe no-Sail zone beating to windward

To sail as close to the wind as possible, To sail upwind or get to a point that is
sheet in both sails tight and luff up gently within the no-sail zone, you have to tack
until the luff of the jib starts shaking. Bear and sail a zigzag course. Here, the boat
away slightly to stop the shaking, then starts on port tack, then tacks onto
repeat to sail along the edge of the zone. starboard tack, making progress to
windward with each turn. The helm can 1 The helm prepares to tack
choose to make a series of short tacks or a by checking that the course is clear.
smaller number of longer ones depending If it is, they call “ready about.” The
crew makes sure that the centerboard
on the distance to their objective.
is fully down, checks for obstructions,
and replies “ready.” They uncleat the
jib sheet, but do not let it out.
TACKING FROM CLOSE-HAULED
Tacking is most often used to turn from one close-hauled course to the
other as part of the process of beating to windward. The boat turns Helm
through only 90 degrees, so the tack is relatively quick. Hold the tiller extension in 
a panhandle grip, ready to
Boat on port transfer the mainsheet
a CloSe-Hauled taCK tack with the to the aft hand and the
Tacking from close-hauled boom on the iller extension to the
starboard side forward hand
to close-hauled involves
a turn of only 90° and will Crew
happen much more quickly Uncleat the
jib sheet
than when tacking from a
reach to a reach. You should
avoid turning too far after the Tack from
tack; otherwise, you will end port to
starboard
up farther off the wind than
the intended close-hauled
course and will sail
a longer distance.
 TACKING
95
Helm Boat on starboard
Steer onto the tack with the boom
new course, then on the port side A FAILED TACK
center the tiller When a boat fails to tack, it
Helm may end up “in-irons.” There are
Sit on the new several reasons why a tack fails:
windward side,
keeping the tiller
the boat is sailing too slowly; the
extension over to helm is steering badly; or the
Mainsail is continue the turn crew has pulled in the new
sheeted in
jib sheet too early, making it fill
on the wrong side.
5 As the boat comes 4 The bow of the
onto the new course, boat moves through
the helm trims the the wind, and the helm
mainsail and centers sits down on the new
the tiller. The crew windward side. The crew
1 Boat in-irons,
pulls the jib in tight, sheets in the jib as it blows head-to-wind
then cleats the jib sheet across the bow and moves to
and balances the boat. balance the boat.
2
Crew pulls the
Helm pushes jib to starboard
the tiller to
port
Rudder acts
in reverse
4
Tiller is centered
and crew pulls 3
2 The helm changes 3 As the boat turns in the jib
hands on the extension and head-to-wind, the helm
mainsheet, calls “lee-oh,” and keeps the tiller pushed Boom ESCAPING FROM “IN-IRONS”
swings to
pushes the tiller to leeward. over and crosses the
the center
As the jib flaps, the crew boat facing aft. The 1 To escape from being in-irons,
releases the old jib sheet crew moves to the the helm must push the tiller toward
and picks up the new one. middle and prepares the side of the boat in the direction
to pull in the new they want the bow to go. Here, the
jib sheet. tiller is pushed to port.

2 At the same time, the crew

must pull the jib to the opposite side
Crew
Prepare to move
of the boat so that it fills with wind
across the boat on its reverse side—a technique
known as “backing the jib.”

3 The boat will move backward

and the rudder acts in reverse. The
Helm backed jib will help push the bow in
As the boom swings, the desired direction.
move into the middle
of the boat, ducking
under it. Lead with
4 As soon as the boat is pointing
your tiller hand
the right way, the helm centers the
Helm tiller and the crew sheets in the jib
Push the tiller to on the correct side. The boat is now
leeward and move
your forward foot to
ready to continue its course.
the middle of the boat
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
96

JIBING
Boom may
swing across
very suddenly

Like tacking, jibing involves turning the boat to change tack 4 As the boom
reaches the centerline,
and bring the wind on the other side. In jibing, however, it is the helm centers the
the stern, rather than the bow, that turns through the wind. tiller and moves
their weight to the
When you jibe, the mainsail stays full of wind throughout the
new windward side.
maneuver, and its swing across the boat can be sudden and The crew moves
to keep the boat
violent. This is very unlike tacking, where the sails lose drive
upright and trims
and flap harmlessly until the turn is complete. Unless the boat is the jib.
correctly balanced throughout, you may lose control or capsize.

Jibing roles the boat to sheet in the jib on the new Helm
Center the tiller
The helm decides when to jibe. They side as the boat completes the jibe. as the boom
are responsible for making sure the They must concentrate on balancing reaches the
centerline
new course is clear and for making the boat throughout the jibe.
sure that the crew is ready. During
the jibe, the helm must change hands Preparing to jibe
on the mainsheet and tiller while Jibing begins with bearing away
keeping control of both. They must until the jib hangs limply behind the
also move across the boat during the mainsail, indicating that you are on
turn. After the jibe, they have to steer a dead run (p.40). You then luff up
onto the new course and check the very slightly so that the jib just fills
sail trim and boat balance. on the same side as the mainsail. This
Crew
The crew is responsible for is a training run, which, when you are Pick up the
releasing the old jib sheet, picking up learning how to jibe, is the correct new jib sheet

the new jib sheet, and moving across starting point for the maneuver.

JIBING FROM A TRAINING RUN

When you are learning, you will start by sailing on a training run with
the wind behind you at an angle of 5–10 degrees off a run. After the
jibe, you will probably be sailing on a broad reach. Helm
Move into
training-run jibe the middle of
the boat
Learning to jibe by starting from a training
run gives you more time to prepare for the
maneuver and to adjust your weight to balance
Move the the boat. The boat will turn through quite a
tiller to wide arc and, if you are not quick enough to
windward as
straighten the tiller as the boom swings across,
boat jibes
may turn onto a broad reach on the new tack. 3 The helm calls
“jibe-oh” and bears away
The helm should watch the mainsail leech
farther. They move into the
carefully for signs that it is about to jibe. They
middle of the boat, ducking
should be in the middle of the boat as the
boom comes across, with the tiller centered. under the boom. The crew
picks up the new jib sheet
while balancing the boat.
 JIBING
97
Crew
Mainsail immediately fills with Adjust the centerboard
wind and the boat accelerates and jib as necessary

5 The helm changes 6 Once the boat is level,

hands on the tiller extension the helm can steer onto the
and mainsheet. The crew new desired course. The boat
moves to keep the boat will have turned through quite a
upright. In light winds, wide arc, especially in light winds,
they will sit on the new and it is now likely to be sailing on
leeward side. In stronger a broad reach on the new tack. The
winds, they will move to sails are trimmed correctly and the
the middle or to windward Helm centerboard adjusted, if necessary.
to keep the boat level. Steer onto the
new course

Helm JIBING A CENTER-MAINSHEET BOAT

Change hands on In a boat with a center-mainsheet system, the helm faces
the tiller extension forward during the jibe and changes hands on the tiller
and mainsheet toward the end of the maneuver. From the
helm’s forward-facing position, they are able to watch
the course and the mainsail. When the helm is competent
in jibing, they can initiate the boom’s swing by tugging
on the mainsheet when they see that the jibe is imminent.
The crew’s main task is to keep the boat balanced.

Crew
Move to balance
the boat
Helm
Sheet in Crew
the mainsail Keep the
to bring it off boat balanced
the shroud

2 The crew makes sure

the centerboard is no more
than a quarter down. They 1 The helm luffs up from
confirm the course is clear a run to a training run. They
and reply “ready.” The check that the new course is
helm then swings the tiller clear, sheet in the mainsail to
Helm
Move
extension to the leeward bring the boom just off the
the tiller side and moves their aft leeward shroud, and call
to windward foot into the middle. “stand by to jibe.”
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
98
Jibing safely crew are in the middle of the boat 4 As the boom
Make sure that the boat is upright and that the tiller is centered. It is reaches the centerline,
before the jibe. If it heels to leeward, often necessary to turn the boat the helm quickly centers
the tiller and moves
it will be harder to jibe, as the boat through quite a wide arc before the
their weight to the new
will try to luff up and turn in the boom starts to move across the boat,
windward side. The crew
wrong direction. particularly in light winds. You can keeps the boat upright
The centerboard must be no get around this by giving a sharp tug and trims the jib as it
more than a quarter down when on the mainsheet when you see the reaches the new side.
you jibe. If it is any lower, the boat jib blow across the bow. This will
will try to luff as the boom swings start the boom moving across the
across and, as a result, may trip over boat earlier than it would do otherwise.
the centerboard and cause the boat
to capsize. If your dinghy has a Accidental jibes Crew
daggerboard, make sure that it If you continue to bear away from Keep your weight
central as the
will not catch on the boom or boom a broad reach to a run, sailing farther boom crosses the
vang as the mainsail swings across; and farther away from the wind, the center
otherwise, you will capsize. boat will eventually jibe on its own
Jibing in strong winds can be as the wind swings across the stern.
hazardous and can be avoided by As this is an uncontrolled jibe, it can
luffing up to a reach, then tacking result in your taking an unexpected
around before bearing away to the swim. Make sure you do not jibe
desired course. If you choose to jibe accidentally by continually checking Helm
Move to the
in strong winds, do so when the boat the wind direction whenever you are
new windward
is sailing as fast as possible. Because sailing downwind. An early warning side as the
the boat is sailing away from the true sign of an unplanned jibe is when boom crosses
the centerline
wind, the apparent wind is reduced the jib tries to blow across to the
by the speed of the boat’s movement. windward side of the boat. This
This reduces the forces on the sail and means that you are on a dead run,
makes jibing easier. Pick a time when so if you bear away any more, then
the boat is surfing down the front of the boat will jibe.
a wave and jibe when the boat is at
its maximum speed.
JIBING FROM A DEAD RUN
Jibing tips Although you will usually learn to jibe by starting on a training run and
Once you are committed to jibing, ending on a broad reach, it is possible to jibe while sailing on a dead run
do not hesitate or change your mind. with no course alteration at all, or only a minor one.
Turn the boat smoothly and be
a dead-run jibe
prepared to move fast as the To jibe on a dead run with minimal course
boom comes across. alteration, it is necessary for the crew or helm
You can obtain advance warning to pull the mainsail across to the new leeward
of when the boat is about to jibe by side rather than using the wind to move it by
turning the boat during the jibe. Sail on a dead Move the tiller
watching the leech of the mainsail, to windward
run with the helm in the middle of the boat
about one-third up from the boom. and the crew balancing it as necessary. When as boat jibes
When the jibe is imminent, the leech the helm calls “jibe-oh,” the crew grasps the
folds back to windward, showing that boom vang and swings the boom across. In
the wind is getting behind the sail. a center-mainsheet boat, the helm can grasp
the mainsheet tackle and use it to swing the
As the boat jibes and the boom
boom over instead.
swings across the centerline, it is very
important that both the helm and the
 JIBING
99
5 The mainsail 6 Once the boat
fills at once on the is level, the helm can
new side and the crew steer onto the new
moves to keep the boat desired course. The
upright. In light winds, boat is now likely to
they sit on the leeward be on a broad reach on
side, but in stronger the new tack. The sails
winds, they will need to are trimmed correctly
be in the middle or on and the centerboard
the windward sidedeck. adjusted if necessary.

Helm Helm
Trim the mainsail as it Steer onto the new
fills with wind and the course, adjusting the
boat accelerates tiller and mainsheet

JIBING AN AFT-MAINSHEET BOAT

Crew Executing a jibe in a boat with an aft mainsheet
Move to
balance the differs from jibing a center-mainsheet boat in that
boat and pick the helm changes hands on the mainsheet and tiller
up the new jib before the jibe, and they face aft during the jibe.
sheet
This means that they cannot see what is in front of
the boat during the maneuver, so it is important
that the jibe is completed as quickly as possible.
The crew, as in all maneuvers, crosses the boat
facing forward.

Helm
Crouch to avoid
the boom as it 1 The helm luffs up to a training
swings over run, checks the new course, sheets in
to bring the boom clear of the
shroud, and calls “stand-by to jibe.”
The crew checks the course and
centerboard and calls “ready.”

3 When the helm Helm

sees that the mainsail is Swing the tiller
about to swing across, extension to
the other side
they move to the middle of the boat
of the boat, pivoting on
the balls of their feet to
face aft.

Crew
Check the
2 The helm calls centerboard is
“jibe-oh,” changes no more than
hands on the tiller and a quarter down
mainsheet, and puts their
front foot into the center. They
Helm
swing the extension to leeward Pull the boom
and push the tiller to windward. off the shroud
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
100

SAILING A COURSE
to counter the increased heeling force.
In light winds, this will be the fastest
point of sailing.

One of the best ways to develop your skills is to sail a course Close-hauled
that requires you to tack and jibe and encompasses all the points Sailing close-hauled is difficult to get
right and requires plenty of practice.
of sailing (pp.40–41). How you arrange your course depends on Lower the centerboard fully and luff
your sailing area. A small island would be ideal to sail around. up to a close-hauled course. Ask the
Alternatively, you could use a few buoys as your turning points, crew to pull the jib in tight and cleat
the sheet. Next, sheet the mainsail in
or else simply sail an imaginary circuit to bring you back to your
tight and steer the boat by watching
starting point. Whatever course you set, try to sail out of the way the luff of the jib. Your aim is to
of other boats on your first few attempts. As you sail, concentrate sail along the edge of the no-sail zone,
on sail trim, centerboard position, and boat trim and balance. making as much distance to windward
as possible. Gently ease the tiller away
from you, luffing up slowly, and watch
for the moment when the jib luff
SAILING UPWIND shakes. At that point, pull the tiller
toward you very slightly to bear away
Start by sailing on the upwind the three-quarters-down position until the luff just stops shaking. To
courses (beam reach, close reach, and sheet in the sails to keep them maintain an accurate close-hauled
and close-hauled). On these courses, full. You will need to sit out harder course, you must constantly repeat
you can slow down and stop, if
necessary, simply by letting out
the sails until they shake and
sailing a course
lose power. Once you understand the basic
maneuvers, the next step is to
Beam reach put them all together by sailing
Steer onto a beam reach with around a course. Here, Optimist
the centerboard half down. Trim the dinghies sail around a course
sails and move your weight to keep marked by inflatable buoys.
the boat upright. If it heels significantly
even though you are sitting out fully,
consider reefing (p.76). Experiment
with moving the tiller until you are
happy with the way it alters the
boat’s course. Watch its effect by
looking at how the bow moves
in relation to the horizon. Keep
checking the trim of the sails. In
moderate winds, this will be the
fastest point of sailing (pp.40–41).

Close reach
When you have gotten the feel of
the boat sailing on a beam reach,
you can luff up to a close-reaching
course. Lower the centerboard to
 SAILING A COURSE: SAILING UPWIND
101
this gentle luffing up and bearing is more difficult to spot unless you If you find that the boat heels too
away, which demands concentration have telltales fitted to the luff of far in gusts of wind, even though
when you are learning. If you lose your jib (p.82). you are sitting out, reduce the heeling
concentration, you will find that you Avoid oversteering as you luff up force by easing the mainsheet slightly
are sailing either too close or too and bear away. The boat should only to bring the boat upright again.
far off the wind. The former is turn a few degrees each time you When the gust passes, pull the
obvious, as the jib will shake and move the tiller, so make only gentle sheet in again or the boat will heel
the boat will slow down; the latter steering movements. to windward.

steering a course
You will need to luff up, bear away, tack,
and jibe to complete this course. It is Close-hauled Beam reach
Luff up further to a Bear away onto a beam
advisable to try to pick light to medium
close-hauled course. reach, where the wind is
winds for your first few outings. Sailing in This is the closest you at 90º to the boat and
strong winds is obviously tricky, but very can sail to the wind blows across the beam
light winds can also be difficult—the boat
will be slow to react and will require
Sailing
skillful sailing to keep it moving. goosewinged

Run
Bear away
again so that
Close reach Luff up the wind is
From a beam reach, luff
Bear away almost directly
up 20º toward the wind
behind the boat
START to sail on a close reach

Tack

Beam reach Jibe

A beam reach
is a good course
for beginners Luff up
to start on Luff up

Close reach Beam reach Broad reach

Luff up further to sail onto a close Luff up to a beam reach again, this time The dinghy is at 130º to the
reach. You can then tack and return with the wind across the starboard side wind, with the wind coming
to a beam reach to start again over the stern quarter
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
102
to help stabilize it. Depending on
SAILING DOWNWIND the strength of the wind, the crew
should sit in the middle of the boat
After the upwind courses, you will Training run or to leeward to balance the weight
notice a big difference as you sail From the broad reach, bear away to a of the helm. To have a good view
onto the downwind courses (broad training run so that the wind comes of the sails and the course, the
reach, training run, and dead run). over one stern quarter, and ease the helm should remain seated on
The difference is especially obvious in sails out as far as possible. Remember the windward sidedeck.
moderate to strong winds. The wind that you cannot ease the mainsail fully
strength will seem to decrease due to because the boom will hit the leeward Dead run
the effects of apparent wind (p.33). shroud. Keep it just clear of the shroud Sailing on a dead run is the trickiest
You will not have to sit out so hard to prevent chafe. If the boom seems to point of sailing for the helm and
to balance the boat, and you will not be rising too high at the outer end and crew. With the sails eased out fully
be pushing into the waves, but sailing the boat is rolling, tighten the boom and the wind blowing from straight
with them. Any spray that was flying vang to hold it down. behind the boat, there is no heeling
upwind will disappear and the Unlike the mainsail, the jib is force to balance against and the boat
environment will seem warmer. not limited in how much it can be will tend to roll from side to side.
let out. It should be set using the The maximum speed is obtained by
Broad reach telltales or by watching for a shaking pulling the centerboard almost fully
From a beam reach, bear away to luff. If the jib collapses behind the up, but this will increase the tendency
sail on a broad reach. Ease out mainsail, you have turned the boat to roll. If rolling becomes a problem,
both sails until they set correctly, too far from the wind, so luff up lower the centerboard to the quarter-
watching the luffs or telltales (p.82) slightly until the jib fills again. down position.
to see when the optimum trim is To sail efficiently on a training The helm should sit on the
achieved. Raise the centerboard run, you need to raise the windward side, but the crew will
so that it is a quarter down and centerboard until little more usually have to move right across to
move inboard to keep the boat than the tip protrudes leeward to balance the helm’s weight.
level. (Shift your weight back slightly below the dinghy. If The crew must be ready to move
to lift the bow if it seems to be the boat rolls and quickly but smoothly if the boat
burrowing into the waves.) In strong feels unstable, put rolls either way. The helm must
winds, a broad reach is likely to be a bit more of the concentrate carefully on their course
the fastest point of sailing. centerboard down to avoid an accidental jibe.

Goosewinging
HEAVING-TO Once you have gained confidence on
Heaving-to, or the hove-to position, is a run, you can try goosewinging by
more effective than lying-to (p.88) if you setting the jib on the opposite side of
need to halt for anything longer than a the mainsail. This will increase your
few moments. It is a good position if speed and also help balance the pull of
Jib remains
you need to reef or if you want to rest.
full of wind the mainsail and make the boat easier
to steer on a straight course.
how to heave-to
Begin by tacking without freeing the jib sheet. To goosewing, bear away to a dead
Then let the mainsail out until the front half run so that the wind is coming directly
flaps. Push the tiller to leeward and keep it over the transom. This makes the jib
there. Raise the centerboard to about collapse, as it is now in the wind
two-thirds down to prevent heeling. The
shadow of the mainsail. Pull it across
force in the wind-filled jib is counteracted
by the mainsail and rudder. the foredeck using the windward jib
sheet until it sets with wind and sets
on the opposite side of the boat.
 SAILING A COURSE: SAILING DOWNWIND
103
Whisker poles The whisker pole can be a very
Some boats that are not designed to useful accessory if you have some SAILING IN TIDES
have spinnakers (pp.146–153) have distance to sail on a dead run. It When you sail in tidal waters, it
a pole, known as a whisker pole, keeps the jib goosewinged even if is important to allow for a tidal
that is used to boom out the jib when the helm luffs to a training run or stream, which will make your boat
it is goosewinged. The whisker pole even a broad reach. Without the drift in relation to the seabed. It
is clipped to a ring on the front of help of the whisker pole, it is will influence how you steer to
the mast and usually has a point much harder for the crew to keep follow your course.
on the other end that is pushed into the jib set in this way. Make sure
the cringle at the jib clew. Tension that you remove and stow the Tidal effects
is maintained on the jib sheet to whisker pole safely before you To get a better idea of how the tide
prevent it from slipping out. jibe or luff up. affects your boat, imagine you are
walking on a moving walkway. If
you walk in the direction in which
it is moving, you will travel faster
using a whisker pole than you would if the walkway were
This Sharpie is a traditional static. If you turn around and walk
dinghy class that does not use in the opposite direction, it is harder
a spinnaker. Instead, a long to make forward progress and will
take you longer. Walk across the
whisker pole helps boost speed
walkway and its movement will
downwind and reduce rolling
take you sideways, away from
by poling out the jib on the
your destination. These effects are
windward side.
identical to what happens to your
boat when you sail in tidal waters.

Tidal direction
If you are going to sail in tidal
waters, make sure that you know
the direction of the tidal stream
before you go afloat. Also, find out
whether the direction is due to
change while you are sailing.

Coping with tides

When you find yourself in a tidal
stream, the following few tips will
help you keep out of trouble.
• Remember that the strongest tidal
stream is usually found in the
deepest water, while the weakest
streams occur in shallow water.
• If the tide is going with you,
maneuver into the strongest stream
to maximize the benefit.
• If the tide is against you, get out
of the strongest stream by heading
for shallow water, but be careful
not to run aground.
• If you have to sail across the
current, head upstream of a
straight-line course to allow for
the tide’s sweeping you sideways.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
104

FROM AND TO THE SHORE

Setting off for your sailing trip and returning from it afterward Lee shore
are usually the trickiest parts of the day. The shoreline is a solid When the wind blows onto the
land, the shore is called a lee shore
obstacle that is a potential hazard to you and your boat if you do and the wind is referred to as an
not know how to deal with it. Beaches, pontoons, and slipways onshore wind. Leaving a lee shore
require certain skills if you are to leave them and return to them can be difficult, especially in strong
winds from a beach with breaking
without problems. You also need to know how to cope with
waves. Once launched, beat to
onshore and offshore winds and changing tidal conditions, as windward to get away from the
well as obstacles, such as other sailing or power boats. shore. To return, simply sail
downwind. Landing on a lee shore
can be difficult—especially in
Weather shore In this situation, it is easy to leave the breaking waves—and should be
The main factor that will determine shore, since not only do you have the avoided if possible.
the ease or difficulty of leaving and wind blowing you off the shore, but
returning to the shore is the wind the water will be flat, with no waves Along the shore
direction in relation to the shoreline. breaking close to the land. To return If the wind is blowing along the
If the wind is blowing off the to the shore, beat to windward (p.94). shoreline, you have an easy launching
land, the shore is called a weather To stop the boat, turn head-to-wind situation—you can simply sail from
shore and the wind, an offshore wind. when you reach shallow water. and to the shore on a beam reach.

launching from a slipway

A slipway is an easier launching
point than a beach. Once the
dinghy is afloat, park the cart
and sail or paddle off.
 FROM AND TO THE SHORE
105
Leaving a beach into and out of the water. Once
Most dinghies can be launched from your boat is in the water, you can LAUNCHING IN TIDES
a beach, but this is not normally as move it to a berth alongside the The presence of a current or tidal
easy as launching from a slipway or pontoon and take your time leaving. stream in the launching area may
pontoon. To move the boat across When you return, you can lower complicate leaving and returning
soft sand, you will need several and stow the sails at leisure before maneuvers. In some circumstances,
people to carry it, or a cart with large taking the boat out of the water. its direction and strength will
tires. A stone or gravel beach is also If the pontoon protrudes into deep determine the way in which
difficult to negotiate, and you may water, consider any tidal stream you should leave or approach
damage the hull on the stones. Some effects (opposite). the shore.
beaches, usually sandy ones, have a
shallow slope into the water, which Leaving a weather shore Shallow water
remains shallow for a long way out, Before you decide to leave from When sailing off a beach, you
do not usually have to worry
making it difficult to fit the rudder a weather shore, check the forecast.
about the effect of a tidal stream
and use the centerboard or Because the wind is blowing off along the shoreline because you are
daggerboard. Stony or gravelly the land, it will be extremely launching into shallow water where
beaches often have a steeper slope difficult to judge how strong it is the stream, if any, will be minimal.
where the water depth quickly farther away from the shore and Be aware, however, of the direction
increases. However, beaches with beyond the sheltering effects of and strength of the stream offshore
steep slopes are more prone to large, the land. There will not be any and plan your course accordingly.
breaking waves in an onshore wind, significant waves close to the shore,
Deep water
which make launching more difficult. but as you sail farther out, you In deep water, the tidal stream
may get a nasty surprise as the will affect how you sail away
Leaving a slipway wind increases and the waves grow and return. Except when the tide is
Using a proper slipway is easier, but be in size. You sail away from a weak in relation to the wind, you
sure to examine the type of shoreline weather shore on a broad reach should always treat it as the most
significant force. If in doubt, sail
that lies to either side of it. You may or run, but to return, you will need
away from the pontoon or slipway
discover that the slipway is just a to beat to windward. This may be
pointing into the tide and using just
ramp between two sections of sea difficult if conditions farther out the jib if the wind is behind the
wall, which will present a significant are worse than you anticipated. beam. When you are returning, plan
hazard when returning to shore—or Be prudent when sailing from a ahead and aim to turn into the tide
even as you are leaving—should you weather shore, and sail only when to stop when you reach the pontoon
make a mistake. Beware of slipways certain that the conditions offshore or slipway. If this means that the
wind will be behind the beam on
that end suddenly with a steep drop are within your capabilities.
your approach, lower the mainsail
into deep water. If you are launching at
and sail in under the jib.
low tide, you may find yourself Leaving a lee shore
unexpectedly falling off the end. You will probably be fully exposed TIDE WIND
Escape
Aptly named, slipways are often to the prevailing conditions on a route
covered in algae and other slimy weeds, lee shore. In fact, the wind and
so take care not to lose your footing. waves may seem to be more daunting
Always hold onto the boat’s painter so when you are on the beach than Turns head-
to-wind
that the dinghy does not sail off they actually are when you sail to stop
Turns
head-to-
without you should you slip, and be farther out. This is especially likely
tide to stop
wary of losing control of the cart. if the shore is steep, in which case
waves will break onto it even in
Leaving a pontoon moderate winds. In this case, the
A pontoon is usually the easiest hardest part of the sail is getting
launching point, especially if there is off the beach and sailing through WIND AND TIDE AT A PONTOON
a slipway alongside to get the boat the surf line to calmer water.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
106
WEATHER SHORE
leaVinG a beacH
When you leave a weather shore
from a beach, begin with the usual
launching procedure, preparing the
boat and moving it to the edge of
the water (pp.86–87). Turn the dinghy
so that it is head-to-wind and hoist
the sails (p.87). Launch the boat
carefully, then, while one of you
holds the boat by the painter, the
other parks the cart up the beach
and out of the way. You are now
ready to get on board and sail away.
Helm boards Crew holds Helm Crew pushes
and fits the boat by the lets the the boat off and
the rudder painter and bow mainsheet out climbs aboard

1 The crew holds the boat while 2 The crew turns the boat until they are
the helm boards, checks that all gear is by the windward shroud, pushes off, and
stowed, and fits the rudder. The helm climbs aboard. They then pull in the jib to
lowers the rudder blade (if it is the lifting turn the boat farther from the wind. The
type) and puts the centerboard about a helm trims the mainsail and steers onto
quarter down if the water is deep enough. their chosen course.

Leaving a pontoon
Launch the boat down a slipway, if
available, or over the edge of the
pontoon if necessary (p.87). Move the Helm sheets in the
mainsail and steers onto
boat to the part of the pontoon from the desired course
which it will be easiest to leave—
usually at an end on the leeward side. Sails are set to
The helm gets aboard and fits the sail on a reach
rudder and tiller. They hoist the jib, Hoist the sails
then the mainsail, and lower the when head-to-
wind alongside
centerboard about halfway. Before
the pontoon
the crew can untie the boat and get
aboard, they and the helm must plan
their course to open water.
Check to see if there is any
clear water astern obstruction astern
tidal stream affecting the boat. If
The crew unties the painter and steps The crew pushes the boat forward and
the tidal stream is significant, plan
aboard, pushing the boat backward. The away from the pontoon. They get aboard
to leave pointing into the stream.
helm pushes the tiller in the direction and then back the jib, while the helm
Look around before you sail off to they want the bow to move (here, to turns the boat away from the wind. As
be sure there are no other boats or port) while the crew backs the jib. The soon as the boat has turned, the crew
obstructions in your path. Make boat moves backward and turns. Finally, sets the jib on the leeward side to sail
sure that your crew understands the the crew sheets the jib in on the leeward away on a broad reach. The helm lets
planned maneuver before you cast off. side of the dinghy to sail away. the mainsheet to help bear away.
 FROM AND TO THE SHORE: WEATHER SHORE
107
Arriving at a beach deep water
When you return to a weather shore, Where the water is deep at Prepare to lift
the shoreline, tack in close, then the rudder and
you will need to tack in toward the
centerboard
beach or slipway. The way you sail parallel to the land until
Sail in
approach will depend on whether you reach your chosen landing
close-hauled
point. The helm turns the boat
the water close to the shore is shallow
head-to-wind to stop. The crew Tack to sail
or deep. If you are going to sail into
gets out just behind the shroud, close to shore Turn head-to-
shallow water, the crew must be taking care to avoid stepping on a reach wind to stop
prepared to raise the centerboard just into deep water, and holds the
enough to clear the bottom and the boat while the helm lowers the
helm must be ready to lift the rudder sails, removes the rudder, and
blade if necessary. After you have raises the centerboard fully.
raised the rudder blade, make only
very gentle movements with the tiller,
because when the blade is in the raised
position, it is very vulnerable to
shallow water
breakage. Remember, too, that once Tack in to the shore, aiming Sail in close-hauled,
the centerboard is raised, the boat for your chosen landing spot. raising the centerboard
will make more leeway, so do not As the water gets shallower, as necessary
expect to be able to sail efficiently the crew raises the centerboard
Tack when you can
on a close-hauled course. and the helm lifts the rudder. lay your destination
Plan your course into the beach Make the final approach on on a close reach
and discuss the plan of approach with a close reach. At the landing
your crew so that they understand point, turn head-to-wind.
what is required. Make sure there are The crew gets out and holds Turn the boat
the boat, while the helm head-to-wind
no other boats or obstructions in the
lowers the sails, removes to stop
way. If you are approaching a slipway,
the rudder, and raises the
wait until it is clear of other users. centerboard fully.
When you reach the shore, the crew
should step out on the windward side
and hold the boat by the bow.

Arriving at a pontoon stopping at a pontoon

Approach the pontoon by sailing on a As you reach the pontoon, turn Approach on a close
reach before turning
close reach. As you near the pontoon, head-to-wind so that the boat
head-to-wind to stop
ease out the sails to slow down, then comes to a stop alongside. The
crew secures the dinghy while
turn head-to-wind to stop alongside.
the helm deals with the sails
Pontoons usually have plenty of depth
and other equipment. It is The crew gets out and moors
of water beneath them so you do not important that you do not the boat using the painter
need to raise the centerboard or the approach the pontoon sailing
rudder until you are safely alongside. too quickly.
If you arrive sailing too
If there is a tidal stream present,
fast, tack around and sail
consider its effects on your boat and, off to try again
if it is strong, plan to turn into the tide
to stop. Always plan an escape route
in case you arrive at the pontoon
going too fast to stop. Once alongside,
the crew gets out to secure the boat.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
108
LEE SHORE Lower the centerboard when
the water is deep enough

Leaving a lee shore is complicated Leaving from a beach

because you are obliged to sail When leaving from a beach in deep
Sail on a close reach
close-hauled or on a close reach, water, turn the boat head-to-wind to get to deeper water
which is difficult, especially if you and hoist both sails ashore. When Crew holds boat
cannot lower the centerboard fully you are ready to launch, put the while helm hoists
due to shallow water. If the wind is boat half in the water and wait for the mainsail

directly onshore, you have no choice a suitable wave to lift the boat, then
but to start on a close reach until you push off and sail away. In shallow
can lower the centerboard fully and water, hoist the jib before launching
head up to a close-hauled course. the boat, then hoist the mainsail. shallow water
Fortunately, the wind often blows Lower the rudder and centerboard The crew holds the boat by the bow
onto the shore at an angle, giving a as soon as possible, but be careful and walks the boat out until the depth is
larger angle between the shore and not to let them hit the bottom or about 3 ft (1 m). The helm climbs aboard
one edge of the no-sail zone. Choose they could break or stop the boat. and hoists the mainsail.
the tack that allows you to sail in the
larger angle. Curved shores usually deep water Sail off on a
Lift the boat so that its front half is in the close reach to
produce the same effect by providing
water. Decide on your leaving direction, build speed
a greater angle to sail in on one tack.
then both stand by the side that will be
Centerboard and
to windward. Watch the waves as they rudder are lowered.
approach. When one floats the boat, push Sails are set for a
it into deep water and climb aboard. Sheet close reach

in both sails, and lower the centerboard

Sail off on a and rudder blade as soon as possible. Sail
close-hauled course
fast on a close reach to get through the
Push off when a wave lifts
waves and clear of the beach. Luff up to the boat and get aboard
sail over each wave crest, then bear away.

WIND DIRECTLY ONSHORE

Choose the larger

Leaving from a pontoon
angle between shore Launch the boat and turn it
and no-sail zone Sails are set to sail
head-to-wind. If the wind is at away on a close reach
an angle, put the boat on the
leeward side of the pontoon.
WIND AT AN OBLIQUE ANGLE The helm steps aboard, hoists the
sails, fits the rudder, and lowers
the centerboard. They tell the
crew how they want to leave.

sailing away
A curved shoreline The crew pushes the bow away from
provides a better angle the pontoon and steps aboard. The helm
sheets in the mainsail and the crew sheets
WIND ON A CURVED SHORELINE in the jib to sail away on a close reach.
 FROM AND TO THE SHORE: LEE SHORE
109
Arriving at a beach the waves are likely to be steep and push the boat on top of you, causing
With the wind behind you, it is easy breaking, especially if the shore slopes injury. Get the boat ashore quickly. In
to approach a lee shore, but you sharply into deep water. Always keep areas where a dinghy club sails from
must be careful with your stopping to the windward side of the boat a steep beach, a shore team will often
techniques. Arriving at a lee shore when jumping out; otherwise, breaking be present to help crews land and lift
in strong winds is dangerous because waves or a strong gust of wind could boats out of the water quickly.

Approach on
a broad reach,
raising rudder
blade and
centerboard

Turn head-to-wind
Approach the shore
to stop. Crew gets Turn head-to- on a broad reach
out and holds bow wind and lower
the mainsail

Approach shore under

Move boat jib alone, raising rudder
to shore and centerboard

a shallow water approach deep water safe approach deep water fast approach
In shallow water, approach on a broad Some way offshore, turn head-to-wind To land in large waves, approach fast on
reach under full sail. When the water is and lower the mainsail. Approach the a broad reach and raise the rudder blade
about 3 ft (1 m) deep, turn into the wind to shore under jib alone on a run or broad at the last moment. Just before the boat
stop. The crew steps out on the windward reach. Close to the shore, let the jib flap hits the beach, both crew jump out on the
side to hold the bow while the helm and drift in. Helm and crew jump out windward side, run the boat up the beach,
lowers the sails and removes the rudder. when the water is shallow enough. and turn it head-to-wind to lower the sails.

Arriving at a pontoon
You often have a choice when Turn head-to-wind to
lower the mainsail
approaching a pontoon on a lee
shore. You can decide to lower the
Plan an escape route
mainsail and approach under just in case you are going
the jib or, provided there is a pontoon too fast when you reach
Allow the jib to flap
at right angles to the shore, you the pontoon
so that the boat will
can come in with both sails set. If drift in sideways Sail in under the
Turn head-to-wind
jib alone on a
in doubt, it is safest to lower the broad reach to stop alongside
the pontoon
mainsail and come in under jib alone.
If the pontoon is in tidal waters,
consider whether the tidal stream will
affect your approach. If it is strong,
parallel to the shore right angles to the shore
plan to turn into it to stop. If possible,
Where there is nowhere to moor Sail on a broad reach close to the
plan an escape route in case the boat
head-to-wind, sail upwind of your shore, then turn head-to-wind to stop
is moving too fast to stop in the final destination and lower the mainsail alongside. This requires good judgment,
approach, although this can be difficult before approaching under the jib alone. so plan an escape route; then you can
when approaching a lee shore. Drop Let the jib flap in the last stages so that go around and try again if necessary.
the sails and paddle in if it will be you drift in slowly. Once alongside, the If in doubt, lower the mainsail and
difficult to retain control under sail. crew secures the boat to the pontoon. come in under the jib alone.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
110

MOORING AND ANCHORING

Some larger general-purpose dinghies and small keelboats are
Main Pickup buoy
kept permanently afloat on moorings, which are often laid in rows mooring
buoy Eye
called trots. Design varies, but most moorings have heavy concrete Heavy Nylon strop
sinkers or anchors to secure them to the seabed. Some mooring ground
chain Riser chain
buoys have a light pickup buoy, while others have a ring on top to
which you secure the boat. Anchoring is rarely used in small boats
nowadays and more rarely in high-performance boats, but it can be
useful in an emergency, for a brief stop, or when dinghy cruising. A MOORING

Mainsail and jib

Nontidal waters Preparing to leave a mooring are both hoisted
If you are moored or anchored in Prepare to leave a mooring by
Bow turns
nontidal waters, the boat will always “singling up” the mooring line: run away from
lie head-to-wind, making it simple to the working end of the painter through the wind
sail off with both sails set. the eye on the mooring buoy, bring it
To sail away from the mooring, back aboard, and make it fast. Undo
hoist the sails, lower the centerboard, the permanent mooring line and
and fit the rudder and tiller. The dinghy release it. The dinghy can now
is turned to the desired direction for be released simply by freeing the
leaving by backing the jib. Once working end of the painter and pulling
the backed jib has pushed the bow it back through the mooring eye.
around, the helm can sheet in
the mainsail and the crew can then
sheet the jib on the leeward side. leaving with both sails
If it is important to turn sharply If the dinghy is head-to-wind, leave
with both sails hoisted. The helm picks
as soon as the mooring is dropped, the
the direction to leave. The crew backs the
crew can help the turn by pulling
jib on the other side of the boat and
the buoy aft, down the windward slips the mooring. If it is important to
side. The farther aft it is released, the turn sharply away from the mooring,
more the boat will turn downwind. the crew passes the buoy along the The helm releases the
mooring at the stern
windward side to the helm, who then to help the boat turn
Tidal waters releases it at the stern.
In tidal waters, the direction and
relative strength of the wind and tide leaving with jib alone
determine how you leave a mooring. If If the wind is not ahead of the beam, leave
the boat is lying head-to-wind, you can the mooring under the jib alone. Prepare Turn
head-to-
both sails for hoisting, fit the rudder and
leave in the same way as you would in Boat is wind to hoist
tiller, and single up the mooring. Hoist head-to-tide mainsail
nontidal waters. But if the wind is not
the jib but let it flap, and lower the
well ahead of the beam, it will not be centerboard. The helm chooses the Leave under
jib alone
possible to hoist the mainsail without course to sail away and the crew slips the
it filling immediately and causing the mooring and sheets in the jib. When clear
boat to sail around the mooring. In of obstructions, luff up so that you are
this case, leave under the jib alone. head-to-wind, then hoist the mainsail.
 MOORING AND ANCHORING
111
Picking up a mooring approaching downwind
Before you commit to an approach If the wind and tide are opposed or at
to a mooring, look at other boats an angle to each other, so that the boat
will not lie head-to-wind when it is Approach on a
already on the moorings, especially broad reach under
those that are similar to your own, to moored, you should approach under
the jib alone
the jib alone. Lower the mainsail while
see if they are head-to-wind or being
you are still in clear water, then
influenced by the tide. Assume that Pick up the
approach downwind under the jib,
your boat will take up a similar aiming to arrive at the mooring pointing
mooring on
windward side
position and decide where the wind into the tide. Control your speed by
will be. If it will be well ahead of the using the jib sheet and let the jib
beam, you can approach under both flap to slow down at the mooring.
the mainsail and jib. However, if it
approaching upwind
is farther aft, you should approach
If the boat will face the wind when
under the jib alone.
it is moored, approach the buoy on a
Taking into account the proximity close reach, easing out the sails to slow Luff up and let
of other boats or obstacles, plan your down, then luff up so that you are jib fly to stop
approach to the mooring. If there is a head-to-wind at the mooring. If the at the mooring

tidal stream, make sure that you will wind and tide are together but the wind
pass other boats on their down-tide is light, it may be better to approach Approach on a
side to avoid being swept onto them. on a beam reach to avoid getting close reach
At the mooring, pick up the buoy swept down-tide.
on the windward side, ahead of the
shroud. Fasten the painter to the buoy
and lower the sails. Then make fast
securely with the mooring rope.

ANCHORING A DINGHY Drop the Luff up as you Raise the centerboard,

anchor over the approach your lower the mainsail, Stow
You will need an anchor warp that is windward side anchoring point and remove the rudder the sails
3–5 times longer than the depth of
water. Tie the warp to the mast and
coil the bulk of it into a bucket. Take
the other end out through the bow
fairlead and back in around and
behind the windward shroud. Tie it
to the anchor using a round turn 1
and two half hitches (p.47).

1 Sail up to your anchorage site and 2 3 4

stop exactly as you would at a mooring.

2 Lower the anchor over the windward

side. Quickly lower the jib.

3 Lower the mainsail, paying out the

anchor warp as the boat drifts back. Raise
the centerboard and remove the rudder.

4 Now make sure the anchor is holding

by using a shore transit (p.337), then stow
the sails.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
112

COPING WITH CAPSIZE

The stability of a dinghy depends largely on the movement of possible, while still sailing fast, by
crew weight, which means that a capsize is always possible. It is spilling wind from the sails to reduce
heeling. Flatten the sails as much as
a common mishap in most dinghies, so practice recovering your possible (pp.184–185) and raise the
dinghy from a capsize until you are fully competent in the centerboard or daggerboard slightly
procedure. Get used to being in the water so that you feel relaxed when sailing to windward, or on a
close reach or beam reach, to reduce
when dealing with a capsize. If you fail to right a capsized boat,
the heeling effect. Do not let the boat
climb onto the hull, tie yourself on with the end of a sheet, and heel and slow down, as that will
wait for rescue. Never try to swim to shore. A capsized boat is far make it more vulnerable to capsizing.
easier for rescuers to spot than a swimmer’s head. Head for shore as quickly as possible
and, if you cannot reach your base,
consider landing elsewhere to reef
Avoiding a capsize ability and by avoiding going afloat the boat ashore, or to wait for the
The easiest way to avoid capsizing, if the wind is strong. Even then, a conditions to ease.
and the need to recover a capsized change in conditions while you are If, despite all your efforts, you
boat, is to sail a small keelboat or afloat may catch you out. make a handling mistake, or a gust
one of the stable general-purpose If your dinghy can be reefed overpowers the boat and it heels to
dinghies that are less prone to (pp.76–77), then make sure that you the point of a capsize, it may still be
capsizing than most other dinghies. know how to reef it, while afloat if possible to recover the situation if you
However, if you do sail a more possible, so that you can adjust the let go of the tiller and the sheets and
responsive and hence less stable sail area to suit the conditions. If quickly move your weight to the high
dinghy, you can reduce the chances reefing afloat is not possible and you side. There is a fair chance that, left to
of capsizing by always sailing within are caught out by rough conditions, itself, the boat will round up rapidly
the limits of your experience and aim to sail the boat as upright as into the wind and remain upright.

Leeward capsize weight and the boat heels so far that side, or if the helm allows the
The most common type of capsize is water floods in over the leeward boat to continue turning and it is
when the boat tips over to leeward, gunwale. A typical leeward capsize overpowered before it can accelerate
away from the wind. This typically occurs when the boat jibes and the on its new course. Once a leeward
happens when the wind overpowers crew are not quick enough to move capsize becomes inevitable, the helm
the righting effect of the crew’s their weight to the new windward and crew should slip into the water
between the boom and the hull. If
they try to avoid getting wet by
hanging onto the side of the
boat, they will probably invert
the dinghy (pp.116–117).

leeward capsize
This single-handed dinghy is about to
capsize to leeward. The boat has been
overpowered and the helm was slow to
ease the mainsheet. With the boom end in
the water, a capsize is almost inevitable.
 COPING WITH CAPSIZE
113
Windward capsize than a leeward capsize and the crew
A windward capsize is somewhat less may not have time to react. A typical
common than a leeward capsize. It occurrence is just before a jibe in
usually occurs when a dinghy is strong winds. As the boat capsizes on
sailing on a run or broad reach and it top of them, the crew will usually fall
rolls heavily toward the wind. As backward into the water.
it rolls, the part of the hull that is in
the water becomes unbalanced (p.81)
windward capsize
and makes the boat turn farther away This single-handed dinghy is in the
from the wind. The boat continues to final stages of a windward capsize. The
roll and then tips over, toward the helm has let go of the tiller and dived
crew. This sort of capsize is usually toward the high side, but it is too late
considerably quicker and more violent to prevent the capsize.

Staying safe It is important, therefore, that you the upturned hull. When sailing a
Capsizing inevitably has an element know the characteristics of the boat boat of this type, it is even more
of danger because there is a small risk and brief your crew accordingly. important to assess the dangers in
of being separated from the boat, Another risk is the danger of advance and to carry a very sharp
trapped underneath it, or entangled in entanglement in ropes or rigging. knife that can be used to cut yourself
the rigging. The type of dinghy you sail This is particularly dangerous if the free if you are caught among control
will partly determine the level of risk. boat inverts and a person is entangled lines (pp.138–141).
Many lightweight designs are prone to underneath it. If there is an air pocket Whatever type of dinghy you
invert (pp.116–117)—turn completely under the boat, the problem is less sail, it is vital that in the event of a
upside down—and may do so quickly serious, as the person can breathe capsize, you stay in contact with the
once they are on their side in the while they disentangle themself, but boat. Always keep a hand on the boat
normal capsized position. When in the absence of an air pocket, any as you move around it, and if you
inverted, many high-performance entanglement could prove fatal. have to swim around the boat to the
boats do not have sufficient space in This risk of entanglement is centerboard, always take the end of
their shallow hulls for an air pocket in greatest in high-performance boats the mainsheet with you to act as a
which a person caught under the boat where trapezes are used and where safety line. Never attempt to leave a
can breathe. Older designs tend to there is a greater number of control capsized boat and swim to the shore.
have sufficient depth to their hulls to lines among which a person could Remember, the shore is much farther
trap a sizable air pocket in which it is get trapped. Such boats are usually away than it looks, and an upturned
easy to breathe before making your more prone to inverting and are boat is far easier to spot from a
escape from under the boat. unlikely to have an air pocket under rescue boat than a swimmer’s head.

Gunwale Gunwale

caught under a sail in an air pocket without an air pocket

To escape from under a sail, lift the sail When under a boat with an air pocket, When under a boat without an air pocket,
off the water to create an air pocket. there is no rush, as you can breathe. Take a hold your breath, move quickly to the
Paddle out, keeping your hand up. breath and pull yourself under the gunwale. edge, then pull yourself under the gunwale.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
114
CAPSIZE RECOVERY
Righting a capsized dinghy
The standard way for righting a
capsized two-person dinghy is to
use the scoop method, so named
because one person is scooped
aboard as the other pulls the boat
upright. The scooped person’s weight
in the boat helps prevent it from
capsizing again once it is righted.
While the boat is capsized, both
helm and crew must avoid putting
weight on the boat, which could
make it invert. During a capsize
recovery, the helm and crew will be
out of sight of each other for most
of the time. They must keep talking
to each other so that both know
what is happening.
righting the boat
Always try to right the boat
The heaviest person should right the boat by standing on the
with the mast coming up against the centerboard or daggerboard. The lighter person lies in the water
wind to avoid another capsize. If you alongside the boat, just behind the mast, holding onto a toestrap.
capsized to windward, wait until the When lying alongside the boat, do not put any weight on it, as this
boat swings around with the mast will make it much harder to right. Make sure that the mainsheet
downwind. If you fail to do this and and both jib sheets are released.
try to right the boat with the mast
pointing into the wind, the wind
will get under the sail as soon as the
mast is lifted off the water and
the boat will come upright very
rapidly and will probably capsize
again on top of the person who
was standing on the centerboard.
Once the boat is righted, bail out
the water, if necessary, before sailing
off. If you are sailing a modern boat
with a high floor, it will probably
self-drain as soon as you start sailing,
but an older design may need you to
bail some of the water out by hand
(p.30). A high-performance boat
(pp.122–193), with a trapeze system
and a spinnaker, may require the scooped aboard
righting system to be modified, but As the boat comes upright, it will do so more quickly as the water
the same principles apply, and it is drains from the mainsail. The crew in the water will be scooped
always best if one person can be aboard and their weight will help stabilize the boat. The helm
scooped aboard if possible. can often climb aboard unaided as the boat comes upright.
 COPING WITH CAPSIZE
115
USING THE SCOOP METHOD
The scoop method relies on one person standing on the centerboard to RIGHTING A SINGLE-
pull the boat upright. Often it is the helm who rights the boat while the HANDED DINGHY
crew is scooped aboard, but if there is a significant difference in their
Many single-handers float quite
weights, the heavier person should right the boat, leaving the lighter one to
high when capsized, so the
be scooped aboard. If the centerboard is not fully down, the crew can push
daggerboard can be difficult to
it down from inside. To avoid breaking the centerboard, the person righting
climb onto. Wrap your arms over
the boat should stand on the part nearest the hull. While waiting to be
scooped up, the other person should make sure the mainsheet is free it and hang your weight on it
and the boom vang is released so that the mainsail can flap loosely to make the boat come slowly
when the boat is righted. upright. Alternatively, push the
bow deeply into the water, which
Crew pushes
may make the boat rotate into
centerboard right down 1 The crew pushes the its upright position.
centerboard down fully, then
joins the helm at the stern. The Climb toward
helm checks that the rudder is high side

still in place. If it has floated

off, they secure it with any
available line.

2 The crew passes the

end of the mainsheet over
the top of the rudder to the
helm. Using this as a safety
line, the helm swims around
the bottom of the boat
Helm swims to
to the centerboard.
the centerboard
1 In a leeward capsize, you may
be able to avoid getting wet. As soon
3 From inside the boat,
as a capsize appears inevitable, let
the crew throws the end of the
uppermost jib sheet over go of the mainsheet and tiller and
Helm prepares
to catch the end the boat to the helm. The crew climb up over the top gunwale to
of the jib sheet then floats inside the hull, reach the daggerboard.
head toward the bow, holding
onto a thwart or toestrap.
Step over
Helm climbs sidedeck onto
on the centerboard daggerboard
4 Using the jib sheet to
help them, the helm climbs
up onto the centerboard,
positioning their feet
close to the hull. They
then lean back with straight
arms and legs, pulling steadily
on the jib sheet.

5 The boat comes upright, scooping 2 Step over the sidedeck and onto
up the crew. If possible, the helm the daggerboard. Turn around to
scrambles aboard by the windward stand on the daggerboard and hold
shroud as the boat rights itself, or the gunwale. Pull the boat upright,
Crew is scooped aboard climbing back in as it is righted.
the crew helps them aboard, moving
slowly to avoid another capsize.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
116
MAST IN THE MUD INVERSION
If you capsize in shallow water,
there is a possibility that the mast Dealing with an inversion Dinghies differ in how they are best
will catch on the bottom. The Many modern dinghies are prone righted from an inversion. Some can be
mast may get stuck if it hits soft to quickly turn completely upside pulled upright by both crew standing
mud, and you will have problems down when they capsize. This is on one gunwale or kneeling on the
pulling it upright using only your because they usually have a lot of hull. With others, it is easier if one
body weight. In this case, you built-in buoyancy distributed along crew member pushes down on a corner
may have to ask for a tow. Make the bottom and sides of the hull. of the transom to break the deck seal
sure the helm of the tow boat This means that they float high with the water while the other crew
knows what they are doing, or on their sides and easily tip (or are member pulls the boat upright. You
you may damage the mast. blown over) to the inverted position. should get to know the best way to
In this position, their decks often right your boat by asking experienced
form a seal with the water. This sailors in your class.
Take the tow rope
makes it even more difficult to bring Inversion in shallow water also
over the hull them upright, because the water seal brings the risk of that the mast will
has to be broken first. If you sail this hit the bottom. Be careful not to put
type of dinghy, it is imperative, when any weight on the boat if the mast is
it capsizes, to avoid putting any touching the bottom, as it may break.
weight on the hull and to get both Lie in the water with your feet against
people clear of the boat by moving the hull while pulling on the jib
to the transom. Then, if it inverts, sheet to try to right the boat, or ask
the crew will not become trapped a safety boat for help in towing the
underneath the hull. boat into a normal capsized position.

POSITIONING THE TOW ROPE

inverted
If the centerboard retracts,
Pull the boat as here, stand on one
toward the wind gunwale and pull on the
opposite jib sheet or fixed
righting line.

how to tow upright

Take the tow line over the hull and tie
it to a chainplate or other strong point
that is within reach. If possible, attach
the line to a leeward chainplate and
prepare to pull the boat up against the
wind. Motor very slowly at right angles
to the boat and toward the wind until
the boat rotates to lie on its side.
 COPING WITH CAPSIZE: INVERSION
117
Losing the centerboard In a boat that traps an air pocket upturned hull and place the
Sometimes the centerboard under the inverted hull, it is possible daggerboard into its slot from
will retract into its case when for one person to dive underneath the bottom. Lean on it to bring the
the boat turns upside down, or to push the centerboard out, but you boat to the horizontal, then replace it
a daggerboard will fall out entirely. should not attempt this in a boat in its normal position in the case from
If the centerboard retracts, one that does not have space for an air the inside before continuing with the
of the crew will have to stand pocket. In the case of a daggerboard righting procedure. Avoid this problem
on the lip of the gunwale instead that is not secured and falls out during in the first place by having a retaining
of the centerboard and pull on an inversion, it is possible to use it line on the centerboard or daggerboard
a jib sheet to bring the boat in the righting procedure if you can that prevents it from fully retracting
back to a horizontal position. reach it easily. If so, climb onto the while you are sailing.

RIGHTING FROM INVERSION

The technique for righting an inverted dinghy is to that the mast comes up against the wind. Otherwise,
bring it up to the normal capsized position, lying on the wind will get under the sails and cause the boat
its side, before proceeding with the scoop method to immediately capsize again on top of you. Avoid
of recovery (pp.114–115). When bringing the boat this by standing on the windward side of the
up to the normal capsized position, try to make sure inverted hull when righting it.
Both crew stand
Jib sheet or righting Pull on jib sheet on the windward
line is thrown over Heavier person or retrieval line gunwale
the hull

Other person joins

first at centerboard

1 One person finds the jib sheet on the leeward 2 If possible, the first person pulls the centerboard
side and throws it across the hull, near the centerboard. fully down. The other person climbs onto the boat.
The heavier person grasps the end of the sheet on the Both stand on the gunwale, or kneel on the hull,
other side and climbs onto the gunwale. and lean back against the jib sheet.

Heavier person climbs onto

the centerboard to begin the
scoop recovery procedure
Boat comes up
onto its side

Lighter person
moves into
Both people keep the the boat
pressure on the jib sheet
to right the boat
3 Once the weight of the helm and 4 The boat is now on its side. The heavier person
crew has broken the water seal around the climbs onto the centerboard and the other person paddles
hull, the boat will start to come up slowly. around the stern and moves into the boat, ready for the
They keep pulling steadily until the boat scoop recovery. They check that the mainsheet and jib
lies on its side. sheet are free to run and release the boom vang.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
118

MAN OVERBOARD
The departure
The safest method of recovery is
to put the boat on a beam reach
and sail away from the person in
It is fairly rare for someone to fall overboard from a dinghy. the water. This gives you room to
However, when it does happen, whoever is left in the boat needs maneuver back to pick them up.
Do not jibe to get back more
to know how to sail it alone and how to turn around to recover quickly—it is too easy to capsize
the person overboard quickly and efficiently. The most common the dinghy, which will cause even
reason for falling into the water is a toestrap breaking or coming more problems.
When you have some sea room
undone. To avoid accidents, check yours each time you go afloat
between you and the man overboard,
and practice your recovery techniques until you are confident that tack around and sail back toward
you could act safely in an emergency. them on the opposite beam reach.

The approach
The recovery procedure the jib sheet go and move aft to take From a beam reach, bear away
When someone falls overboard, it is control of the tiller and mainsheet. The onto a broad reach before luffing
vital that you keep them in sight at all procedure used for recovering a man up onto a close reach for the final
times and get back to them, under full overboard has the added advantage of approach. This point of sailing is the
control, as quickly as possible. If you teaching you how to sail slowly, under only one on which you have complete
are the crew and your helm has fallen full control, and how to stop exactly control of your boat speed as you
overboard, you must immediately let where you want to. make the final approach to the person.

MAN-OVERBOARD RECOVERY 2 Sail about 10 to 15 boat 3 With the jib

Release the jib sheet so that the jib flaps (leave it lengths to give yourself room to flapping, tack the boat
loose for the entire recovery) and steer the boat maneuver during the next part of onto the opposite beam
onto a beam reach. Position the centerboard about the recovery. Keep a constant eye reach, making sure
three-quarters down. Keep an eye on the person. on the person in the water. you still have the
person in sight.
1 Sail away on an accurate beam reach. 3
Make sure that the wind is coming
directly over the side of the boat. 1 Mainsail is 2 Jib flaps
halfway out
freely

4
6
Mainsail eased Mainsail is
out to stop Luff up onto halfway out
the boat a close reach

6 Judge your 5
approach so that
you stop the boat 4 Bear away from the beam reach
onto a broad reach so that you move
with the person
to leeward of the person.
by the windward
shroud, letting the
mainsail flap. 5 About five boat lengths from the
person, luff up to a close reach. Ease
the mainsheet to slow down if necessary.
 MAN OVERBOARD
119
PRACTICE TECHNIQUES
It is important to practice
man-overboard recovery
regularly. You will not want to
use a real person for practice
sessions, so make a substitute
using a fender and a large water
container (at least 6 gallons/25
liters) or several smaller ones
tied together. Fill them almost
full with water so they drift in a
way similar to a person.

Learning
Throw the containers overboard on
each of the points of sailing until
you are confident that you can
return accurately on each occasion.
Practice until you can bring the
boat to a complete stop with the
bottles alongside the windward
retrieving crew shroud on virtually every attempt.
Once you have returned to the person
in the water, stop the boat with them at Practicing the drill
the windward shrouds. Move forward Even when you are confident in
and grasp them under the armpits. your abilities, practice man-
Lean back to drag them into the boat. overboard recovery occasionally to
keep up your skills. Run through
the drill when you sail a new boat
to get an idea of its characteristics.
Use it to learn how to sail slowly
As you approach the person in the When they have a firm hold of the
under control—the skill that
water, make sure that you can stop gunwale, give the tiller a flick to defines the expert sailor.
with them on the windward side of windward before letting go of it and
the boat. If you try to pick them up moving forward to help them aboard.
on the leeward side, there is a real This flick helps stop the boat from use as a step. If they are unconscious or
danger that the boat will drift on turning head-to-wind or even tacking too heavy to lift into the boat, tie them
top of them or that you will capsize around them in the water. alongside and sail slowly for shore,
as you try to get them aboard. keeping them on the windward side.
The rescue Once you have the sailor back
Coming alongside Move to the windward shroud and aboard, check carefully for any
Once you are alongside the man grasp the person under the armpits. injuries or signs of exposure or
overboard, tell them to grasp Lean toward them to push the side of hypothermia If the person is wearing
the gunwale at the windward the boat toward the water and then a wetsuit or drysuit, they should be no
shroud. In this position, you can lean back and pull. You should now be worse for the experience; otherwise,
leave the boat to lie quietly with able to drag their upper half into the they will be wet and probably cold. In
the sails flapping as you bring them boat. From there, they can be rolled this case, lay the person in the boat to
aboard. If you try to bring them in into the boat. If you have trouble warm them up; cover them up with an
too far aft, the bow will probably getting them aboard, tie a bowline exposure bag, dry clothes, or even a
blow downwind and the boat (p.47) in the end of the jib sheet and sail; and get to shore quickly. Seek
will start sailing. drop the loop over the side for them to medical help if necessary.
 SMALL-BOAT SAILING
120

STOWING AFTER SAILING

Once you are back ashore, you will probably want to head always removed between trips,
straight for a hot shower. Before you do, however, it is a good and this, too, should have its
own protective bag.
idea to spend a few minutes making sure that the boat is clean
and neat. Make a quick inspection for any damage, then stow Stowing the sails
the sails and other removable gear. Finally, make sure the boat If possible, allow the sails to dry
before stowing them in the sailbag.
is well secured. A few minutes spent now will prevent damage
Sails made of modern sailcloth will
and stop deterioration and will ensure that the boat is ready to not be damaged if they are put away
sail the next time you want to take it out. wet, but they should still be dried at
the earliest opportunity to avoid
mildew growth.
Washing the dinghy or transom and allow any water Remove the mainsail from the
Wash the boat thoroughly with fresh to drain away, and open any boom and unhank the jib from
water as soon as you bring it ashore. hatches in the tanks to allow air the forestay. Undo any shackles used
Pay extra attention to the blocks, as to circulate. If you have a padded to attach the sails to the halyards and
any traces of dirt or salt will damage rudder-stowage bag, put the rudder reattach them to the fittings so that
the bearings. Rinse the centerboard into it as soon as you have washed they cannot be lost. Remove the jib
casing, then wash all the equipment, it. Never lay it down on hard sheets and coil them up neatly. Stow
including the sails and rudder. surfaces or where it might be them in the sailbag or tie them in the
stepped on. Be particularly careful boat. If your jib has a wire luff, coil
Derigging with the blade—it is easily damaged. this up, making the jib into a smooth
Derig the boat by going through the If the centerboard is removed tube, to avoid kinking the wire. Once
rigging order in reverse. First, take between trips, it is also best stored the sail is rolled up, it can be loosely
out the bungs in the buoyancy tanks in a padded bag. A daggerboard is folded so that it fits into the sailbag.

Fold the STOWING THE MAINSAIL AND JIB

head in,
then start Because the mainsail is large, it is easier to roll if it is laid out on a clean patch
rolling of ground, such as on grass or a concrete or wooden surface. If the ground is
dirty, lay the sail over the boat to roll it. Roll the jib in the same way.

Keep the roll

parallel to Keep sails in bags
the battens for protection

1 If you roll the sail carefully, the 2 Continue rolling the sail, making 3 When the whole mainsail is rolled in
battens can be left in their pockets. Lay sure to keep the roll parallel to the batten a tight, neat tube, slide it into its sailbag.
the sail flat and fold the head over onto the pockets if the battens are left in. If the sail If the battens have been removed, stow
body of the sail. Then start rolling the sail, creases at the luff or leech, unroll it a bit them in the bag with the sail. Roll the jib
keeping the roll at right angles to the leech. and remove the creases. in the same way and stow in its bag.
 STOWING AFTER SAILING
121

fitting the cover

Put removable items into the
dinghy, making sure that they are
secure, then fit the cover over
the top. Secure it under the hull
at the bow and the sidedecks.

If the sail has a tape luff, roll it down until the next time you go sailing. have a cover that fits well and
the leech in a neat roll that fits easily Many sailing clubs have dinghy can be fastened tightly to
into the sail bag. Roll the mainsail docks in which you can leave your provide complete protection
and stow it in its sail bag. dinghy, and this is certainly more from the elements. Even fiberglass
convenient than trailering the boat boats can be damaged by sunlight,
Checking for wear to and from the sailing area each so a good cover is a sound
To keep the boat in top condition, be time you use it. Very small boats investment. It will also discourage
prepared to spend a few minutes after can be stored in dinghy racks, the theft of any equipment that
each sail checking it over. Inspect each which save space and provide you leave in the boat. Tie the
piece of gear for wear or damage. If good protection and support. cover firmly under the hull, and
you find any problems, deal with them More usually, dinghies are stored make sure that it cannot come
at once, if possible. Otherwise, make a on their launching carts. loose in high winds. Then tie
note to remind yourself of what needs If you are storing your boat the boat down to securing points
to be done, and note the tools or on a cart, the stern should rest on set into the ground or to heavy
materials for the repair. Always deal a soft support, such as a car tire, blocks, which will prevent it from
with repairs as soon as possible; and the front of the cart should being blown over.
otherwise, it is inevitable that the also be supported, so that the
damaged item will fail at the most dinghy cannot tip forward and HOSING DOWN
inopportune moment. damage its hull. This will also
As soon as you bring the boat
allow any rainwater that gets in
ashore, hose it down with fresh
Storing the dinghy the hull to drain out through the water. Wash all the equipment,
After you have removed and stowed transom or bung holes. Tie the boat including the sails and rudder.
the gear and sails, you will need to put securely to the cart with the painter,
your boat somewhere, so that it is safe then fit the cover. All boats should
ADVANCED
SMALL-BOAT SAILING
When the basic skills of dinghy sailing have been mastered, they can be refined, and new ones
acquired, by moving up to a high-performance dinghy or a small keelboat. Once you have
mastered the necessary skills, you will find that these boats provide exhilarating sailing.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
124

HIGH-PERFORMANCE BOATS
If you have learned to sail in a general-purpose dinghy, you will dinghies and test helmsmen and
notice a tremendous difference when you first try sailing in a high- crews to the limit of their abilities.
The performance of the fastest
performance boat. High-performance boats are far more sensitive dinghies has now entered the
to changes in wind strength, accelerate faster, and require quicker high-speed world previously shared
reactions from helm and crew than general-purpose dinghies. Fast by catamarans and windsurfers.
Along with these extreme dinghies
boats make more demands on your abilities and are more difficult
has come crash-and-burn-type,
to sail well, but they will teach you about the finer points of boat short-course racing, which offers
handling far more quickly than a slower boat. plenty of thrills and spills.
The small keelboat market has
also developed thanks to new designs
Design advances then remained fairly static until the and the use of lightweight materials.
The development of the planing early 1990s, when modern materials Now there are many more small
dinghy occurred in the 1930s, and by and lightweight construction methods keelboats available that are designed
the 1960s, dinghy shapes and light created a revolution in the small-boat to provide fast and competitive racing
weight had evolved sufficiently to market. Now, there is a range of for sailors who prefer to sail fast in
allow some designs to plane when dinghies available that are capable of a boat with a keel rather than in a
sailing to windward. Dinghy design much higher speeds than conventional high-performance dinghy, which is
likely to capsize quite frequently.

Apparent wind sailing

The biggest difference between
sailing a conventional and a
high-performance boat is the effect
of boat speed on the apparent wind.

Apparent wind

True
wind

Apparent wind Boat wind

True
wind

Boat wind

foil-borne sailing
Some modern boats are so light and effect of apparent wind
powerful that they can rise above the The extra speed (and resulting boat
water on foils and reach very high speeds. wind) of the faster boat (top) causes
the apparent wind to increase and
come from farther forward than for
the slower boat (bottom).
 HIGH-PERFORMANCE BOATS
125
Because high-performance boats plane wind coming from ahead of the beam there is a range of high-performance
upwind and downwind even in very even when sailing downwind and boats available for the single-hander,
light winds, their speed has a major have to sheet their sails in tighter including boats with a trapeze and
effect on the strength and direction than slower boats. even an asymmetric spinnaker. Most
of the apparent wind. Sailing upwind, dinghy designs cater to two people,
their speed increases the strength Crewed or alone and you can choose between single or
of the apparent wind, while sailing If you are considering a high- double trapezes and a conventional
downwind, it reduces the apparent performance dinghy, you have or asymmetric spinnaker. The
wind strength. Because the apparent a choice between a single-hander, a 18-foot Skiff is sailed by a crew
wind is always shifted farther forward two-person, or even a three-person of three, all on trapezes, and has a
than the true wind, high-performance boat. The purest form of sailing is powerful rig that includes a very
boats usually sail with the apparent undoubtedly single-handing, and large asymmetric spinnaker.

SPEED COMPARISONS
A polar diagram is used to show the potential speed the speed they should attain on any point of sailing
of a boat for a particular wind strength. For every and to trim and tune the boat accordingly. Here, the
wind strength, each design of boat will have a unique curves illustrate the differences in performance
polar curve. Racing yachts use polar curves to predict between types of small boats.

Factors affecting speed

Speed is determined by the strength of the wind, Polar curve for
high-performance dinghy
the amount of sail area, and the weight of the boat, Polar curve for
complete with its crew. In short, the more sail area performance
you have and the less your boat weighs, the faster you catamaran
will go. High-performance boats are generally much
lighter than general-purpose dinghies. They have larger, Close-hauled
more powerful rigs and much shallower hulls. They Beam reach
typically have little natural stability and rely entirely on
the weight of the crew to keep them upright when they
are being sailed. Their sole purpose is fast sailing, and
they are used only for racing or thrill-seeking sailing. Broad reach
General-purpose
Run dinghy
Points of sailing Polar curve for
A general-purpose dinghy will be slower on all points general-purpose
of sailing than a high-performance dinghy. And a dinghy
high-performance catamaran will generally be faster
than a high-performance dinghy because it is wider High-performance
dinghy
and more stable, allowing the crew to make better
use of the sail power available to them. All types of
sailing boats will perform better on some points Performance
of sailing than others, and reaching courses are catamaran
nearly always faster for most boats than close-hauled Speed bands
or running courses.
However, the latest generation of high-performance, polar diagram
skiff-type dinghies tend to be faster on a broad reach. This polar diagram compares the potential speeds of a
They develop so much power on a beam reach in general-purpose dinghy, a typical high-performance dinghy,
moderate to strong winds that it is almost impossible and a performance catamaran. In the diagram, the farther a
to sail at 90 degrees to the wind. These boats will boat is from the center, the faster its speed. The catamaran is
generally capsize if you try to sail on a beam reach, fastest on all points of sailing, with the greatest gains on beam- and
so high-performance skiff sailors tend to call this point broad-reaching courses. Skiff-type dinghies are closer in performance
of sailing the “Crash Zone.” to a catamaran than to a conventional high-performance dinghy.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
126

TYPES OF HIGH-PERFORMANCE DINGHIES

High-performance dinghies typically have shallow, the masthead, to increase speed downwind.
narrow, and lightweight hulls with large rigs. They often High-performance boats are available to suit a
have at least one trapeze, but the fastest boats have range of skill levels and physical sizes and abilities.
both helm and crew on trapezes. The fastest dinghies Small keelboats offering high performance are
have large asymmetric spinnakers, often flown from also available (p.163).

dinghies

The Olympic 470 is a good The International 505 is a classic

introduction to high-performance high-performance boat with a large
sailing. It has a spinnaker and one spinnaker and a trapeze for the crew.
trapeze and is ideal for lighter crews. The 505 gives close racing in large,
It provides close racing with separate competitive fleets. It is more suitable
fleets for male and female sailors. than the 470 for heavier sailors.
OLYMPIC 470 INTERNATIONAL 505

Developed from the 18-foot Skiff, this The RS500 is a single-trapeze boat
lightweight two-handed dinghy relies that provides exciting performance
on wide wings rather than trapezes while being relatively easy to handle.
from which the crew can hike out. It is suitable for crews looking to
The B14 requires good fitness and progress their sailing skills to the
boat handling skills. more advanced requirements of
B14 RS500 handling a high-performance dinghy.

The RS800 is arguably the easiest The International 14 is one of the

of the twin-trapeze boats to sail. It oldest racing classes and has been
offers many of the thrills of higher- developed over the years to keep
performance skiffs without as many ahead of the opposition. It now
spills. Like the Laser 4000, this class is has twin trapezes and is a very
particularly suited to lighter teams. demanding boat to sail.
RS800 INTERNATIONAL 14

The Olympic 49er is one of the skiff- The 18-foot Skiff is the classic
type, high-performance boats with high-performance dinghy. It has been
huge rigs and twin trapezes. Inspired developed over decades to the state-
by the 18-foot Skiff, it uses a large of-the-art boat it is today. Now sailed
asymmetrical spinnaker set on the by three-man crews, the Skiff is the
end of a long retractable bowsprit. pinnacle of high-performance boats.
OLYMPIC 49ER 18-FOOT SKIFF

single-handers

The International Moth is a The International Canoe is one of the

radical, foil-borne, single-handed, fastest single-handed dinghies. It has
development class. The modern an extremely narrow hull inherited
design is a carbon fiber hydrofoil- from its ancient canoe origins, with
borne craft that weighs just 66 lb and a sliding seat on which the helm
INTERNATIONAL is only about 13 inches wide, testing INTERNATIONAL balances the boat. There is an option
MOTH the skills of even the best sailors. CANOE to use an asymmetric spinnaker.
 HIGH-PERFORMANCE BOATS
127
Making a choice
If you learned in a general-purpose
dinghy and want to progress to sailing
high-performance keelboat
faster boats, the next step is to sail in a If you want the thrills of high-performance
moderately high-performance class that without the spills a dinghy provides, you
uses a conventional or asymmetric can choose a performance keelboat.
spinnaker (pp.146–157) and a trapeze
(pp.138–141) for the crew. Crew for
someone else before buying a boat,
just to make sure you like this type
of sailing. If you want to sail as fast
as possible—and spend a lot of time
capsizing in the early days—you may
like to consider one of the faster
classes, which are generally
characterized as skifflike, after the
18-foot Skiff, which first pioneered
multiple trapezes, asymmetric
spinnakers, and the use of racks on
the hull sides to allow the trapezing
crew to create more leverage to will require a considerable amount Another way to get high-speed
balance the very powerful rig. of time and effort to learn to sail and sailing, with less risk of capsize, is
Most of these skiff-types are will involve a lot of capsizing while to pick from one of the catamaran
two-person boats, like the 49er, you are learning. The process is classes (pp.168–175) or to choose
the Olympic two-person, high- made considerably easier and more a performance-oriented small
performance dinghy class, but enjoyable if you pick a class that is keelboat (pp.162–167).
extreme high-speed single-handed popular in your sailing area so that
dinghies, like the Musto Skiff, are you will have plenty of similar boats Racing
also available. Remember, though, to sail against and experienced The most sensible and convenient
that any of the more extreme designs sailors to ask for advice. approach to racing is to pick a class
that is already being actively raced in
the area that you want to sail. Most
popular classes have good club-level
skiff-style dinghies
The fastest dinghies tend to use very narrow, racing, and some provide world-class
lightweight hulls with large rigs. Racks or wings competition. You will also need to
extend outward from the hull sides. They allow choose between speed and tactics.
the trapezing crew to exert the maximum righting Very high-performance dinghies are
moment to balance the power of the large rig. great for sheer speed but not ideal
for close, tactical racing because
of the difficulty in handling their
power. In fact, some of the best
racing is often to be found in slower
boats in which the racing is closer
and more interesting tactically.
Many of the largest racing fleets
are found among the older, general-
purpose dinghies that offer the
closest tactical racing.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
128

IMPROVING YOUR
rise out of the water when planing
to the point where the hull forward
of the mast is out of the water, but the

TECHNIQUE
fastest planing dinghies rise out of
the water significantly more, often
to the point where they plane on just
the aftermost sections of the hull just
Once you have mastered the basic sailing techniques, you will be forward of the transom, with the rest
able to rig and launch your boat, handle it on all points of sailing, of the boat clear of the water.
Most dinghies, even heavier
and return safely to your starting point. When you feel that these general-purpose ones, will plane if
basic techniques are second nature, it is time to consider there is sufficient wind and the crew
progressing to a faster and more responsive boat. There are several understands planing techniques, but
light boats with a large sail area will
techniques for performance sailing that you will need to learn.
plane readily even in quite light winds.
These include understanding how and when a boat planes, how Although slower dinghies and most
to refine sail trimming for better performance, how to balance the small keelboats may only plane on a
helm, how to sail close-hauled efficiently, and how to maintain beam or broad reach in strong winds,
high-performance dinghies are capable
the speed of your boat while changing course. of planing when sailing to windward.

Planing its own bow wave. The shape Planing tips

When a boat rises up on its own of the hull is an important factor There are several techniques that you
bow wave and skims across the in planing. can use to encourage your boat to
water like a speedboat, it is said to Boats that plane well have broad, plane. The first is known as pumping.
be planing. A boat will plane when it flat sections in the aft half of the hull. If the boat cannot quite rise onto the
is traveling fast enough to create lift It is on these that the boat rides when plane, wait for a gust of wind, sit out
under the hull, raising the boat onto it is planing. Most planing boats hard to keep the boat upright while

HOW TO PLANE Helm Crew Helm

Bear away slightly Move aft and Luff slightly
Start on a beam reach in a wind
as gust hits sit out hard to keep the
of at least Force 3. Be ready to boat planing
move your weight aft to help
lift the bow onto the plane.
Speed will increase quickly as
you plane and the apparent
wind will shift forward, so be
ready to sheet in both sails.
Extra speed will make the
rudder more efficient;
small movements of
the tiller will be enough
to keep the boat on
course. The boat will
slow down quickly if
it slips off the plane.
1 Sail on a beam reach with 2 Move your weight aft a little 3 Remain planing as long
the centerboard no more than as you feel the boat accelerate. as possible by luffing slightly
Ease the sheets as the half down. Wait for a gust of The bow will lift as it begins to to keep the apparent wind
apparent wind shifts aft wind and, as it hits, bear away plane. If the boat heels when you forward. This may enable you
and move your weight slightly and ease both sheets a are sitting out hard, raise the to continue planing until the
forward again. little. Keep the boat upright. centerboard a little. next gust arrives.
 IMPROVING YOUR TECHNIQUE
129
rapidly trimming both sails in, then be little or no tendency for it to turn. If tune your boat (pp.140–143),
out again. This produces a burst of you let go of the tiller, the boat will you can also adjust the rake of
extra power, which should help the continue on a straight course. This the mast to produce the desired
boat to rise onto the plane. condition is referred to as a balanced helm balance.
Another way of helping the boat helm. If the boat turns to windward
to plane is to use a wave to help when you let go of the tiller, it has Sailing at speed
you accelerate. Sailing downwind in weather helm. If it turns to leeward, it Assuming that the boat is tuned
waves, wait until the stern lifts on a has lee helm. In practice, it is easier to correctly, the achievement of optimum
wave, then bear away to surf down sail a boat that has a small amount of speed depends on the skills of the helm
its front. As the boat accelerates, luff weather helm, since this gives some feel and crew. Concentration and constant
up slightly and sheet in the sails. It is to the steering and, in particular, makes attention to sail trim, boat balance, and
important to keep the boat upright it easier to steer the boat accurately on course steered are necessary to achieve
throughout this maneuver. The speed a close-hauled course. When you are top performance. When you first sail
gained from surfing down the wave learning, it is also a safety factor, since, a high-performance boat, it will take
may create enough wind pressure if the tiller is let go by accident, the time and practice to get used to the
to keep you on the plane as the boat will turn into the wind and stop. faster reactions that are required to
apparent wind shifts forward. If the Lee helm is to be avoided because sail it efficiently.
boat begins to plane, the apparent it makes the boat difficult to sail; if the Take care to avoid violent changes
wind will stay forward, and you will tiller is let go, it will not turn into the of course, especially when sailing
need to trim the sails correctly to the wind and automatically stop. offwind, because it will be hard to keep
new apparent wind direction in order You can alter the balance of the the boat balanced through sharp turns.
to maintain planing. helm while sailing by adjusting Remember that the rudder is much
the centerboard if your boat has more efficient when you are traveling
Sail setting one. Lift the centerboard slightly to at high speed, so much smaller tiller
One of the hardest things to get used reduce weather helm and lower it movements are needed than when you
to when you start sailing is having to to eliminate lee helm. When you are sailing slowly.
adjust sail trim. However, as you
develop your skills, trimming the sails
to suit even small changes in wind
planing
direction becomes almost automatic. This lightweight sportsboat is
When you sail fast dinghies, planing well under an asymmetric
you will find that they are very spinnaker. The crew are well aft,
responsive to changes in wind and to windward, to keep the
strength and will accelerate or slow boat level and help the bow lift.
down very quickly. As they alter
their speed, the apparent wind (p.34)
will shift forward (accelerating) or
backward (slowing down), and sail
trim must be adjusted each time this
happens. The apparent wind will also
shift aft when a gust hits the boat, so
be ready to ease the sails as you see
a gust approaching, sheeting them
in again as it eases.

Balancing the helm

When a boat is sailing upright,
trimmed correctly fore and aft, and
the sails are accurately set, there should
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
130
Controlling twist
USING TELLTALES As well as setting the sails at the
The easiest way to check correct angle to the wind using luff
whether you are trimming the telltales (p.82), you also need to
sails correctly and have the right adjust the leech tension in each sail
twist and leech tension is to to control the amount of twist (the
attach telltales (p.82) to the sails. difference between the angle of
the sail at the foot and the head).
Mainsail telltales Adjusting twist is important for
Stick nylon telltales on the mainsail boat speed. In most conditions, twist
leech. When the sail is correctly set, is adjusted to maximize power, but
for medium wind and flat water, all
in strong winds, it is used to reduce
the telltales will stream aft, with the
one near the top batten periodically heeling. Excessive heeling makes the
folding behind the sail. boat slower and harder to steer.
Leech telltales (left) are a useful
Jib luff telltales indicator of the amount of mainsail
Twist in the jib can be checked by twist. The amount needed depends
using the luff telltales. When the top,
on the conditions and the cut of the
middle, and lower windward telltales
sail. In general, you should have some
all stream aft together, the sail has
the correct amount of twist. If the twist in very light conditions, less
top windward telltale lifts before twist in light-to-moderate winds, and
the middle and lower windward ones, more twist again in strong winds.
it has too much twist; the fairlead Mainsail twist is controlled by
should be moved forward. If the tension in the mainsheet or vang.
bottom or middle windward telltales
The more tension there is in
lift before the top one, move the lead
either, the less twist there is. Jib
aft to increase twist. reducing heeling with twist
twist is controlled by the fore-and-aft These boats are racing in a fairly strong
Top telltale is position of the fairleads and jib-sheet wind with their crews fully extended on
most important tension. Move jib fairleads forward the trapeze. Their sails are set with quite
twist indicator
to reduce twist and aft to increase it. a bit of twist to reduce the heeling force.

Leech
telltales are Twist is correct Open leech
sewn near for most with lots
the batten Watch windward
conditions telltales to of twist
pockets when all check for correct Closed
windward twist as you leech with
telltales stream adjust fairlead minimum
aft together
twist

Move fairlead
fore and aft on
Twist
track to adjust
increases
tension on foot
when boom
and leech
is allowed
reading leech telltales to rise
When all the telltales stream aft with the
top one occasionally folding behind
the leech, the sail is set correctly for
medium wind and flat water. If the top adjusting jib twist mainsail twist
telltale remains folded behind the leech, Increase twist in the jib by moving the jib Ease the mainsheet and/or the vang to
ease the mainsheet or boom vang. sheet fairlead aft. Reduce twist by moving allow boom to lift and increase twist (left)
the fairlead forward. and tighten them to reduce twist (right).
 IMPROVING YOUR TECHNIQUE
131
turning the boat
Bearing away around a racing mark, the
helm eases the mainsail to start the turn
while the crew prepares to come in but
heels the boat to windward.

Changing direction
One sure sign of a skilled sailor is
the ability to change course without
slowing the boat unnecessarily. A
good helm and crew will always
prefer to use sail trim and boat
balance to turn the boat (pp.80–83)
and reduce the need to use the
rudder. This is because each time
the rudder is turned more than 4–5
degrees off the centerline, it causes
drag and slows the boat. Using heel
and sail trim is especially important
when bearing away, as the rudder
may prove ineffective, especially in
strong winds, if the boat heels to
leeward, or if the mainsail is not
MAINTAINING BALANCE AND TRIM eased before the turn. Keep the
To achieve maximum performance, it is essential that the dinghy is sailed boat upright, or heeled to windward
upright and level fore and aft. Sitting out will help maintain balance, and slightly, and ease the mainsail to
sitting together in a central position will keep the boat level fore and aft. bear away successfully.
By sitting together, the helm and crew also reduce windage and so
increase their possible speed.
Sailing close-hauled
Sailing close-hauled is usually the
balance
Sit out or trapeze biggest challenge for the novice.
(pp.138–139) to keep The helm must keep the boat sailing
the boat upright. If it still as close to the wind as possible
heels, ease the mainsheet without letting speed drop by sailing
or increase twist to spill
too close (known as pinching).
some wind. Weight
distribution and sail trim They must also avoid erring in the
require constant attention other direction and losing ground to
to maintain balance. windward by sailing too far off the
wind. Practice sailing close-hauled
using the telltales on the jib luff
trim
Keep the boat level fore and (p.82) to follow the best course.
aft by sitting close together. Both windward and leeward telltales
In strong winds, move aft should be kept streaming aft for the
slightly to allow the bow best balance between speed and
to lift and pass over waves
pointing. The windward set can be
smoothly; in light winds,
move forward to keep the allowed to rise occasionally, but the
transom clear of the water leeward ones should not lift, as this
and reduce drag. indicates that the boat is sailing too
far off the wind.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
132
Understanding the wind which you sail well, or if there are clear
COPING WITH The wind rarely blows consistently and obvious landmarks near the race
WIND SHIFTS from one direction. In fact, you will course that you can use to check your
often find that the wind oscillates heading. However, the easiest way to
Spotting and using wind shifts
around a mean direction, perhaps spot small shifts that can otherwise
are essential skills, particularly
if you want to race. A header is shifting 10–20 degrees on either side go unnoticed is to use a compass.
when the wind moves forward; of the mean and sometimes producing
a freer (or lift) is when it moves considerably larger shifts. In an Velocity shifts
aft. Dealing with wind shifts oscillating wind, the shifts will occur Be aware that changes in the true
effectively can significantly at reasonably regular intervals, and it wind’s speed will create velocity shifts
reduce the distance sailed. is possible to time how long the wind that are easily confused with true
takes to shift from one side of the lifts or headers. If you notice a lull
Exploiting wind shifts mean to the other and back again. in the wind followed by your telltales
If you have to tack upwind, you will At other times, the wind may shift lifting, suggesting a wind shift, the
sail the quickest course if you tack from one direction to another due to a cause is likely to be a velocity header.
when you are headed. If the wind
change in the weather pattern, possibly This occurs when the apparent wind
shifts back, it will head you again
on the other tack. You can then the passage of a front (pp.372–373), shifts forward because of a drop in
tack again and make more ground and then, rather than oscillating true wind speed, while the boat speed
to windward. Remember that a backward and forward, it will move has yet to drop. Hold your course; do
wind shift that is a header on port from the old direction to the new not bear away as you would in a true
tack is a freer on starboard tack. one, sometimes rapidly and at other header until the boat speed drops and
times in small, incremental movements. the apparent wind moves aft again.
Wind before shift
In some localities, the proximity and Similarly, expect a lift when the
shape of the land causes the wind to wind speed increases and, if possible,
Original course bend across an area (opposite). anticipate it by luffing up slightly as
Wind When you are sailing, and especially the gust arrives to take advantage
after shift
when racing, it is very important to of the velocity shift moving the
Course after header work out how the wind is shifting or apparent wind aft temporarily.
bending so that you can take advantage
of the shifts or bend to reduce the Using a compass
header distance you need to sail. Spotting wind Small-boat sailors use a compass
A header will force you to bear away shifts may be quite easy if the shift is tactically to spot changes in wind
from your course in order to keep the
a large one, if you know the waters on direction. If the wind is blowing
sails full. You will then have to tack
to reach your destination.
Boat on lifted
Wind shifts to Boat tacks to port, port tack
the left and which is now the
Wind after shift Wind shifts to the right
boat is headed lifted tack
and boat is headed
035º 125º beyond mean course
Wind 125º 080º
Course after freer before 035º
080º
shift
045º 140º 095º
090º
In mean wind
Original course Wind shifts
direction, boat is Wind shifts Boat tacks to starboard,
on starboard tack to the right
to the left which is now the lifted tack

freer
When the wind moves aft, it is a freer. wind shifts to the left wind shifts to the right
To prevent your boat from sailing too Boat on starboard tack sees compass Boat now on port tack sees compass
far off course in a freer, you should luff heading change from 045º to 035º, heading change from 125º to 140º,
up as soon as the wind shifts. showing a 10º header, and tacks showing a 15º header, and tacks
to port tack. to starboard tack.
 IMPROVING YOUR TECHNIQUE
133
tack to stay on unless the number
Wind shifts to right
on port increases to more than the (veers) by 10º
average heading of 135º. Wind returns to
If the wind then shifts to the right mean direction
and the sailor finds themselves on a 010º Wind shifts to left
new heading of 140º, the compass is (backs) by 10º
000º
now telling them that they are on a Mean
5º header, and it is time to tack once Starboard direction
350º
again onto starboard, which is the new tack lifted
by 10º—
“lifted tack.” Identifying such subtle compass
changes in wind direction would be numbers 000º
go up
very difficult without a compass.
Starboard tack headed
mechanical compass by 10º—compass
Types of tactical compass
A mechanical compass uses a permanent numbers go down
magnet fixed to a pivoted compass card
The conventional type of compass
in a chamber filled with a damping liquid. uses a magnet under a card engraved oscillating wind shifts
with compass degrees. The card is An oscillating wind shifts on either side of a
mounted on a pivot in an oil-filled mean direction. Remember the rule about
from an average direction of 090º (an bowl that acts as a damping compass numbers increasing or decreasing
easterly direction) and your boat sails mechanism to minimize excessive (below) to quickly spot lifts and headers.
close-hauled at an angle of 45 degrees movement of the card in rough seas.
to the wind, then the boat’s course on An electronic compass does not force lift header
starboard tack will be 045º and 135º require damping in the same way,
on port. If the wind then shifts 10 and it is possible to read changes Compass Compass

port
tack
degrees to the left, to blow from in heading to the nearest degree, number number
goes down goes up
080º, then a sailor traveling on rather than the 5 degrees that is
starboard tack will notice that their the practical limit of accuracy of a starboard
course has changed from 045º to conventional compass. Some tactical Compass Compass
035º. This is a good time to tack on electronic compasses are solar-powered. number number
tack

goes up goes down

to port, where their heading will now Not all classes allow them to be used,
be 135 – 10 = 125º. This is a good so check before buying one.

WIND BENDS Boat that first heads

Sometimes the wind can curve to the inside of the
wind bend comes
across the course, particularly out ahead
when it is blowing around a
high headland or over a large
obstacle like a hill or mountain
in the vicinity of the course. In
a wind bend, the shortest route
upwind is achieved by sailing
toward the inside of the bend on
the headed tack, then tacking
onto a lift that takes you up the
using a wind bend
inside of the curve. In this case, If a wind bend is the cause of a shift in
electronic compass
tacking at the first sign of a wind direction, stay on the headed tack An electronic compass is easier to read
header would be the wrong to get to the inside of the bend before than a conventional compass. This unit is
course of action. tacking onto the lifted tack. mounted on the mast and is self-powered
by a solar cell on the top of the compass.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
134

SAILING EXERCISES
Confident boat handling is a sure sign of a good sailor. It can
be developed only through practice on the water, preferably in a
range of dinghies, since this will show how different characteristics
influence handling. The best way to learn the finer points of
controlling a dinghy is to experiment with a few boat-handling
exercises. The first time you attempt the exercises described here, in reverse
A keelboat can be sailed backward in the
choose a gentle Force 2–3 wind and sail to a clear stretch of water, same way as a dinghy, but more than one
free from obstructions or other boats. person may need to hold the boom out.

Sailing with one sail designed to balance around its pivot not have enough speed to be able to
If you have a two-person dinghy point (at the centerboard or keel); steer with the rudder. If this happens,
with the standard arrangement of removing the jib moves the center the boat will turn into the wind and
mainsail and jib, you will usually of effort aft, giving the boat weather stop. Keep the boat moving as fast as
use both sails when sailing. The rig helm (p.130). It therefore tries to possible, sailing just off a close-hauled
is designed for both sails to work turn into the wind. The helm must course to make progress to windward
together and to balance their forces counteract the weather helm by without stalling.
around the centerboard. However, moving the tiller farther to windward The lack of the jib will not be
when a two-sail dinghy is sailed to keep the boat on course. so apparent on downwind courses,
under a single sail, its handling The boat will sail reasonably because it is the size of the mainsail
characteristics change considerably, well on a beam reach but with more that contributes most to speed and,
and it may be difficult to complete weather helm than normal. If you on a run, the jib is often blanketed
some maneuvers. sail a dinghy that has a centerboard, behind the mainsail.
Try sailing on all the points you can reduce excess weather helm
of sailing (pp.40–41), first under by raising it more than usual to Jib alone
mainsail alone and then only with move the pivot point aft. If you Once you have mastered sailing under
the jib. This exercise teaches you sail a keelboat or a dinghy with a mainsail alone, try the exercise under
about sail balance and how your daggerboard, this option is not jib alone. Without the mainsail, the
boat reacts under a single sail. You available to you. boat will suffer from lee helm on a
will also find out how your boat As you turn toward the wind to a beam reach or upwind courses. It will
handles at slow speeds, which will close-reaching course, the lack of a jib be considerably slower than usual on
be useful when you are sailing to will impede performance even more. all points of sailing. Sailing downwind
and from the shore or when you By the time you reach close-hauled, is easy but slow, but sailing upwind
are in competition and maneuvering the boat will feel quite sluggish. When will be difficult. Some boats will sail
at the start of a race. you tack, the boat will turn into the upwind under jib alone but with a
wind easily, but it will be slow to considerable amount of lee helm. Sail
Mainsail alone bear away on the new tack. Ease the with the centerboard or daggerboard
Start by lowering the jib and sailing mainsheet after the tack to bear away farther down than usual to help
under mainsail alone. Without the to a close reach. This will increase counter this. Tacking under the jib is
jib in front of it, the mainsail is less speed before you attempt to sail close- difficult or impossible in some boats
efficient (p.33) and the boat will sail hauled on the new tack. Be careful not or weather conditions, such as strong
more slowly, especially on upwind to let the boat slow down too much winds. Experiment to see how your
courses. The boat’s sail plan is when sailing close-hauled or you will boat behaves in a range of conditions.
 SAILING EXERCISES
135
SAILING BACKWARD Sailing without a centerboard
Remember that when the boat is moving backward through the water, Centerboards or daggerboards rarely
the flow of water over the rudder is reversed, so its action is also reversed, break (although it is possible to lose
and the bow will move in the same direction in which you move the tiller. a daggerboard during a capsize if it
With the rudder now leading the boat as it moves backward, its effects are is not secured to the boat). However,
exaggerated. Make only small movements with the tiller, or the boat will it is useful to try sailing without one
swing quickly to lie at an angle to the wind. Keep the crew weight well so that you can see just how much
forward to stop the transom from digging in, which will also make the they influence the way a dinghy
boat turn. When you want to sail forward again, push the tiller in behaves under sail. Stop the boat
the direction you want the bow to move. Wait until the boat turns, on a close reach and raise the
then center the tiller, sheet in the sails, and sail off. centerboard completely. Now sail
off on a beam reach and watch
the way in which the boat slides
1 Point the boat directly into the wind so sideways, making considerable
that the jib flaps on the centerline, and have leeway (p.71) as it sails forward.
your crew push the boom out fully on one Tacking is difficult or impossible
side. Let the mainsheet run out to allow the
Crew pushes without a centerboard to pivot
boom to be pushed all the way out. Watch
boom right out around. Before attempting to tack,
the water flowing past the boat to gauge
when the boat has stopped. Until it stops, Helm steers to get the boat sailing as fast as possible
the rudder will work in the normal way. hold the boat on a close reaching course and push
head-to-wind
Use it to hold the boat head-to-wind. the tiller away farther than usual to
try to get the bow through the wind
as quickly as possible. If, despite this,
the boat fails to tack, you will have
2 When the boat starts moving backward, to jibe around to change tack.
the rudder will work in the opposite way from On upwind courses, it is hard to
normal. To steer in reverse, push the tiller a make headway because the dinghy
small amount in the direction you wish the
Crew holds boom will crab sideways as fast as it goes
bow to turn. Do not make large movements
forward. Experiment with heeling
with the tiller or the boat will turn violently.
Helm steers the boat to leeward slightly and
in reverse moving the crew’s weight right
forward to depress the bow and
3 To sail forward again, push the tiller the Veed sections of the front part
in the direction you want the bow to go. of the hull. If you sail a deep-
It is usually best to turn the bow to the hulled, general-purpose type dinghy,
side the boom is on. If you turn the other
especially one constructed with flat
way, the boom will swing rapidly
panels and chines (p.62), the shape of
across the boat when it is released. Crew lets go of boom on
Tell your crew to let go of the boom. helm’s direction the hull may provide sufficient lateral
resistance to allow you to make some
Helm pushes the tiller
to the side the boom is
progress to windward. If you sail
Helm on to turn the bow in a dinghy with a very shallow hull,
centers tiller that direction
and sheets
however, it is likely to be impossible
in mainsail Crew sheets to make any progress upwind. Even
in jib
on a beam reach, the boat will make
considerable leeway. It is only when
you are on downwind courses,
4 When the boat has turned sufficiently—to
when the centerboard would usually
a close reach or beam reach course—the helm
moves the tiller to the centerline and they and be only slightly down, that the boat
the crew sheet in the sails to sail off forward. will sail normally.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
136
Sailing without a rudder it down by the bow. To bear away, impossible at first, as you will tend
Another good exercise is to sail around reverse these instructions. Without to sail in circles, but with practice,
a triangular course without the rudder. the rudder, the effects of the other you should be able to achieve it
Either remove the rudder completely controls become more obvious. It in moderate conditions. You will
or, if it is a lifting type, raise the blade is usually best to try this in light find you will need to raise the
out of the water. Sailing without the winds with only one person in centerboard quite considerably to
rudder teaches you the importance of the boat. This gives you total rebalance the boat. Once you are
sail trim, centerboard position, and control over all turning forces proficient at sailing on your own
boat balance and trim. Remember, to and avoids confusion between without a rudder, practice the exercise
luff up trim in the mainsail, let out the the helm and the crew. A with your crew so that you learn to
jib, heel the boat to leeward, and trim triangular course will seem coordinate your movements.

PRACTICING WITHOUT A RUDDER

Take the rudder off the boat. Keep the centerboard half
down to start with and use the jib and mainsail, together
with boat heel, to turn the boat.

1 To luff up, let 2 To bear away, pull 3 To sail a straight

out the jib, sheet in in the jib, let out the course, keep the boat
the mainsail, and mainsail, and heel the upright using crew
allow the boat to boat to windward. weight and balance
heel to leeward. the mainsail and jib.

Helm
Ease out the mainsheet
so that the mainsail flaps

Jib
Ease out the jib
sheet so that the
jib flaps
 SAILING EXERCISES
137
Fixing the rudder to senses for sailing. Try sailing with
the centerline a blindfold and see what you can
An alternative to sailing without learn from touch and sound. This
the rudder is to leave the rudder in exercise is best tried in a double-
position and to secure the tiller on handed boat where helm and crew
the centerline by tying shockcord can take turns wearing the
(elastic line) from the tiller to both blindfold, with the sighted sailor
gunwales or to the toestraps. Tie giving feedback to the blindfolded
the shockcord fairly tightly so sailor. Try this exercise only in a
that it takes some force to move clear stretch of open water, with
the tiller off the centerline. Now, no other boats or obstructions in
practice sailing without holding the your way. This exercise will assist
tiller. The advantage of this method you to develop the “feel” necessary
is that it more accurately reflects the to sail the boat automatically while
normal sailing situation, where the maintaining full speed, which is an fixing the rudder
area of the rudder blade assists essential skill when you are racing. To sail with the rudder fixed in a central
the centerboard in preventing leeway Although you will initially feel position, use a length of heavy shockcord
and influences the boat’s balance. It very disoriented when deprived of to lash the tiller on the centerline.
also means that if you need to use vision, try to focus on how the boat
the rudder in a hurry, it is already in feels through the tiller, the sound Switching places
place and you only need to remove of the bow wave, and the angle of Another exercise that is only relevant
the shockcord from the tiller to heel. Get used to these sounds and to boats with two or more crew
regain full control. sensations when the boat is sailing is to change places among the crew.
well and try to replicate them to Switching places allows everyone
Blindfold sailing achieve the same performance. to learn what it is like to do the
There are some excellent blind This helps you get to know your other jobs in the boat and is equally
sailors in the world who have boat and the way it handles in valuable whether you sail a two-
learned to rely on their other the water. person dinghy or a keelboat with a
crew of four or more. It helps give
you a much greater understanding
of your sailing partner’s role and
might help you appreciate how you
can adjust your technique to make
their tasks easier. Try this exercise
in a Force 3 or less, when the boat
is relatively easy to handle and
capsizing is unlikely. If you have
spent the day racing in one role,
use the sail back into shore as an
opportunity to switch positions.
It is a nice change to do
rudderless sailing
If your boat has a something different, and you will
lifting rudder, you can become a more complete sailor if
simply lift the blade you can master both roles. Once
rather than remove the ashore, discuss your perceptions
rudder completely. of the tasks your partner normally
undertakes and explore ideas for
making each other’s jobs easier
or faster.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
138

USING TRAPEZES
Trapeze systems
A trapeze system consists of a trapeze
harness attached to a trapeze wire
suspended from the hounds. It enables
Sailing dinghies rely on the weight of their crew to keep them sailors to hang out over the side of
upright when they are being sailed. In many general-purpose the boat, moving their weight farther
outboard and adding to the boat’s
dinghies, this is achieved by the helm and crew sitting out as stability. Formerly, the standard
far as possible with their feet under toestraps. However, arrangement was a single trapeze for
high-performance dinghies usually have a much larger sail area the crew only. This is still used in
many dinghies, such as the 505 and
than general-purpose dinghies and, in most conditions, sitting out
the 470. With the appearance of ever-
is simply not sufficient to balance the power of the sails. Trapeze larger rigs, however, twin trapezes
systems are used in these boats to increase the righting power. have become common. The Olympic
49er and International 14 are
examples of twin-trapeze boats.
SWINGING OUT AND IN Good communication between
Practice getting out onto the trapeze and helm and crew is vital in a trapeze
back into the boat until your movements
boat. The helm must give the crew
are smooth and confident. Then practice
plenty of warning of a tack or jibe
while tacking until you can swing in,
unhook, move across the boat while to allow them time to come in off
trimming the jib, and swing out on the the trapeze. Good coordination is
trapeze on the new windward side. also essential, as the use of a trapeze
accentuates the crew’s effect on the
boat’s balance. In particular, the helm
1 Hook the trapeze to the
must be ready to ease the mainsheet
harness and sit out, allowing the
trapeze wire to take your weight. to keep the boat upright as the crew
Hold the jib
Hold the handle lightly in your sheet in your
swings in and must be prepared to
front hand for control and security. aft hand give the crew time to get out on the
trapeze after a tack or jibe before
2 Put your front foot Shockcord runs
around mast
sheeting in or altering course.
on the gunwale and
and tensions
push yourself out,
leeward trapeze Single trapeze
keeping your body at
right angles to the boat.
On a single trapeze system, wires run
Bring your aft foot up from just above the hounds, one on
so that you are standing each side of the mast, to suspend the
on the gunwale. crew outside the gunwale. The end
of the wire comes down just aft of
Place your front foot the shrouds. The wire has a handle
on the gunwale
and, usually, a stainless-steel ring for
attachment to the trapeze harness. The
3 Lean back at full trapeze ring often has an adjustment
stretch with your feet system to allow control of the height
about shoulder-width
Stretch out at which the trapeze is held. A length
apart. To come in, supported by
of stretchy shockcord connects the
reverse the procedure. the trapeze
Take your aft foot two trapeze wires and runs around the
off the gunwale front of the mast. It keeps the leeward
first. wire taut and neat when the crew is
on the windward trapeze.
 USING TRAPEZES
139
Trapezing techniques
When you are out on the trapeze, you HARNESSES
must be ready to move your weight in The secret to being relaxed on a trapeze is a comfortable harness. Choose
and out quickly to react to gusts or one with a high, broad back to give good support. Many top trapeze
lulls and to move your weight fore or sailors have a “diaper” harness tailor-made to fit their body snugly.
aft to keep the boat trimmed properly. Alternatively, you can buy an adjustable harness that can be altered with
Your weight will be most effective buckles or laces. Some harnesses use a spreader bar arrangement for the
if you trapeze as low as possible, hook or a simpler, square metal plate. The most important thing is to
parallel to the water when the boat select a harness that will keep you comfortable during a whole day’s sailing.
is upright, but this is only practical
in flat water and steady conditions.
When there are big waves or if the Fitting and maintenance the hook to be detached from the
wind is gusty and shifty, raise your Make sure that the harness fits well harness when needed. Although many
position using the adjustment system over your sailing gear and that it harnesses are still sold with a fixed
evenly spreads the load of your hook, a buckle with a quick-release
on the trapeze wire to keep your
weight hanging from the trapeze hook can be bought separately to
body clear of the water. Not only
into your back and lower body. The replace the standard buckle.
is the boat slowed significantly if trapeze ring is attached to a hook
your body hits a wave, but the on a metal plate on the harness. If
impact could cause you to lose your possible, adjust the harness so that
footing and be knocked off the side the hook is just below the waist, at
of the boat. your body’s point of balance. Check
the harness’s stitching regularly and
Adjustable
wash it thoroughly in fresh water
Heel and trim after each sail.
shoulder straps

Adjust to changes in heel by stretching

outward to help the boat sail through Alternative types of harness
gusts and bending your knees to A potential problem when using a
Adjust
swing your weight inboard if the wind traditional trapeze harness is that
the harness
dies. Maintain correct fore-and-aft the large metal hook on the front for a snug fit
trim by moving your weight along the of the harness can get caught on
ropes and rigging and in rare cases
gunwale. As the boat bears away,
can present a serious safety problem
move aft to help the bow lift. This is
when the hook snags on rigging
especially important when planing during a capsize or inversion.
under a spinnaker (p.147). A safer alternative to the fixed
hook is a trapeze harness fitted with STANDARD
Balance a quick-release system that allows TRAPEZE HARNESS
The trapeze wire leads upward and
forward from your body, so it will
pull you forward. Resist this tendency
by keeping your front leg straight
and bending your aft leg to remain
balanced. If the boat slows rapidly
for any reason, such as plowing into
a wave, the force trying to pull you
forward will increase quickly, so be
prepared to swing your weight aft.
quick-release hook releasing the hook
Many boats have footstraps on the Some trapeze harnesses come complete If the quick-release hook becomes
gunwale toward the stern to allow with a quick-release hook, but the buckle snagged, it can be instantly detached from
the trapezing crew to secure their aft can be retrofitted to standard harnesses. the harness by pulling on the release cord.
foot and avoid being pulled forward.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
140
Multiple trapezes Boats with multiple trapeze systems and jibing. Some boats have two
Some high-performance boats often have racks or wings that extend tiller extensions, one for each side
are fitted with multiple trapeze out from each gunwale. Racks are of the boat, which makes it faster
systems to enable both the helm made of aluminum or carbon fiber to run across the boat when tacking
and crew to trapeze. Although most tubing, whereas wings may be of and jibing.
high-performance dinghies sail with solid construction. The crew stands One noticeable difference between
a crew of two, the 18-foot Skiff on these when trapezing to move sailing a Skiff-type dinghy and a more
sails with three crew on trapezes. their weight even farther outboard. traditional design is the way the crew
Some of the extreme boats Trapeze wires and rings are the same moves around the boat. In a modern
designed to sail on Swiss or Italian as on a single trapeze, although design, the helm and crew are usually
lakes have as many as nine crew, the helm’s trapeze may not have trapezing, and they rarely sit in or on
all on trapezes. Sailing a boat with a handle, as both their hands are the boat. During tacks and jibes, they
multiple trapezes requires great full with the mainsheet and tiller stand up, moving quickly from one
skill, coordination, and plenty extension. When trapezing, the helm side to the other, often running across
of practice, as well as very good uses a very long tiller extension. the boat and out onto the rack or
communication between all crew. They pass this aft when tacking wing on the other side.

sailing with twin trapezes

Some high-performance dinghies sail with both helm
and crew on trapezes. The helm steers using a very
long tiller extension. Skiff-type dinghies are usually
narrow and have wings or racks to increase the
righting power of the trapezing crew.
 141
Going out on the handle
The safest way to go out on the
trapeze is by hooking on first and then
pushing off the side of the boat with
your front foot (p.138). Once you are
comfortable and confident with this
technique, you can try holding on to
the handle and pushing out in the same
way with your legs, before clipping the
hook on to your harness, once you are
fully trapezing. This requires good arm
and shoulder strength but enables you
to move out on to the trapeze more
quickly. When you become confident
with this technique, you can try
“handle-to-handle” tacking, the fastest
method used by the best sailors. This
fly by wire
keeps your weight out on the old tack Sailing a high-performance, single-handed trapeze
until the last minute and gets it out dinghy, which has little natural stability, requires a
on the new tack as fast as possible. great deal of practice and excellent coordination.
However, a loss of strength or a failure
in coordination as you tack will result
in an unexpected swim.
crewing for someone else first so that the water while still attached
Using your arms you can develop good technique to their trapeze wires. Among
The trapeze is a useful way of creating before combining it with helming. high-performance sailors, this
more righting moment and being able In many boats, the helm holds is known as “tea-bagging.”
to harness more of the wind’s power. the mainsheet in their front hand.
If, as your confidence increases, you In other boats, like the 49er or the Single-handed trapezing
can stand on tiptoe, then you can 18-foot Skiff, the crew controls the Single-handed trapezing is very similar
increase your righting moment in gusts mainsheet (it often comes straight to helming from the trapeze in a
by a few percent more. Putting one or from the boom rather than a block double-handed boat, except that you
even two arms behind your head will on the floor), leaving the helm free to do not have the luxury of a crew to
further increase your righting moment concentrate on steering. The important run around to keep the boat balanced.
and help the boat go a little bit faster thing is to anticipate any changes This means that sailing a trapezing
in strong winds. In order to do this, about to affect the boat, such as single-hander requires extra vigilance
you need good balance because you a gust, a lull, a windshift, or another to spot any change in the conditions
can no longer use the jib sheet in your boat nearby. and respond quickly in order to keep
hand to steady yourself in rough Think ahead and try to spot the boat sailing upright. Be ready to
conditions. Rather than dropping the situations before they arise. By spotting bend your knees and swing back into
jib sheet altogether, however, fasten it a gust or lull before it arrives, you can the boat quickly if you think you are
loosely through one of the straps in bend your knees, ease the mainsheet, about to sail into a lull or a heading
your harness so that it is close at hand steer the boat, or do whatever else is wind shift, or to ease the mainsheet to
should you need to adjust it. necessary to cope with the change of cope with strong gusts. It helps if you
situation. If you leave the decision too adjust the length of your trapeze wire
Helming from the wire late, you can end up getting wet. When so that you trapeze a bit higher than
Helming from the trapeze is easier the boat heels to windward—typically usual, as this enables you to respond
than it looks, but it is wise to get in a lull or a heading wind shift—the more easily to an unexpected change
some experience on the trapeze by crew can be dumped very rapidly into in wind conditions and boat heel.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
142

TACKING AND JIBING

When you tack and jibe in a high-performance dinghy,
your balance and boat-handling skills are really put to
the test. Your movements must be smooth and quick, 4 The crew then
swings out on the
and they must be timed carefully. A tack nearly always trapeze, hooks on,
slows the boat, and a jibe can result in a capsize. In and sheets the jib
fully home.
light winds, you can try roll tacking and roll jibing to
ensure that you maintain speed through the maneuvers. Helm
Sheet in the
However, this is only possible in conventionally shaped mainsail as the
crew swings out
dinghies—not skiff or foil-borne types.

Helm
Ease the mainsheet

TACKING when the boat is

head-to-wind and
move to the new side
High-performance boats are very Good communication between helm
sensitive to weight distribution and and crew is vital. In a single-trapeze
turn very quickly. The fastest dinghies boat, the helm has to pace the turn
are inherently unstable and are not to suit the speed of the crew. In a
forgiving of mistakes. They have twin or multiple-trapeze boat, the
more stability when sailing fast than helm may also be trapezing and
when moving slowly, such as during cannot tack as fast because they
a tack. The helm and crew must aim have to move across the boat and
to complete each tack and get the out onto the new trapeze while
boat sailing fast on the new tack handling a long, single tiller
as quickly as possible. extension or twin extensions.

TACKING WITH A TRAPEZE

When learning to tack a boat with
single or multiple trapezes, the helm 3 As the boat
should start by tacking fairly slowly. passes head-to-
Too fast a tack will make it difficult wind, the crew
for the crew to get across the boat— sheets the jib partly
and out on the new trapeze— in on the new side.
before the sails fill again. Crew
This will cause the boat Move into
the boat
to heel and slow
down considerably.
Crew 2 As the helm starts the
Unhook and tack, the crew swings into
prepare to move in the boat and moves
into the middle, keeping
1 When the helm calls a tack, the jib sheet taut.
the crew unhooks while remaining
on the trapeze using the handle.
 TACKING AND JIBING
143

multiple-trapeze tack Crew

In a boat with multiple trapezes, the helm has to deal with Adjust weight to
balance the boat
a trapeze, tiller extension, and possibly the mainsheet.
With a double extension, they release the old one and
pick up the other when they have crossed the boat.
4 Once the boat is upright,
the crew moves quickly
back to the middle or to
ROLL TACKING
leeward to balance the helm’s
In most conditions, a tack causes the boat to weight to windward.
slow down. However, in light airs, speed can
be maintained (or even increased) by roll
tacking. Rolling the boat through a tack in Helm
Change sides
light winds drags the sails through the air,
and sit down
increasing the speed of the airflow and
accelerating the boat. Roll tacks (and jibes)
are not used in skiff-type dinghies, since their
racks hit the water and slow the boat down. 3 When the boat is halfway
between head-to-wind and
the new close-hauled course,
both helm and crew move
up to the new windward side
and pull the boat upright.
As they do so, the helm
Helm
sheets in the mainsail to its
Allow boat to
heel to leeward correct setting.
and let the tiller
Crew
move naturally
Heel the boat
to leeward
to windward
Helm
Steer into tack
and heel the boat 2 As the boat comes up into the wind,
both helm and crew lean out hard on the
windward side, rolling the boat toward
them. As the boat passes head-to-wind,
Crew
the crew sheets the jib to the new side
Heel the boat
to leeward
1 Just before a roll
and the helm eases the mainsheet.
tack, bear away slightly to
increase boat speed, then
heel the boat to leeward
and steer into the tack.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
144
JIBING
When you jibe a high-performance When sailing in waves, you should Centerboard position
boat, the keys to completing the jibe when the boat is on the face of The risk of capsizing is increased
maneuver successfully are speed the wave, as this is when it will be if the centerboard or daggerboard is
and boat balance before the jibe. sailing at its fastest. Wait until the too far up or down. In most boats,
You should also take care to check boat’s bow drops down the face of it pays to have the board about one
the centerboard position before you a wave (and the boat accelerates) quarter down during the jibe. Any
jibe. High-performance boats sail before turning into the jibe. Never farther down and it will be difficult
downwind under a spinnaker or jibe on the back of a wave, when the to bear away into the jibe when
asymmetric, and you need to learn boat will be slowing down, causing sailing fast. There is also a risk of
how to handle these sails during a the apparent wind to increase. the boat “tripping” over the board
jibe (p.96). Twin- or multiple-trapeze Keeping the boat balanced will and broaching (turning rapidly to
boats sail downwind with the crew help you avoid a windward capsize windward) after the jibe. If the
trapezing and require even greater before the jibe or a leeward capsize board is too far up, the boat may
skill and agility when jibing than after it. Heeling to windward too roll as you bear away into the jibe,
other high-performance boats (p.124). much, as you bear away into the jibe, making it hard for the helm to
can result in a rapid wipeout to retain control and risking a capsize.
Speed and balance windward. Alternatively, if the boat is Experiment with your boat to find
Speed before the jibe reduces the allowed to heel to leeward, it will be the optimum centerboard position for
strength of the apparent wind, which harder for the helm to turn into the jibing in a range of wind strengths.
makes it easier to bring the mainsail jibe. In boats with a low boom, there
across to the new leeward side and is also a risk of the boom hitting the Jibing with a trapeze
reduces the wind pressure on the rig. water, possibly causing a capsize. Single-trapeze boats with a
spinnaker often sail downwind on
broad-reaching courses, which do
not require the crew to be on the
trapeze except in strong winds.
In this case, the helm and crew
jibe in the standard way. Twin- or
multiple-trapeze boats, however,
usually sail downwind with an
asymmetric on a shallower course,
with the crew trapezing. In this case,
the boat must turn through a broader
angle in the jibe and the crew has
to move quickly to jibe and get out
on the trapezes on the new side.

twin-trapeze jibe
On a twin-trapeze boat, the helm steers
onto a run and moves into the boat just
after the crew. They swing the long tiller
extension aft and around to the new side
during the jibe. They then change hands
on the extension and mainsheet and
hook on to the new trapeze, ready to
move out as they luff onto the new course.
 TACKING AND JIBING: JIBING
145
ROLL JIBING
For boats without a 3 The boat will accelerate TIPS ON ADVANCED
out of the jibe, helped by
spinnaker, a roll jibe is a
the lowered centerboard. TACKING AND JIBING
very effective technique Once the jibe is Tacking and jibing are always a
for maintaining speed in completed, set the good test of skill, and you can
light winds. When using a centerboard for judge a dinghy or keelboat crew’s
spinnaker or asymmetric, the new course.
you can use a small roll to teamwork by how they tack and
help the boom over in light jibe, especially in very light or
winds. A large roll may make very strong winds. Both of these
the spinnaker collapse. Keep extremes demand excellent “feel,”
your use of the rudder to a good communication, and quality
minimum by using sails and boat handling.
heel to steer the boat.
Communication
Tacking or jibing requires very
close coordination between the
helm and crew. A wrong move by
Helm either, or poor synchronization
Change sides and during the turn, can unbalance and
pull the boat upright slow the boat. In light airs, this will
stop the boat, and in strong winds,
it risks a capsize. If you race a high-
performance boat, you will quickly
discover that quite small mistakes
mean the difference between
winning a race or being a runner-up.
Improve your performance by good
communication in the boat and by
Helm
Bear away discussing maneuvers, and your
into the jibe technique, when ashore.

Practice
The quickest way to improve your
skills is by spending lots of time
practicing on the water. Leading
Olympic and international crews
spend several hours on the water
nearly every day, honing their skills.
Normal club sailors cannot devote
so much time, but even a few hours
of serious practice will be rewarded
2 The boat should by smoother and faster maneuvers.
be heeled enough so
that the end of the Feel
boom just touches the Crew
The elusive skill you should seek
Prepare to
water after the jibe. As is called “feel.” It tells you how the
roll the boat
it does so, pause until boat is about to react and how to
the mainsail fills, then “find the groove”—the fine, ever-
pull the boat upright changing edge on which a boat
using crew weight. 1 Before the jibe,
sails when perfectly balanced;
lower the centerboard fully.
With the boat on a run, the with a light helm, little heel, and
crew rolls it to windward and
Helm a willingness to accelerate.
Rotate the
prepares to pull on the vang tiller extension
to swing the boom across. to leeward
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
146

SPINNAKERS Head of sail

Hoisted close to the
halyard sheeve

Sail panels
Loved by artists, photographers, and spectators Dinghy spinnakers
because of their shape and their bright colors, are often cross-cut

spinnakers often cause concern for the crews who Uphaul

Line that holds the
have to trim them. In fact, if a simple routine is spinnaker pole up

followed, these large, lightweight sails are not Spinnaker pole

difficult to fly, and they add tremendously to Projects the clew
away from the boat
the sail area, providing much-increased power.
A spinnaker brings a performance boat alive.

Anatomy of a spinnaker
Spinnakers were originally used only on
downwind courses, but modern sailcloth and
sail shapes allow high-performance boats to
carry spinnakers even on a beam reach.
A variation of the conventional
spinnaker, called an asymmetric spinnaker
or, sometimes, a gennaker, has become
popular on many high-performance
boats (pp.154–157), but conventional
spinnakers are still widely used
on all types of boats.
A conventional spinnaker is attached
only at its three corners rather than to
a spar or stay along any of its sides,
and it relies on the force of the wind
Downhaul
to keep it in position when hoisted. Holds down
It requires skill and practice to hoist, spinnaker
pole
set, and lower a spinnaker properly Sheet
Leads from the
while avoiding twists and tangles. clew to a block
Apart from the spinnaker at the stern, then Guy
forward to a cleat Spinnaker
itself, you will need a spinnaker sheet to
pole, a halyard and hoisting system, windward
and sheets. The sheets lead from
Reaching hook
each clew, outside all the rigging, Holds guy down
to blocks and cleats on the sidedecks. clear of the crew

The sheet on the windward side

of the boat is known as the guy. parts of
a spinnaker
When you jibe, the old sheet The spinnaker is set
becomes the new guy and vice versa. ahead of the forestay with
Many crews use a continuous sheet its windward clew extended by the
system in which a single piece of rope spinnaker pole. Two sheets, attached
is attached at each end to the clews. to the clews, control the sail.
 SPINNAKERS
147
twinning lines are used. A twinning
line comprises a small block with
using a spinnaker
A spinnaker adds considerably a light line attached to it. The block
to the sail area when sailing off runs along the spinnaker sheet, and
the wind. Here, an International the line leads through another block,
Dragon keelboat sails on a run mounted on the gunwale, near the
with the spinnaker set. shroud, and then to a cleat where it
can be adjusted. In use, the twinning
line on the guy is pulled tight to hold
the guy down; the twinning line
on the sheet is left slack.

Marking the sheets

Setting the spinnaker can be made
simpler by marking the sheets, so
that you can effectively preset the
sail for hoisting and jibing.
To mark the sheets, first hoist
the spinnaker in light winds, with the
boat stern-to-wind. Set the sail square
across the bow, without the pole and
with neither sheet under a reaching
hook, then cleat the sheets. Use
a permanent marker to mark each
Spinnaker design of the outer end. The fittings on sheet at the point where it passes
Spinnakers are made from lightweight the ends of the pole have retractable through its cleat. In the future, when
nylon sailcloth. Downwind spinnakers plungers, which are controlled by you prepare to jibe the spinnaker,
are generally cut with a full shape, a a light line that runs along the pole simply cleat each sheet at its mark
wide midsection, and a broad head, from one end-fitting to the other. In to set the sail correctly for the jibe.
whereas those for reaching have a some boats, the pole is stowed in To make it faster to set the
flatter and narrower design. Dinghies the boat, whereas in many high- spinnaker after hoisting, put another
usually have one all-around spinnaker, performance boats, it is stowed in set of marks on the sheets. Hoist the
whereas small keelboats may have brackets that are fitted to the boom. sail and set the pole with the outboard
a choice of two, for running or end just off the forestay. Then mark
reaching courses, and larger racing Sheet leads the guy at its cleat. Before a hoist,
yachts may have several spinnakers The arrangement for the sheets varies cleat the guy at its mark and the
for use in a range of conditions. between different boat designs, but pole will be set correctly for a reach.
the turning blocks for the sheets
Spinnaker pole are usually placed on the sidedecks Stowage systems
The spinnaker pole is used to near the stern. The sheet then leads Methods of stowing, hoisting, and
extend the spinnaker clew away forward to the crew, often through lowering the spinnaker vary, but
from the boat. It is usually made of a ratchet block, to ease the load the a good system allows you to hoist
aluminum or carbon fiber. The pole’s crew must hold. The guy usually has and lower the spinnaker quickly, with
inner end clips onto a bracket on the a system to allow it to be held down the minimum chance of a screw-up,
front of the mast, and the outer end near the shroud, out of the way of and stow it neatly without twists,
is clipped onto the spinnaker guy. the crew, when they are sitting out ready for hoisting again. Most small
The pole is held vertically by an or trapezing. On some dinghies, a boats have either a pouch stowage
uphaul and downhaul with which reaching hook is used for this purpose. system on either side of the mast
you can alter its angle and the height On others, and on small keelboats, or a chute system (pp.148–149).
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
148
SPINNAKER CHUTES
Many high-performance dinghies, as or run before hoisting or lowering.
well as some catamarans and small If the chute mouth is offset on the
keelboats, use a spinnaker chute to port side of the forestay, it is easier
stow a conventional or asymmetric to hoist and lower the spinnaker
spinnaker because a chute allows when on starboard tack so the chute
fast and easy hoisting and lowering. mouth is to leeward of the forestay.
You can hoist and lower on port
Chute systems tack, but if you do so, bear away
Spinnaker chutes are often built into to a broad reach or run before the
the boat. They have a bell-shaped hoist or drop to minimize friction
mouth set into the foredeck just ahead between the sail and the forestay.
of, or to one side of, the forestay. If The big advantage of a spinnaker
there is no room ahead of the forestay chute is that it relieves the crew of
for the chute mouth, it is usually set on the need to help with the hoist or
the port side, immediately behind the the drop. When hoisting, the helm
forestay. This means it is easier to hoist pulls up the sail and the crew can
and lower the spinnaker when on concentrate on fitting the spinnaker
starboard tack, which is usually the pole, setting the spinnaker as soon as chute mouth
tack on which you round the windward it is hoisted, and balancing the boat. Here, the chute mouth is ahead of the
mark when racing. On catamarans, the During the drop, the spinnaker is forestay, so the asymmetric spinnaker
chute mouth is often mounted on automatically gathered into its sock, fitted to this boat can be hoisted easily
the crossbeam or under a bowsprit so the crew is free to stow the pole. on either port or starboard tack.
(pp.168–169). A fabric sock or rigid
plastic tube runs from the mouth of
the chute back into the boat. This PACKING THE SPINNAKER IN A CHUTE
holds the spinnaker when it is stowed. It is important that the spinnaker is packed correctly in its chute before
Chute systems are useful because the boat goes afloat. It must be packed without twists, or it will be difficult
the spinnaker cannot become twisted for the crew to set the sail when it is hoisted.
when it is hoisted and lowered and
Packing procedure
both maneuvers become easier, Before you go afloat, attach the halyard, sheets, and downhaul to the spinnaker
although it is possible to drop the and hoist the sail to make sure it is not twisted. Pull on the downhaul as you
sail in the water under the bow when lower the spinnaker so that the sail is drawn into the chute. Keep pulling steadily
lowering if the correct procedure is until the entire spinnaker has disappeared completely into the mouth of the
not followed (p.151). chute. Take all the slack out of the halyard and the sheets and cleat them.
Spinnakers designed to be used with
a chute are often given a silicone finish stowing the spinnaker
When the spinnaker is stowed, by pulling The head and two clews
to reduce friction and to shed water are last into the chute
it into the chute using the downhaul, the
rapidly, as a chute often funnels
head and two clews should be the last
water over the sail when it is stowed. parts of the sail to disappear into the
A spray-on finish is also available. chute mouth. When the helm pulls on
the halyard to hoist the spinnaker, it
Using a spinnaker chute should slip smoothly out of the chute
without any twists and will set easily as
A chute system allows the spinnaker
the wind fills it.
to be hoisted and lowered relatively
easily, even on a beam reach, but it
is safest to steer onto a broad reach
 SPINNAKERS: SPINNAKER CHUTES/SPINNAKER POUCHES
149
SPINNAKER POUCHES
Stowing a spinnaker in a pouch, bag, Bags and lockers
or locker requires a little more care Some boats have a single bag behind
than when using a chute system. If the mast for stowage. The sail can
the spinnaker is not packed correctly, be hoisted and dropped to leeward
it can develop a twist that becomes or windward as needed. Some small
apparent when the sail is hoisted, keelboats have lockers on either
preventing it from being set correctly. side of the cockpit that work like
pouches. The sail is best stowed in
Using pouches the locker that will be to leeward
With a pouch system, the boat when hoisting the spinnaker.
is equipped with light fabric
pouches, one on either side of the
packing the spinnaker
mast. The spinnaker is best stowed
Whether a boat has a bag, pouches,
in the pouch that will be to leeward or lockers, the spinnaker is stowed in
when hoisting, as this allows for an exactly the same way. The middle of
easier hoist. When the sail is stowed, the spinnaker is packed first so that the
the halyard is hooked under the three corners attached to the sheets and
reaching hook to keep it neat. halyard end up on top of the packed sail.

PACKING THE SPINNAKER IN A POUCH

It is important to ensure that the spinnaker is correctly moored and then lower it into the pouch or locker. To
packed into its pouch, bag, or locker so that it can be do so, pull down one luff and pack it into the pouch,
hoisted quickly and easily. If possible, the best way to then gather in the rest of the sail until the three corners
do this is to hoist the sail while the boat is ashore or lie on top of the sail bundle.

1 Attach the halyard 2 As one person

and sheets to the slowly lowers the sail,
spinnaker and then the other grasps one
hoist the sail. clew and gathers in the
luff, gradually packing
it into the pouch.

Hoist the sail

Pull the sail
by pulling on
down by the luff
the halyard

3 Once the luff is stowed, gather

in the rest of the spinnaker so that
it ends up in the pouch with the head
and both clews on top. Hook the
halyard under the reaching hook to
keep it out of the way, and take any
slack out of the sheets before cleating.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
150
HOISTING AND LOWERING
Generally, a chute makes it easier between helm and crew. Some boats’ for either chute or pouch system,
to hoist and lower a spinnaker than class rules allow only one or the find out what the top sailors in your
with a pouch system, which requires other method of spinnaker stowage class are using and copy their systems
more manual dexterity from the crew system, but others allow a choice. first before experimenting with
and good timing and understanding If you do have the choice of opting alternative ideas.

POUCHES
HOISTING FROM A LEEWARD POUCH
A spinnaker is easier to hoist from a leeward pouch or locker because the
helm can usually hoist it directly out of the pouch without help from the crew.
Bear away to a run or broad reach to hoist the sail.

1 The crew
Spinnaker Uphaul
releases the halyard
pole
from the reaching
hook and pulls on
the guy to draw
the windward Guy Downhaul
clew toward the
forestay. As the
helm hoists the
sail, the crew clips
the pole to the guy.
2 The crew attaches the uphaul and 3 The helm controls the sheet and guy
downhaul and clips the inboard end of while the crew sets the pole, slips the guy
the spinnaker pole onto the mast bracket, under the reaching hook, or adjusts the
which is positioned above the boom. twinning line, then trims and cleats the guy.

HOISTING FROM A WINDWARD POUCH Helm

trims sheet
Good coordination and teamwork are needed when hoisting from a windward
and guy
pouch. Ensure that the sheets are marked correctly (p.147) so that you can
cleat the guy in the correct position beforehand. Bear away to a run before the
hoist. The crew has to take the bundled spinnaker out of the pouch and throw
it up and forward while the helm rapidly hoists it.

Crew holds Crew throws

bundled bundle up
spinnaker and forward

1 The crew frees the halyard and cleats 2 The helm hoists rapidly as the crew 3 The helm controls the sheet and guy
the guy so that the clew will clear the throws the sail forward. The crew pulls while the crew rigs the pole. The crew
forestay. They remove the spinnaker from on the sheet to bring the sail around to slips the guy under the reaching hook and
the pouch, holding it tightly. leeward of the forestay. cleats it, or pulls on the twinning line.
 SPINNAKERS: HOISTING AND LOWERING/POUCHES/CHUTES
151
Lowering the spinnaker leeward drop
You can choose between lowering the The crew pulls hard on the sheet until they can
spinnaker into either the windward reach the clew, then releases the guy and pulls
or leeward pouch, although the safest the sail under the boom and into the leeward
and quickest method in a dinghy pouch. Once all the sail is in the pouch and the
halyard is hooked under the reaching hook,
is to drop the spinnaker into the
the crew removes and stows the spinnaker pole.
windward pouch, as this keeps the
crew’s weight on the windward side.
In a dinghy, only drop the sail into the
leeward pouch if you need it in that
pouch for a later leeward hoist. For 1 The crew unclips 2 As the helm lowers the
either method, the crew’s job is made the pole from the mast, sail, the crew pulls down on
a lot easier if the helm steers onto a removes the uphaul the luff, stuffing it into the
and downhaul, and pouch. When the luff is
broad reach or run for the maneuver.
unclips the pole stowed, they pull in the
from the guy. rest of the sail, hook
WINDWARD DROP the halyard under the
reaching hook, and
For a windward drop, the crew must
cleat the sheets.
remove and stow the pole before
lowering the sail. They then pull on the
guy until the clew is in their hand and
pull the sail down by its luff, stuffing it Crew removes Crew pulls the sail
and stows into the pouch
into the windward pouch. They stow the pole
the halyard under the reaching hook.

CHUTES
Hoisting and lowering
The spinnaker is hoisted from the chute
using the halyard attached to the head
of the sail. This halyard, which is often
operated by the helm in a two-person
dinghy, runs down inside the mast, then
to a jamming cleat within reach of the Hoisting Lowering
person who will hoist and lower the Helm pulls halyard, Helm pulls
making sure the downhaul and
sail. The spinnaker is lowered using a downhaul is loose releases the halyard
downhaul, which is attached to a
reinforced patch in the middle of the
spinnaker and runs down through
the chute mouth and tube. The halyard
and downhaul usually consist of one
continuous piece of rope. When the
halyard is released and the downhaul
hoisting from a chute lowering into a chute
is pulled, the sail collapses and is drawn
The helm hoists the sail by pulling on the The crew sheets the foot of the sail
down into the chute, ready to be halyard, while the crew sets the sheet and tight against the forestay. Uncleating
hoisted once again. When dropping, the guy to their marks and attaches the pole. the halyard, the helm pulls on the
crew should pull on both sheet and guy The helm then cleats the halyard and downhaul. As soon as the middle of the
to hold the foot in and allow the middle trims the sheet and guy while the crew is sail enters the chute, the crew releases
of the sail to enter the chute first. dealing with the pole. the sheet and guy and removes the pole.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
152

HANDLING A SPINNAKER
Successful spinnaker work demands plenty of practice and of sailing. As the boat speed changes,
good communication between the helm and crew. Once the apparent wind shifts forward
or backward, and the sheet must
set, the spinnaker has an enormous effect on the handling of a be trimmed continually to keep the
small boat, and it must be kept under control at all times. This spinnaker on the edge of curling.
is primarily the crew’s job, and it requires great concentration.
Handling gusts
The crew must learn to trim the spinnaker correctly and should
You must know how to handle gusts
understand how to cope with gusts. Spinnaker jibing requires to keep the power in the spinnaker
slick crew work if it is to be completed without mishap. from overcoming rudder control. As a
gust hits, the crew eases the spinnaker
sheet to curl the luff and allows the
Playing the sheet mainsail so that air can pass freely boat to accelerate. Failure to do this
Each spinnaker shape needs trimming between the two sails. When the will make the boat heel and develop
in a slightly different way, but there spinnaker is set correctly, the crew considerable weather helm (p.130),
are some general rules to help you get will be able to ease the sheet until making it hard for the helm to stay
the best out of your boat. The most the luff starts to curl back on itself on course or bear away. The apparent
important thing is to keep the sail about halfway up. A well-designed, wind will shift forward as the boat
symmetrical about its centerline; this stable spinnaker can be sailed with accelerates, and the crew must be ready
involves keeping the clews level, at some luff curl without collapsing. to sheet in to prevent the spinnaker
the same height above the water. You The point at which the luff starts from collapsing. When the boat slows
must also encourage the spinnaker to curl is the optimum trim in any down, the apparent wind will shift aft
to fly as far as possible from the particular wind strength and point and the sheet must be eased.

POLE ANGLE AND HEIGHT

The pole angle and height must be adjusted correctly so the guy, which is cleated once the correct angle has
that the sail is set at its most efficient position and can be been set. The height of the pole is altered, usually
trimmed effectively. The crew adjusts the pole angle using by the crew, using the uphaul and downhaul.

Pole angle down, depending on the strength of the wind and the
Set the angle of the pole just greater than a right angle boat’s course. If the leeward clew is lower than the tack,
to the apparent wind. This means bringing the pole aft as lower the pole. If it is higher than the tack, raise the pole.
the boat sails farther downwind and easing it forward
as the boat turns onto a reach. Always keep the pole off the
forestay or it may bend or break. Remember to adjust the
guy after putting it under the reaching hook or tightening Pole

the twinning line.

Sheet

Pole height
When the pole is horizontal, it holds the spinnaker as far
away as possible from the rest of the rig, but it is even more CORRECT TOO LOW TOO HIGH
important to make sure the clews of the sail are kept level, pole setting
at the same height above the water. The windward clew When the spinnaker pole is set correctly (above left), the sail is
(attached at the pole end) is held in place by the pole, but the most efficient and easier to trim; if too low or too high (above
clew to which the sheet is attached is free to move up and center and right), the sail shape is inefficient and it may collapse.
 153
JIBING THE SPINNAKER
Successful jibing with a spinnaker 3 Removing the old guy from the pole end,
set requires a standard routine and the crew fits the pole onto the mast bracket.
plenty of practice. It is vital to keep They then put the guy under the reaching
the boat upright and to complete hook, cleat it in the correct position, and
the jibe quickly to prevent the take the spinnaker sheet from the helm.
spinnaker from getting out of control.
To prepare for the jibe, the helm bears
Crew
away to a run and the crew removes Clip the inner end of
the guy from the reaching hook and the pole to the mast
sets the sail square across the bow.
If the sheets are marked (p.147),
they can be set at the jibing position
quickly and easily. The boat is now
ready to be jibed.

2 Standing in the
middle of the boat,
the helm takes control
of the guy and sheet to
keep the spinnaker full.
The crew removes the
pole from the mast, clips
it onto the new guy, and
pushes it out to the
new side.

jibing
Ideally, at the point of jibing, the crew
weight is in the middle, the pole is being Helm
Steer the boat with the
switched across, and the sail remains full.
tiller between your knees

1 With the boat pointing dead downwind, the

mainsail and jib (if hoisted) are jibed. The crew
helps the boom over by pulling on the vang and
sheets the jib to the new side.

Crew
pole height Pull on the vang to
Adjust the pole height using the help the boom over
uphaul and downhaul to keep the clews
level and the spinnaker symmetrical.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
154

ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKERS
Asymmetric spinnakers look like a cross between a large jib
and a spinnaker. They are sometimes also known as “gennakers,”
the word derived from “genoa” and “spinnaker.” They are
commonly used on high-performance dinghies and catamarans
and some sportsboats. An asymmetric spinnaker is set from a long
bowsprit (a spar projecting from the bow) rather than a spinnaker
pole, which makes it much easier to handle when hoisting, jibing,
and lowering, as the crew does not need to handle a pole. The
bowsprit, which is nearly always retractable, is usually made from
carbon fiber for strength, stiffness, and lightness; the sail is made
from lightweight nylon or polyester sailcloth. MASTHEAD ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKER

Handling asymmetrics power but in many ways are easier to Sail trimming
An asymmetric spinnaker is usually handle than a conventional spinnaker An asymmetric sail is trimmed using
larger than a conventional spinnaker because the tack is attached to the two sheets. The sheets lead to the aft
and is often flown from a point higher end of the bowsprit, and they do not quarters of the boat and may have
on the mast, with the halyard exiting require adjustments to a spinnaker twinning lines (p.147) to move the
at the masthead or slightly lower, pole. They are controlled by two lead forward when sailing on a broad
between the hounds and the masthead. sheets, both of which are attached reach. An asymmetric is inefficient
These large sails generate considerable to the clew, just like a jib. when sailing on a dead run, so sailing

HOISTING AND LOWERING bowsprit. In many boats, the bowsprit is extended by a

An asymmetric spinnaker is stowed and launched from a single-line system, which also pulls the sail’s tack to the
chute or pouches, depending on the specific boat design. outer end. In other boats, separate lines are used and
The bowsprit is normally retracted when the asymmetric the crew first extends the bowsprit, then pulls the tack
is not being used, so it has to be extended before the sail to its outer end. The halyard is then pulled to hoist the
is hoisted. To hoist, the crew pulls a line to extend the sail. The process is reversed to drop the sail.

hoisting from a chute lowering into a chute lowering into a bag

To hoist from a chute, the crew extends the To lower into a chute, the crew pulls When the asymmetric is stowed in a bag or
bowsprit and pulls the tack of the sail to its on the downhaul to pull the sail into pouch, one crew member must gather the
end, then hoists the sail with the halyard. the chute, then retracts the bowsprit. sail as it is lowered and stow it in its bag.
 ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKERS
155
downwind is done in a series of jibes rudder become less loaded and the on the luff, the faster you will sail.
and reaches to maximize the effect boat will accelerate again. However, Overtrimming the sheet is a useful
of apparent wind (pp.126–127). The in some high-speed skiff classes, the technique when sailing in strong wind
crew must avoid oversheeting the asymmetric develops so much power, and waves, when there is a danger of
sail and try to keep it trimmed with and the boat accelerates so fast, that plowing the bow into the back of a
a slight curl in the luff for top speed. there is a danger of “pitchpoling”— wave. It is much safer to travel a little
Asymmetric sails are at their most capsizing stern over bow. To avoid slower with an overtrimmed sail than
efficient when the boat is planing this, overtrim the asymmetric to the to risk a pitchpole capsize.
fast, as this is when the effect of point where you feel comfortable with
apparent wind is at its strongest, your speed once more. When you feel
flying an asymmetric
allowing the boat to head downwind confident to sail faster, the crew eases
This 49er’s crew are sailing under their
while sailing in an apparent wind the sheet a little, and the boat will large asymmetric. Both sailors are
that is on or ahead of the beam. To accelerate once more. In strong winds, trapezing high for better visibility and
achieve this, the helm must first steer think of the asymmetric spinnaker control, and the crew has the asymmetric
on a reach to build speed and bring sheet as the throttle. The more you trimmed with a slight curl in the luff for
the apparent wind forward before release the sheet to the point of curl maximum speed.
bearing away to a more downwind
course while maintaining the speed
and apparent wind angle.

Light wind trimming

In light wind conditions, when planing
is not possible, particularly in the
heavier types of sportsboats, it pays
to steer the boat farther downwind
and sail a shorter course to the next
mark without losing pressure in the
asymmetric sail. This calls for good
communication between helm and
crew. The crew can feel the pressure
in the sail through the tension in the
sheet. When the crew says “good
pressure,” the helm knows they
can continue to steer the same course.
If the crew says “bad pressure,” the
helm may choose to luff up to create
more apparent wind and put more
pressure in the sail.

Strong wind trimming

Normally, it is fastest to trim an
asymmetric with an inch or two of
curl on the luff. Even the slightest
amount of oversheeting can make the
boat slower, and the helm will feel
the difference as the rudder loads up
with more lee helm. As soon as the
crew eases the sheet, so that the sail’s
luff curls again, the helm will feel the
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
156
JIBING ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKERS
Jibing an asymmetric spinnaker is a High-speed jibes old sheet pulled on hard as the boat
relatively simple process compared to In planing conditions, the helm starts turns out of the jibe, holding the sail
jibing a symmetrical spinnaker, but it the maneuver by warning the crew so tight on the new windward side. The
is still a maneuver that requires good that they have sufficient time to come wind will now blow the wrong way
timing and coordination between in off the trapeze or, in a nontrapeze across the sail, from leech to luff.
helm and crew. boat, to move in ready for the jibe. This keeps the boat surprisingly stable
When sailing a dinghy fitted with As the helm begins to bear away into and in control while traveling quite
an asymmetric, especially a high- the jibe, the crew should move toward slowly. Only when both helm and
performance dinghy, it is important to the centerline and hold the old sheet crew are settled on the new jibe
keep the boat upright throughout the where it is, or even pull in an extra and ready to accelerate should the
jibe, with minimal heel to windward handful if they have time to do so. crew release the old sheet and pull on
or leeward. The helm must avoid using This means that the asymmetric the new one. This is a highly effective
too much rudder during the jibe, will be pulled quite taut to leeward, technique for surviving windy jibes in
keeping the turn slow and gentle. If the which will prevent the sail from high-performance dinghies.
helm steers too rapidly, the boat will “hourglassing” (tying itself in a twist)
turn too far after the jibe, with a high when the boat is pointing dead Low-speed jibes
risk of a capsize. It is better to start downwind in the middle of the jibe. The high-speed jibing technique is
off by turning too little than too much At the same time, the crew picks appropriate in all but light winds,
when you are learning to jibe up what will become the new sheet when the boat is not planing. In these
an asymmetric. and takes it across the boat to the lighter conditions, there is a variation
From the crew’s point of view, new side. As the mainsail jibes and to the crew’s jibing technique that
jibing an asymmetric is much simpler the crew reaches the new side, they helps the boat accelerate more quickly
than a conventional spinnaker, since release the old sheet and pull in the out of the jibe. When the helm warns
there is no pole to handle and the new one. With good timing, a crew the crew of the imminent jibe, the
bowsprit remains fully extended. can have the asymmetric set on the crew picks up the new sheet and
However, in order to execute an new side without its collapsing. immediately starts to pull on it while
efficient jibe, timing on the sheet is releasing the old sheet. As the boat
critical. There are two slightly different Survival jibing goes through the middle of the jibe,
techniques you can use, depending A variation to the high-speed jibing the clew of the asymmetric should
on whether you are jibing at speed technique, which is appropriate for already be passing the forestay, and
in medium or strong winds or more the most unstable high-performance by the time the boat exits the jibe, the
slowly in light winds. dinghies, is for the crew to keep the crew will already have the sail set and
filling on the new leeward side. It is
important for the success of this
light-wind jibe that the helm does
not start turning the boat into the
jibe until they see the crew take the
first one or two pulls on the new
sheet. This will ensure that the sail
sets properly on the new jibe.

asymmetric jibing
The helm and crew are in the
middle of the boat, and the crew
is ready to sheet the asymmetric
across to the new side.
 ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKERS: JIBING ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKERS
157
5 The crew hooks on and swings
out onto their trapeze and trims the
asymmetric. The helm also moves out on
their trapeze and steers onto the new
course, sheeting in the mainsail to suit
the new course and apparent wind.

Helm and crew

Helm moves
move onto trapezes
across boat

4 As the mainsail jibes, the crew releases the old sheet and
rapidly pulls in the new sheet to move the asymmetric around
the forestay to the new leeward side. The helm moves to the
new side, picks up the new tiller extension, or swings the single
extension around to the new side, and hooks onto their trapeze.

Crew pulls
on new sheet

3 The helm moves into the boat, picks

up the mainsheet and uncleats it, and
continues to turn the boat in a gentle
curve. The crew picks up the new sheet on
their way across the boat and holds the
old sheet or pulls it in slightly.

2 As the crew moves off the trapeze,

the helm eases the mainsheet, cleats it and
drops the end in the boat, and starts to
Helm moves move in off their trapeze. At the same
into boat
time, they steer gently into the jibe.

Crew moves
1 The helm warns the crew by
into boat
calling “ready to jibe.” The crew moves
in to the boat first and prepares to jibe
the asymmetric.

JIBING AN ASYMMETRIC
Jibing an asymmetric spinnaker is easier than jibing
a conventional spinnaker, as the sail is jibed just like a
jib and there is no spinnaker pole to switch from side
to side. Stop twists from developing in the sail by
holding the old sheet in tight until the boat has jibed,
then pulling quickly on the new sheet to pull the sail
around the forestay to the new leeward side. In light
winds, start pulling the new sheet before the boat jibes Crew starts
to move in
to move the sail around the forestay more quickly so from trapeze Helm decides
that it fills earlier on the new course. to jibe and
warns crew
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
158

SINGLE-HANDED SAILING
The purest form of sailing is when you go afloat alone and are
Webbing strap
solely responsible for balance, trim, and handling. You learn quickly Fits over the top
when you sail single-handed, and you can sail whenever you want of the mast to
secure the head
to without having to find a crew. Single-handed boats are usually of the sail

cheaper and simpler than two-person dinghies. They are normally

lighter and can often be transported very easily on a car roof rack.
Another benefit is that they are usually quick to rig, so you can be
sailing within minutes of arriving at the venue.
Sleeve
Cloth tube sewn
into the luff, into
Choosing a single-hander single-handed dinghy which the mast
Sailing single-handed a very A common and popular single- is fitted

different experience from sailing in hander has an unstayed mast and

a double-handed dinghy or among a a single, sleeved sail that slips over
larger crew in a small keelboat, and the mast. It is designed to be
you should be certain that this type of straightforward to rig, launch,
sail, and recover alone.
sailing is for you before you buy your
own boat. Some sailing schools offer
instruction in single-handed dinghies,
and most watersports centers have Batten
single-handed boats available. It is a Strip of wood
or plastic that
good idea to try as many as possible supports the
and to do some research; talk to roach (p.27) Sail window
Clear plastic
sailors at your local club, visit boat opening for better
shows, and explore manufacturers’ all-around vision
and class websites online.
Outhaul
Remember that most dinghies have Rope
an optimum size and weight range for tackle for
adjusting
their crew, and single-handed dinghies the clew
Cunningham
are the same. You should make position
Adjusts mainsail
a shortlist of dinghies that are luff tension
appropriate to your height, weight,
and degree of skill and athleticism. Boom vang
Tackle that
Single-handed dinghies are available to
prevents the boom
cater to a wide range of ages, physical from lifting
Daggerboard
attributes, and levels of skill, and you
Foil that is raised and
should be able to find a class that suits lowered vertically
your needs. As with double-handed
dinghies and small keelboats, it is best
to choose a single-handed dinghy that
is popular at your local club. This will
ensure that there is a fleet to sail and Toestrap
race in without the need to travel. Foot strap for helmsman
 SINGLE-HANDED SAILING
159

TYPES OF SINGLE-HANDER
Most single-handed dinghies have a single sail and wings or racks to increase the righting power when
are designed for hiking (sitting out) rather than the helmsman is hiking or trapezing. One of the oldest
trapezing. However, some designs have a mainsail yet most extreme designs requires the helmsman to
and jib, a mainsail and asymmetric spinnaker, or deal with a mainsail, jib, asymmetric spinnaker, and a
even all three sails. Some dinghies use a trapeze sliding seat that is swung across the boat when tacking
to increase righting power and some incorporate and jibing.

single-handed dinghies

The men’s Olympic The FINN dinghy is the

single-hander, the Laser heavyweight single-handed
is the world’s most dinghy in the Olympics.
popular single-handed Events for this boat,
dinghy. Used for all types designed in 1949, have
of sailing, from beach been included in every
sailing to Olympic-class Olympic Games since
competition, it requires 1952. It is a challenging
good fitness but offers boat to sail, popular
excellent competition around the world, and
LASER for all levels of ability. FINN suitable for larger sailors.

The RS600 is a good The RS700 is a demanding

introductory boat to single-hander with skiff-
modern, skiff-type single- style performance, a
handed trapezing. It has trapeze, and asymmetric
a carbon-fiber mast spinnaker. The boat
with a removable mast has a performance
extension and reefing equalization system
system that allows the sail with adjustable width
area to be reduced by 20 wings to allow equal
percent when learning competition for sailors
RS600 or for strong winds. RS700 of different weights.

The International Moth is The origins of the

one of the oldest single- International Canoe
handed designs but is date back to the
also one of the most 1850s. It still has the
innovative. A development distinction of being
class since the 1920s, the the fastest single-handed
Moth has led the way monohull dinghy in
with design ideas and is the world. It has a sliding
now leading the way in seat arrangement,
the development of fully a mainsail, a jib, and an
INTERNATIONAL MOTH foil-borne sailing. INTERNATIONAL CANOE asymmetric spinnaker.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
160
Rigging and launching own, although it is easier to launch increased weather helm and a
Most single-handed dinghies have a and recover the boat if someone else constant tendency for the boat
mainsail only. This is set on a mast is available to deal with the cart. to turn to windward. This can
that is stepped farther forward than be reduced by heeling the boat to
on a two-sailed dinghy. Sailing windward until the helm is balanced,
The mast may be unstayed (p.70) Single-handed dinghies are usually but skill is required to maintain this
for easy rigging and flexible so that light and thus sensitive to changes position without risking a windward
it can be bent to provide an efficient in trim and balance. The helm must capsize. Single-handers usually plane
sail shape and to release excess move their weight in and out easily and are fun to sail downwind
power in strong winds. Whereas a and fore and aft to keep the boat in waves, as they react instantly to
stayed mast and sail arrangement upright and correctly trimmed without the tiller and accelerate rapidly.
allows you to hoist the sail before or the help of a crew. It is important
after launching, as conditions dictate, that the sail is set correctly, and you Tacking
an unstayed mast with a sleeved must get used to adjusting its shape Tacking a single-hander well requires
mainsail must be rigged before using the outhaul, cunningham good timing and smooth actions. The
launching and the boat kept close control (p.181), mainsheet, and vang. helm’s movements are the same as in
to head-to-wind. Downwind courses reveal the a two-person dinghy (pp.92–95). The
A single-hander is launched in the biggest differences between a single- boom is often very low, so you will
same way as a two-person dinghy. You hander and a two-person boat. When have to duck even lower under
usually have to do the job on your there is only one sail, there is an it. Ease the mainsheet as you turn
through the wind to make it easier
to avoid the boom and to reduce
the chance of getting stuck in-irons
tacking
This skilled solo sailor is tacking, (p.161). Do not move off the
allowing the boat to heel toward windward side too early. Wait until
them and waiting for the boom to the boom is approaching the centerline
reach the centerline before they with the boat heeled toward you, then
begin to move across the boat. cross quickly and get your weight out
over the new windward side as the
boat completes the tack. Sit out hard
and sheet in as the boat comes upright.
Change hands on the mainsheet and
tiller extension after the tack.

Jibing
Raise the daggerboard until it is just
clear of the boom and vang. If the
vang is tight, ease it to keep the boom
from hitting the water and capsizing
the boat. The helm’s actions through
the jibe are the same as they are in
a two-person dinghy (pp.96–99).
Sailing fast on a very broad reach or
a run, turn into the jibe and give a
sharp tug on the mainsheet to start
the boom swinging across. As it does
so, straighten the tiller and get your
weight out on the new side. Change
hands on the tiller and mainsheet.
 SINGLE-HANDED SAILING
161
Sailing skiff-type dinghies side, picking up and uncleating the
Some of the fastest single-handers mainsheet on the way. As you sit on GETTING OUT
have many of the characteristics of the new side, steer on to a close reach OF IRONS
the double-handed skiff-type dinghies. with the mainsail well eased. When
Tacking can be difficult in some
They have very light, narrow, and the boat is under control and moving
single-handers because there
shallow hulls with wings or racks forward on the new course, stand up, is no jib to help pull the bow
sticking out from the hull’s sides to hook on, and push out on the new away from the wind onto the
increase the righting power of the side as you pull in the mainsail and new tack. When you tack, a
helm who trapezes to keep the boat start to steer up to a close-hauled single-hander can sometimes
upright. This type of single-hander course again. refuse to go through the eye of
is extremely fast but requires extra To jibe a trapeze single-hander, the wind and instead get stuck
skill and agility to sail well. treat it as if it were a nontrapeze head to wind “in-irons” (p.95).
When tacking a single-handed boat. Bear away to a run, swing in
trapeze boat, take extra care to avoid from the trapeze, get settled and fully Avoiding the problem
stopping in irons (right) during a tack. prepared, and then jibe as you would Getting stuck in-irons in a
single-hander can occur for
Just before the tack, bear away onto any single-hander. Get settled on the
a number of reasons. Lack of
a close reach, ease the mainsheet and new jibe, then hook up onto the
speed before the tack will make
cleat it, and start stepping into the trapeze again, if required. Take it difficult for the boat to complete
boat with your back foot as you begin your time over this maneuver in the turn. Avoid this by bearing
steering into the tack. Aim to keep the the beginning. As you become more away slightly before the tack to
boat as flat as possible throughout proficient, you can start practicing build speed.
the maneuver. Unclip from the trapeze wire-to-wire jibes, at which point When tacking in waves, the
bow may hit a wave, which will
wire and move smoothly to the new you can call yourself an expert.
stop the boat. Minimize this risk
by watching the waves and tacking
RIGGING AN UNSTAYED MAST when the bow is rising up the face
of a wave. The boat should complete
Some single-handed dinghies have stayed masts, and their mainsails are rigged
the tack before the next wave arrives.
like a two-person dinghy (pp.70–75). However, many small single-handers have Another cause is tacking with the
unstayed masts, which are light and easy to rig, although it is helpful if someone mainsheet too tight. This keeps
can assist you. The mast usually comes in two pieces for easy storage and the mainsail leech tight, which
transportation, which are slotted together before the sail is fitted. Most single- causes the boat to try to turn
handed dinghies use a daggerboard rather than a centerboard. Make sure into the wind. Cure this by easing
that this and the rudder are in the boat before you launch it. the mainsheet quite a lot as you
tack. If stalling out head-to-wind
is still a problem in your boat,
try easing the vang, increasing
Gently slide cunningham tension, or pulling
the sail
up the daggerboard slightly, or
onto the mast
doing a combination of all three.

Recovering from in-irons

If the boat stops head-to-wind,
push the boom away from you so
that it fills on the reverse side
and pushes the boat backward.
At the same time, push the tiller
Slip the mast
into the mast step
away from you. The twin actions
of pushing the boom and tiller
1 Assemble the mast by slotting the 2 Step the mast and secure it in place. will turn the boat quickly to a
two pieces together. Unfold the mainsail Attach the boom to the gooseneck and close-hauled course.
and find the sleeve in the mainsail luff. attach the mainsail’s clew to the boom
Slide the mast into the sleeve. using the outhaul. Fit the boom vang.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
162

SMALL KEELBOATS
The principles of sailing a small keelboat are not so different from
those of a dinghy. Unlike a dinghy with a lightweight centerboard,
however, the weighted bulb of the keel will make it very difficult to
capsize a keelboat. In many ways, this makes a small keelboat a
more forgiving type of boat to sail and a good choice for learning
the basic skills of sailing.

Keelboat differences popular small keelboat

A keelboat is heavier than a dinghy, This 23-ft (7-m) keelboat is suitable
so the working loads on the sails, for day sailing with the family or racing
sheets, and blocks are all much higher. with a crew of between three and five.
You may have to use tackles or
winches instead of ratchet blocks to
be able to cope with the extra loads
of the jib or spinnaker sheets.
Some keelboats have lifting keels,
but these are only intended to make
launching and recovery easier and
are not designed to be adjusted
while sailing. This means that you
will need to be more aware of the
depth of water that you are
sailing in. Whereas on a dinghy
you can lift the centerboard in
shallow water, this isn’t
possible in a keelboat, and
if you run aground, it might
be difficult to get off.
Spinnaker
Keelboats tend to have more A conventional
crew than dinghies, so crew spinnaker is used here,
but some keelboats
members often specialize in
use asymmetrics
a particular role rather
than multitasking as
in dinghies. Keelboats
Cuddy
also tend to be A small cuddy underneath
more expensive the foredeck for storage
to purchase
and maintain.
Center mainsheet
A traveler runs on a
Backstay track across the boat
Adjustable backstay Keel
used to bend mast Rudder Fixed, weighted
and tension forestay Fixed rudder under the hull keel for stability
 SMALL KEELBOATS
163

TYPES OF SMALL KEELBOAT

conventional keelboats sportsboats

Designed for racing or day sailing, this type of keelboat Another type of keelboat, known as sportsboats,
generally carries between three and five crew and has typically use asymmetric spinnakers. Although most
a rig that consists of mainsail, jib, and a conventional are no faster than conventional keelboats upwind, they
spinnaker that is hoisted to hound height. Boats range are designed to plane downwind under asymmetric
from the heavier, classic keelboats such as the Dragon, to spinnakers, often flown from the masthead. The
the lighter, modern types that offer dinghylike handling Melges 24 was one of the first sportsboats on the
and planing performance, such as the Sonar. market and remains among the most popular choices.

Its dinghylike performance The SB20 is a three-person

and handling, plus great sportsboat with a large
versatility, has made the asymmetric spinnaker for
Sonar popular with all types high speeds downwind.
of sailors, including young It has a no hiking rule and
people, and is used in a weight limit.
disabled events.
SONAR SB20

The Dragon is a classic The J80 is easily controlled

keelboat with a long, thin, but exciting to sail and race.
and heavy hull with a long The advanced composite
keel. It offers excellent construction ensures that
international competition for their size, these boats
and remains very popular. are fast, light, and strong
enough to be sailed hard.
DRAGON J80

The Etchells 22 measures With its carbon mast and

30 ft (9 m) long and is raced very light all-up weight,
by a crew of three or four. the Melges 24 is one of the
The class offers some of the fastest sportsboats available
toughest international and is also one of the most
racing outside of the demanding. Teams sail with
Olympic arena. either four or five crew.
ETCHELLS 22 MELGES 24

The two-person Star is This type of sportsboat is

one of the oldest racing modeled on the Open 40
classes and, until recently, and Open 60 race yachts
was the men’s Olympic and features wide hulls,
keelboat. It provides some rotating rigs, asymmetric
of the toughest sailing kites, and masts that are
competition in the world. set well back.
STAR OPEN 5.7 AND 6.5
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
164

SAILING SMALL KEELBOATS

The heavier weight of a keelboat requires a different approach Because a keelboat is relatively heavy,
to sailing compared to the lighter weight of an unballasted dinghy. it usually pays to point as high into
the wind as possible without losing
It takes more time to accelerate and to slow down, so every time too much speed except in choppy
you tack, jibe, or do any maneuver that requires a change of or rough water, when it is best to
direction or speed, you must allow more time for things to bear away slightly to maintain speed.
Good helms know instinctively when
happen and for the boat to regain speed.
the boat is in “the groove,” the
correct balance of speed and pointing
Sailing upwind and for the helm to steer the boat for the best performance to windward.
How a keelboat performs upwind around any changes in wind or wave
and how it should be sailed depends condition. A good helm can build Sail setting
on its particular design characteristics. up speed by bearing away a tiny Many of the same principles of
Classic keelboats, such as the fraction before luffing up slightly sail setting apply as in dinghies
International Dragon (p.163), tend to gain ground to windward. As (pp.178–187). Adjust the sails to be
to have long, narrow hulls and deep they do so, the speed will drop, full for choppy seas and/or medium
keels and are designed to sail to and the skill lies in recognizing at wind strength conditions, and flatten
windward at quite a large angle of what point to bear off again and them for flat water and/or windy
heel. More modern designs—such as get the boat up to speed once more weather. The vang and cunningham
the Sonar (p.163) with its dinghylike before repeating the process. tend to be less important controls
hull shape and short keel—and all Unlike a dinghy, easing the sails on a keelboat. Mainsheet tension and
sportsboats sail much faster if they slightly and footing off (bearing away traveler position tend to be the main
are kept as upright as possible. This a little bit) for speed does not tend controls for the mainsail, along with
means that their crews must hike (sit to make a keelboat sail much quicker. the backstay. The tighter you pull the
out) as far as is allowed under their
class rules to help keep the boat
upright when sailing to windward.
Some classes put no restriction on
hiking, while others require the crews
to remain seated inside the gunwale.
Many keelboats point quite high
when sailing to windward, sometimes
tacking through as little as 50 degrees
from tack to tack. This can make it
very hard to tell whether you are
ahead or behind another yacht when
racing on windward legs, and many
helms use sight lines drawn on the
sailing upwind
deck to help them gauge how they are Many modern keelboats, like this Sonar,
doing compared to other boats. need to be sailed as upright as possible,
Because sails on a keelboat just like a dinghy, so it is important that all
are heavily loaded and require the crew sit out as far as is allowed by class
multipurchase blocks or winches to rules—which vary from type to type.
adjust them, it is often simpler to set
the sails to a good average position
 SAILING SMALL KEELBOATS
165
backstay, the more the mast bends Sailing downwind
and at the same time tightens the Weight is the important difference
forestay. This will flatten both between a dinghy and a keelboat
the mainsail and the jib and will when sailing downwind. Even
also alter the feel of the steering. A sportsboats and other keelboats that
general rule is: the windier it is, the are able to plane will need more wind
more backstay you should pull on, to get up on the plane than a dinghy
although this varies depending will. Older designs of keelboats, most
on the particular type of keelboat. of which do not have the flat aft hull
sections needed for planing, will surf
Tacking in waves but are unlikely to rise up
All maneuvers in a keelboat require onto the plane except, possibly, in the
good communication and some strongest of winds.
advance warning. The helm should While a dinghy with an sailing downwind
keep the rest of the crew well asymmetric spinnaker will usually Sportsboat-type keelboats are designed
informed about their intentions. sail fastest downwind if it sails a to plane quickly downwind under their
When planning to tack, give the crew series of reaching courses, jibing large asymmetric spinnakers.
enough warning, especially when they downwind in a manner similar to
are sitting out hard. This will give the tacking upwind, in many keelboats
jib trimmer time to get in position it pays to sail straight downwind. Jibing
to release the jib sheet. This is because the extra speed gained This is usually the most challenging
The smooth transition of the jib by sailing a series of reaching courses maneuver in keelboat sailing. Safety
from one side to the other is the most is not sufficient to make up for the is the primary consideration here,
important factor in a good tack. If the extra distance sailed. However, in and it is vital that all the crew keep
jib fails to release smoothly from the medium to strong wind conditions, their heads down as the boom
old side, then when the boat tacks, some of the faster keelboats with swings across during the jibe. You
the jib will back and virtually stop the asymmetric spinnakers respond well can minimize the risk of the boom
boat dead in its tracks. It is a good to heading up a few degrees to get crashing across by sheeting the
idea for the helm to watch the jib them planing. The extra distance boom almost to the centerline as
trimmer as they steer the boat into sailed is then more than offset by you prepare for the jibe. As the boat
the tack. When they see that the jib the large increase in speed. jibes and the wind fills the sail on
sheet is releasing satisfactorily, they Whether you sail a conventional the new side, let the mainsheet run
can safely continue with the tack. keelboat or sportsboat, the principles out rapidly on the new side.
The helm can also make the jib of sail setting downwind are very Jibing an asymmetric spinnaker
trimmer’s job easier if they steer similar to those used for a dinghy. is very straightforward and very
slowly through the tack. This will However, because the loads in the sails similar to the process described for
give the trimmer time to pull most are much greater, adjustments cannot dinghies (pp.156–157). Handling a
of the jib sheet in, using the winch or be made so easily or so frequently as symmetrical spinnaker is made more
multipart sheet, before the sail fills in a dinghy. As with upwind sailing, complicated by the need to switch the
with wind and becomes much harder the helm may find they have to steer spinnaker pole from one side to the
to pull in. Once the helm sees that to suit the set of the sails rather than other. Although the technique used
the jib is most of the way in on the have the sails trimmed to suit the in most small keelboats is the same
new tack, they can steer fully onto course they wish to steer. If the crew is as used in dinghies (pp.152–153),
their new course to get the boat strong, fit, and well-practiced, however, it requires good understanding and
back up to full speed. Easing a little they will be able to make more rapid timing between all the crew. In most
mainsheet after the tack will also adjustments and will be able to follow keelboats, the foredeck crew must
help accelerate the boat, gradually the helm’s course changes. If this is the move onto the foredeck to jibe the
sheeting the mainsail back in as the case, the boat will sail much faster spinnaker pole. In strong winds,
boat accelerates up to full speed. than those with a less able crew. do this after the mainsail is jibed.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
166

MOVING SMALL KEELBOATS

Small keelboats have some advantages over dinghies; they are
larger and more stable and usually have more room for the crew,
but their size also makes them a bit more difficult to launch and
recover and to move around on shore. Some smaller keelboats
minimize these disadvantages by having lifting keels and rudders
so that they can be launched and recovered from a trailer only
slightly larger than used by many dinghies. Larger keelboats, with
fixed keels and rudders, require more substantial trailers for moving dry sailing
Keelboats kept ashore are easily accessible
ashore and are usually launched and recovered using a small for maintenance and less vulnerable to
crane. Many small keelboats are kept ashore when not sailing. damage than those kept on moorings.

Dry sailing Also, it is not necessary to apply that includes launching your boat in
In areas where small keelboats are antifouling paint to the hull to prevent time for you to go sailing and lifting
popular, it is common for them to fouling. This has particular merit for it ashore again when you return.
be dry-sailed—that is, kept ashore race boats, which benefit from the
on a trailer or cart and launched smoothest possible hull finish. Storage Launching and recovery
only when needed. Keelboats can ashore allows for easy access for A keelboat with a lifting keel and
also be left afloat on a mooring in maintenance and race preparation. rudder is relatively easy to launch
a sheltered harbor, but dry sailing Boats that are dry-sailed are usually and recover. It can sit ashore on a
has some advantages. stored ashore with their masts stepped, road trailer or launching cart and be
Dry sailing is easier on the boat so they only need to be lifted into the launched from a slipway in the same
than mooring it afloat because it is water to be ready to sail. way as a dinghy. Its draft will be
not subjected to pitching and rolling Many clubs and boatyards in deeper than a dinghy, even with the
loads on its rig, and it will not risk areas where small keelboats are keel raised, so the trailer must be taken
water absorption into the fiberglass popular offer dry sailing facilities, farther into the water to float it off.
laminate of which most are built. and some provide a complete service Once in the water, the boat
must be maneuvered into water deep
enough to allow the keel and rudder
to be lowered. If the wind is offshore,
the crew can paddle out; otherwise, a
tow or the use of an outboard engine
may be necessary. These boats are not
suitable for launching off a ramp or
beach on a difficult lee shore, but a
sheltered slipway poses few problems.
Most lifting keels are raised vertically

using a slipway
Keelboats that have lifting keels
and rudders can be launched from
a trailer. Pick a sheltered slipway
with a gentle slope.
 MOVING SMALL KEELBOATS
167
through the hull and cockpit A center point lift has the advantage
floor in the same way as a dinghy’s of giving complete access to the hull
daggerboard, but their weight means when scrubbing or polishing the
that a winch or tackle must be used. bottom, but either system works well.
A keelboat with a fixed keel When ashore, a keelboat usually
generally requires the use of a crane, sits on a road trailer or wheeled
although it is possible to launch some cradle to allow it to be moved
from a trailer on a suitable slipway. between the crane and its storage slot.
Boats that must be craned in For dry sailing, keelboats usually have craning in and out
and out often have a lifting point their mast left stepped when they are A center lifting point makes craning
fitted in the hull above the keel, brought ashore, but if they are to be easier. The alternative is to use webbing
usually attached to the bolts that towed on a road trailer, the mast must straps ahead of and behind the keel.
fasten it to the hull. To lift the boat, be lowered and it, the boom, and all
a strop is attached to the lifting eye other loose equipment must be stowed Double-axle trailers are needed for
and hooked onto the crane hook. securely for the journey. In some the larger keelboats, and an overrun
It may be necessary to unfasten the designs, it is possible to lower the mast braking system on the trailer should
backstay at its lower end to keep it manually, but many require the use of be fitted. The boat must be very
clear of the crane jib or wire. a crane to lift the mast in or out. securely tied down, with the mast
If the boat does not have a center stowed on deck. This will usually
lifting point, two straps are used, led Using a road trailer require mast supports at bow and stern
under the hull with one forward and Even a small keelboat is likely to be and, preferably, in the middle. The
one aft of the keel. The ends of each longer than the vehicle used to tow boom and spinnaker pole must also
strap are attached to the crane hook it, and many will be significantly be lashed securely, with plenty of
for lifting, and the straps may need larger and much heavier. Towing padding to protect against movement
to be lashed in position to stop them a large boat on a long trailer is not and chafe that would otherwise
from slipping backward or forward, as simple as moving a dinghy, and damage the equipment very quickly.
depending on the shape of the hull. the towing vehicle should be more Sails and loose gear are
powerful and capable of towing the best carried in lockers on the
towing a keelboat
combined weight of the boat and trailer or in the towing vehicle, but
Boats with fixed keels sit high on a trailer the trailer. if they must be stowed in the boat,
and need strong supports. They must be Boats with fixed keels sit much they should be secured so that they
lashed down tightly, with the mast also higher than those with lifting keels cannot roll around. When towing,
well secured to its supports. and require more substantial trailers. stop and check all lashings regularly.
Hull support Keel support Bow support Rachet
Wide pads The boat sits The bow sits Use a ratchet to
spread the on its keel on a shaped tighten the tie-
load support down straps

Trailer hitch
Fit a safety
wire or chain
between trailer
and tow bar
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
168

CATAMARANS Large roach

Heavily curved
If you want exciting, high-speed sailing, try a catamaran. leech for maximum
efficiency
Frequently referred to by their shorter nickname of “cats,”
they consist of two hulls connected by two beams and
a trampoline to allow the crew to move from side to
side. Their wide beam makes them more stable than Full-length
battens
single-hulled dinghies, while their narrow hulls and Battens that run
from leech to luff
light weight offer little resistance and make them very for full support

fast. Catamarans come in a variety of sizes and shapes

to suit all ages, sizes, and skill levels.

Catamaran rigs Rotating mast Mainsail

Mast can be rotated for Larger, flatter sail
Most catamarans have a large, increased efficiency than conventional
fully battened mainsail and a much dinghies
smaller jib that is usually tall and
Jib
narrow. However, single-handed Taller and narrower
catamarans are usually sailed without sail than that of
conventional dinghies
a jib. Some use a loose-footed mainsail,
set without a boom, in which case
the multipart mainsheet tackle attaches
directly to the clew. The lower end
of the mainsheet runs on a full-width Bridle
Wire arrangement
traveler on the rear beam. for attaching
The mast is normally designed forestay to hulls
to rotate so that it can take up an Trampoline
efficient angle to the wind on all Fabric stretched
points of sailing. The angle of between the
two hulls
rotation is controlled by a device
called a mast spanner that is Tiller bar
adjusted by the crew. Rod that connects
the two tillers
The rotating mast arrangement
makes the rig very efficient at the
high speeds that catamarans can
achieve. Because of these high
speeds, catamaran sails tend to be
cut very flat, and catamaran sailors
Beam
pay a lot of attention to the stiffness Aluminum
catamaran
of their full-length battens. Some tube that links
the two hulls Catamarans consist of a pair of
expert sailors even change battens narrow hulls joined together by
Skeg
for different wind conditions. Softer, Molded keel two beams and a trampoline.
more flexible battens create a fuller to resist leeway They have a comparatively large
sail suitable for conditions where mainsail; a tall, narrow jib; and a
the crew wants to develop maximum mast that can usually be rotated.
 CATAMARANS
169

TYPES OF CATAMARAN
There are many types of catamaran on the market, so boat that has a good fleet near you. Before you make
you should be able to find one that is suitable for your your decision, ask the opinion of expert sailors and
particular requirements. If you want to race, choose a have a trial sail in a few different types.

HOBIE DART 16 NACRA 17

The Hobie range of catamarans is The Dart 16 and its larger version the The Nacra 17 is the Olympic
intended for fast, fun sailing, but Dart 18 are excellent boats for fast catamaran class and is a challenging,
there are also good racing fleets in sailing and competitive racing, and high-performance boat. It has Z-foil
many parts of the world. Hobies are extremely popular with catamaran daggerboards (pp.176–177), which
have asymmetric hulls without sailors. The Dart uses symmetrical resist leeway and allow the boat to
centerboards or daggerboards. hulls with skegs. achieve full foiling performance.

power from the rig. When conditions on dinghies or keelboats because other. These do not usually need
are stronger and the crew needs of the high speeds that catamarans centerboards or daggerboards. The
to take power out of the sail, they achieve when sailing downwind. lack of centerboards or daggerboards
exchange the flexible battens for is an advantage for catamarans
a stiffer set, which helps keep the Hull design designed for fun sailing, where
sail flatter and less powerful. Catamaran hull shapes vary quite excellent upwind performance
Because catamarans travel at considerably, depending on their design may not be of great importance,
such high speeds, the strength and purpose. Some catamarans have hulls or for boats that are likely to be
angle of the apparent wind means that are identical and are symmetrical sailed from a beach, where the lack
that the sails are always sheeted around their centerline. Symmetrical of centerboards or daggerboards
pretty close to the centerline, even hulls are usually fitted with a makes launching and recovery easier.
on downwind courses. This is the centerboard or a daggerboard Catamarans have twin rudders,
reason why many catamaran classes in each hull to resist leeway. one at the stern of each hull, with
do not use a vang, or even a boom Alternatively, there may be a skeg their tillers connected by a tiller bar.
for the mainsail, as the mainsheet (a molded-in keel) about two-thirds The long tiller extension is attached
tension suffices for controlling the of the way aft on both hulls. The skeg to the middle of the tiller bar. Many
shape of the sail. resists leeway without the need for a catamarans are fitted with one or
Some high-performance catamarans centerboard or daggerboard. Other two trapezes for extra power.
are equipped with asymmetric catamarans have asymmetrical hulls Most of the sailing techniques
spinnakers to further increase speed with a fatter shape on the outboard already described can be used to
downwind. These tend to be very flat side of each hull, in which case the sail catamarans, but some aspects
compared to asymmetric spinnakers two hulls are mirror images of each are different (pp.170–175).
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
170
RIGGING AND LAUNCHING
ASSEMBLING A CATAMARAN
Because of their width, catamarans
usually have to be dismantled to
be transported. Once at the sailing
venue, they have to be reassembled
on a flat surface. Grass is best, since
it will not cause damage to the hulls;
otherwise, protect the hulls with
something soft, such as a roll of
old carpet. 1 Lay out the hulls, preferably on a soft 2 Slide the main and rear beams into their
The assembly process consists surface, with the inner sides uppermost sockets in one hull. Ensure the clips engage
of attaching the beams to the hulls, and about a beam length apart. to fully secure the beams (inset).
fitting the trampoline and toestraps,
stepping the mast, and attaching any
removable equipment.
Two-person catamarans are best
assembled by two crew members,
but single-handers can be assembled
by one person, although it is easier
with a helper. Once assembled, the
catamaran is placed on its cart, ready
to be rigged and moved to the water.
3 Roll the hull onto its keel and fit the 4 Fasten the trampoline to the hulls
second hull to the other end of the beams. and beams and make sure it is laced very
Check that the locking system is secure. tightly. Fit the toestraps and tie tightly.
CATAMARANS
ON LAND
Catamarans can be unwieldy
on land because of their width.
However, they are very light,
so moving them is quite easy,
even with only two people.

Moving
Most catamarans are moved on
a specially built cart with two 5 Step the mast by laying it on the 6 Fasten the shrouds to the chainplates,
wheels and two chocks under each trampoline and temporarily pin the heel lift the mast upright, attach the forestay to
transom. The cart is placed under onto the mast support while it is raised. the bridle, and unpin the heel to let it rotate.
the hulls at the point of balance
and the bows are used as the
handle for pushing and pulling the
catamaran around the boat dock.

Securing
If you leave a catamaran with
the mast stepped, fasten it very
securely to the ground at both
shroud points to stop it from
blowing over in strong winds. 7 Attach both rudders with the blades 8 Fit loose gear like the jib sheet fairleads
in the raised position. Connect the tillers and cleat, mainsheet, and downhaul. The
with the tiller bar and fit the extension. boat is then ready for sails to be rigged.
 CATAMARANS: RIGGING AND LAUNCHING
171
LAUNCHING A CATAMARAN from side to side. Alternatively, Fit the rudders in their raised position
When sailing a double-handed leave the mainsheet disconnected and place daggerboards, if used,
catamaran, decide which of you is from the mainsail clew, or boom on the trampoline until the boat
going to hold the boat and which if your boat is fitted with one, until has been launched. Always launch
will take the wheels back up the you are afloat and ready to leave the boat with the bows facing into the
beach. It usually makes sense to the beach. wind so that the sails can flap freely.
have the taller or heavier person
hold the boat so that they can
control it while standing in
the water.
If you sail a single-handed
catamaran, it will make launching
easier if you have a helper to take
the wheels ashore, or collaborate
with other sailors to help each
other. Before you push the boat
into the water, make sure all the
1 Wheel the catamaran into the water 2 One person holds the catamaran by
with the jib, if fitted, rolled up or flapping; a bow or the bridle while the other goes
sheets are uncleated and the the mainsheet disconnected from the between the hulls to remove the wheels
mainsheet traveler is free to run boom; and the rudders raised. and take them back up the beach.

3 The helm climbs aboard and attaches 4 The crew pushes the bows in the 5 With the mainsheet traveler right
the mainsheet to the boom; positions the direction they wish to sail off and climbs down to leeward, the boat sails slowly
daggerboards, if fitted, in their slots; and aboard as the helm lets the traveler slide away from the beach. The helm lowers the
partly lowers the rudders. to leeward to sail off slowly. rudders as the boat reaches deep water.

Lee shore forward slowly, and at this point returned to the shore, the helm and
The hardest launching situation is the crew can pull themselves onto the crew take a bow each and sit on it
when the wind is blowing onto the trampoline. The crew then pulls in the in front of the trampoline.
shore. This means that the catamaran jib sheet farther, while the helm uses With the sails flapping and rudders
must be launched bows first into the the mainsheet traveler to control the raised, the catamaran will drift
waves, which may be breaking on direction of the catamaran. They pull backward. Once the boat has reached
the beach or slipway. Controlling the the traveler to windward to luff up or deeper water, move aft, lower the
boat when you push off will be more ease it to leeward to bear away. Once rudders and centerboards, and push
difficult because it will not be possible in deep water, they push the rudders the tiller over to turn the boat away
to lower the rudders until you have fully down and cleat the traveler on from the wind so that you can sail off.
sailed beyond the shallow water. the centerline. The same technique can be used
The helm decides which tack to to land on a lee shore. Turn the boat
leave the beach on and pulls in the jib Windward shore into the wind a few boat lengths
sheet until the jib is half full. They Launching from a windward shore from the beach, lift the rudders and
make sure the mainsheet traveler is is straightforward. Hoist the sails centerboards, and sit on the forward
free to run all the way to leeward. As ashore and launch the catamaran sections of the hulls to reverse the boat
the jib fills, the catamaran will move stern first. Once the cart has been safely to the shore.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
172

SAILING CATAMARANS
Dinghy sailors who decide to sail catamarans need to learn a few slower-moving dinghy. The load on
new techniques; they will also have to be prepared for the much the sails will also be greater than that
in a dinghy. The jib sheet usually has
greater speed potential that is offered by a catamaran. Heading a tackle to make it easier to trim, and
upwind is more difficult in a catamaran than it is in a conventional the mainsheet on most catamarans
dinghy and requires a good deal of practice. It is when sailing on requires at least a seven-to-one tackle.
This makes it easier for the helm
downwind courses at speed that catamarans really perform. They
to handle the large loads. Use the
are more stable than dinghies and are easier to jibe, but they can mainsheet to control leech tension
still be capsized. and adjust the angle of the sail with
the traveler. Set the mainsail twist by
using the leech telltales as you would
Wind and speed other boats. Be prepared for gusts, in a dinghy (p.130). Although the
Because catamarans sail so fast, too, as the catamaran will accelerate rudders are small, they are efficient at
there is a much bigger difference in rapidly when they hit. high speeds, when you will need only
the direction of true and apparent small movements of the tiller extension
wind (p.32) than in most dinghies. Setting sail to adjust the course. When you tack
A wind indicator is usually installed The first time you sail a catamaran, or jibe, however, the boat slows
on the forestay bridle so that the you should start on a beam reach, down and considerable force may
helm can constantly check the just as you would with a single-hulled be needed to turn the boat.
direction of the apparent wind. dinghy. Put the boat beam-on to Daggerboards or centerboards
A dinghy sailor must also the wind and slowly sheet in both (if fitted) should be lowered about
get used to the high speed of a sails. The faster acceleration and the halfway on a reach. The leeward
catamaran, which means that forward shift of the apparent wind board is usually lowered first and kept
you need to allow more space mean that the sails have to be sheeted at a lower position than the windward
for maneuvers, especially passing in closer than they would be on a board. As you turn onto a close reach,
lower the boards farther still and sheet
in the sails, using the traveler to bring
the mainsail closer to the centerline.
catamaran in strong winds
When sailing in strong winds
and big waves, the speed of a Flying for speed
catamaran means it is possible Catamarans sail fastest when the
to take off on the top of a wave. windward hull is kept flying, just
skimming the water’s surface, giving
minimum resistance. However, this
slight heel is difficult to maintain and
takes a lot of practice. Even in medium
winds, the helm and crew will have to
sit out or trapeze hard to keep the boat
balanced. Once the helm and crew are
fully extended, heel is controlled by
the helm’s trimming the mainsail
with the traveler and adjusting the
course. Luff to maintain heel and
bear away to reduce it.
 173
4 The crew moves
across the boat, watching
the jib. When the boat passes Helm
head-to-wind, the jib fills Steer to
on the wrong side and helps new course for
maximum speed
the boat turn. The crew then
releases the old jib sheet
and pulls in the new one.

Crew
Carefully watch jib,
ready to sheet it across
5 The helm and crew sit out or
trapeze on the new side and sheet
in the mainsail and jib. The helm
centers the tillers and steers to
regain speed on the new tack.

Crew TACKING
Get ready to
Helm sheet the jib A catamaran will stop very quickly
Move into on the new side as soon as power is lost from the sails,
the center,
which makes tacking relatively difficult.
facing aft as
the boat turns You cannot easily tack a catamaran from a
reach to a reach, so you should always sheet
in to a close-hauled course and build speed
before a tack. Catamarans stop quickly
when they reach head-to-wind, so it is quite
common for them to end up in-irons. Use
the same technique that is used for dinghies
(p.95) to escape from this situation.

3 As the boat turns,

the helm moves into the center Crew
on their knees and rotates the Keep jib sheet 1 The helm sails just
tiller extension aft. As the hard in off close-hauled to build
mainsheet traveler moves up speed. Checking that
into the center, they pass the new course is clear,
the extension behind the they call “ready about.”
mainsheet to the other side The crew makes sure
of the boat. They ease the they are ready and
mainsheet as the boat the area is clear, then
turns onto the new tack replies “ready.”
and changes hands on the
extension and mainsheet.
Helm
Build speed
before the tack
2 The crew uncleats the jib
sheet but keeps it hard in. The helm
calls “lee-oh” and pushes the tiller
extension away until the rudders are
at an angle of 45º to the transoms.
They sheet in the mainsail to help
the boat turn into the wind.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
174
Upwind sailing Strong winds
When you turn to a close-hauled CATAMARAN COMFORT Catamaran sailing is at its best
course, sheet the sails right in and Catamarans tend to be wet downwind in strong winds, when the
steer using the telltales on the jib and because they are so fast. Buy boat reaches its maximum speeds and
the wind indicator. Fully lower both good-quality waterproofs or a accelerates rapidly every time a gust
centerboards. Be careful not to pinch wetsuit to enjoy the sailing fully. hits. The power in the sails depresses
(sail too close to the wind), as this the bows, so it is vital that both the
makes speed decrease rapidly. helm and crew sit out, or trapeze, at
Catamarans are sensitive to boat to keep the weight balanced the stern of the windward hull. The
fore-and-aft trim, so the helm and between the hulls, but the crew bows must be prevented from diving
crew must sit close together, near the moves to windward if the boat starts underwater or you will capsize. The
middle of the boat, to keep it level. to heel. If the wind is strong enough, high boat speed increases the apparent
In light winds, move forward to lift the boat is sailed with the windward wind speed, so the helm can steer
the transoms clear of the water—the hull just touching the water to achieve farther downwind while maintaining
crew usually lies on the trampoline maximum speed. Where centerboards the apparent wind at right angles to
in the middle of the boat. In stronger or daggerboards are fitted, raise them the boat. As gusts hit, the boat will
winds, move farther back to help as much as possible; if steering accelerate and the apparent wind
keep the bows from burying as the becomes difficult, they can be lowered will move farther ahead, so the helm
boat accelerates. slightly. The helm and crew must be should bear off to retain the constant
prepared to move around the boat to apparent-wind angle. In lulls, they
Downwind sailing keep it level fore and aft. If the wind must head-up to maintain the angle.
In light or moderate winds, fast drops, move forward to lift the Be ready to ease the jib in serious gusts
catamarans can sail faster than the transoms; if it increases, move aft to to prevent the bows from digging in.
true wind speed, and this speed can be  stop the bows from depressing and
fully exploited downwind. It is more slowing the boat.
efficient to sail downwind in a series CAPSIZE RECOVERY
of broad reaches, much as you would Light winds Catamarans are very stable but
tack upwind. Sailing dead downwind is Downwind in light winds, both crew can capsize if the crew makes a
slow, but on a broad reach, the speed and helm sit well forward to lift the mistake. This is especially true in
of the catamaran pulls the apparent transoms and depress the bows, and strong winds, when capsizes can
be dramatic.
wind forward until it is on the beam, the crew sits on the leeward hull to
thus increasing its strength. The fastest balance the helm on the windward
Righting a catamaran
speed downwind is usually achieved side. To keep the jib from sagging You must react quickly in a
by steering to keep the apparent under its own weight, the crew capsize to prevent inversion;
wind, shown by the wind indicator, should hold its clew to keep it an inverted boat is difficult to
blowing at right angles to the boat. trimmed rather than using the sheet. right without outside assistance.
The helm should steer with With most larger catamarans, one
crew member should stand on the
Moderate winds gentle movements and concentrate
lower centerboard while pulling
Downwind in moderate winds, the on building and maintaining boat
on a jib sheet, as when righting a
helm sets the mainsail by letting the speed. In these conditions, it is very dinghy (pp.114–115). The other
traveler out and uses the mainsheet to easy for the sails to stall, which will crew member should depress the
adjust the twist in the mainsail. Trim make the boat slow dramatically. If bow or stern of the lower hull to
the sail to keep the top leech telltale this happens, the helm must luff until sink it, which will assist righting.
just streaming. The crew eases the jib the apparent wind moves forward Some smaller catamarans can be
righted by pushing the stern or
out as far as possible, keeping all the again and boat speed increases.
bow underwater to rotate the
telltales streaming. The helm steers to When the boat is moving fast again,
boat upright.
keep the apparent wind at 90 degrees the helm can bear away gently to
to the boat. The helm and crew may progress farther downwind while
have to sit on opposite sides of the maintaining speed.
 SAILING CATAMARANS
175
3 As the sail swings across,
the helm briefly stops the
mainsheet from swinging to
leeward so that the mainsail
battens flick to their new shape.
2 Keeping the boat
They then release the tackle
turning, the helm swings
and move to the windward hull.
the tiller extension behind
They steer onto the new course
the mainsheet to the new
while the crew trims the jib.
windward side. They change
hands on the mainsheet and Crew
tiller, putting their new forward Sheet jib across and move
hand on the mainsheet tackle to balance the boat
between clew and traveler.

Crew Helm
Watch jib and prepare Move to the new
to sheet it across windward side and
steer to the new course

Helm
Steer through the
jibe and take hold
of mainsheet tackle

JIBING 1 The helm bears away from

A catamaran is easier to jibe than a broad reach to a run and makes sure
a dinghy because of the stability that the area that the boat will turn into
created by the two hulls and because is clear. When ready, they call “stand
its speed reduces the strength of by to jibe.” The crew also checks the
the apparent wind. The catamaran new course. If the crew is ready and
the area clear, they reply “ready.”
moves quickly, so you must make
sure that you have plenty of room
for the maneuver and make sure Crew
Pick up new
the boat is under full control before jib sheet and
you start the jibe. Jibe with the Helm prepare to move
centerboards or daggerboards across the boat
Bear away from a
fully raised. Catamarans rarely sail broad reach to a run
dead downwind, so you will jibe
through a wide angle, from one
broad reach to the other.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
176

FOILING
Since an International Moth became the first dinghy to fly above
the water, foiling (sailing with the hull entirely out of the water) has
been achieved by other dinghies, catamarans, and even offshore
racers and cruising yachts. Development of foiling systems has
been rapid, and craft capable of 50 knots or more are likely to international moth
become more common. Sailing at high speeds requires a thorough The lightweight International Moth uses
fixed T-foils with adjustable flaps on both
understanding of safety and apparent wind sailing techniques. the daggerboard and rudder.

How they work There are several ways in which to The amount of lift and lateral
Conventional boats use vertical foils, achieve foiling. T-foils are an efficient resistance generated by daggerboards
the centerboard and rudder, to resist and easily adjusted system, but some is adjusted by raising and lowering
sideways drift and to steer. When boats are prevented from using them them to change their profile and
foils with a horizontal element are by class rules or the need to avoid canting them fore and aft to adjust
added, they create upward lift. foils that have to be inserted from the angle to the water of the lifting
If the boat is moving fast enough, underneath. Other systems use curved surface. Rudders on boats with these
the lift increases rapidly until it is daggerboards to give lift. C-shaped boards use T-foils or, sometimes,
sufficient to raise the boat and its foils are used on some multihulls, inward facing L-foils for safety.
crew out of the water. This vastly and larger monohulls, to give partial
reduces surface area drag and wave- lift, while more complex S-, L-, and Sailing with foils
making resistance, and the boat can Z-shaped foils can generate sufficient Foiling boats have special rigging,
then easily double its speed or more. lift to permit full foiling. launching, and handling systems.
T-FOIL T-FOIL FRONT Ask advice from class experts before
Sensor wand skims water
foiling systems going afloat for the first time and
surface and adjusts main foil SIDE VIEW
Adjustable T-foils (right) VIEW
flap to control ride height
Mast choose an area with plenty of room,
on daggerboards and
few other boats, flat water, and
rudders have more Hull Hull
moving parts than those moderate wind strength (10–12
with curved daggerboards
Rudder knots). To get started, steer on a
(below), which are usually beam reach and sheet in. As the boat
Daggerboard
used on multihulls. Simple
Flap on rudder Daggerboard
C-shaped foils give only
partial lift, while S- and Fixed foil
L-shaped foils can lift the Main foil flap
T-FOIL DETAIL
hull clear of the surface
of the water.
FOIL SHAPES
Beam Full foiling
Full foiling

Hull

Raised Raised foiling laser

Partial
lift The International Laser can be fitted with
Lowered Lowered Raised Lowered
a foiling kit that allows this fairly heavy
C-FOIL S-FOIL L-FOIL dinghy to fly in moderate conditions.
 FOILING
177

whisper
The Whisper
catamaran has
T-foils fitted on its
daggerboards and
rudders. It sails
in a four-point
configuration.
flying phantom
The Flying Phantom uses L-foil
daggerboards and T-foil rudders and
sails in a three-point foiling configuration.

accelerates, it will rise clear of the

water and will build speed rapidly.
The apparent wind will shift forward
quickly, so sheet in and bear away to
maintain speed and stay foilborne.
Monohull foiling dinghies should
be sailed with windward heel, which
increases power and stability, and
allows the foils to push the boat to
windward, improving pointing ability. downwind than in lighter winds. At A high-speed collision could easily
Foiling is an extreme example of these high speeds, your steering must cause serious injuries or fatalities.
apparent wind sailing (p.124). The be precise and you should aim to use Always stay well clear of other boats
sails should be sheeted in close to as little rudder as possible to avoid and allow them plenty of room when
the centerline, even downwind, as the oversteering. Body movements must passing. Look well ahead and be
apparent wind will always come from be made carefully and quickly to prepared for potential collision
well ahead of the beam. The power maintain boat balance. situations, which can develop rapidly.
of the mainsail is controlled using the Sailing foiling boats requires Always be ready to ease sheets and
vang, cunningham, and outhaul to physical fitness, precision sailing, drop the boat off the foils to stop
keep the boat foiling at maximum and fast reactions, so be prepared to quickly. Never sail on foils near
speed and to flatten the sail to suit spend time practicing and getting fit swimmers, surfers, or beaches.
the narrow apparent wind angle. before you are able to foil with And never assume that the crew
Upwind, you will need to sail at confidence and consistency. of another boat have seen you or
an angle to the true wind of 50–65 realize how fast you are sailing.
degrees. While conventional boats Safety Specialized safety clothing is now
tack on wind shifts upwind, when Focusing on safety is vital when boats available for sailors of extremely fast
foiling, you should look for areas are sailing at over 30 knots. Potential boats, including crash helmets, body
of more wind pressure to boost your dangers to the crew include falling armor built into buoyancy aids and
speed and be less concerned to tack overboard and being hit by the foils, sailing clothing, emergency personal
on wind shifts. capsizing and pitchpoling violently, oxygen kits (in case you are trapped
Downwind, foiling boats sail a and falling on the boat due to sudden under an inverted boat), and very
series of reaches and gybes, sailing movement. Be prepared for rapid sharp knives and line cutters. Make
as low as possible while maintaining acceleration and deceleration at all sure you have the appropriate kit for
maximum speed. In strong winds, times and brace yourself to avoid your boat and the kind of sailing you
you will be able to sail much deeper losing your balance. intend to practice. Always sail safely.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
178

TUNING YOUR BOAT

In order to get the best from your boat, especially if you want publish tuning aids to help people
to do well in racing, you have to set it up to suit your combined who are new to the subject. The main
reason for varying your settings from
crew weight and the type of mast and sails you use. Many factors the top sailors in your class is because
contribute to the way a sailing boat performs, and you need your combined crew weight differs
to understand each one of them—and how they work together—to from their crew weight.
In general, if you and your crew
tune it effectively for a wide range of conditions. Your aim is
are heavier than the average weight
to set it up to achieve maximum speed in light, medium, and strong of the top sailors, you will want
winds, so that you can concentrate on boat handling and tactics. to develop more power from your
rig by setting the mast up for fuller
sails. If you are lighter, your boat
How to start achieve a good performance quickly will be overpowered earlier, so you
Before tuning your own boat, find out and will prevent you from getting may want to sail with flatter sails
how the fast sailors in your class set too confused by all the variables
up theirs. Many top sailors are happy that combine to make a fast setup.
to help novices learn how to tune their Once you are more familiar with boat preparation
boats. Initially, it will be sufficient to tuning techniques, try experimenting Some high-performance dinghies, like
aim to set up your boat so that it is with other adjustments. Your class this 18-foot skiff, are placed on their
exactly the same as the best performer association may be a good source of side to make it easier to rig and tune
in your class. This will help you further information—many of them the mast and sails prior to a race.
 TUNING YOUR BOAT
179
or adjust your rig to allow you
to flatten the sails more than
your competitors.
tuning for speed
This 470 is sailing fast upwind in
The hull and foils medium to strong conditions.
It is very important that all the Mast bend, clew outhaul, and
underwater parts of the hull, including the cunningham are being used
the centerboard and the rudder, have a to flatten the mainsail and allow
perfect finish, free from any blemishes the top to twist, thus reducing
that would disturb the flow of water power. The jib fairleads have
across their surfaces. Check them been moved aft to open the
slot between mainsail and jib.
regularly and repair any damage
immediately, lightly sanding away
imperfections. In light winds and flat
water, when the boat is not sailing at
its maximum speed, the drag caused
by underwater blemishes is a very
significant part of the total drag.
While you are working on the
underwater surfaces, turn the boat
on its side and lower the centerboard
fully. Make sure it is held rigidly in
its case and does not bend when you
lean on its tip. If there is any give in
it, replace it with a stiffer board, as
any deflection as it moves through the
water will slow the boat. Next, turn
the boat upside down and check the
alignment of the centerboard with the
rudder and the centerline of the hull.
If the centerboard leans one way or
the other, out of line with the rudder
tip, then use packing strips (toestrap
webbing or thin plastic strips) to
pack out one side of the case until the
centerboard is in line with the rudder.
The bottom of the centerboard
case should be fitted with rubber or
plastic strips, which seal the slot and
prevent water turbulence—another The rig The rake (lean) and bend—fore and
source of drag. Make sure the strips Most high-performance dinghies aft, as well as sideways—of the mast
are in good condition and fit flush have large, powerful rigs with a is used to alter the shape, and thus
with the hull, molding smoothly variety of controls to allow the the performance of the sails. Full
around the board when it is lowered. amount of power delivered by sails deliver maximum power, but as
If your dinghy has a lifting rudder, the sails to be adjusted to suit the the wind increases, the crew’s weight
check that the blade fits tightly in the conditions. Boats that are less and their ability to keep the boat
stock and that there is no sideways focused on performance have fewer level will be overpowered. In strong
movement that will cause drag and controls, but significant changes to conditions, the crew needs to be able
make it harder to steer accurately. the rig can still be made. to flatten the sails to reduce power.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
180
THE MAST
Masts are usually made from
aluminum or carbon fiber and
are strong and light. They are also
designed to have a certain amount
of flexibility so that they can be
bent to adjust the shape of the
mainsail. Masts come in a variety of
cross-section shapes and weights, and
each one will bend in a different way.
If you have a choice, use a mast of
the same type used in the top boats
in your class. Choosing a different
mast type from the experts’ choice
will usually be because of crew
weight differences. Light crews tend
to use more flexible rigs than heavier
crews, so follow the example of a crew
of a weight similar to your own.

Mast rake
It is easier to alter the rake and bend
of the mast if it is keel stepped (p.71), fast settings for prebend and mast mast bend
as the gate at deck level usually has rake. Use these as a starting point for This small keelboat’s mast bend flattens
some form of control that can be your rig setup and only deviate from the mainsail to reduce power and eases
adjusted. A mast that is stepped on these settings when you are confident leech tension by flexing in the gusts.
deck can be adjusted only via the that you have explored other areas of
spreaders and the shrouds, unless it tuning, such as sail setting.
also has wires running to mast at the Spreaders and shrouds
gooseneck that control the amount Mast bend The main factors that affect mast bend
of bend at this point in a way similar A key part of setting up the rig for are the tension in the shrouds and the
to a mast gate. Before adjusting your maximum performance is adjusting length and angle of the spreaders.
mast’s bend, you need to check its the prebend. This is the amount of Typically, spreaders are set up to
rake. This is usually measured between bend set in the mast before you start push the shrouds out and aft of a
the top of the mast and the top of the sailing, and it directly influences the direct line from the hounds to the
transom on the centerline. Again, mainsail shape. Tuning the mast chainplates. Increasing tension in the
follow the example of leading involves deciding how much you shrouds causes the spreaders to stiffen
sailors in your class and record the want it to bend and adjusting the the mast sideways and push its middle
measurements for use in the future. controls accordingly. forward, thus putting more bend into
The rigs of many dinghy the mast. Before the mast is stepped, the
Sails and prebend classes are set up with about 3–4 in length or angle of the spreaders can be
It is very important that the amount (75–100 mm) of prebend in the altered. Some boats have adjustable
of prebend in your mast matches the mast. If you have no other figure spreaders that allow the angle to be
shape your sailmaker has built into to go on from your class association changed afloat. However, in the early
the luff of the mainsail. Pick a leading or sailmaker, use this measurement stages, avoid getting involved in such
sailmaker for your class, tell them as a reasonable starting point complex adjustments. Use the same
your crew weight, and ask for the for experimentation. measurements as the fastest sailors.
 TUNING YOUR BOAT: THE MAST
181
Keel-stepped masts that run from the chainplates up to the resistance of a strong spring or
If your mast is keel-stepped, it will gooseneck level. These wires, most length of metal to measure the tension
have some form of control to adjust commonly referred to as the “lowers,” in the standing rigging. The most
its fore-and-aft position in the mast operate in a fashion similar to the popular types are made by Loos and
gate. This might be a strut or a ram, keel-stepped mast controls acting at SuperSpar, and you will find that
or it may be a set of simple chocks the mast gate. Tighten the lowers to many tuning guides refer to a “Loos”
that can be removed or added as limit lower mast bend; slacken the number of say, “35,” rather than the
required. All these systems are lowers to increase mast bend. actual tension in pounds or kilograms.
designed to hold the mast back, at The tape measure and the tension
gate or gooseneck level, to stiffen Rig measuring tools gauge will help you find the right
it and limit bend or to allow it to To be able to copy other sailors’ combination of mast rake and rig
move forward to increase bend. settings and replicate them on your tension for your boat. If you are
own boat, you will need three tools: serious about improving your boat
Deck-stepped masts a logbook; a measuring tape calibrated speed, keep a written record in the
Some of the newer skiff-type in metric and imperial units, which is logbook of the rig settings that you
classes favor deck-stepped masts. at least a yard longer than your mast use for every racing and training
In this case, the lower mast bend is height; and a rig tension gauge. The session and your impressions of how
controlled by an extra set of wires latter is a simple device that uses your speed compared to others’.

mast bend Straight Full mainsail Bent mast Mainsail is

The amount of mast bend controls the mast gives for maximum flattens flatter to
full mainsail power mainsail reduce power
fullness of the mainsail. Use a straight
mast for maximum fullness and power
in light to moderate winds. In very light,
drifting conditions, increasing prebend
will flatten the sail and make it easier for
the wind to flow around it. As soon as
there is a perceptible breeze, however,
straighten the mast. In medium to strong
winds, when the wind increases to the
point where the crew’s weight is no
longer sufficient to hold the boat upright,
the mast should be bent to flatten the
sail and reduce power.
STRAIGHT MAST MAST WITH PREBEND

spreaders
The length and angle of the
Spreaders Long spreaders
spreaders help control mast bend. angled aft deflect the
Long spreaders push the shrouds push shrouds shrouds
outward and stiffen the mast backward sideways

sideways. Angling the spreaders

aft causes the shrouds to push
mast-gate control
the middle of the mast forward.
This increases mast bend. When A keel-stepped mast usually has some
the jib halyard is tightened, the form of fore-and-aft control at the mast
shrouds are tensioned and gate to adjust mast position and bend.
the effect of the spreaders In this small keelboat, plastic chocks are
on the mast is increased. used. Chocks can be moved in front of
SPREADER the mast to push it aft or behind it to
SPREADER ANGLE LENGTH push it forward.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
182
or lowers, it will cause low-down Jib adjustments
THE SAILS mast bend. This flattens the mainsail The position of the jib fairleads and
in the lower half and increases the tension in the jib sheet control the
Most high-performance dinghies twist in the upper leech, thereby jib’s shape and the slot between jib
have a number of controls that reducing power in the top of the and mainsail. Fairleads should be
can be used while sailing to adjust sail in strong winds. adjustable fore and aft and, ideally,
the shape of the sails and thus to The clew outhaul controls sideways, so that you can alter their
increase or decrease power. These tension in the foot of the mainsail. position to suit all wind conditions. In
controls are best rigged so that the Easing it increases the sail’s fullness general, they are moved forward and
helmsman or crew can adjust them in the lower third of the sail and inboard to increase power and narrow
while sitting out, or trapezing. Mark closes the lower leech. Tightening the slot, and back and out to open the
all your controls so that you can it flattens the sail and opens the slot and flatten the sail. Make sure that
record the fast settings in your lower leech. the slot stays parallel all the way up.
logbook for easy replication. Tensioning the cunningham Jib luff tension is set by the jib halyard.
tightens the mainsail luff, opens the In dinghies, adjusting the jib halyard
Mainsail adjustments upper leech, and increases twist. It also alters tension in the shrouds
As well as holding down the boom, also pulls the point of maximum and effects mast bend. Adjust it to
the boom vang pulls it forward camber forward to counteract the minimize luff sag when close-hauled
into the gooseneck. If this force is effect of stronger winds that push in medium winds. Ease it in light
not resisted by chocks, a mast ram, the camber aft in the mainsail. winds and tighten it in stronger winds.

SAIL CONTROLS
Modern sailcloths are very stable, allowing sail shapes sail and rig controls to adjust the fullness of their
that perform well in a wide range of conditions. As sails and to control the position of maximum draft.
wind strength increases or decreases, however, the Remember that changing one control is likely to
crew needs to maintain top performance by using the have an effect on one or more of the others.

equipment action result

Jib halyard Increasing tension Reduces sagging in jib luff; tightens leech

Jib fairleads Adjusting fore and aft, and sideways Alters shape of jib, twist in leech, and adjusts
slot between jib and mainsail

Cunningham Increasing tension Pulls maximum camber forward in sail,

opens upper leech, increases twist

Boom vang Increasing tension Reduces mainsail leech twist and bends
mast low down

Mainsheet Adjusting sheet tension Controls boom angle and leech tension

Mainsheet Adjusting position Controls boom angle

traveler

Clew outhaul Increasing tension Flattens lower third of mainsail and

opens lower leech
 TUNING YOUR BOAT: THE SAILS
183
Tuning small keelboats
Many of the same principles of tuning MAXIMIZING PERFORMANCE IN ALL CONDITIONS
dinghies apply to keelboats, but the Start tuning afloat by sailing close-hauled in medium winds of about
controls may vary. Many keelboats 7–16 knots, Force 3–4. In these conditions, your boat will be fully
have an adjustable backstay, which is powered up, with you sitting out or trapezing as hard as possible
a useful tool for adjusting mast bend. to keep the boat level. Experiment with the controls one at a time.
In medium airs, the backstay tends
to be slack, with the crew using large Light winds stalling. If your mainsheet runs on
amounts of mainsheet tension to In medium winds, the maximum a traveler, pull it to windward until
create maximum leech tension for fullness of the sails is used to the boom is on the centerline. The
power. In light winds of less than develop power. In very light boat should now be fully powered
winds of 4 knots or less, however, up, with you and your crew sitting
4 knots, however, the backstay can
the wind does not have enough out as hard as possible, or trapezing,
be used to flatten the mainsail to energy to bend easily around full to keep the boat upright.
encourage airflow over the sail. In sails. Therefore, you need to If the mainsail develops
strong winds, when it is necessary to flatten the sails. large creases running from the
depower the rig, increasing backstay Remove the mast chocks in clew to the middle of the luff, it is an
tension will help flatten the mainsail the mast gate or ease off the ram indication that your mast is bending
and open the upper leech. Remember to allow the mast to bend forward too much and you need to adjust
at deck level and pull the clew the spreaders or shroud tensions
to release backstay tension when you
outhaul to its maximum extent. to reduce the bend.
bear away downwind to put power Leave the cunningham and vang
back into the mainsail and avoid slack and adjust the mainsheet and Strong winds
excess load damaging the mast. traveler to keep the boom close to When you sail upwind in strong
Most of the techniques described the centerline with the top leech winds, you need to reduce power
for dinghies also work for keelboats, telltale on the point of stalling. to sail fast and stay in control. If
Flatten the jib by moving the you can adjust the rig before sailing,
although the mainsheet traveler tends
jib fairleads aft and out, but ease it usually helps to increase the mast
to be more of a primary control in rake and the shroud tension. You
the jib sheet slightly. If the wind
keelboats. Keep the boom on the strength increases, the mast will may also decide to alter the spreader
centerline in light to medium winds, try to bend further and creases will angle to prevent excessive bend.
but as the wind increases, it usually appear from the luff of the mainsail. If the boat becomes overpowered,
pays to let the traveler down to leeward At this point, start restricting mast tension the cunningham and pull
to help depower the mainsail. Easing bend using the chocks or the ram the outhaul tight. The cunningham
to increase the power in the sail. pulls the draft in the sail forward
the traveler on a keelboat will also
and helps flatten it, while the
help reduce weather helm. The aim of Medium winds outhaul flattens the lower part
many of the tuning adjustments on a In medium winds, aim to achieve of the sail.
keelboat is to reduce weather helm to maximum power from the rig. Use the vang to hold the boom
a minimum. A boat that is easy to steer Set the jib fairleads in their middle down and increase low-down bend
also tends to be fast through the water. position and sheet the sail so that all in the mast, and use the mainsheet
the windward telltales (p.82) break to trim the sail. You can ease the
together. Use the mast-gate chocks vang in the lulls to increase power
TO INCREASE POWER or ram to prevent the mast from and tighten it in the gusts to reduce
• Ease the jib sheet slightly bending beyond the set amount power. Move the jib-sheet fairleads
• Move the jib fairleads forward of prebend. Ease the clew outhaul aft and tighten the sheet to flatten
by about 1–2 in (2.5–5 cm) from the sail, open the slot, and allow the
• Ease the mainsail outhaul
its maximum position and leave head to twist slightly. If you are still
• Ease the cunningham control the cunningham slack. Sheet the overpowered, it can help to pull up
• Bring the boom closer to mainsail using the mainsheet and the centerboard or daggerboard
the centerline leaving the vang slack. Sheet it as much as halfway. This is an
• Stiffen the mast at deck level hard enough to have the top leech often-overlooked method of
telltale (p.130) on the point of depowering the boat.
using the mast-gate control
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
184

ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING
The definition of rough weather is subjective—in conditions may find that you plane on many
that are too difficult for novice sailors, an expert crew will be points of sailing. Speed is your ally
in these conditions—when the boat
able to enjoy fast and exhilarating sailing. The design of the is upright and moving fast, it is easier
boat influences the way you experience the conditions, as does to control and requires smaller tiller
the wind direction in relation to the shore and any tidal stream. movements to keep it on course.
Winds of Force 5 to 6 can be considered rough weather, but a
Reaching
Force 4 against a strong tide can kick up large waves and make Start by sailing on a reach to get
sailing more difficult than a Force 6 in flat water. the feel of the conditions. The boat
should be planing and the helm and
crew should move well aft to keep
Gaining experience adequate (pp.66–67). Sailing in these the bow up and the rudder immersed.
As you develop your sailing skills, it conditions can be very tiring and If the boat heels, ease out both sails
is important that you learn to handle requires concentration, stamina, to keep the boat upright, allowing the
your boat in strong winds. It is often and endurance. If you find that you luffs of both sails to “lift”—shake or
best to gain experience while racing, are getting tired or cold, come ashore backwind—if necessary. If the boat
because racing fleets still sail in rough immediately, as your strength will is overpowered, move the jib sheet
weather and always have safety boats decrease rapidly and you could fairleads back to allow the top of
available. When you sail just for fun, easily find yourself in trouble. the jib to twist, and ease the vang to
however, it will be your decision You will notice that the boat twist the mainsail. Watch for gusts,
whether to venture out. reacts much faster and more violently easing the sails and bearing away to
Before you go afloat, check all in rough weather than it does in keep the boat upright as they pass.
your gear to make sure it is in good lighter winds. You will need to react
condition and that nothing is likely quickly to changes in wind strength Broaching
to break. Rough weather imposes and direction. The heeling force will One of the hazards of rough-weather
considerable loads on the boat, sails, be considerable, and you will need reaching, particularly when flying
and equipment, and it is vital that all your strength and agility to keep a spinnaker, is broaching. When a
they are strong enough to handle the the boat under control. Depending on gust strikes the sails, there is often
stress. Make sure that your clothing is your boat and the wind strength, you a tendency for the boat to round up
into the wind without much warning.
The helm may try to fight the
weather helm by pulling hard on
on a reach
Reaching in strong the tiller, but at this point it is often
winds, this Laser too late and the boat will round
sailor eases the up uncontrollably into the wind.
vang so that the Prevention is the best policy, and
mainsail twists both helm and crew should look
off and heeling is frequently over their shoulder to see
reduced. This also when the next gust is about to strike.
keeps the boom Just as a gust—indicated by a dark
end clear of waves.
patch on the water—is about to
reach the boat, make sure the boat
is absolutely upright and bear away
slightly, with the crew ready to ease
 ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING
185
planing to windward
This helm and crew are working
hard to keep the boat upright and
planing to windward. The mainsail
is eased slightly to reduce heeling.

stable on a broad reach. There

will be sufficient heeling force to
allow both the helm and the crew to
sit to windward (well aft to prevent
the bow from digging in). When
the spinnaker sheet at least an armful. steers closer to the wind until sailing in waves, you must anticipate
If the gust is bigger than expected, the jib luff starts to backwind. This each wave and bear away down its
bear away even more and ease even reduces the power in the rig and face as the stern lifts. The boat will
more spinnaker sheet, and the boat gains ground to windward. Do not accelerate, and you should then luff
will accelerate rather than heel. sail too close to the wind, however, slightly to ride the face of the wave as
Easing the vang, sometimes all the or the boat will slow down and heel long as possible, avoiding digging the
way off, can also help the boat cope more when you try to bear away to bow in at the bottom of the trough.
with a big gust on a reach. If you are the correct course. Steer through big If the bow does dig in to a wave,
sailing on a keelboat with four or waves by luffing up as you climb it may nosedive and suffer a pitchpole
more people, assign one person to them, then bearing away as the capsize. Avoid this by reducing the
be solely responsible for controlling bow passes through the crest. efficiency of the sails to slow the boat.
the vang, pulling it on in the lulls In a single-hander, tighten the vang
and easing it rapidly in the gusts. Downwind courses and oversheet the mainsail. In a
In strong winds, the boat will plane boat with an asymmetric spinnaker,
Close-hauled continuously on a broad reach—and oversheet the sail as much as
Luff up to a close-hauled course, possibly even on a run. Sailing on a necessary to slow down to the
being careful to sheet in gently as run in very strong winds is difficult point where you feel safe. In a dinghy
the boat turns so that it stays upright. because there is no heeling force to or keelboat with a conventional
It is important that heeling is kept balance against, and there is always spinnaker, head up to a broad reach
to a minimum, and the helm must the danger of an unplanned jibe. The so that you sail down the waves at an
constantly trim the mainsheet to boat will sail faster and will be more angle rather than straight down them.
achieve this. In the strongest gusts,
the mainsail may have to be let out
until it backwinds (flaps) across most
of its width to spill wind and prevent
the boat from heeling. Keep the jib
sheeted in tight except in the strongest
gusts, when it should be eased out
a little way until the gust passes.
nosediving
High-performance dinghies will Sailing a high-performance
plane to windward, and the mainsail boat very fast downwind
should be eased as necessary to keep in waves brings the risk
the boat upright. Slower dinghies, of nosediving into a wave
which do not plane to windward, and pitchpoling.
can use the no-sail zone as a way of
decreasing power. As a gust hits, the
helm eases the mainsheet a little and
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
186
TACKING AND JIBING IN STRONG WINDS
In rough conditions, your boat is hiking or trapezing and the boat increase cunningham tension, raise the
vulnerable at slow speeds, especially has accelerated, sheet the sails back daggerboard, and ease the vang. As you
when tacking and jibing. The helm into their normal position. become more adept at rough-weather
and crew must work hard to keep Some boats sail best upwind tacking, you should need to rely less
the boat balanced through these in windy weather, using a lot of on these techniques, but be aware that
maneuvers, which must be completed tension in the boom vang, but this older sails are harder to tack than new
as quickly as possible so that the can sometimes cause a problem when ones, because the sail’s center of effort
boat can get back to full speed with tacking. The tension in the boom vang moves aft as the sailcloth ages and
minimum delay. causes the mainsail leach to be very stretches out of shape.
tight during a tack, and this can make
Tacking the boat stall head-to-wind. It can Jibing
Before tacking, the helm must ensure also make it quite hard for the crew Jibing in any boat must be completed
the boat is moving as fast as possible to get under the boom. If you have quickly and smoothly. It should be
and should look ahead of the boat to problems with getting caught in-irons attempted only when the boat is
find a stretch of flat water in which or getting under the boom during moving at top speed—when the
to tack. However rough it is, the size a tack, ease the vang before the tack apparent wind is least—and never
of waves always varies, so look for a and pull it on again only when the when it is slowing down—when the
long valley between two swells or a boat is fully up to speed again. apparent wind pressure increases.
wave with a smallish peak around This problem of getting stuck For this reason, jibing is much easier
which to time the tack. head-to-wind is particularly common when the boat is surfing down the
Give the crew plenty of warning in single-handers, which rely on large front of a wave or planing at high
when tacking in rough weather, and amounts of vang to flatten the sail but speed. Do not be afraid to jibe when
time the start of the tack so that the have no jib to help pull the bow away sailing fast; it really is the safest way
bow passes through a wave crest as from the wind (p.161). It can help to to handle the maneuver.
you luff into the tack. This will ensure bear off slightly onto a close reach Take great care with the boom in
that the boat is on the new tack and to build speed and then tack the boat rough conditions, as it can fly across
moving again before the next wave onto a close reach on the other tack the boat with great force. Make sure
arrives. Timing of body movement is before sheeting in and luffing up to that you and your crew have your
crucial. The aim is to keep the boat a new close-hauled course. If you heads down before you jibe. Some
flat throughout the maneuver. still have problems, then try these sailors even wear protective head
In a dinghy, as the helm starts to solutions in order of importance: gear for this reason.
luff up slowly, both helm and crew
should come in from their hiking or
trapezing positions but remain on
crew coordination
the windward side, ready to move This keelboat crew is
smoothly and swiftly across to the moving smoothly and in
new windward side as the boat tacks. unison, waiting until the
Once the boat is through head to sails pass overhead to
wind, helm and crew should move move across the boat.
to the new side as quickly as possible.
The mainsail and jib should be
sheeted only three-quarters of the
way in, with both sails luffing slightly.
This will help the boat accelerate and
make it less likely to capsize if a gust
hits the sails. Once you are both fully
 ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING: TACKING AND JIBING IN STRONG WINDS
187
Asymmetric spinnaker to instigate the jibe and then bring
Subtlety of steering is essential the boat back to a dead run straight
to jibing an asymmetric spinnaker after the jibe.
successfully. It is surprising just how The added difficulty is that
little steering a planing dinghy requires. the helm must steer with the tiller
Make sure the boat is flat or even extension held behind their back at
heeled slightly to leeward throughout this stage. Once the boat is under
the maneuver, as any windward control on the new jibe, the helm
heel will mean that the asymmetric, can change hands on the extension
pulling at the top of the mast, will and get settled on the new course.
capsize the boat as it exits from the
jibe. This angle of heel is a very Keelboats
important distinction between jibing Jibing a keelboat in rough weather
a symmetric or asymmetric spinnaker is, in principle, the same as jibing a
dinghy. As you steer into the jibe, dinghy, but it is important to remember
move your body weight over as that all the loads are much higher.
quickly or as slowly as is required This means that all crew members
rolling downwind
to match the speed of the turn through must be aware of these extra loads
Nonplaning, classic keelboats tend to the jibe. A rapid turn will require on sails, sheets, tackles, and winches.
roll heavily when sailing in strong winds. rapid movement across the boat. Be particularly wary of the boom
Beware of unintentional jibes when Jibe the asymmetric spinnaker as as it flies across and ensure that
sailing on a run in strong winds. normal or consider using the survival everyone keeps their heads well
jibe technique in heavy weather down below its swinging arc. When
(pp.156–157), as it is much quicker sailing a keelboat with a conventional
Conventional spinnaker to jibe safely and remain upright spinnaker in strong conditions, jibe
In a boat sailing with a conventional than it is to deal with a capsize. the mainsail first. The foredeck
spinnaker, which will run straight crew only goes forward to jibe the
downwind, the jibing technique is Single-hander spinnaker pole once the boat is
very similar to that used for lighter Jibing a single-hander with just a under control again. Be sure to keep
conditions. With the boat sailing on a mainsail can be quite tricky because steering the boat straight downwind
run, roll the boat slightly to windward, there is no spinnaker to keep the boat to keep the loads on spinnaker sheet
about 5 degrees, just to help the moving through the jibe. This means and guy to a minimum until the pole
rudder steer the boat through a gentle it is very hard to avoid the boom has been attached on the new side.
arc. At the same time, grasp all the slamming across on the new side,
parts of the mainsheet tackle and which can easily lead to a broach.
“throw” the mainsail over to the new The key to successful jibing in
jibe. This allows you to avoid a large a nontrapeze single-hander is to
change of course to get the mainsail to use a version of the roll jibe (p.143).
jibe and means you are less likely to As you steer into the jibe, heel the
broach after the jibe. At the moment boat to windward and, as you feel
the boom swings across the boat, the the mainsheet tension become light
helm should reverse the helm and steer (the sign that the sail is about to
the boat back to a run. The course jibe), give it a quick tug to help it
steered through the jibe will resemble on its way. At the same time, transfer
an “S” shape, ensuring that the boat your weight rapidly to the new side
sails dead downwind as much as to bring the boat level again while physical fitness
possible. Once the boat is steady, the steering back onto a downwind Rough weather is physically demanding
crew can move forward to change course as quickly as possible. Again, and quickly saps strength, so it pays to
the spinnaker pole to the new side. the aim is to steer an S-shaped course make sure you are fit for the conditions.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
188

RACING
There is no better way to learn to sail a boat well and to build
on your existing skills than to race against other boats that are in
the same class. Racing quickly teaches you the intricacies of good
boat handling, and you will also learn how to tune your dinghy
or keelboat for a wide range of wind conditions. Join a club that
supports the class of boat you are interested in or, if you already
own a boat but your club does not support its class, consider
racing in a mixed, handicap fleet.

Starting to race The association will also be able to

Racing is organized through sailing provide you with tuning data and
clubs at a local level and through can advise you on which clubs provide
class associations on a national or fleet racing for your type of boat.
international basis. You will need to At club level, each fleet normally
join your class association, which will has a class captain who organizes the You will nearly always find that the
arrange for your boat to be measured racing calendar and who is usually an class captain and other owners are
and certified within the class rules. experienced sailor in the class. welcoming to newcomers and will
be pleased to help you get started.
If you do not own your own
SAILING CLUBS boat, you will often find that you
By far the best way to meet other sailors and develop your skills is to join can get a crewing position quite easily.
an active sailing club. These range from dinghy clubs to those that embrace Crews are often in short supply, and
dinghies, small keelboats, and larger yachts. it is a great way to learn racing skills.

Clubs and racing

To improve your dinghy sailing skills, find a local club dedicated to dinghy
Making a choice
sailing. The club will probably provide fleet racing for several classes and will If you have ambitions to reach the
also have a handicap fleet in which other less popular dinghies can race. Dinghy top in dinghy racing, you should
clubs often have junior or cadet sections that provide training courses and racing choose one of the recognized
for young members. If you have your own boat and want to race against others International- or Olympic-class
of the same class, make sure you join a club that has a strong fleet of your class. boats and be prepared for a long,
sailing in a club hard, and expensive route to the
Club racing forms the top. If, on the other hand, your
backbone of dinghy sailing ambitions do not extend beyond
and is the starting point for all
becoming a good club racer or
who wish to race. Once a sailor
has become proficient enough a competitor in a national
to reach the top of a good club championship fleet, you will have
fleet, they can progress to a wider choice of boats. Narrow
Class Open Meetings and down your options by deciding
National Championships.
whether you want close, tactical
racing or speed and whether you
want to sail with a crew or prefer
to sail a single-handed dinghy.
 RACING
189
tactical racing
For close, tactical racing, pick a class such
as the Laser—the Olympic single-hander.
It has large and very competitive fleets
worldwide and is challenging to sail. It
is also relatively cheap to buy and run.
Whatever your level of skill or ambition,
you will always find Laser sailors of your
standard to ensure good close racing.

high-speed sailing
For high speeds and an adrenaline
rush, consider a boat like this F18
Hobie Wildcat catamaran or a single-
hulled dinghy such as the Olympic 49er,
the International 14, or the Foiling Moth.
These are extreme machines that demand
great skill, coordination, and agility to
sail but deliver a fantastic return in
performance and fun.

Tactics vs. speed

You do not need to sail the latest
high-performance dinghy to enjoy
very competitive racing. In fact,
many of the largest and most
competitive racing fleets are found
in classes that were designed many
decades ago and which, by modern
standards, are quite slow. They may
not offer the ultimate in speed, but
the racing is often very close and
tactically intense.
For speed, look at catamaran
designs or modern monohull dinghies
with multiple trapezes and large,
asymmetric spinnakers. If you
prefer not to sail in one of the high-
performance dinghies but still want
speed, you should consider a small
keelboat or a sportsboat. These will
provide exciting sailing without the
level of physical exertion a high-
performance dinghy requires.
If you do not want to have
to find a crew, consider a single-
handed class, which will provide
the ultimate test of your individual
racing skills.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
190
COURSES AND STARTING
Racing can take place around any processional. Instead, the windward
shape or length of course, but there leeward configuration offers the
are a few common types of courses challenge of the windward legs Spreader
mark
used for Club and Championship plus the tactical options of jibing Windward
mark
racing. Most courses are set to ensure downwind on the run, where place
Finishing
that the first leg after the start is to changes are more common, which line
windward. Races can start with a makes the racing more interesting.
downwind leg, on a reach or a run,
but this is far less common and is Square course
mostly restricted to yacht races. This has become a popular course Leeward
Most courses for dinghy, small configuration since it allows a race mark or gate
keelboat, or catamaran races are set committee to race two separate fleets Committee
boat
with marks rounded in a counter- on the same course. The race officer
clockwise direction or with “marks can send the first fleet off on the
to port,” as it is often described. This “outer loop,” and the second fleet
Starting Start line
is because it ensures that the final can start five minutes later and race mark
approach to the windward mark on the “inner loop.”
will be on starboard tack, which windward leeward course
is the tack with the right of way Windward
mark After a beat to windward, there is a very
under the racing rules. If a course is short reach to a spreader mark, if used,
set with marks rounded to starboard, then a run to the leeward mark or gate.
there is a higher chance of collisions.
old olympic course
Old Olympic course Wing mark The windward leg is followed by a reach
Otherwise known as a Triangle- to the wing mark and another reach to
Sausage course, this used to be the the leeward mark, then a beat and a run.
standard course for Olympic-class
boats but is still very popular with square course
some of the more traditional dinghy Leeward mark and This course allows the race committee to
starting mark
classes, including some single-handers race two fleets, using the inner and outer
and boats with conventional loops to separate the two.
spinnakers. The race starts with
a windward leg, then moves on to Windward
two reaching legs. After a second Windward mark, mark, inner loop
outer loop
windward leg, the course then turns
directly back downwind on a run.
Leeward mark,
Windward leeward Leeward mark,
inner loop

The simplest configuration is a outer loop Starting and Committee boat

windward leeward course. This has finishing mark

become the course of choice for the

asymmetric dinghy classes and many
of the sportsboat classes. On the old
Start line
Olympic course, there are not many
Finish line
overtaking opportunities on the
reaches, which can be quite
 RACING: COURSES AND STARTING
191
STARTING
A race committee sets a start line between two points, over the line at the start signal. The race officer watches the
usually the mast on a race committee boat at the starboard line at the start time to see if any boats are over. If there are,
end of the line, and another boat, or an inflatable buoy, the race officer sounds a further signal and flies an individual
at the port end of the line, which is often referred to as the recall flag, indicating that the offending boats must return
“pin end.” The race officer usually aims to set a start line that to the line to start correctly. If there are many boats over
is square—at 90 degrees—to the average wind direction. The the line, the race officer may choose to have a general
aim of the racing sailor is to start at the favored end of the recall, in which case that start will be abandoned and the
line (below), as close to the line as possible, without being whole starting procedure will commence once more.

Starting procedure
Sailors need to stay close to the race committee vessel signal is only to draw attention to the flags. So if the
during the minutes before the start of a race so that they flag movements and the sound signals do not happen
can see the flags and hear the sound signals, which will be at the same time, set your watch by the flag signal. The
made by whistle, horn, or starting gun. It is important to most common timing sequence is 5-4-1-Go, although
know that the flags are the definitive signal; the sound others may be used.

signal flag and sound minutes to go

Warning Class flag + 1 sound 5

Preparatory Flag P (or flag I, U, Z with I, or black flag) + 1 sound 4

One-minute Preparatory flag removed + 1 long sound 1

Start Class flag removed + 1 sound 0

INDIVIDUAL GENERAL POSTPONEMENT PREPARATORY DISQUALIFICATION I (ONE MINUTE U Z

RECALL RECALL (P) (BLACK FLAG) RULE)

Boat starts at
favored port
end and gains Line is square to
wind so neither Starboard end is
end is favored biased and boat gains
by starting here

port end bias square line—no bias starboard end bias

If the port end of the line is closer to the When the line is square to the wind, neither If the starboard end of the line is closer to
wind, a boat starting there will be ahead of end is closer to the wind and there is no the wind, a boat starting there will be ahead
a boat starting at the other end of the line. advantage for either end of the line. of a boat starting at the other end of the line.
 ADVANCED SMALL-BOAT SAILING
192
FROM START TO FINISH
The racing day begins long before the before the 5-minute starting sequence is shifting. Write down (use a
starting gun sounds. Most sailors check begins to have time to check the line nonpermanent marker on any handy
the weather forecast the night before bias, and it is much better if you can surface) the average heading, then tack
racing and the times of the tide if they arrive half an hour or more before the and do the same on the other tack. Sail
are racing in tidal waters. On the start. This will allow time for doing about halfway up the beat, if time
morning of the race, it is a good idea some practice tacks and jibes and to allows, then head back to the start
to read the sailing instructions very check that the boat is tuned correctly line, taking the opportunity to hoist the
carefully, and also to find out what the for the wind and wave conditions. spinnaker, check that it is not twisted,
wind is actually doing compared to and do a couple of practice jibes.
the forecast. If you have a choice of Check the wind
sails for different wind conditions, Use the time before the start to check Check the line bias
then you will need to make a decision the wind shifts and to plan a strategy Back at the starting area, the Race
about which to use for the day. for the first beat. From the starting Committee should have laid the
Check how far away the race area, sail off on port or starboard starting line, and now is the time
course is and how long it is likely to tack and sail as well as you can to to check the line bias (p.191). While
take to get there. You need to arrive windward. Constantly check the most race committees will attempt
in the starting area at least 10 minutes compass to find out how the wind to set a start line at 90 degrees to

1 The start 6 Leeward mark

Check the course the committee has chosen and Sailing high on the second reach also helps
how many laps are to be sailed. Here, the course claim the inside position at the leeward 5
is a Triangle Sausage course. Be ready to set your mark. The boat rounding on the inside has
watch at the warning signal. Decide which part of right of way on any boat overlapped on
the line to start at and position the boat about the outside, so boats will jostle for position
10 boat lengths behind the start line with to have “inside rights” as they enter the
about two minutes to the start signal. Move crucial two-boat length zone. The
forward very slowly for the next minute and a boat that wins this battle will be
half, until the last 15 seconds, at which point you in a great position to start the
should aim to be one or two boat lengths behind second beat with clear air, 5 Jibe mark
the line. Now sheet in the sails and accelerate, while the boats on the The key to negotiating
aiming to start with the bow just behind the outside are likely to the jibe mark is to get in
line as the start signal sounds. have to sail in and out of the rounding as
turbulent air. smoothly as possible and to
begin the second reach in clear air.
Again, more often than not, boats
will sail in a big arc to windward
to protect their clear air.

9 The finish
9 6
The finish line can be set at the end
of a windward leg or a downwind
leg—which often means the race
committee can use the same line for 2
starting and finishing. Aim for the
end of the finish line that is closer to 1
the wind. Assuming no change of
conditions during a race, the same
end will be favored as the start.

2 First windward leg

After the start, sail fast and maintain clear air. until the wind heads you (pp.132–133).
START/FINISH LINE If you start to get dirty air from other boats, then Windshifts are hard to spot when you are
it may pay to tack onto port tack, but if you can learning, but the rule of thumb is to sail on the
maintain clear air, then stay on starboard tack tack that points closest to the windward mark.
 RACING: FROM START TO FINISH
193
the wind direction, the wind is nearly it is flapping slightly and needs to The vast majority of boats cross
always shifting one way or the other. be sheeted farther in, then you are the line on starboard tack, as this
This means that one end of the line pointing toward the favored end. tack has right of way. It is possible
is likely to be closer to the wind than Use this method two or three times to sometimes to start on port tack, but
the other. It is called the favored end make sure you are clear about which it is a high-risk maneuver and is best
because a boat starting at this end end is favored. If you can’t tell the left until you are more experienced.
has less distance to sail than a boat difference between one tack and the Starting well and consistently
at the other end. A simple way other, it probably means the line has requires a lot of practice, but by
to identify the favored end is to been set square to the wind and concentrating on these four priorities,
sail along the start line with the bow neither end is favored. in the order shown, you will make
pointing toward one end of the line. a reasonable start most of the time.
Sheet the mainsail, with the traveler Choose where to start Although starting right at the
cleated on the centerline, so that it is To achieve a successful start, your favored end offers the most potential
set correctly for the course. Cleat the aim should be to position your boat: advantage, it is difficult to achieve in
mainsheet and tack around to sail • Just behind the line (but very close practice. Many boats will try for the
the opposite way along the line. to it) at the starting signal ideal spot, but only one boat will
Look at how the mainsail is setting • Traveling at full speed make it. It is better to start just along
now. If it is oversheeted and needs • With space around you, especially the line from the favored end, where
to be eased, then you are pointing close to leeward it will be easier to find clear space
away from the favored end. But if • At the favored end of the line and get a clean start.

8 The run
After the second windward leg and windward were looking for upwind. Remember the basic
mark rounding, the race nears its conclusion with rule of taking the jibe that points you closer to the
a run to the finish. One of the biggest priorities on finish. All these considerations are even more important
the run is to find the bands of strongest wind. Wind in asymmetric spinnaker boats, which sail large angles
strength often varies across the course. Windshifts are downwind. Remember also that the more separated
also important downwind, except that now you want you are from another boat, the bigger the relative
to sail in the headed wind rather than the lifts that you gain or loss if the wind strength or direction changes.

4 The reach
4 There are many tactics that can be used on the reach, but one of
the highest priorities is to keep clear wind. This is why many boats sail
on a big arc to windward—to protect their wind from boats trying
to overtake them. Normally, place-changing is quite limited
on the reach, with superior boat speed or boat-handling
being the main reasons for any place-changing.

8
3 The windward mark
3 The safest approach to the windward mark is on starboard tack,
as coming in on port tack brings a risk of collision. Before you round
the mark, look to see if any of the leading boats are flying spinnakers
on the first reach, or if it is too close to the wind or too windy to fly
7 a spinnaker safely. Assuming that it is possible to carry a spinnaker
on the reach, bear away around the mark, and once you have space
around you to hoist safely, set the spinnaker as quickly as possible.

7 Second windward leg

By the time you sail the second windward leg, the fleet will whichever side of the course you think is favored from
have spread out and there will be more room to choose your earlier experience on the previous windward leg. If the wind
own course. Try to find clear lanes to sail, free of interference is oscillating backward and forward around a mean direction,
of other boats, and concentrate on sailing fast, heading to concentrate on always sailing on the lifted tack.
CRUISERSAILING
Many people who learn to sail in small boats eventually move on to larger ones,
possibly because of a desire to sail longer distances, cruise foreign shores, or even
adopt the live-aboard lifestyle. It is useful to have learned basic skills in a small boat
first, but there are many new skills that a cruiser sailor needs to master, and some
people choose to start their sailing in a cruiser, which is a perfectly valid approach.
 CRUISER SAILING
196

STARTING TO CRUISE
The best way to start cruising is to sail on a friend’s boat or to performance one, but the differences
find a skipper in need of crew. Try a few day-sails and at least one between types of cruisers are even
more notable. This is why there
overnight or longer passage to help you decide if you like cruising. is no substitute for on-the-water
If you do, take a course in skippering skills, boat-handling, and experience and why you should try
navigation at a sailing school. If you are used to sailing a dinghy, to sail as many different types of
cruisers as possible before deciding
you will need to learn to handle a larger and heavier boat and how
on the one that will best suit you.
to function well as part of a team. It is not necessary (or advisable)
to buy a boat before you start cruising. Passage-making
Skippering a boat on passage
requires a wide range of skills.
What is a cruiser? hydrodynamics that affect all sailing Boat-handling skills are needed
A cruiser need not be especially big— boats. There are, however, major to get the boat into and out of
some, in fact, are little more than differences between various types, in harbor and to ensure a fast and
large dinghies, although they have the way they behave under sail and comfortable passage. Pilotage and
a cabin to accommodate the crew. power and in the manner in which navigation skills take the boat
Most have some form of weighted their rigs, sails, and equipment are safely and efficiently between
keel, although cruising catamarans do arranged and handled by the crew. ports, and boat-management skills
not use keels but rely on their large There is a significant difference in ensure that the boat and its gear
beam for stability. All cruisers obey handling and performance between are kept in good order. Finally, crew-
the basic rules of aerodynamics and a general-purpose dinghy and a high- management skills ensure that yours
is a happy ship with a well-rested,
well-fed, and highly motivated crew
performing at their optimum. A
small traditional cruiser
Gaining experience on a small good skipper has all these skills at
cruiser is the best way to start. their disposal and, most importantly,
Boats like this small traditional understands that their relative
wooden cruiser are less expensive importance changes at different
and usually easier to handle and times in each passage.
maintain than larger craft.
Cruising lessons
Sailing has up until now avoided
excessive bureaucracy, but there is
a growing trend toward regulation:
some countries require skippers
to hold recognized certificates.
You should check with your
national authority to see which
rules apply.
If you aspire to own your own
cruiser or sail long passages aboard
other people’s boats, you can (and
should) extend your knowledge in
a number of ways. Take a sailing
 STARTING TO CRUISE
197
course at a school recognized by
your national authority, and read as BOAT HANDLING
much and as widely as possible on Handling a cruiser requires much greater care than a dinghy because
the subject. Once again, and most of its larger size and, importantly, its much greater weight. Cruisers
importantly, it is advisable to get also require both skipper and crew to acquire a range of skills that
as much sea-time as you can aboard can only be learned on the job.
as wide a range of boats as possible
in different waters and conditions. Cruiser size of cruiser sailing; correct techniques
Dedicated theory courses at a If you make a mistake coming are essential to avoid injury to
local night school or college are alongside in a dinghy, a collision yourself or others and to prevent
usually very good, but there is no can usually be prevented by use of a damage to gear.
substitute for hands-on experience, well-placed foot. Even if a collision
occurs, the damage is unlikely to New skills
and that can only be obtained by
be serious. However, a cruiser’s The dinghy sailor, who is used
time on a cruiser at sea. to lightweight gear, has to become
extra weight and momentum make
close-quarter maneuvering far more accustomed to handling much
Teamwork difficult and mistakes much more larger and heavier sails and ropes.
More and more people are now expensive. Another significant The correct, and safe, way to use
learning to sail in cruisers rather difference between a dinghy and winches must be learned (p.232),
than starting in dinghies as was a cruiser is the weight of the gear and a sailor new to cruisers must
and the load on the sails and sheets. understand the potential danger
the traditional route. This is not
Although it is easy to hold a dinghy’s of more highly loaded gear. New
ideal, as the basic sailing skills are seamanship skills must be acquired
jib sheet in your hands or hoist a
easier and safer to learn aboard to enable the sailor to sail, berth,
sail by hand, a cruiser’s sheets and
a small boat. The average size of halyards require the use of winches and moor the yacht safely, and
cruisers is also increasing, and a and can impose considerable loads. essential navigation skills need to
growing number of people buying Learning how to handle ropes and be learned to allow comfortable
their first cruiser choose a boat of sails under load is an important part and safe offshore passages.
about 35 ft (11 m).
Few of these boats are designed
to be sailed single-handed; many Smaller cruisers Buying a cruiser
need a crew of three or more to It is not necessary to have a large If you do decide to invest in your
sail them efficiently without tiring boat to go on long-distance voyages. own cruiser, it is in your own best
the crew. Cruiser sailing, therefore, Although larger boats are increasingly interest to keep the boat as simple
requires more of a team effort than popular, the average-size cruiser sailing as possible. Keeping the boat simple
dinghy sailing. It also involves the world’s oceans is still only about reduces costs, makes the boat easier
living, eating, and sleeping in 35 ft (11 m), and many considerably to sail, and lessens the likelihood of
cramped quarters with several smaller boats have taken their crews equipment failure ruining a cruise.
people for extended periods; the around the world. Most long-term Bargains can often be obtained
ability to get along with others is voyagers cruise with just two people by purchasing a second-hand cruiser,
crucial. Whereas it is easy to put on board, sometimes with their especially one that has a good
up with someone’s annoying habits children or an additional crew inventory of the equipment you want
when you do not have to see them member. This means that they are on board. When buying a used boat,
all the time, trivial things can cause sailing short-handed most of the time, however, always have it surveyed
arguments and friction aboard a so a smaller boat has advantages in to be sure that there are no hidden
small boat. A good skipper will terms of easier boat-handling and in defects and that the sale price is not
be aware of this danger and will the lower cost of ownership. Cruising excessive. Look for second-hand
attempt to put together a compatible with a simpler and cheaper boat also boats in sailing magazines and by
crew, but it is up to each crew means that you can head off sooner talking to brokers, who will also
member to show tolerance in order than if you were to wait until you be able to give you useful advice
to preserve harmony aboard. could afford your dream boat. on financing and surveys.
 CRUISER SAILING
198

CHOOSING A CRUISER
All cruising boats are a compromise—most commonly between very experienced, you would be wise
cost, performance, and comfort. You need to be realistic in your to select a well-built production boat
from a reputable builder rather than
ambitions and your budget when you set out to choose a cruiser. having a boat built from scratch.
Even a small cruiser represents a considerable investment, both in
purchase price and in maintenance and running costs. Before you Racing
Some people enjoy mixing cruising
buy, decide what kind of cruising or cruiser-racing you want to do
with club or regatta racing. If you
and the areas in which you plan to sail. Get some experience in want to race, look at the types of
different boats before you buy. boats that are raced at clubs in your
sailing area. A few cruiser-racers race
in one-design fleets, but club races for
Cruising complex yacht. The very simplicity cruisers are usually sailed under a
Many people dream of long-term of the yacht means that you are handicap system, so you might want to
voyaging, but relatively few of us likely to spend more time sailing. consider a boat’s rating when buying.
leave our onshore responsibilities You will need to have more crew
and escape to sea full time. If you Sailing area on board for racing than for cruising,
are one of the lucky ones who are The most practical type of cruiser for so ensure that the boat has safety gear
free to sail away, you have a wide you will be determined by the area for everyone on board. Racing will
choice of boats that can take you and conditions in which you will do add to the costs of equipping and
on long voyages for months at a time. most of your sailing. If you plan to maintaining the boat.
Be realistic about your onshore sail in shallow waters, consider the A good cruiser-racer is also
commitments, however. The reality for option of a cruiser with bilge keels or often well-suited to leisure cruising,
most of us is that career and family a centerboard (p.154), for example. If allowing you to mix the excitement
ties prevent us from achieving more you plan to undertake long offshore of racing with the relaxation of
than a few weeks’ cruising every year, voyages, many standard production some longer cruising passages.
interspersed with weekend cruising or cruisers are pretty adequate with a When cruising, use smaller sails
racing. This type of cruising does not little modification. Unless you are than you would if you were racing.
require an ocean cruiser equipped
with every conceivable luxury.
You must also consider how TRY BEFORE YOU BUY
many people will be on board most Many people dream of sailing away on ocean voyages and save for years
of the time. Many cruising boats sail to buy their “ideal” boat, only to discover that that type of boat is not for
with a crew of only two or three, so them. It is a costly mistake that is easy to avoid.
you do not need a particularly large Gaining experience Chartering and time-sharing
boat to enjoy good cruising. Before buying your own cruiser, get as It is not always necessary to buy your
At least when you start cruising, much experience as possible of the type own boat to enjoy cruising. You could
try to keep things as simple as of cruising that you hope to do. Sail crew on other people’s boats to gain
possible: a small boat equipped aboard as many different boats as you experience, or charter different boats to
can on both short and long passages. compare them. Chartering is a low-cost
with only the basic gear will be less
When you decide on your ideal boat, way of building cruising experience. It
expensive to buy and maintain. It
arrange a substantial sail in it in order also gives you the opportunity to sail
will be much cheaper in mooring to assess how it handles under power in exotic cruising areas. Time-sharing
and insurance costs and easier to and sail. If you are uncertain, ask an a cruiser is also an option that is
handle, yet it will deliver just as experienced sailor to advise you. becoming increasingly popular.
much pleasure as a larger, more
 CHOOSING A CRUISER
199

TYPES OF CRUISER
The term “cruiser” covers a vast range of boats, from the racing boats. The range of cruisers available includes
smallest trailer-sailers to the dedicated long-distance older, traditional-design sailing boats, built a century
cruiser that is capable of taking its crew safely across or more ago and still going strong; one-of-a kind
oceans. Some are designed to mix leisure cruising designs built in wood, fiberglass, steel, aluminum, or
and racing. They can offer a level of performance that even ferro-cement; and a huge number of production
was unknown a few years ago, even from dedicated boats and family cruisers.

traditional cruisers trailer-sailers

The term “traditional cruiser” Trailer-sailers offer the advantage

usually means that the yacht is of being small enough to move by
of a heavy-displacement type. It road on a dedicated road trailer.
could be gaff or Bermudan rigged, This opens up new cruising areas
and will have a long keel. An older without the need to sail the boat
boat will be wooden, whereas on long passages to get there.
more recent types may be built Most trailer-sailers have a lifting
of fiberglass or steel. Older designs centerboard or daggerboard,
are typically narrower, and often usually weighted for stability, to
TRADITIONAL YAWL deeper, than modern cruisers. 26-FT (8-M) CRUISER allow them to fit on the trailer.

production cruisers long-distance cruisers

Most modern production cruisers For sailors looking for a long-

are built of fiberglass. They have distance, live-aboard cruiser, there
Bermudan-sloop rigs and fin keels, is limited choice, as most production
often with skeg-hung rudders. Most yachts are not designed or built for
are moderate displacement designs, this role. This steel, gaff-rigged Wylo
although lighter designs, with a long 11 epitomizes an ideal, simple, and
waterline and short overhangs, are reliable go-anywhere voyaging yacht.
popular. A few are designed for It provides generous accommodation
shallow-water sailing and are fitted and has larger hatches than most
40-FT (12-M) CRUISER with bilge keels or centerboards. STEEL CRUISER cruisers of its size.

cruiser-racers multihulls

A modern cruiser-racer combines Most cruising multihulls are

fast, efficient cruising with good catamarans rather than the
maneuverability and speed suitable trimaran configuration, which is
for racing. These designs are much more popular for racing. Multihulls
lighter than a pure cruising yacht. offer speed (provided they are
They have efficient Bermudan- kept light), the ability to dry
sloop rigs and are likely to have out easily, and upright sailing.
shorter overhangs, larger rigs, and Catamarans also have a lot
more efficient keels and rudders of space on deck and in the
CRUISER-RACER than cruisers. CATAMARAN accommodation down below.
 CRUISER SAILING
200

CRUISER DESIGN
With the development of large, production-line boat-builders,
many yachts today look very similar. A typical modern cruiser
has a Bermudan rig and a fin keel, usually with a freestanding
rudder (called a spade rudder) or a rudder that is mounted on
a skeg. This configuration originated with racing yachts, and it
is highly efficient, especially upwind. For cruising, however, it is
not necessary to stick with this conventional approach. Many
other rig and keel configurations are available.

Making a choice methods that traditional builders junk schooner

Nothing is guaranteed to excite would surely have used had they been The ubiquitous Bermudan sloop rig is not
passions as much as a discussion available. Before you can realistically the best rig for long-distance cruising.
among cruising sailors of the relative assess the merits or otherwise of The junk rig makes it simple to hoist,
merits of the various design types. different types of cruising boat, it trim, reef, or lower the sails.
Proponents of traditional design is necessary to get as much cruising
maintain that only a long keel experience as possible, preferably in Today, most hulls have a canoe-type
(opposite) is a suitable choice for a wide range of boat types. Key to body to which a separate keel is
an offshore cruiser, and some argue assessing the merits of the various bolted (opposite). Hulls have gotten
that this should be combined with options is a clear understanding of wider, lighter, and shallower
a gaff rig (p.203) for best results. The the type of cruising you plan to do. underwater but with higher topsides,
fact is that traditional cruising yachts and there has been a move away
were developed to suit the materials Hull shape from elegant overhangs at bow
their builders had available. New Traditional, wooden cruising yachts and stern to short overhangs, with
materials and construction techniques invariably had a long keel that was near-vertical bows and reverse-angle
offer other design and building an integral part of the hull structure. sterns becoming fashionable.

Bow and stern shapes now produced with scoop sterns to

The traditional and elegant spoon and give a bathing and boarding area.
raked bow shapes are still common, Traditional stern shapes, such as
but vertical or near-vertical bows transom, counter, and canoe sterns, are
are also seen, following their use on still used on some new cruisers but
racing yachts to maximize the speed- are more likely to be found on older
producing waterline length. At the yachts that date from an era when
stern, many production cruisers are there was more variety in yacht design. RAKED BOW VERTICAL BOW

FLAT-TRANSOMED STERN SCOOP STERN CANOE STERN COUNTER STERN

 CRUISER DESIGN
201
TYPES OF KEELS Rudder hung on the
back of the keel
Keels and rudders
Keel and rudder design has evolved over the years as new materials have provided
greater strength and stiffness. Traditional yachts developed from working boats
and used long keels that were an integral part of the structure. Most modern
yachts are now built with variations on the fin keel, although a number of other
keel types are also available. A long keel may be three-
Whatever its type, a conventional keel has two purposes: to resist leeway quarters the length of the boat

(pp.32–33) and to provide stability (pp.204–205). Similarly, a conventional rudder long keel
fulfills two roles—it provides the steering control and helps the keel resist leeway. A traditional long keel adds strength to
Recently, race yacht design has separated the conventional keel’s functions by a wooden hull. It runs for up to three-
developing the concept of a canting keel—which provides stability—and twin quarters the length of the vessel. The rudder
foils—which provide the steering and resistance to leeway function. is often hung on the back of the keel.

Stability, leeway, and draft

A weighted keel provides most Centerboard, here half
of a yacht’s stability. (The rest is down, retracts into hull
provided by form stability, which
depends on the beam and shape
of the hull.) The keel’s effectiveness
depends on its weight, its center
of gravity, and its depth. The lower Shallow Bilge keels project Rudder supported
its center of gravity, the greater the canoe hull Lifting rudder from each side by a full skeg

stability it provides. centerboard bilge keels

Modern materials allow racing A centerboard and lifting rudder allow Twin keels, known as bilge keels, allow a
yacht designers to create very deep, a yacht to float in very shallow water. It yacht to sit upright when dried out. They
narrow fin keels that carry their requires a centerboard case and adds are less efficient than a fin keel but are
weight in a torpedolike bulb at the complexity but can be a good solution. simpler than a centerboard arrangement.
bottom of the keels. A racing keel’s
efficiency at resisting leeway is high
because it is very deep, even though
it is narrow—known as having a high
aspect-ratio. It has very little wetted
Deep spade
surface drag, so it is a fast design. rudder
Rudders on racing yachts are also very A fin keel is bolted to the Rudder supported
deep yet narrow for racing efficiency. hull or molded within it by a partial skeg Narrow and deep fin Bulb at bottom of keel
However, these developments are poor
solutions for a cruising yacht, as they cruising fin keel racing fin keel
are expensive, are vulnerable to A cruising fin keel is usually fairly wide for Racing yachts use very deep and narrow
damage, and require expert steering. strength and simplicity. Some are very short fin keels with heavy bulbs at the bottom
but have a heavy bulb at the bottom to for maximum efficiency, but they are not
Also, a very deep keel denies the yacht
minimize draft for shallow water cruising. a good solution for most cruising yachts.
access to shallow water areas.
The latest racing developments
separate the stability and leeway-
resisting functions by using a strutlike
keel that cants from side to side to
provide a massive righting force, Canting Forward Canting Aft
Forward keel with steerable keel with steerable
while a daggerboard and a rudder
daggerboard bulb Rudder foil bulb foil
resist leeway and provide steering. A
refinement has fore and aft steerable canting keel canting keel plus twin foils
foils—both resist leeway and provide The canting keel has a heavy bulb at the Two steerable foils give leeway resistance
steering control, so you can steer the end of a thin keel that can be canted from and steering control while the thin,
bow and the stern. side to side to maximize righting moment. strutlike canting keel provides the stability.
 CRUISER SAILING
202
Cruiser attributes deck gear and a safe and secure yacht. Monohull adherents point
The attributes you require in cockpit. Speed is much less important out that a multihull (a trimaran
a cruising yacht depend on both to the offshore cruiser than comfort or catamaran) can capsize in very
your personal preferences and the and security. Although a fast cruiser rough weather, whereas a monohull
type of cruising you intend to do. gives you more options when will usually right itself if it capsizes
If you expect to do mainly weekend passage-making and can help you (pp.204–205). They say that the
cruising with the occasional week or escape from bad weather, comfort additional speed of a multihull is
two-week cruising vacation, you will and safety are much more important only appropriate for coastal cruising,
be well served by many production for a long-term, live-aboard cruiser. as the extra weight of stores and
cruisers that are optimized for day Also important is a simple boat that equipment needed when offshore
sailing with nights spent in a marina does not require a lot of specialist cruising means that a multihull is
berth, with the ability to undertake and expensive maintenance. overloaded and cannot achieve the
the occasional offshore passage. If you can afford a larger cruiser, speed which is its main selling point.
If, however, your plans include over about 50 ft (15 m), then it is Multihull proponents respond that
some serious offshore cruising, with possible to find safe, comfortable even if a multihull capsizes, it will
passages lasting a number of days, cruiser designs that are also capable not sink, unlike a monohull with
or perhaps an ocean crossing, you of fast offshore passages, but they a weighted keel, which will sink if
will have to look for different will be significantly more expensive its hull or deck is breached by the
attributes. Comfort at sea becomes than smaller or slower cruisers. sea. They also point out the extra
much more important, along with comfort of sailing upright rather
characteristics such as being easily Monohull or multihull at an angle of heel and the safety
steered by hand or autopilot, One debate that will never end regards benefits of having the speed to
comfortable motion in a seaway, the relative merits of monohull and make fast passages and escape
stable and dry, with well-laid-out multihull configurations for a cruising bad weather systems. The debate
will rage forever, but it is worth
trying both types, perhaps on
chartered vacation sails, to
cruising catamaran
Catamarans offer considerable make up your mind.
room above deck and below,
the ability to dry out easily, Choice of rig
and sailing without heeling. Almost as much as the
Cruising catamarans can be multihull debate, the choice of rig
faster than monohull cruisers, also excites the passions of long-
but only if they are kept light distance cruisers. Although the
and not overloaded. Bermudan sloop rig is almost
universal on production cruisers,
this has as much to do with ease of
building and production economics
as the particular merits of the rig for
long-distance cruising. Again, it is
worth trying to get some experience
sailing with different rigs if possible.
The gaff rig has some benefits
for offshore cruising, as does the
junk rig, and even if you prefer
to stick with the Bermudan mainsail,
a cutter is more appropriate for
offshore sailing than the standard
sloop configuration (opposite).
 CRUISER DESIGN
203
TYPES OF RIGS
A rig is categorized by its mainsail type and the number to handle heavy sails. Improvements in sail materials and
of masts and headsails ( jibs) carried. Early yachts often rig engineering have made single masts with Bermudan
had two masts and a gaff rig, as this was the easiest way sails today’s most popular rig.
Sloop Cutter way aft of the main mast. The ketch
The sloop is the most common The cutter rig remains quite popular, has a larger mizzen mast (stepped
and simplest rig. It has one mast, one especially for long-distance cruisers. It farther forward) than the yawl. The
mainsail (either gaff or Bermudan), and has one mast but carries two headsails, schooner is another two-masted yacht.
one headsail. A Bermudan sloop can be each on their own stay. This reduces the Its taller main mast is stepped aft, with
described as masthead or fractional. A size of each headsail and makes them a smaller foremast ahead of it.
masthead sloop has a larger headsail easier to handle. A cutter can have
with the forestay attached at the top either a gaff or a Bermudan mainsail. Una rig
of the mast. A fractional sloop has a In the una, or cat, rig, the mast
smaller headsail set on a forestay fixed Two-masted boats is stepped forward and is usually
to the mast some way down from the Boats with more than one mast are not unstayed. The mainsail is often rigged
top. Fractional sloops allow the mast common today, but ketch or yawl rigs with a sleeve around the mast. There
to be bent for sail control. Most can be found on older boats more than is no headsail. On larger boats, there
dinghies are fractional sloops, but 35 ft (11 m) long. In both the ketch and may be two masts, in a schooner or
many cruisers are masthead sloops. the yawl, a mizzen mast is stepped some ketch arrangement.

bermudan gaff mainsail Peak Head Headsail

Head bermudan sloop
mainsail A gaff mainsail has The Bermudan
A Bermudan four sides. It is set sloop has a triangular
mainsail has Leech on a comparatively mainsail and a single
three sides. It short mast, with headsail. A masthead
Throat
is by far the a boom at its foot sloop has the
most common Luff and another spar forestay attached
mainsail on (the gaff) along at the top of the
modern boats its head. Luff mast, as here.
of all sizes.
Leech
Tack
Tack

Clew Foot Clew Foot Mainsail

Mainsail Main mast Topsail Foresail

Mizzen
Headsail mast Foremast
Jib Mizzen Mainsail
mast Headsail
Mizzen
Mainsail
Main
Staysail Mizzen mast

bermudan cutter bermudan yawl bermudan ketch gaff schooner

Cutters have two or more The yawl rig is characterized by On a ketch rig, the mizzen is On a schooner, the main mast
headsails, each set on its own a small mizzen mast stepped stepped aft of the main mast but is stepped behind the shorter
stay. The inner headsail is called aft of the rudder post. It may ahead of the rudder post. It may foremast. A gaff schooner has
the staysail; the outer is the jib. have any number of headsails. have one or more headsails. a gaff-rigged mainsail, as here.
 CRUISER SAILING
204

STABILITY
the righting moment initially increases.
As the boat heels further, the righting
moment rises to maximum before
decreasing again as the center of
Few things are more dangerous for a yacht and its crew than buoyancy moves back toward the
for it to suffer a knockdown (a roll past 90 degrees) or capsize and, center of gravity as the deck edge
in the worst case, remain floating inverted. The disasters of the moves underwater. Eventually, a
1979 Fastnet and 1998 Sydney-Hobart Races are among the many point is reached when the centers of
gravity and buoyancy are again
tragedies that demonstrate these risks. While modern yachts sold
vertically aligned. This angle of heel
in many countries must comply with international standards and
is known as the Angle of Vanishing
carry information on safe loading conditions and stability from Stability or AVS. This is the last angle
the builder, an understanding of basic stability is vital for safety. at which the boat can theoretically

Weight and buoyancy Righting lever

When a boat is upright, its center of
gravity (the point at which all its G
weight can be considered to act) is
vertically, above its center of B
buoyancy, with both points on the
centerline. In this condition, the Gravity acts Buoyancy
opposing forces of weight and downward acts upward
buoyancy are aligned in equilibrium
with no overall effect. Center of
buoyancy
As the boat heels, its center of moves as
gravity remains in the same spot boat heels
relative to the boat, but the center of
buoyancy, acting at the center of the
submerged volume, moves as the
underwater shape changes due to the righting forces
heel. The opposing forces of weight When a boat heels, the center of buoyancy moves away from the centerline as the
and buoyancy are now no longer underwater shape changes, forming a righting moment with the center of gravity
horizontally aligned. The two forces that is proportional to the distance (righting lever) between them.
now combine to create a rotational
moment (turning force), which works 0º 30º 60º 90º 120º 150º 180º
to try to roll the boat back to an
upright position.

The righting moment

This righting moment (acting to roll the
vessel back upright) is calculated as the
overall boat weight multiplied by the
horizontal distance between the centers
of gravity and buoyancy (known as
GZ). When the boat is upright, the stability and heel angle
righting moment is zero, but when it The righting moment increases until it reaches a maximum at some angle of heel,
heels, the center of buoyancy moves here at 60º, and then decreases as the center of buoyancy moves back in line with the
away from the center of gravity and center of gravity, here at 120º. Beyond this point, the righting moment is negative.
 STABILITY
205
right itself (assuming that no water this angle and the more area there
has entered the boat). If it heels is under the graph to this angle,
further, then the righting moment the more energy is required to
will become a capsizing moment invert the boat.
and act to roll the boat over until Modern cruising yachts are
it is fully inverted. Finally, floating relatively light and beamy to allow
inverted, the capsizing moment good accommodation below. This gives
becomes zero again and the boat them excellent resistance to heeling
will remain inverted if there are no at smaller angles (typically before the
outside factors, such as wave impact, deck edge goes under) compared to
to help it right itself by rolling past narrower boats, but it can also reduce breaking waves
the AVS again. the AVS, with the associated risk Even a very small breaking wave can
that a capsize is more likely to result cause a knockdown if it catches a boat
Angle of Vanishing Stability in the yacht remaining inverted. Many beam on. The power of the wave may
If you buy a boat, the manufacturer cruising yachts are also designed with be enough to roll the boat.
should be able to provide you with a shoal keel to allow easy access to
an owner’s manual containing shallow areas. This moves the center of through wave action rather than the
information about loading and the gravity higher, which when combined effects of wind. A bad scenario for
ISO stability standard with which the with a beamy hull can reduce the AVS any boat is to be caught side-on by
vessel complies, along with a graph even further, making it more vulnerable a breaking wave, which can transfer
showing how the righting moment to total inversion than narrower large amounts of energy through
changes with heel angle. This graph vessels with a lower center of gravity. the breaking top of the wave.
can tell you a lot about how the You may encounter breaking
boat will theoretically react. Practical considerations waves or overfalls even in moderate
When the slope of the graph You can help maintain your yacht’s wind-against-tide conditions, so try to
goes up, the righting moment will stability by keeping the center of avoid these areas, which are often
increase as the boat heels further gravity as low as possible, which marked on charts. In rough seas, avoid
and it becomes more difficult for helps make the righting moment being caught side-on by a breaking
the boat to heel. Where the graph’s larger. Fitting a radar scanner on the wave by turning into or away from
curve goes down, the boat will heel mast or stowing heavy items on deck, breakers. A breaking wave no higher
more easily as it inclines further. for example, will raise the center of than your boat’s beam could have
The point on the graph at which gravity and reduce stability. enough energy to cause a knockdown.
the curve cuts the horizontal axis Once at sea, remember that
represents the AVS. The greater boats are more vulnerable to capsize
Roller
Radar scanner
furling
mainsail
Roller
furling jib
Righting moment

Righting moment

0 0 Bimini
arch Life raft

20º 60º 100º 140º 180º 20º 60º 100º 140º 180º
Angle of heel Angle of heel

stability curve different design types reducing stability

A manufacturer should be able to provide Modern light, wide, and shallow draft Any heavy equipment on or above
a stability curve for each model that boats often have less ultimate stability deck will reduce stability. The higher
shows the Angle of Vanishing Stability. than many older designs. the equipment, the greater the effect.
 CRUISER SAILING
206

RIGGING AND SAILS

Masthead instruments
The masthead houses a range of
instruments, usually comprising
wind-speed and direction sensors,
a VHF radio aerial, and a tricolor
navigation light
The Bermudan-sloop rig has easily identifiable characteristics—
a single mast with triangular headsail and mainsail. This Forestay
The forestay runs from the bow-
configuration is by far the most common for large-scale production fitting to the masthead and
supports the mast fore and aft
boat-building. However, there are a number of variations on this together with the backstay

arrangement designed in accordance with the boat’s intended Cap shrouds

The main sideways
purpose and level of performance. The number of sails used supports for the mast,
on a modern sloop rig is relatively limited, but all the two cap shrouds run
on either side from the
have a mainsail and one or more Topping lift chainplate, over
The topping lift runs from the the spreader end,
headsails. The mast, usually made boom end up to the masthead, to the masthead
then down to deck level, where
of aluminum, is supported by an it is adjusted. It supports the
Spreaders
boom when the mainsail is
arrangement of wires, called the lowered but is left slack
These widen the
angle of the
when the sail is hoisted
standing rigging. cap shroud to
the mast and
Boom vang help support
the mast

RIGGING
Used to prevent the boom from
rising due to wind pressure in
the mainsail, the boom vang
can be a rope tackle or an
Rigging falls into two categories: adjustable, rigid strut that
standing rigging and running rigging. also supports the boom

Standing rigging supports the mast,

holds it upright and controls its Boom
Attached to the mast by
bending characteristics, and transfers the gooseneck fitting,
the loads from the sails into the hull. the boom supports the
mainsail’s foot
Standing rigging is tightened when
the mast is stepped in the boat and
Mainsheet
adjusted on the first few sails as the This sheet controls
rig is tuned, but is then usually the angle of the
mainsail
locked in place so it cannot work
loose. Running rigging comprises the
ropes and wires that are used to hoist
and adjust sails or make adjustments
to the rig. Running rigging may be
Lower shrouds
made of rope or wire, depending One or two lower
on the job it has to perform. shrouds support
the lower mast

Standing rigging Halyards

Used to raise
Most types of cruiser masts are held and lower sails,
Bottlescrews
firmly upright by standing rigging Fittings to adjust
halyards are
usually led inside
that supports the mast on its four the tension
the mast and
sides. A forestay, attached at the in shrouds
emerge at deck
and forestay
masthead or lower down, at the level, where they
Keel are led aft to
hounds, prevents the mast from The keel resists leeway winches for
falling backward and a backstay Rudder Propeller and provides stability adjustment
 RIGGING AND SAILS: RIGGING
207
keeps it from falling forward. adjusted by terminal fittings called
Two main shrouds called the cap bottlescrews. These fit between the
shrouds hold the mast sideways. shroud and the chainplate attached
They run from each sidedeck up to the hull and allow the wire to
to the masthead (or the hounds, be tightened or loosened. Once each
depending on the design of the rig), bottlescrew has been adjusted, when
passing over the ends of one or two the rig is being tuned, it should be
sets of spreaders. On masthead rigs, locked in place so that it cannot
the spreaders are usually set at turn unintentionally and slacken
right angles to the mast, but on the rigging while the boat is sailing.
a fractional rig—where the forestay
and cap shrouds terminate at a point Rigging variations
below the masthead—the spreaders The standard masthead configuration
are often swept aft. provides a secure and balanced
Spreaders hold the shrouds away geometry to resist the loads imposed
from the mast and increase the angle on the mast, but other configurations
of support between the shrouds and are used, including freestanding rigs
the mast. They also stiffen the mast that have no standing rigging.
in a sideways direction and allow the Some cruisers are designed with
use of a thinner mast section. For this a fractional sloop rig, in which the
reason, racing boats may have three, forestay does not run to the masthead
four, or more pairs of spreaders, but but attaches some way down the mast.
most cruising boats have one or two. A fractional sloop rig is often used
If two pairs of spreaders are used, a on performance-oriented cruisers or
fractional rig
diagonal shroud (or intermediate cruiser-racers, because it allows for the
A fractional rig—which typically has a
shroud) is likely to be fitted, running mast to be bent under sail to help
larger mainsail and smaller headsail than
from the end of the lower spreader flatten the mainsail in stronger winds.
a masthead rig—may be found on smaller
to the mast near the root of the The headsail is also smaller and the cruisers, cruiser-racers, and multihulls.
top spreader. mainsail larger on a fractional rig
In addition to the cap shrouds, compared to a masthead rig, making it
other, lower shrouds are likely to be easier for a small crew to handle. stretch polyester rope, usually in
fitted. A common arrangement is a Larger boats may be cutter- braided form, while halyards may
pair of lower shrouds on each side, rigged (p.203) with a smaller staysail be made from rope or wire with a
one running from forward of the between the headsail and the mast. rope tail spliced into it. If made of
mast up to a point near the lower This rig requires an inner forestay, rope, halyards can be made from
spreader root, the other from aft onto which the staysail is hanked, polyester or, for better performance
of the mast to the same point. balanced by an additional backstay. and much less stretch, from a high-
Sometimes a pair of aft lowers is Often in pairs, these “running performance, very-low-stretch fiber
fitted, but the forward lowers are backstays” are adjustable, so they such as PBO. Like standing rigging,
replaced by a single forward lower can be stowed away from the boom running rigging should be regularly
that runs from the centerline up to and mainsail when not in use. inspected for wear and damage.
the mast near the aft lowers. Fraying can occur if a rope is
Most standing rigging on cruising Running rigging regularly cleated, jammed, or
boats is made of stranded stainless-steel Ropes and wires that require winched in the same part of the
wire, although solid rod rigging is also constant or regular adjustment are rope. If possible, minimize local
encountered, and it is also possible to known as running rigging. The most wear by moving the rope slightly
use high-performance rope thanks common types of running rigging are to spread these loads. This may not
to its low-stretch and low-weight halyards and sheets. Most sheets on be possible with halyards but can
characteristics. Standing rigging is cruising boats are made from low- usually be achieved with sheets.
 CRUISER SAILING
208
SAILS sail wardrobe
A typical sail wardrobe for a Bermudan Working (no.1)
jib (purple)
sloop not fitted with headsail roller For sailing in
Every cruiser requires a selection of furling has a selection of headsails, moderate winds
sails, but their number and type will a mainsail, a spinnaker, a trysail,
depend to some extent on the size and and a storm jib. Storm jib
(light blue)
type of the cruiser, together with the Needed for
kind of cruising it is intended for. At a Mainsail (orange) sailing in very
Must be strong enough to rough weather
minimum, it must have enough sails to
cope with all wind strengths
keep the boat sailing efficiently in all
conditions, including strong winds.
The standard production cruiser Spinnaker (green)
Used to add sail area
is rigged as a Bermudan sloop and when sailing downwind
has one mainsail that is reefed to suit
the wind strength (pp.250–253). A
Bermudan sloop also has either a Genoa (pink)
For light to
selection of different-sized headsails moderate winds
to cope with a range of wind
strengths or a roller-furling system on
the forestay to reduce the size of the Trysail (red)
Replaces
headsail as the wind increases. The mainsail in very
Bermudan sloop rig is not as efficient strong winds

downwind as it is upwind, so many

cruisers use a spinnaker or gennaker
(sometimes called a cruising chute) to
add sail area when sailing downwind
in light to moderate winds.
Most mainsails and headsails are
made from Dacron, although some
large cruisers and cruiser-racers use
cloth with Aramid or carbon fibers
for strength and weight advantages.
Spinnakers and gennakers are made No.2 jib (dark blue)
from lightweight nylon sailcloth. Used when the wind is too
strong for the no.1 jib

Mainsail
The mainsail is the hardest-working which the sail is exposed. Despite all Most mainsails on cruising boats
sail on a cruising boat, as it has the loads and wear and tear it must have three reefs that allow you
to cope with a wide range of wind be able to withstand, the mainsail to reduce the sail’s size in steps
strengths, from a flat calm to a full must not be too heavy or it will not down to about one-third of its
gale. It has to be strongly constructed, set well in light winds and will be full size, although smaller boats
with ample reinforcement around its difficult for the crew to handle, may have only two rows of reefs
corners and other stress points, and stow, and hoist. fitted as standard.
be able to withstand wind loads, If the boat is equipped with a
chafe, and damage from extensive trysail, the mainsail will be furled on Battens
exposure to sunlight. In some areas, the boom in the worst conditions and Cruising mainsails are usually fitted
weakening of the cloth due to replaced with the trysail, but in less with battens just like a dinghy’s
ultraviolet light may be among the extreme weather, the mainsail will be mainsail (p.74). Their purpose is the
worst damage-inducing factors to reefed to suit the conditions. same: to support the roach—that part
 RIGGING AND SAILS: SAILS
209
of the mainsail that extends beyond lies quietly and less damage is a Venetian blind, but will only do so
a straight line from clew to head. done to the cloth than when a if a lazyjack system is fitted. Lazyjacks
Modern cruisers often have mainsails conventional sail flogs noisily in are light lines, on each side of the
with quite bit of roach, because it the wind. To use full-length battens boom, that run from the boom up to
provides extra power, so effective effectively, however, does require a the mast. Usually adjustable from the
battens are important to ensure that properly designed system with free- boom, the lazyjacks act as guides and
the sail sets properly. running sliders attaching the luff to hold the battens between them as the
Many cruising mainsails are the mast. Specially designed sliders sail is hoisted and lowered.
fitted with full-length battens. These with ball bearings handle the loads
battens run from leech to luff and of a fully battened mainsail and make Headsails
have the advantage of giving good lowering and hoisting much easier. Roller-reefing headsail equipment
control over sail shape. They also Fully battened mainsails have the is convenient, but the shape of a
prevent the sail from flogging when advantage of stacking neatly on partly rolled headsail is rarely
the sheet is eased; instead, the sail the boom when lowered, much like good enough to make an effective
sail shape for sailing to windward.
However, the gear is easy to use and
convenient, and it is a simple and
fully battened mainsail
Full-length battens give quick job to reduce sail area in
more control over sail shape, strengthening winds.
help the sail stack easily on Despite the convenience, many
the boom, and make the people prefer not to compromise
sail quieter. performance or risk those occasions
when the equipment jams and choose
to sail with headsails attached to the
forestay by hanks. With hanked-on
headsails, the headsail is changed
according to wind strength.
Headsails can be categorized as
genoas or jibs: a genoa is a large
headsail that overlaps the mast,
while a jib is smaller, does not
overlap the mast, and is usually
cut with a higher clew and foot.
A typical cruiser that does not
use a roller-reefing headsail will carry
a selection of headsails, usually
including a genoa for use in light
winds, a working jib for moderate
conditions, plus one or more other
smaller jibs to use as the wind rises.
Every cruiser should carry a storm
jib. This is much smaller than the
others and is made to cope with the
strongest winds. If the normal headsail
is set on a roller furler, the storm jib
should have its own, removable stay
that is attached to a strong deck fitting
on the foredeck when it is needed for
hoisting the storm jib.
 CRUISER SAILING
210

ABOVE DECK
give light and ventilation, over
the heads compartment, the galley,
and saloon. Best of all are true
ventilators that can be left open
The deck and cockpit areas are the parts of a cruiser where in rough conditions, when hatches
the practical business of sailing and boat-handling is conducted. must be shut.

Deck layouts vary, but most modern cruisers have fairly similar
arrangements. Once you are familiar with one boat, you will cruiser fittings
A typical modern, fast offshore cruiser
find it quite easy to get used to another of a similar type. There
is designed to make quick passages
are two main layouts: one has an aft cockpit and the other has that are also safe and comfortable. The
a center cockpit. The aft cockpit layout is the most common, boat is sturdily constructed with strong,
well-fastened deck gear. It has a deep,
especially in cruisers under about 40 ft (12 m). comfortable cockpit for crew security,
which is sheltered by a large spray hood
to offer protection from the elements.
Foredeck chainplates that are fitted either at the There is a stern platform that gives the
The foredeck, ahead of the mast, deck edge or inboard on the sidedeck. crew access to the tender.
is the most exposed working area on Jackstays should run along the length
deck. Common procedures carried of both sidedecks: these are lengths of
Toerail
out near the bow include changing webbing or plastic-covered wire to An aluminum rail is often fitted to the edge of the
the headsail, anchoring, and picking which the crew attach their harnesses deck to strengthen the hull-to-deck joint and to provide
a restraining bar to stop feet from slipping off the deck
up a mooring buoy. If fitted, a when working on deck.
windlass, an electric winch principally Lifelines
used for raising the anchor, will be Coach roof Two lifelines run on either
side of the boat from the
positioned on the foredeck. Great The coach roof is the top of the raised pulpit to the pushpit; they
care should be taken when working cabin trunk in the middle of the boat. pass through stanchions
secured to the deck
on the foredeck, as it is the area of The mast is either stepped on the
the boat where the most motion is coach roof or passes through it to be
Pushpit
felt when sailing in waves, and it stepped on the keel. Halyards and The pushpit is a strong
is easy to lose your footing. other control lines emerging from the metal frame around
mast are often led aft across the roof the stern to which
guardrails are anchored
Sidedecks to winches at its aft end. Hatches and and on which
Aft of the mast, most small and ventilators are fitted to let light and equipment such as the
stern navigation light,
medium-sized boats have a central air into the cabin. A life raft or tender lifebuoys, and danbuoys
cabin trunk raised above the level may also be stowed here. There should are often mounted
of the side decks and foredeck to give be handrails running the length of the
increased headroom below. In this roof on either side to provide a secure
arrangement, sidedecks run between handhold for crew making their way
the cabin trunk and the deck edge. along the sidedecks. The main hatch is
Some larger boats are flush-decked, positioned in the aft end of the coach
with no cabin trunk, giving wider roof, just in front of the cockpit.
decks that are easy to work on.
Some sidedecks on smaller boats Hatches and ventilation
are quite narrow, and care is needed All cruising yachts should have
when moving along them. Tracks for some form of ventilation in addition
the jib-sheet fairleads usually run fore to the main companionway hatch Mooring cleat
Warps are led through
and aft along both sidedecks. The and the fore hatch. Smaller hatches fairleads before being
cap and lower shrouds terminate at may be fitted in the coach roof, to secured on the deck cleats
 ABOVE DECK
211
Winches Pulpit
Sheet winches are situated on the The pulpit is a strong metal
cockpit coaming (the raised area frame at the bow designed to
around the cockpit). Halyard winches make the foredeck more
are found on the aft end of the secure; forward navigation
coach roof on either side of the hatch lights are attached to it

Saloon hatch
Allows extra light
and ventilation
Spray hood into the saloon
Protects the
hatch and the
forward end
of the cockpit

Anchor well
A self-draining well just
aft of the bow roller
holds the anchor cable

Genoa car
The adjustable fairleads for
the headsail sheet
run along a track on both
sidedecks

Compass
The binnacle compass
here is mounted on the
wheel pedestal so the
helm can easily see it
when steering

accessibility on deck
Storage lockers Possible modifications include roll-on/
Watertight lockers running under the cockpit
benches can be used for sails, warps, fenders,
roll-off decks, four-way joysticks, and
gas bottles, and other boat gear audio compasses.
 CRUISER SAILING
212
Cockpit
The cockpit is the main working area
of the boat and the most secure place
on deck. The boat is steered from the
cockpit by a wheel or a tiller, and it
has become standard for most sail
controls to be led to this area. Most
importantly, the cockpit footwell
should be self-draining, with large
drains in the floor quickly shedding
any water that finds its way aboard.
The cockpit is separated from
the cabin by a raised area called
a bridge deck and by washboards
(removable wooden or plastic
partitions) that close the cabin
wheel steering
entrance, the companionway. Many A wheel is usually mounted on a pedestal
cruisers have a spray hood over the and is large enough to allow the helm to
companionway to protect it and the steer from the side, where they can see the
forward part of the cockpit from jib luff. Instruments and engine controls
spray and to provide shelter for the are usually mounted on the pedestal.
crew in rough conditions. Weather
cloths, also known as dodgers, can
be laced along the lifelines for
additional protection. wish the bow to move. Although The engine throttle and gear shift will
The cockpit should be kept a wheel may seem more natural usually be located near the steering
uncluttered and tidy. It is good to anyone used to driving a car, its position, on the pedestal if a wheel is
practice to leave sheets and other arrangement is more complex and used, and on the side of the cockpit
ropes neatly coiled or flaked ready expensive than a tiller, gives less footwell or coaming if a tiller is used.
for quick use. Be cautious about feedback from the rudder, and Sometimes, the engine control panel
sitting near the mainsheet traveler if takes up more room in the cockpit. with warning lights, tachometer, and
it is sited in the cockpit. If the locking If a wheel is used, it is usually other instruments is also situated close
device or control line on the traveler fitted to a pedestal in the middle of to the steering position. Alternatively,
were to slip or fail, the traveler and the cockpit. The pedestal can also act it may be fitted down below, where
mainsheet block could crash across as the boat’s dashboard by housing it is away from exposure to the
the boat, causing damage or injury the main steering compass and elements or accidental damage.
if anyone is in its way. display screens for electronic
performance and navigation Lockers
Steering position instruments (pp.332–335). Most cruisers have one or more
Steering is usually handled through Alternatively, the compass and stowage lockers located under the
a tiller on smaller boats and a wheel instruments may be mounted on a cockpit seats. These are used for the
on larger ones. Wheels operate just bulkhead or other convenient vertical stowage of items that are regularly
like a car’s steering wheel; rotate to surface near the helming position. needed on deck, including fenders,
the left and the boat turns to the left, This is usually the arrangement when boathook, mooring warps, safety
or to port; rotate to the right and tiller steering is used. Do not sit in equipment, and sails. Gas bottles for
the boat turns to the right, or to the cockpit in a way that obscures the galley stove should be stored in
starboard. A tiller works just as it the instruments from the helm, who a separate self-draining deck locker
does in a dinghy—it is pushed in the may need to continuously monitor so that any leaking gas drains
opposite direction of the way you one of the instruments. overboard rather than into the boat.
 ABOVE DECK
213
Locker lids should have strong and enough, but there are also many along each sidedeck, to the foredeck. It
secure latches to lock them shut. They obstacles to avoid. Stubbed toes are should be possible for a crewmember
should also have a securing system to very common sailing injuries, and it to clip onto a jackstay while still in
hold them when opened; otherwise, is also easy to lose your footing by the cockpit and make their way to
they can easily crash shut, pinching tripping on a piece of deck hardware. the bow without needing to unclip
fingers, if the boat heels or pitches. Remember that if you sail at night, their safety harness.
Some cockpit lockers are very deep, you will need to be able to move Before going forward to handle
and equipment stored there can be around the deck in the dark, so try a job, consider whether you need to
hard to find. Keep lockers tidy and be to get accustomed to the deck layout wear waterproofs. Although it may
consistent about where everything is of a new yacht before taking it to be dry in the cockpit, the foredeck
stowed so you can find things easily. sea in rough conditions or at night. is much more exposed and it takes
Most modern boats have their only one wave to come over the bow
Moving around on deck halyards and control lines led back to while you are working there to soak
The decks of most boats are cluttered the cockpit in order to minimize the you. Always wear proper footwear,
with an array of hardware, all of it amount that the crew has to go on either deck shoes or sailing boots
important to the functioning of the deck to accomplish tasks. However, with nonslip soles.
boat but also a potential trap for there are always some occasions If you will need tools or equipment,
the unwary crewmember moving when it is necessary to leave the make sure you have everything with
around on deck. If the decks were cockpit, and then it is prudent to you and confirm the instructions if
level and stable, there would be less wear and use a safety harness in you are unsure of your task, as it can
of a problem, but a yacht at sea is all but the most benign conditions. be very difficult to communicate back
constantly moving under the All cruising boats should have and forth from foredeck to cockpit.
influences of wind and waves. jackstays rigged when going to sea. At all times, be particularly
Moving around on deck when the Made of webbing or plastic-covered attentive to the position and potential
yacht is pitching and heeling is hard wire, they should run from the cockpit, movement of the boom. If you are
caught unaware, it could cause a
nasty blow to the head and possibly
knock you overboard. It is advisable
to squat, keeping your center of
gravity low, when moving around
a boat, and always to move along
the windward, uphill, side of the
boat. This way, if you trip, you will
fall into the boat, not over the
leeward rail. Always keep one hand
free for gripping a handrail or other
secure fitting. The shrouds, designed
to take heavy loads, may be used as
handholds when moving forward,
but do not grasp sheets or other
running rigging that may be suddenly
adjusted by the crew back in the
moving on deck
If you need to move around on deck when cockpit. When you reach your
under sail and well heeled, stay on the work station, remember to think
windward side if possible unless, as here, it of your own safety, as well as the
is necessary to work on the leeward side. job to be done. When you finish,
make your way carefully back
into the cockpit before unclipping
from the jackstay.
 CRUISER SAILING
214

DOWN BELOW seagoing interior

Typically, a medium-sized offshore
cruiser will have a good working area
in the galley and at the chart table, a
The accommodation in a cruiser is determined by its length, comfortable saloon, a separate heads
beam, and freeboard (height out of the water). In small cruisers compartment, and at least two secure
sea berths. Modifications for disabled
under about 33 ft (10 m), there is little space for anything more sailors include tactile and level surfaces,
than basic accommodation. In larger cruisers, there is room additional grab rails, and hoists for
berths, heads, and showers.
for more berths, greater privacy, and more luxury. Most cruiser
Navigation
interiors are based on an arrangement that has a separate forward instruments
The navigator
cabin, a main saloon, a separate heads (toilet) compartment, a has navigation
galley, and a chart table. Some also have one or two aft cabins. instruments, VHF
radio, and an
electrical panel
within easy reach
of the chart table
Comfort in port needed. The galley should have deep
When looking at the internal layout single or double sinks to retain
of a cruiser, consider the type of water when the boat is heeled, and
sailing you plan to do. If you intend there should be adequate counter
mostly to cruise by day and overnight space for preparing meals at sea. The
on moorings or in marinas, then an stove should be hung in gimbals to
accommodation layout optimized for allow it to swing and remain upright
comfortable use when upright rather when the boat heels. A restraining
than when sailing may be appropriate. bolt should secure the stove
You will have plenty of choice, as in a fixed position when
most production cruisers are designed it is not needed to
with interiors that are more suitable swing with the
for use in port than at sea. boat’s motion.

Comfort at sea Hanging locker

Good seagoing interiors provide Hanging storage
space for clothes
comfort and security by having or waterproofs
lots of handholds, enough secure
berths for the off-watch crew, and no
sharp corners that can cause injury.
The galley should be laid out for safe
use when underway, the countertops
should have good fiddles (rails) that
are effective when the boat is heeled,
and the navigation area should allow
the navigator to be braced securely
while working at the chart table.
The main working areas below
are the galley and chart table. Both Heads
The heads
should be designed to be safe and
contains a toilet,
secure for the cook and navigator sink, and shower
Aft cabin
when the boat is heeled and allow The separate aft cabin
easy access to any equipment has a double berth
 DOWN BELOW
215
Saloon table Fire extinguisher
A fixed table with The saloon fire STOWAGE
folding leaves; it also extinguisher is Stowage space is always limited in
has bottle storage in stowed out of sight
a built-in locker that but within easy
small boats. It should be arranged
is reached through a reach in its own so that each member of the crew
lid in the table top dedicated stowage has sufficient storage space for
space
personal gear situated close to
their bunk.
Saloon berths
The forecabin Stowing the gear
contains two single In a well-designed cruiser, there
berths or a double
for use at sea
should be a variety of storage areas
to cater to the enormous diversity
of gear that finds its way aboard a
cruising boat. There should be areas,
often under bunks, suitable for bulky
gear, and individual lockers and
drawers for smaller items. All lockers
should be closed with positive
catches to prevent their doors from
bursting open when the boat heels.
Dedicated stowage should be
provided for items such as glasses
and crockery; safety gear; and, where
possible, waterproofs and boots. It
Forecabin is useful to prepare a stowage plan
The forecabin contains and write down where every item
two single berths or a is stowed. Otherwise, it can be
double for use in port
difficult to find an item in a hurry.

Shelving
Shelf space in the
forecabin, saloon, and
working areas adds
to the storage space

Fiddles
All horizontal surfaces
should have high
fiddles to stop items
from sliding off at sea.
Corner gaps between
fiddles allow the galley
counters to be cleaned

tidy storage
Galley
A good seagoing galley There is limited storage space on most
should have a gimbaled cruisers. It is important, therefore, that
stove and plenty of crew members stow their own gear
locker and drawer space neatly and ensure that the boat is kept
for food and utensil
tidy; otherwise, it could deteriorate into
stowage, as well as a
secure and safe place
an unpleasant mess in rough conditions.
for the cook to work
 CRUISER SAILING
216
Galley Berths
The galley should be equipped with a On a cruiser intended for offshore
small stove, usually fueled by bottled passages, there should be a sea
gas or, sometimes, kerosene. The stove berth available for every off-watch
is normally mounted on gimbals so crew member. Berths for use at sea
that it remains upright when the boat should be arranged so that they
heels, but it is possible to use a fixed are parallel to the fore and aft line
stove fitted with high rails to keep of the boat, and not too far toward
cooking pans in place while in use. If the bow or stern, where the motion
gimbals are fitted, they should allow at sea will be worse than near the
the stove to swing freely through as middle of the boat.
wide an arc as possible, and it should forecabin berths Canvas lee-cloths or solid wooden
also be possible to lock the stove Forecabins on small yachts often have leeboards should be fitted to all sea
upright for use in port. Ideally, the a V-shaped berth in the bows. These berths. These ensure that you cannot
stove should be placed where spillages berths are not comfortable at sea but roll or be thrown out of the berth
will not land on the cook, but this is are used in port. in rough conditions. Lee-cloths are
not always possible in a small boat. more comfortable to use than solid
A restraining strap is useful for the leeboards and can be easily removed
cook to lean against when the boat pumped water can lead to waste and stowed under the mattress when
is heeled, and there should be a crash of a limited water supply. If an not in use. Either type should be
bar in front of the stove to prevent electric pump is fitted, there should securely fastened, since they can
the cook from being thrown onto the be a manual back-up. Some yachts be subjected to considerable loads.
hot burners. For added protection, also have a hot-water supply to the
wear waterproofs when using the galley and the heads compartment. A Heads
galley in rough weather. seawater faucet in the galley is useful The toilet compartment is often
The sink should be deep but for use away from land, when clean situated between the main saloon
narrow for use at sea. Twin sinks seawater can be used for washing and the forecabin in a small
are useful if space is available. The dishes and cooking vegetables. compartment, although some boats
fresh-water supply can be delivered A small freezer or refrigerator have sufficient space for a heads placed
by hand or by electric pump. However, may be fitted, though this is costly near the companionway. The position
the convenience of electrically in terms of electrical generation, and
there must be sufficient stowage for
crockery, pans, and supplies within
easy reach. Work space is often
limited, but there should be enough
room to prepare a meal without
using the chart table.
A fire extinguisher and fire blanket
must be easily accessible, as the galley
represents a fire risk. If gas is used,
the bottle should be stored in its own
self-draining, gas-tight compartment.
The supply should be turned off at the
bottle when not being used. This can be
galley heads
A galley that will be used at sea should done by hand or, more conveniently, by Make sure you understand how to use
have deep sinks situated near the boat’s fitting a solenoid valve near the bottle, the marine toilet, as incorrect usage can
centerline and deep fiddles on the with its control switch in the galley. lead to a blockage. Good ventilation and
countertops. A crash bar should be fitted Make a habit of turning off the gas regular cleaning will keep unpleasant
in front of the stove to protect the cook. when you have finished cooking. odors to a minimum.
 DOWN BELOW
217

lee-cloths
To prevent yourself from falling out of
your bunk when the boat heels, rig up a
canvas lee-cloth or leeboard on the open
side of the bunk to keep you secure.

saloon
The saloon is the relaxation and
entertainment center of the yacht. It
should be comfortable, well lit and
ventilated, and have secure handholds.

farther aft has the benefit of being Chart table Saloon

situated conveniently for the cockpit The chart table should be close to The saloon, usually situated in the
and is in the area where the motion the companionway, so that the center of the cabin, is the area
of the boat is felt least, making the navigator can communicate easily reserved for relaxing, eating, and
heads more comfortable to use. with the cockpit crew. It should be a entertaining. It is the largest interior
Most heads contain a marine toilet, self-contained area out of the way of space in the boat and should have
a small sink, and lockers for personal the main living spaces and the galley. plenty of good handholds to make
items. Some also have a shower facility All instruments and radio sets should it easy to negotiate at sea when the
with hot and cold water. The heads be situated here, where they can be boat is heeled. Handholds should
can be a convenient spot for oilskin easily accessed. Most navigators prefer be placed at various heights, so
stowage if there is space for a hanging to sit at the chart table, usually facing that they can be used when sitting
locker. The seacocks for the inlet and forward. The chart table should be or standing—by children or adults.
outlet pipes must be easily accessible large enough to hold a chart folded The corners of all furniture should
and should be kept closed when the no more than once, and there should be rounded so that there are no
heads is not in use. This is essential be secure stowage for pencils, plotters, sharp edges to injure people falling
if the toilet bowl is installed on or and other navigation equipment. against them.
below the waterline; otherwise, Charts are usually stored in the Good lighting and ventilation
flooding could occur. space under a lifting chart-table top, help make the interior more pleasant.
Make sure that all crew and or in a drawer underneath. Space Natural light is supplied by plenty
visitors understand how to operate is also needed for reference books, of ports, windows, and hatches,
the heads. Mistakes here can cause many of which will be quite large. all of which should be strong and
much misery, especially for the crew The main electrical switch panel well fastened. Ventilation should be
member (usually the skipper) who is often mounted in this area. Avoid provided by hatches, opening ports,
has to unblock or repair the toilet. Put using the chart table as a general and special ventilators that can be
instructions for use near the toilet. dumping area. used at sea without letting in water.
 CRUISER SAILING
218

PROTECTION AFLOAT
Having the right clothing and safety equipment is always To stay warm, your clothes should
important when you go afloat, but especially when you are provide sufficient insulation, with a
barrier layer to stop the warm layer
cruising. The dinghy sailor can look forward to a hot shower at from getting wet and eliminate wind
the end of a trip, but the cruising sailor may be at sea, sometimes chill. Silk and wool are the best
in unpleasant conditions, for hours, days, or even weeks. In these natural insulators, but modern
synthetic fibers are the usual choice.
circumstances, the only way to ensure your continuing comfort
They are very light, dry quickly, and
is to wear the right clothing. It is also essential to have proper wick moisture away from the skin,
safety gear, such as harnesses and life jackets, on board. keeping the wearer dry and warm.
Marine-clothing manufacturers
make special multilayered clothing
CRUISER CLOTHING systems. These consist of a thin, light,
underwear layer, over which is worn
It is always cooler afloat than ashore, conditions, it is vital to wear the a thicker, warm layer. Either layer can
and, for those sailing in temperate right clothing in order to maintain be worn separately to suit different
areas, the key requirement is to stay a comfortable working temperature. temperatures. A top, waterproof
warm. Cold reduces your ability to On the other hand, a gentle breeze on layer keeps the wearer dry. The latest
think and act efficiently and can also a hot day can mask the sun’s true designs use waterproofs made of
increase the risk of seasickness. When power, so keep a good supply of sun- breathable material. These are
sailing in anything other than perfect block on board, stowed in the cockpit. intended to keep water out and allow
perspiration trapped inside to pass
through, keeping the wearer dryer
than with conventional waterproofs.
These designs are expensive, but the
best systems do deliver extra comfort.

Hats and gloves

A hat protects you from the sun in
hot weather, reduces heat loss in cold
conditions, and can keep rain out
of your eyes. A thermal balaclava
provides warmth when sailing in the
coldest weather. Whatever headgear
you choose, make sure it fits
comfortably under the hood
of your waterproof jacket.
Sailing gloves protect your hands
handling heat
Shorts and T-shirts are the and keep them warm in cold weather.
best clothes in hot weather, Gloves are available with nonslip
but take precautions against palms to grip ropes and with cut-off
sunburn and wear sunglasses fingers for delicate tasks. In very cold
to protect the eyes; a hat will weather, fleece-lined gloves or mittens
help prevent sunstroke. keep the hands warm but must be
removed when handling ropes.
 PROTECTION AFLOAT: CRUISER CLOTHING
219
Waterproofs offshore waterproofs thermals
There are many types of waterproofs Heavy-duty waterproofs designed Thin, light, multilayered
available to suit all conditions. The for offshore use are made of tougher thermals worn underneath
main difference between waterproofs material than inshore or coastal styles. waterproofs will keep the
designed for coastal sailing and Breathable materials can give added wearer dry, warm, and well
comfort but are not essential. insulated from the elements.
those intended for offshore or ocean
passages is in the weight and strength
Thermal all-in-one
of their material. Ocean-grade Thermals are light, warm,
waterproofs will probably have a and comfortable to wear

better hood arrangement and more

storm seals on cuffs, ankles, neck,
Loose cut
and zip-up openings. They will also be Allows freedom of movement
more expensive. Be realistic about the
type of sailing you intend to do, and
choose your waterproofs accordingly.

Double-wrist seal
The inner latex seal is
adjustable with Velcro, as is
the outer sleeve’s wrist seal

Pockets
Zipper pockets provide a
secure place to keep small
items handy

Long jacket
collar and hood Gives extra protection and
does not ride up when seated
The hood folds into the collar when
not in use. High collar protects the Reinforced knees
face in cold weather. Reduce wear when kneeling
on decks

Breathable inner layer Loose cut

Helps feet stay warm and dry Allows easy movement and
fits over boots

High leg
Gives maximum
protection

Nonslip sole
For security on deck

breathable boots cruiser boots

Boots that breathe are the ultimate in Waterproof, high-leg
foot comfort in wet and cold weather. boots protect the feet and
This type has a leather outer layer. provide grip on wet decks.
 CRUISER SAILING
220
SAFETY MATTERS
All cruisers should carry sufficient prevent them from going overboard
safety equipment to cope with an in the event of a fall. Remember that
emergency involving either boat or the jackstays and the fittings to which
crew. All responsible skippers should they are attached will take a
run a safe boat where all on-watch tremendous load if a person does
and off-watch practices are designed fall overboard, so make sure their
to minimize risks. strength is sufficient.
Danger can come in a number When standing and sitting on
of ways: a crewmember can fall deck, always be aware which sheets,
overboard or be injured; fire can blocks, and other fittings are under
break out on board; or the boat can load at the time. Never place yourself
be holed and take on water. Safety in the way of a loaded sheet; if
equipment must be stowed in a place anything failed, it could whip toward
where it can be reached quickly when you and cause injury. When walking
needed, and the crew must know where on deck, do not stand on ropes or first-aid kit
it is, how it works, and understand sails, as they may move underfoot First-aid kits designed for long-distance
the correct procedure for using it. and throw you off balance. cruising are more comprehensive than
Safety starts even before you get In rough weather, only move those intended for coastal cruising.
onboard. Care should be taken when from the cockpit to the deck if really
climbing onto a boat, especially when necessary. Plan your movements in
stepping up from a pontoon or from advance and, when possible, use the equipment (opposite), equipment to
an unstable tender; it may be the windward sidedeck to move fore repair hull damage and minimize
skipper’s first duty to demonstrate and aft. Keep your weight low to aid flooding (p.422), fire-fighting
how to get on and off the boat safely. balance; don’t be embarrassed to equipment (p.222), attention-getting
crawl along the deck and sit on the devices (p.214, pp.426–427),
Staying out of danger foredeck to minimize the risk of emergency steering equipment
It is important that all crew members falling overboard. (p.423), heavy weather sails and,
are aware of the potential dangers Moving around down below can when all else fails, means for
on deck and down below and be difficult in bad weather. There abandoning ship (pp.430–431).
understand how to move safely around should be ample handholds at heights
the yacht. The cockpit is the safest to suit all the crew. In rough weather, First-aid kit
place on deck when underway and move from handhold to handhold Make sure that you have a well-
offers security to the on-watch crew. and try to anticipate the boat’s stocked first-aid kit on board in
There should be plenty of strong, movements to avoid being thrown case a crew member is injured. The
dedicated attachment points for across the boat. kit should reflect the type of sailing
the crew’s safety harnesses; and in you do. A simple kit that contains
challenging conditions, crewmembers Safety equipment some band aids and bandages is all
should always clip on before leaving Any cruising boat, even one used just you need for day sailing and short
the companionway. for day sailing, should carry a variety cruises. Longer passages, however,
Jackstays (safety lines) should be of safety equipment to help the crew require a comprehensive kit that
installed along each sidedeck so that deal with potential problems. The includes a first-aid manual to help
it is possible to move all the way farther afield you plan to cruise, you deal with any injuries until you
from the cockpit to the bow without the more extensive your safety can obtain medical assistance. Ideally,
unclipping the harness line. When equipment will need to be. Among the crew should include at least one
moving on deck, each crew’s line the equipment carried aboard should designated first-aider who has
should, ideally, be short enough to be a first-aid kit, personal safety received formal training.
 PROTECTION AFLOAT: SAFETY MATTERS
221
PERSONAL SAFETY EQUIPMENT
The best way of keeping safe at sea is by staying on the afloat if you go overboard, but it is best to avoid falling in
boat. This makes a safety harness the most important the water in the first place. A combined harness and life
item of personal safety gear. A life jacket will keep you jacket is a good option.

Safety harnesses strap. This holds the harness down and face from water and spray, crotch or
There are several types of safety prevents it from being pulled over your thigh straps to hold the jacket down,
harnesses. Some waterproof jackets head if you fall over the side and find attached whistle and light, and a
have a built-in harness to protect you yourself being towed at the end of your strong attachment point for a safety
whenever you are wearing the jacket. harness tether. tether. Check the fit of the jacket
However, a separate harness may be before you buy, trying it on over
more useful, as it can be worn at any Life jackets your waterproof outer clothing to
time—even in conditions where you The most popular and practical life get a comfortable fit that does not
do not want to wear a waterproof jacket for small-boat cruising is the restrict your movement.
jacket. Some life jackets, usually the inflatable type. These are available with
inflatable type, have an integrated manual inflation only, or manual plus Other equipment
safety harness. These are popular, as automatic inflation. Do not rely on a It may also be prudent to carry a small
they are easy to put on, reasonably manual-inflation-only type, as there is personal flashlight (those with LED
comfortable to wear, and do not a risk that you will not be conscious bulbs are a good choice) and a
require you to don two separate when you fall overboard, in which case multipurpose tool or a simple knife. If
items of equipment. Whatever type you will need an automatically inflating you choose a knife, make sure it can be
you choose, make sure it has wide, jacket. Buy the best life jacket you can closed or sheathed so it cannot cause
comfortable straps that are easily afford—your life may depend on it. accidental injury. A personal man-
adjusted for a personal fit, and be Look for a well-made life jacket with overboard (MOB) beacon is also an
sure to pick one that has a crotch a built-in splash guard to protect the option if the boat has a MOB receiver.

Battery and water

life jacket activation unit life jacket light
Be prepared to pay for the best-quality An automatic, water-activated light fitted
life jacket. Choose one with a sprayhood Light to a life jacket for night sailing gives you
and thigh straps, which are more a much better chance of being spotted
comfortable than a crotch strap. if you fall overboard in the dark.

Inflated life jacket

Bright orange for visibility
Uninflated life jacket Individual
Worn outside all clothing transponders

Reflective
tape Base station

man-overboard alarm system

Integrated
This system has a base unit and up to
harness
eight active transponders for crew. If a
person falls overboard, the drop in signal
Tether
level is detected by the base unit, which
sounds an alarm and identifies the person.
 CRUISER SAILING
222
Fire prevention whether there is any need for their
Fire is one of the worst emergencies containers to remain on board. While
that can happen afloat. If not dealt they are unlikely to spontaneously
with very quickly and effectively, combust, they could turn a minor
it can cause the boat to burn to incident into a major explosion.
the waterline and sink. As usual, If gas is used for cooking, every
prevention is better than cure, and crew member should understand
cruising sailors should understand the risks associated with it and the
the causes of fire and how to routine to be used to minimize risks.
minimize the risks, as well as what Gas is heavier than air, so every time
to do if a fire does break out. the stove gas valves are opened, a
Common causes of fire on boats tiny amount of gas is expelled before
lifebuoy and danbuoy
are smoking, ignition of flammable ignition. This gas can only sink into
A cover over the lifebuoy helps protect it
materials stowed on board, gas the bilges. A gas alarm that detects
from UV light. It should be fitted with a
buildup in the bilges, faulty wiring, a build-up is a sensible addition for
nylon drogue to reduce its drift in the
escaping gasoline (if kept for an any boat using gas, but in any case, water, a strobe light for visibility at night,
outboard engine), or flames from the it is good practice to regularly pump and a danbuoy (a brightly colored marker
galley. Rules for smoking on board the bilges and, when prudent to do pole with code flag O—the man-overboard
should be set and adhered to. Some so, flush the boat with fresh air by signal), which is more visible than a person
skippers insist that no one should opening hatches and creating a flow or a lifebuoy in the water.
smoke anywhere other than on deck, of air through the boat. Keep the
by the leeward rail, where ash and gas supply turned off at the bottle, as
cinders will blow straight over well as at the stove when not in use. so that the blanket covers and protects
the side. If you have recently used Regularly check gas fittings, tubing, your hands. Turn your head away or
solvents or paints on board, consider and pipework to test for leaks. keep your face as far from the flames
Fire extinguishers (p.426) must as possible. A blanket is an effective
be situated where they are most way of smothering a fire, so it can
likely to be needed: close to the also be used if clothing catches fire.
galley and the engine, in the saloon, Fighting a fire is not a time for
and up forward. Correct placement heroics. A calm, measured, and safe
of extinguishers should also make it strategy should be adopted. The
possible for any crew member down number of crew at risk should be
below to secure a safe exit route for kept to a minimum. When a crew
themselves from the cabin. member detects a fire, he should
Dry powder extinguishers work immediately shout to alert everyone,
on all fires and a foam extinguisher including the off-watch crew that
is good for oil or fat fires. The engine may be sleeping. The crew should
space should have a dedicated assemble on deck, don life jackets,
extinguisher that can be activated and make preliminary preparations
without opening the engine for abandoning ship. If possible, a
compartment. All extinguishers have mayday call should be made at
instructions for use printed on them, once; be sure to keep handheld
but familiarize yourself with these radio equipment where it can be
before you need to use them in a real used if the main radio is unreachable.
fire extinguishers
emergency. Stow a fire blanket close
A small foam extinguisher is handy to have to the galley, where it is useful for Lifebuoys
in the galley, while larger dry powder smothering a pan fire. Use it by Every cruiser should have a couple of
extinguishers should be available in each grasping the blanket at the corners, lifebuoys stowed for immediate use in
cabin and near the engine compartment. turning your wrists back toward you case someone goes overboard. They
 PROTECTION AFLOAT: SAFETY MATTERS
223
head and under their arms. In use, EPIRBs and SARTs
this system is designed to be thrown If you plan to sail offshore, consider
toward the man overboard. If the equipping your vessel with an
person cannot reach it, the boat is emergency position indicating radio
then steered in a circle around the beacon (EPIRB). In an emergency, it is
casualty. The lifebuoy, at the end of triggered manually or automatically
the long floating line, follows along and sends information about your
behind the boat, encircling the man position to a network of satellites.
overboard. When the person can Your EPIRB is registered to your
reach the floating line, he can easily vessel and when a distress message is
pull the lifebuoy toward him. Once received, the emergency services know
in the lifebuoy, the casualty can be what type of boat they are looking for.
flare
Carry flares to suit the type of sailing you
pulled to the yacht by the remaining Personal Locator Beacons (PLBs),
do. For offshore sailing, have a full set of crew and secured alongside. The fitted to lifejackets, have become more
flares stored in a watertight container. lifebuoys usually have a lifting strop affordable and increase safety further.
to which a tackle can be attached to A search and rescue transponder
lift the casualty out of the water. (SART) transmits directional signals
are only effective if they are thrown that are displayed on rescue service’s
at once. Stow the lifebuoys—most Flares radar screens, which helps approaching
cruisers carry two—in quick-release You should have a number of flares vessels to home in on your position.
brackets on the pushpit. To be useful on board suitable for the type of
in a nighttime man-overboard sailing you do (p.427). If you are out Life raft
situation, a lifebuoy should be sailing for the day in coastal waters, If you sail offshore, carry a dedicated
equipped with a flashing strobe light. several red parachute flares and a few liferaft and ensure it is professionally
Most are of the floating type that hand-held red flares, together with a serviced annually to current safety
attaches to the lifebuoy by a floating couple of orange smoke flares, will be standards. Carry an emergency grab
line. In its holder, the light is held sufficient. If you sail at night, carry bag filled with food, water, flares, and
upside down; when it is thrown into a few white flares to signal your other essential survival equipment in
the water, it floats the right way up and position in the event of a potential case you need to abandon ship, and
an internal switch turns the light on. collision. (A powerful flashlight is store it somewhere easy to access.
Check the light regularly and replace also useful here.) If you sail farther Make sure all crew are able to launch
the batteries before they run out. offshore, increase the number of and board the liferaft, including those
To increase the effectiveness of parachute flares you carry and add with mobility issues or disabilities.
a lifebuoy, attach a danbuoy—a a floating dye marker.
weighted, floating marker pole about Make sure that you and your
6 ft (2 m) high. Danbuoys are crew have studied the instructions
available in solid or inflatable form printed on the flares before you need
and have a flag at their top, usually to use them and that you can
code flag O, which means man demonstrate their usage during your
overboard. A danbuoy should be safety briefing to the crew. Before
stowed along with the lifebuoy on using any flare, consider the
the pushpit. conditions and decide which type
Another type of lifebuoy is of flare is most appropriate. If cloud
attached to a very long floating cover is low, there is no point in
line, the other end of which is firing a parachute flare through the
secured to the boat. The lifebuoy cloud base. In these conditions, life raft on deck
in this arrangement is often a soft- fire at an angle to keep the flare A life raft is packed inside a canister or
collar type that the person in the under the cloud and maximize the case. It is often stowed on deck, lashed
water can easily pass over their visible burn time. down with quick-release fastenings.
 CRUISER SAILING
224

CRUISER ROPEWORK
Learning basic rope skills is an essential first step for anyone light rope with a weight spliced into
who aspires to become a good sailor. An experienced crew one end to help it travel. Once caught,
it is used to pull over a heavier warp.
will perform these skills naturally, as proficiency in rope-handling
forms the basis for much of the work involved in sailing a yacht. Working with rope
It is not necessary to be a knot-tying expert to become a good When you start whipping, splicing, or
seizing rope (pp.226–227), the tasks
sailor. However, you should know how to tie a few essential knots
will be easier if you have some simple
quickly and accurately; how to coil, handle, and stow ropes of tools. A sharp knife is needed for
all sizes; and how to heave a line. cutting rope and trimming ends, and
adhesive tape is useful for temporarily
binding the ends of strands. A fid or
USING ROPES marlinspike are helpful when splicing,
and a sailmaker’s palm and needle
A typical cruiser will have many nature. You should then extend your are useful for whippings and seizings.
different ropes on board, ranging from ability by learning the additional
light line up to heavy mooring and knots shown (opposite). Always ensure
swedish fid
anchor warps. Ropes found on cruisers that ropes are coiled and stowed neatly Hollow blade is used for threading
are larger and heavier than those used to avoid tangles, and never leave strands when splicing.
on dinghies and can be more difficult mooring ropes lying around the deck
to handle because of their extra weight or pontoon, where someone could trip fid
and length. Each rope has its use and over them. Wash all ropes once a Pointed end separates strands
place on board, and each will require year with mild detergent to remove of stiff three-strand rope.
handling in a way determined by its salt and grease.
size and purpose. Practice tying a few sailor’s knife
essential knots and coiling, cleating, Heaving a line Sharp, straight blade
stowing, and heaving these larger Sometimes you will need to heave gives neat cuts.
ropes. Proficiency in these skills can (throw) a line to someone on another
be critical when mooring, as well as in boat or on the dock. If there is a
other situations. You should be able to tangle in the line, your throw will fall
complete these tasks quickly and short. Do not rely on a previously
efficiently, even in the dark, when you coiled rope, but recoil it before the adhesive tape
Adhesive tape is used
cannot see the rope you are handling. throw. Make sure that the rope is long
for temporary whippings.
The basic knots and rope-handling enough to reach your target. On larger
skills (pp.42–47) must become second boats, there may be a heaving line of
sailmaker’s needle
Sharp triangular point is
The throw easily inserted into rope.
Throwing hand Heave the line underarm and
aim above the target, letting Metal
marlinspike
the line uncoil from your other patch
hand. Hold on to the end The blunt point is used
to release a tight knot.
ready to throw
Coil the rope neatly and split into two coils, half in your palm
throwing hand and the rest in the other hand. Stand Metal patch is used
PREPARING THROWING with your nonthrowing shoulder toward the target. to push on needle.
 CRUISER ROPEWORK: USING ROPES
225
CRUISER KNOTS
Many of the knots used on cruisers are identical fisherman’s bend and the rolling hitch—are often used
to those required to sail a dinghy, so reacquaint onboard a cruiser, especially when mooring, and
yourself with them (pp.44–47). Two other knots—the should be included in your rope-handling skills.

FISHERMAN’S BEND
Round turn
This knot is similar to the round
turn and two half-hitches (p.47) but
is more secure. It can be used for
Working end
tying an anchor warp to the anchor ROUND
or a mooring warp to a ring. TURN

The round turn

attaches the Standing part
rope to the ring

1 Take a turn around a spar or rope, 2 Take a second turn identical to

taking the working end up on the right the first turn. Take the working end
The two half-hitches side of the standing part. Bring the up between the standing part and
secure the knot
working end across the standing part. the second turn.

ROLLING HITCH Working end

Spar
The rolling hitch is a very useful Second turn
knot when you want to tie a rope
around a spar or to take the strain
off another rope. It grips very
tightly and is valuable in an
Working end
emergency, when you can use it Standing part
to take the load off another line to
pull along the spar.
1 Make a turn around a spar or rope, 2 Make a second turn identical to
bringing the working end up on the right the first turn, bringing the working
side of the standing part. Take the end up between the standing part
working end across the standing part. and the second turn.

Working end
Working end
Knot tightened
Third turn

The three turns

of this hitch Standing part
secure the rope
Standing part
to a spar

3 Take a third turn, then bring 4 Pull on both the standing part and
Rope pulls the working end up on the left side the working end to tighten the knot.
along spar of the standing part. Next, tuck the Pull the standing part over the first two
turn under itself. turns before putting strain on the rope.
 CRUISER SAILING
226
WHIPPING, SEIZING, AND SPLICING
Whipping COMMON WHIPPING
A good method of binding the end of a rope to prevent the strands from The common whipping is
fraying or unraveling is to whip it. With modern synthetic ropes, you can the simplest to learn and
accomplish the same thing by heat-sealing the ends (p.45), but whipping is suitable for both braided
the rope using thin twine is much stronger and neater. and three-strand rope. It is
not as secure as some other
Strand end whippings but is quick and
SAILMAKER’S WHIPPING Loop of
whipping easy to complete.
The sailmaker’s whipping twine
is a secure method of binding Loop lies toward
the end of three-strand rope Short tail end of rope
without needing to sew the
twine using a sailmaker’s
needle. Make the whipping
about one and a half times
the diameter of the rope. 1 Unlay the end of the rope and pass
a loop of whipping twine over one of
the strands. 1 Form a loop in the end of the twine
and lay it along the rope with the loop
Neck of
loop caught Whipping turns toward the end of the rope.
in rope
Whipping turns
End of loop

2 Relay the strands of the rope with 3 Wrap the twine tightly around the rope
the loop protruding from the rope. in a series of whipping turns. Work toward
Leave a short tail on the loop. the end, leaving the loop and tail free.
2 Wrap the long end of the twine
around the rope, moving toward the
Loop Whipping Strand rope end. Pull each turn tight.
end
Loop

Short
tail
Strand end

4 Take the loop and pass it over the 5 Take the short tail and pull until
end of the strand that the loop was the loop is tightened over the strand 3 When the turns approach the end
placed over in step 1. end and the whipping. of the rope, pass the end of the twine
through the loop.
Short tail Reef knot
Short tail Loop is pulled
under whipping

Short
tail

6 Take the tail along the groove 7 Tie a reef knot, with the tail and the 4 Pull hard on the short tail of the
from which it emerges to the other working end of the twine, in the center loop to bury it under the turns. Trim
end of the whipping. of the strand ends. Trim the strand ends. both twine ends close to the whipping.
 CRUISER ROPEWORK: WHIPPING, SEIZING, AND SPLICING
227
SEIZING Splicing
Seizing is used to bind two parts of a rope Splicing is used to join two ropes (or to join a rope tail to
alongside each other. The friction created by a length of wire), to bind the end of a rope, and to form a
the seizing between the two parts of the rope fixed eye in the end of a rope (below). Once completed,
is able to hold very high loads. A seizing can be a splice is stronger than a knot and is permanent. Splicing
used to create a loop in the end of braided rope. three-strand rope is fairly straightforward, but braided
construction (pp.42–45) is more complex to splice.
Clove hitch Turn
All splices require the rope to be unlaid so that
the individual strands can be manipulated and inserted
under and over laid strands in the body of the rope. When
unlaying a rope to work with individual strands, always
Whipping
seal the ends of the strands temporarily to prevent them
twine from fraying. Plastic tape makes a useful temporary seal.
It is also sensible to secure the rope at the point to which
1 Form an eye in the 2 Pass the whipping
you have unlaid the strands. Use a few turns of twine tied
end of the rope and, with twine around the two parts
of the rope to make a series of tightly around the rope.
the end of a length of whipping
twine, tie a clove hitch around turns. Pull each turn tightly
and make sure it sits neatly EYE SPLICE
the two parts of the rope to be
alongside the preceding turns. An eye splice is used to form a fixed eye in
seized to each other.
the end of a three-strand rope, such as a
mooring warp. Three rounds of tucks can be
Seizing Frapping turn sufficient in natural fiber rope, but use five
tucks in synthetic fiber ropes to compensate
for their slippery surface.

Seizing
Standing
part First
Pull whipping
strand end
twine through Loop
3 Continue making turns until 4 Pass the whipping twine
the length of the seizing is three over the seizing and down
times the diameter of the rope. between the two parts of the
Now create a frapping turn by rope. Pull the twine tight to
taking the twine down between complete the first frapping
the two parts of the rope. turn then repeat for a second. 1 Unlay the rope strands some 2 Take the end of the
way back from the end and top strand and tuck it under
First frapping turn form a counterclockwise loop a strand on the standing part,
of the size required for the eye. tucking against the lay.
Second
frapping turn Knot disappears
between ropes Second Standing
Frapping strand part
turns end

Third
strand
end

5 Pass the twine up between 6 Pull the whipping twine

the two parts of the rope and tight until the knot disappears
between the frapping turns. between the two ropes. Trim 3 Turn the splice over and 4 Turn the splice and tuck
Pass it under one of the turns, the end of the whipping twine, tuck the end of the second the third end under the third
then over both turns, and but leave a short end so that strand under the next strand strand on the standing part.
under the other frapping turn. the knot cannot untie itself. in the standing part. Repeat five times.
 CRUISER SAILING
228
USING WARPS
Warps are mooring ropes used to tie a Nylon is the most common material damage. The precise arrangement
boat to a pontoon, dockside, mooring for warps, since it is strong. It also depends on whether you are tied to
buoy, piles, or other boat. Knowing stretches well to absorb shock and a dockside (and have to allow for the
how to use warps is an essential part reduce loads on fairleads and cleats. tide) or to another boat or floating
of cruiser handling. The size of warp Warps should always be coiled when pontoon that also moves in response
will depend on the size and, most not in use and stored, preferably to changes in tidal height.
importantly, the weight of your boat; hanging up, in a locker from where
large yachts will have big warps that they can easily be retrieved. Avoiding problems
are heavy to handle. All warps should When mooring alongside, a The best way to avoid problems when
be strong enough to hold your boat number of warps are needed to hold mooring with warps is to have one
and long enough to allow for the the boat safely and to prevent it from rope for each job and to make each
rise and fall of the boat in tidal waters. ranging back and forth and causing one up on its own cleat. Always make
up the end to a cleat ashore or on the
pontoon or a neighboring boat, and
TURNING WITH WARPS bring the rest of the warp back on
There are times when it would be much easier to leave a berth if the boat board where it can be cleated and
was facing the other way, particularly if you want to leave under sail. This stowed. This avoids leaving rope
can be achieved by the use of warps. ashore and makes it easy to adjust
your warps on board when necessary.
USING WARPS Sometimes you may make fast with a
The best way to turn a boat using slip line led through a ring or around
warps is to make use of the tide or
wind to help the maneuver. Start
by placing fenders on the far side mooring warps
of the boat and at the bow and Each mooring warp has a different
stern to protect the boat when it function, and it is important to know
turns. The boat shown here is lying which warp does what. If you leave your
stern-to-tide, so the stern will be boat alongside in tidal waters, make sure
moved away from the pontoon to 1 Rig a stern line outside all rigging that there is sufficient slack in the warps
turn the boat. If the boat was lying on the far side. Move the bow spring to to allow for the lowest level of tide;
the other way around, the bow a cleat on the far side of the bow, and otherwise, the boat will end up hanging
would be turned first. the shore end to a cleat aft of the boat. from its warps and could be damaged.

Bow line
The bow line (or head rope)
and the stern line position
the boat. They must be strong
enough to take the main load
and long enough to allow for
the rise and fall of the tide. The
farther away they are taken from
the boat, the less adjustment is
needed as the tide rises or falls

2 Release the bow line and stern spring. 3 The turn will slow down as the
Release the stern line and push the stern boat lines up with the tide. Make fast
out, or pull on the bow spring. The tide the new bow and stern lines and rig
will start to swing the boat out. Take up new springs. For short stays, you need
the slack on the new stern line. only rig a bow line and a stern spring.
 CRUISER ROPEWORK: USING WARPS
229
a cleat ashore with both ends brought
back aboard (opposite). This is only SLIP LINES
suitable for temporary stops, as a A slip line is a warp led through a ring or around a cleat or bollard ashore,
warp rigged in this way is likely to with both ends made fast on board. It allows the crew to release the warp
chafe where it passes through the from on board and is particularly useful when berthed alongside a quay
ring or cleat. When chafe occurs in wall. Never rig a warp permanently as a slip—this can lead to chafe in the
the middle of a long warp, it becomes middle of the warp and ruin it.
useless unless you can cut it in half Warp led up
through ring
and make it into two shorter warps. Using rings
If a slip line is rigged through
Cleats a ring ashore, it is important
to lead it through the ring in
All mooring cleats and fairleads
the right way. Lead the end of
must be large enough for the job. the warp that will be released up
They should be securely bolted to through the ring if it is lying on
the deck and have smooth, rounded top of the quay, or down through
edges to prevent chafe on the warps. the ring if it is hanging on the
Generally, the larger the cleat, the quay wall. In this way, the warp
less it will wear the rope and the lifts the ring away from the quay
Warp led
as it is pulled, preventing the warp
easier it will be to make up a rope down
from jamming as you pull it on through ring
with sufficient turns. Some yachts board. Make sure there are no
have a central bollard, the Samson knots or splices in the warp to
post, on the foredeck together with snag, and pull the line steadily
a pair of cleats, one on either side to avoid tangles. SLIP LINES THROUGH RINGS
of the bow, and a pair at the stern.
If there is no central bollard, there
should be at least three cleats on Fairleads can be open or closed; the edges of dock walls. They can
the foredeck. A pair of midship open variety is more versatile, but be protected by feeding the warp
cleats on the sidedecks is useful the closed type is more secure. All through short lengths of plastic
when mooring alongside. warps should be led through tubing, which can then be positioned
fairleads so that they cannot chafe at likely chafing points. Check that
Fairleads on the deck edge or any other your fairleads do not have any sharp
Fairleads should be fitted on either side obstruction. Warps are particularly edges, or these will quickly damage
of the bow and stern and alongside susceptible to chafe where they are your warps when they are under
each midship cleat, if attached. led through fairleads or across the heavy strain.

Fore breast rope Bow spring Stern spring

This is used in addition to the four main Springs prevent the boat from moving A stern spring works against the
warps to hold the boat close alongside. ahead or astern. They are not usually as bow spring to stop the boat from
Breasts and springs may be used alone long as the bow and stern lines, and will moving backward and forward
when lying alongside a pontoon need adjusting as the tidal height changes
Aft breast rope Stern line
Breast ropes are sometimes Like the bow
used in addition to the four line, this
main warps to hold the boat helps position
close alongside the boat
 CRUISER SAILING
230

BASIC SAIL SKILLS

dinghies (p.74), or with slides that
are attached to the sail and run in
the boom groove. The tack is
fastened to the gooseneck using a
Sails on a modern cruising yacht are similar in most respects shackle or lashing. The clew is pulled
to those found on a dinghy, but they are both larger and heavier. toward the outer end of the boom
using the outhaul, which, if it is
Also, a cruiser’s sail wardrobe is more extensive than a dinghy’s, adjustable, runs inside the boom to
because it must have sails suitable for a wide range of conditions, a winch or cleat at the forward end.
from light airs to storm-force winds. Many modern cruisers are
Mainsail luff
fitted with a headsail roller-reefing system, which allows one sail
The luff is usually attached to the
to be used in a range of wind strengths, but some follow the mast by slides that run in the mast
traditional approach of having several sails of different sizes. groove. With a fully battened
mainsail, the battens run from the
leech to the luff. They fit into special
Bending on sails system that allows the headsail to low-friction sliders that enable the
“Bending on” is the traditional term be furled tightly around the forestay sail to be hoisted and lowered easily
used to describe fitting the mainsail when the boat is not sailing. With despite pressure from the battens.
onto the boom. It is usually done only this system, the headsail is often left
at the beginning of the sailing season, bent on throughout the season. Reefing lines
as the mainsail on most cruisers is Lines to reef the mainsail (pp.250–251)
stowed on the boom and removed Mainsail foot are usually led from the end of the
only at season’s end. Headsails are Most cruiser mainsails are attached boom through the reef cringles in
traditionally bent on when needed, to the boom either by sliding the the leech. They are then led back
being stowed at other times, but many bolt rope out along the groove in down to the boom before being
modern cruisers use a roller-reefing the boom, as is done with many led forward to a winch and cleat
at the forward end of the boom, or
through turning blocks back to a
HOISTING THE MAINSAIL winch in the cockpit. Similar lines
Before hoisting the mainsail, make sure that the boat is facing head-to-wind. are sometimes rigged at the luff
If it is not, the sail will fill as it is hoisted, making the job difficult, if not unless the luff cringles are fixed onto
impossible, and the boat will start sailing before you are ready. inverted hooks known as ram’s horns.

1 Check that the halyard is clear aloft. 2 If the halyard is led aft to a winch in 3 Put enough pressure on the halyard to
Remove the ties that hold the stowed sail the cockpit, as here, one crewmember at the pull a light crease into the sail parallel
in place on the boom, fully release the mast can pull on the halyard to help hoist to the luff—this will disappear when the
mainsheet, and pull on the halyard. As the sail more quickly. The person at the sail is full of wind. Cleat, coil, and stow
you hoist, keep an eye aloft to make sure winch takes in the slack, only winching the halyard; ease off the topping lift and
that the sail does not snag on anything. the halyard when the sail is nearly hoisted. leave it slack; and tighten the boom vang.
 BASIC SAIL SKILLS
231
Top swivel to prevent exactly like the jib of a dinghy (p.72). already be hoisted and stowed in
the halyard from being
Remove the headsail from its bag and its furled state. To unfurl it, make
rolled with the sail
attach the tack to the stemhead fitting sure the furling line is free to run
with a shackle, or by hooking it over and pull on the appropriate jib sheet.
Roller-furling a ram’s horn. Next, clip the luff If you have hanked-on headsails,
drum fitted
at bow
hanks onto the forestay and attach hoist the sail using the halyard and
the sheets to the clew. Shackle the halyard winch. Before hoisting, untie
halyard to the head. The sail is now any sail ties securing it and make
ready to hoist. sure the halyard is not tangled aloft.
Hoist the sail by hand, with one turn
Hoisting the headsail around the winch drum (p.232),
Unlike the mainsail, the headsail adding turns and using the handle only
can be hoisted in any wind direction. when needed. Tighten the halyard until
Make sure, however, that the sheets are a small crease appears in the sail,
free so that the sail can flap freely parallel to the luff. This will disappear
roller-furling headsail until you are ready to sheet in. If you when the sail is full of wind. Cleat the
The luff of a roller-furling headsail have a roller-furling headsail, it will halyard and coil and stow the tail.
runs in a foil fitted over the forestay.
The tack is attached to a drum that
turns to roll the sail.
STOWING THE HALYARD
If your halyard winches are mast-
mounted, you will have a long
Furling headsails length of halyard when each sail
In roller-furling and reefing headsail
is hoisted. A good way to stow Make a coil
them, after cleating (p.44), is to starting at
systems, a headfoil is fitted over the the cleat
coil them and hang them on their
forestay. The headfoil has a groove (or
cleats. If your halyards lead aft to
two) in the aft edge, into which the
winches in the cockpit, their tails
sail’s luff is fed. The tack is shackled
are more effectively dealt with by
to the roller-furling drum at the base of
stuffing them into bags mounted
the headfoil, and the head is shackled
on the bulkhead for this purpose. 1 Once the halyard has been cleated,
to a halyard swivel that slides over the Alternatively, coil on their cleats coil up the tail, starting from the cleat
headfoil. The sheets are attached to the or winches. end to avoid putting twists in the rope.
clew in the usual way, using a bowline
on each. They are then led aft through
Slip the loop
their turning blocks or fairleads. over the cleat
Remember to tie a figure-eight knot
(p.46) in the end of each sheet. After
Pull a bight of
the sail is hoisted, it is furled by pulling
halyard through
on the furling line wound around the the coils and twist
furling drum. This rotates the headfoil, it once or twice

and thus furls the sail.

Other headsail systems

If a furling system is not used, the
yacht will have a number of headsails
of different sizes to suit a range of
wind strengths. These sails are stowed
2 Grasp the part of the halyard that 3 Pull the twisted loop over the coils
leads to the cleat and bring it through and drop it over the top horn of the
in a sail locker and are rigged when the coil center, twisting it once or twice. cleat to hold the coils securely.
needed. This type of headsail is rigged
 CRUISER SAILING
232
USING WINCHES
The sails on a cruiser are larger than (pull) on the free end (the tail) of
those on a dinghy and, therefore, exert the sheet or halyard. On a self-tailing
much more force on their sheets and winch, there is a circular grooved cleat
halyards. Winches are an important running around the top. This retains
part of the sail-handling equipment, as the tail of the rope and allows one
they provide the mechanical advantage person to operate the winch. Some
to control large loads. On traditional winches have two or three speeds.
craft, however, tackles are sometimes
used to perform the same function. Manual or electric
Winches positioned in the cockpit are Most winches are manually operated,
used for handling sheets, control lines, using a handle. Longer handles give
and halyards that are led aft. Mast more power than shorter ones.
winches are used for any halyards Electric winches are common on
and reefing lines that are not led aft. larger yachts, with hydraulic winches
Self-TAIlING WINCH
There are two types of winches: used on the largest. Both types are Most modern yachts have self-tailing
the standard winch and the self-tailing operated by push buttons, and great winches for one-person operation. Load
winch. A standard winch usually care must be taken when using them the rope onto the winch and feed it into
requires two people: one to load and because of the enormous loads that the self-tailing jaws. Wind the handle with
wind the winch and the other to tail can be involved. your shoulders positioned over the winch.

WINCHING-IN USING A STANDARD WINCH Wrap the

To use a winch, one person loads the a stable stance with your shoulders rope around
the drum
rope, inserts the handle, and prepares over the winch. Use your body
to wind in, while another prepares to weight and both hands on the handle
tail. When working with sheets or whenever possible, as this exerts the
halyards under load, be careful to maximum amount of force. Always
avoid pinching your fingers between check what you are about to do before
the rope and the drum. The best way you do it; a winch makes it possible
to protect your fingers near the winch to apply big forces very quickly, and 1 If there is strain on the rope, use
is to keep the back of the hand facing sails and gear can be damaged by two hands to load the winch. Load in the
the drum. To winch efficiently, adopt overenthusiastic winching. direction in which the drum rotates.

Slot the handle Hold

into place the rope
below the
handle

Keep your hands

clear of the drum

2 Make at least three full turns. As you 3 Insert the handle into the winch once 4 Turn the handle clockwise for
wrap the rope around the winch, rotate the turns have been wound on. Make sure high speed and counterclockwise for slow
your hand to make sure you keep your that the handle is seated fully into the speed. The person tailing must maintain
fingers clear of the drum. socket or it may slip as you wind. a steady pull on the tail.
 BASIC SAIL SKILLS: USING WINCHES
233
Loading a winch accidentally knocked out of the self-
Loading a winch means putting turns tailer. With the rope cleated, remove RIDING TURNS
of rope on it before it can be used. and stow the handle. Never leave a Riding turns occur when the
Usually, at least three full turns are handle in a winch when it is not in use. coils on the winch become
needed to provide sufficient friction crossed over each other. This
between the rope and the winch Easing a sheet will jam the rope and prevent it
drum. The rope must be wound on Headsail sheets impart high loads on from being released. Riding turns
in the same direction that the winch their winches, and you must be very usually occur on a sheet winch
drum rotates. Nearly all winches careful when easing or fully releasing when too many turns have been
rotate clockwise, but you can quickly one. If you need to ease the sheet, undo put onto the winch drum before
check an empty winch’s rotation by it from its cleat, keeping it taut to the slack in the sheet has been
seeing which way it spins freely. prevent it from slipping prematurely. pulled in.
Press the heel of your other hand
Using a winch against the turns on the winch to Clearing a riding turn
Once the winch is loaded, a handle, increase the friction of the rope against To clear a riding turn on a
inserted in a socket in the top of the the drum, and keep the sheet under working sheet or halyard, you
winch, is used to wind in the rope. control as you ease the turns slightly. must first remove the load from
Some handles have a locking system the winch, but do not try to do
this by hand. Instead, tie another
that prevents them from being Releasing a sheet
line to the sheet or halyard ahead
knocked out of the winch. With To fully release a loaded sheet (when of the winch. Attach this line with
these, you must operate a small lever you are tacking, for example), do a rolling hitch (p.225), then lead it
on the handle to insert and remove it. not unwind the turns from the drum to another winch (positioned in the
Winch in the rope and cleat or the sheet will kink and jam. Pull direction in which you need to pull
it securely once you have finished. the sheet sharply upward and release to relieve the load on the first
Cleating is not always necessary it as the turns come off the drum. winch). Load the second line onto
the new winch and wind it in
with a self-tailing winch, because it
until it takes all the pressure off
has a circular cleat mounted above the riding turn. Now return to the
the drum. However, it is safer to jammed winch and release the
secure the rope on a separate cleat Release riding turn. Reload the sheet and
or to pass a final loose safety turn Give a sharp winch it in. Release the rolling
tug on the
around the entire winch, which will hitch and the second line.
sheet tail to
prevent the rope from being release the coils
A self-tailing
Riding turn
winch has a
prevents
jamming system
sheet from
on its top
being eased

riding turn
A riding turn occurs when the rope
easing the sheet releasing the sheet
turns become crossed. The load on
Ease the sheet on both manual and When you need to release the sheet from the rope locks the turns, preventing the
power winches in the same way. Hold the winch, uncleat the tail and pull the rope from being released. If the load is
the tail in one hand while pressing the sheet upward sharply so that the coils light, it may be released by hand, but
other hand against the turns on the drum are freed from the drum without getting usually another line must be used to
in order to prevent a riding turn. Allow the twisted or jammed. Let go of the rope relieve the load.
rope to slide gradually around the drum. end as soon as the coils leave the winch.
 CRUISER SAILING
234
LOWERING AND STOWING SAILS
Lower the sails by reversing their then ease the halyard and lower the
hoisting procedures. Before you lower headsail onto the foredeck. Secure
the mainsail, remember to tighten the the halyard, and then stow the sail.
topping lift to take the weight of Headsails can be lowered or furled
the boom if it is not supported by a with the boat at any angle to the wind.
solid vang. Otherwise, the boom will When using roller furling, it is best to Sail bag
come crashing down onto the deck keep some wind pressure in the sail
and may cause injury or damage. to be sure the sail rolls up tightly.
Make sure that the boat is
head-to-wind so that the mainsail Stowing the mainsail temporary headsail stow
cannot fill with wind, then ease the During the sailing season, the mainsail Hanked-on headsails can be temporarily
mainsheet and allow the sail to flap. is usually left stowed on the boom, stowed in their bag on the foredeck. The
Lower the mainsail, keeping the shielded from the elements by a sail sail can remain hanked on, ready to hoist,
halyard under control so that it does cover. Sailcloth is damaged by long- with sheets attached. The bag protects
not rush out. When the sail is down, term exposure to ultraviolet light, so it the sail and keeps the decks clear.
secure the halyard and tighten the is important to protect the sail with its
mainsheet to prevent the boom from cover whenever it is not being used.
swinging around. The mainsail can now Rope guides called lazyjacks will Stowing headsails
be stowed. Rigs other than Bermudan stow a fully battened main neatly on A headsail that is stowed furled on
may require different procedures. the boom as it is lowered. Lazyjacks the forestay needs to be protected
If you have a headsail-furling run from the mast to the boom. They from ultraviolet light, which will
system, you can roll the sail around control the sail and stack it like a degrade the exposed parts of the
the forestay simply by easing the Venetian blind, requiring only the sail sail. Many sail-makers allow for
sheet and pulling on the furling line. ties to secure it. The sail cover must be this by building in a sacrificial
If you have a hanked-on headsail, designed to fit around the lazyjacks, or strip of material along the leech.
send a crewmember forward to they must be pulled forward out of the Alternatively, you can hoist a
stop it from falling into the water, way before the cover is fitted. cover over the furled sail.
A furling headsail is easily
stowed; simply roll it away around
the forestay by pulling on the furling
line. A hanked-on headsail can be
stowed neatly on the foredeck so it
is ready for reuse. To do this, pull
the sail out along one sidedeck and
furl it parallel to its foot into a neat
roll that can be secured to the
lifelines or stanchions clear of
the deck. Always carry extra sail
ties for jobs like these.

securing the mainsail

When the mainsail has been lowered and
flaked over the boom, it is secured with sail
ties and the halyard is removed from the
sail and stowed.
 BASIC SAIL SKILLS: LOWERING AND STOWING SAILS
235
Alternatively, you can use the When you sail with hanked-on Sail flaked on Sail bundled
top of boom into a large fold
headsail bag to cover and protect it headsails, you will change them to suit
while it is still hanked to the forestay. the wind strength. When you remove
Fold the sail in half by pulling the a sail, it is best to stow it immediately
clew up to the tack and head. Now in its bag in the sail locker, if you
pack the bulk of the sail into its bag; have one, or pass it down the forehatch
you should end up with just the tack, and stow it in the forepeak. In rough
clew, and head protruding. The sheets weather, bring it aft and pass it FULLY BATTENED CONVENTIONAL

can be left attached, but the halyard down the main hatch. Occasionally,
stowing mainsails
should be removed. The halyard however, you may stow it temporarily
A fully battened mainsail will stow
end should then be stowed on the on the foredeck if you are likely to itself in Venetian-blind-like folds as
pulpit to keep it out of the way. If the use it again soon. Make sure that it it is lowered. A conventional mainsail
headsail is not to be used again in is lashed securely to the stanchions so is pulled over to one side of the
the near future, it should be removed that it cannot slip overboard. Never boom after being lowered and
and stowed in its bag in the sail locker. leave a sail on deck in rough weather. is stowed neatly.

STOWING THE MAINSAIL

Sail slides sit on top Conventional mainsails require more work to stow them neatly
of each other in
mast groove
than fully battened mainsails. The job is usually easier if there
are two crew available. Mainsails on racing boats are often
Reef and other control made from stiff material that should not be bundled, so their
lines are tucked under sails are often removed completely or neatly flaked over the
the sail ties
boom. Cruiser mainsails can be safely bundled into a tight roll.

Sail furled neatly Sail ties secure

and tightly furled sail to boom

Pull the sail Make a Topping lift Push the bulk

to one side fold in the supports of the sail into
of the boom sail to form boom the pocket
a pocket

1 Once the mainsail has been 2 Reaching over the boom, grab the 3 Pack the rest of the sail into the
lowered, pull it over to the leeward leech of the sail some way up from pocket, pulling the leech aft as you go to
side of the boom. Move around to the the foot. Pull it aft and toward you to create a neat bundle. When all the sail is
windward side of the boom so that you form a pocket. If there is more than one inside, pull the pocket tightly around the
are in the best position to stow it neatly. crew member available, one should stand sail and secure it with sail ties tied around
Make sure the mainsheet is pulled in at the aft end of the boom, where it is the bundle and the boom. Put on the sail
and cleated before you start. easier to create the pocket in the sail. cover to protect the sail from UV light.
 CRUISER SAILING
236

USING THE TENDER

Although the principal use of a tender is to transport you to
and from the shore when anchored or moored, it can fulfill several
other roles. It can be used, along with the life raft, in the event of
abandoning ship, and it can be used for floating, fishing, and
exploring shallow harbors. There are many types, solid, folding,
and inflatable, but the choice often comes down to the space using the tender
available to stow it on the cruiser. All tenders should be easy Rowing is quieter, but many cruisers fit an
outboard on the tender, especially if it is
to handle under oars, but many owners also carry a small an inflatable type that is harder to row
outboard engine for use with the tender. than a solid dinghy.

Types of tender for amusement. Mark the name of in use. Be careful when lifting the
The vast majority of cruisers carry your cruiser on the tender and use outboard and when passing it up or
an inflatable dinghy, because it is a padlock and chain to secure it down between the tender and the
easy to stow when deflated. A when leaving it ashore. yacht; an outboard is awkward to
traditional inflatable is, however, lift and is easily dropped. Attach a
difficult to row even in ideal Stowing the tender safety line to prevent it from being
conditions and can be impossible Most inflatables are stowed dropped overboard.
in a strong wind and choppy water. deflated in a cockpit locker or on
A small, solid dinghy makes a far deck and are inflated by a foot or Towing a tender
better tender if you have the space electric pump when needed. This An alternative to stowing the
to stow it on deck, but few modern does mean, however, that they are tender aboard is towing it behind.
yachts have this facility. not available for instant use, such You will lose a little cruising speed,
Other choices include a small as in an emergency. Solid or folding but this may be an acceptable
rigid inflatable boat (RIB) with a tenders, RIBs with their tubes deflated, compromise. Use two towing lines—
solid bottom and inflatable topside or inflated inflatables can be lashed the tender’s painter secured to a
tubes, or a folding or sectional down on the coach roof or foredeck, towing point on the tender’s stern
dinghy that requires less space as long as they do not foul any gear and another towing warp attached
than a solid dinghy. Also, newer or restrict the crew’s movement to a separate strong point at the
types of inflatables have improved around the decks and coach roof. tender’s bow. If the painter breaks,
floor arrangements—either roll-up, Some cruisers carry their tender the secondary line will stop the
inflatable, or solid—that make them in davits at the stern; an inflatable tender from being lost.
more stable, dryer inside, and easier can also be carried on short trips Do not underestimate the load
to row than the older, single-floor by lashing it across the rear of the on the line or you risk losing the
type. In the end, the space you have pushpit. Both of these arrangements tender by using a weak deck fitting.
for stowage and the price are likely create a lot of windage, however, Adjust the length of the tow to
to be the key factors. and can form an obstruction when position the tender on the front of
Buying a new tender can be the boat is tied up alongside. your stern wave so that it minimizes
expensive, and its glossy finish will If an outboard engine is carried drag and the tendency to veer from
not survive long if it is used regularly. for the tender, this is often stowed side to side. If the tender surfs down
Tenders take a lot of punishment on a mounting pad on the pushpit. A waves and rides up to your stern,
when cruising and are attractive fabric cover over the engine will help lengthen the tow rope considerably to
to thieves and children looking protect it from the elements when not drop the tender well behind.
 USING THE TENDER
237
Always remove all equipment from Get to know how your tender are rowing across the current, aim
the dinghy before towing it, and handles under outboard engine uptide so that you are swept down
never allow anyone to ride in the and practice rowing it as much as to your destination. If you have to
tender when it is being towed. possible (p.50). Make sure that the row against the tide, row into shallow
oars are long enough to give a good waters where the tide is weakest. Head
Getting a tender aboard performance under oars. Do not, out into the current, if necessary, only
If your tender is stowed on deck however, choose oars that are too when abreast of your destination.
when not in use, you need to have long to stow inside the dinghy. When leaving the dinghy at a
a routine for lifting it aboard. If it is When rowing in tidal waters, landing spot, pull it ashore, if possible,
an inflatable, it can simply be hauled take note of the direction and strength and leave it well above the high tide
aboard when it has been emptied of of the tide to avoid getting swept level so that it cannot float away
its gear, but a heavier dinghy will downtide of your destination. If you before you return.
need the use of a lifting tackle.
First, remove the outboard
GETTING IN AND OUT
engine, the oars, and any loose gear.
More sailing accidents happen using in the wrong place. Inflatables also flex
Secure a line to the tender’s outboard
the tender than on the cruiser itself. and move as you shift your weight, as
engine before attempting to lift it,
Always wear a life jacket when using they are not as rigid as a solid dinghy.
and tie the other end to a strong the tender, and carry a flashlight at night Some cruisers have a stern platform
point onboard the cruiser so that to warn other boats of your presence. from which the dinghy can easily be
if the engine is dropped, it won’t Be especially careful when getting boarded in calm water. If your boat
be lost underwater. into and out of the tender. Inflatables has this arrangement, tie the dinghy at
To lift the tender, tie a rope seem quite stable, but they can invert the cruiser’s stern with its painter and
bridle to the bow and stern and like any dinghy if you put your weight a stern line so that it is held securely.
attach a halyard—the spinnaker
halyard is often the best choice— 1 The person rowing should get into Oarsman boards
dinghy first
the tender first. Boarding is made easier if
to the middle of the bridle. Winch
you have removable steps or a boarding
on the halyard to lift the dinghy
platform at the stern and if the tender is
while another person holds it away secured at both its bow and stern. Step into
from the cruiser’s side with a the middle of the dinghy and sit down at
boathook. Position the dinghy on once to get your weight low in the boat. Sit
deck, preferably in permanent chocks, on the middle thwart, which is the usual
and lash it down very securely. place to row from. Other crew members Pass oars to
pass the oars down into the dinghy, then oarsman when they
climb aboard when the rower is ready. are in the dinghy
Using the tender The oarsman can put the outboard oar
Be cautious when using the tender in its oarlock, ready to cast off.
and never overload it; make two
trips if necessary to transport the
crew and their gear. Make sure you 2 Do not risk an accident by trying
to cram too many people or too much
have sufficient equipment to cover
gear into the tender—make two trips if
all eventualities, even if you are going necessary. Arrange passengers and gear
Fit outer oar in Keep
oarlock before weight low
only a short distance. The equipment equally fore and aft to keep the dinghy pushing off in the boat
list could include an anchor and line, level. Once the rower has the outer oar in
spare oar or paddle, handheld radio, place in its oarlock, untie the tender and
flashlight, mini-flare pack, extra push off before the inner oar is fitted into
its oarlock. Reverse the procedure when
gasoline for the outboard, a means
coming alongside. If using a dinghy
of bailing, and an air pump if it is an
with metal, removable oarlocks, always
inflatable tender. In some dinghies, remove the oarlock on the side next
these items can be stowed to the cruiser; otherwise, it may scratch
permanently in a small locker. the topsides.
 CRUISER SAILING
238

PREPARING TO SAIL
If you are going to be out for more
than a few hours, prepare a snack and
a hot drink in a Thermos flask before
you sail. If conditions are rough, you
Sailing a boat is not like driving a car. A motorist can pull may not feel like preparing food once
over to get help if there is a mechanical problem, ask directions, you are underway; it will make life
much more pleasant for the crew if
take a rest, or eat a meal. On a boat, none of this is possible. this has been done before you set sail.
So before you go sailing, even for a short trip, you should check
that the boat is ready for sea, that all its equipment is in place Stowing gear
The motion aboard a small boat
and in working order, and that all the crew understand its use.
in a seaway can be quite rough and
It is crucial that the safety equipment is fully functional and will dislodge all but the best-stowed
that the crew know what it is for and how and when to use it. gear and equipment. A boat’s interior
Problems can occur even on a short trip in good weather, so quickly becomes very squalid when
gear breaks loose and is scattered
do not be complacent. Make sure you let someone ashore around the cabin, especially if it gets
know of your plans and when you expect to return. wet. Spend some time before you set
sail ensuring that everything is stowed
securely and cannot move, however
Before you set sail If you are heading off on a longer far the boat heels. Impress on your
Even if you are just heading out for cruise, your prepassage planning crew the need for neatness below and
a few hours in familiar home waters, needs to be more thorough. You can on deck, give them some stowage
spend a few minutes planning the gain great pleasure from planning a space for their personal items, and
trip and briefing the crew. Make passage at home; work done at this make sure they understand where
an outline plan of where you expect stage makes it more likely that your all important equipment is stowed
to sail and when you will return. trip will go smoothly and efficiently. and how it should be secured. Take
Check the weather forecast and On the boat, make a visual check a final look around below and on deck
have a contingency plan prepared if of all equipment and systems and before you leave your berth. Make
the weather looks changeable. Make investigate in detail if any system sure all hatches are securely closed.
sure you know the state of the tide appears deficient in any way.
and what it will be doing over the Decide on how you wish to leave The safety briefing
period of your trip. Make sure you your berth and brief the crew on how It is normal for the skipper to brief
have enough provisions on board for the maneuver will be performed, their the crew before heading out, even
the crew, sufficient to last the length roles, and what jobs need to be done if there are only two of you or if a
of the trip with some extra. as soon as you have cleared the berth. larger crew has sailed together often.
In these circumstances, a quick
rundown of the passage plan and
how you plan to leave the berth may
be sufficient, but if there are novices
on board or experienced crew who
are new to the boat, a more extensive
briefing will be necessary. Tailor the

skipper’s briefing
Before leaving the berth, the skipper
should give a thorough briefing on all
the boat’s systems and safety equipment.
 PREPARING TO SAIL
239
briefing to the experience of the crew,
prevailing conditions, and intentions EQUIPMENT CHECKLIST
for the passage ahead. Things to cover Make sure you have all the basic equipment on board that you need for
include: use of the galley; gas and the trip, and check that it is in working order before you set sail. Take the
water supply discipline; use of the time needed to do a visual check of all systems.
sea toilet or holding tank system;
locations and instructions for fire Checklist Safety equipment
extinguishers and blankets; whether Most cruising boats have a • Is your first-aid kit complete and
smoking is permitted on board and, surprising amount of equipment up to date? Have you briefed the crew
that should be checked periodically. on its location and composition?
if so, where and when this is allowable;
Not all checks will be necessary • Check that you have safety
and location and use of flares, first-
every time you set sail, but a harnesses and life jackets in working
aid kits, radio equipment, man- comprehensive checklist acts as order for every member of the crew.
overboard gear, and life raft. a good memory aid. You should be • Has the life raft been serviced
The safety briefing should also sure to check all points on the list recently? Are its lashings secure?
include information about the at intervals during the sailing season • Are there sufficient flares within
weather conditions predicted and as part of a regular inspection and their expiration date?
maintenance schedule. • Is there a foghorn on board?
sensible sun protection and clothing
• Check firefighting equipment.
options. The secret of a good safety
The engine Are extinguishers fully charged?
briefing is to judge just how much • Check fuel, oil, and water systems,
information is needed to keep boat and the tightness of drive belts,
and crew safe without adding to any seawater intake, impeller, and filter. Rig and sails
uneasiness among a novice crew. • Run the engine to warm it up • Check masts and spars—look for
Each crew member should be before you cast off. Check that broken strands in standing rigging,
cooling water is being discharged. cracks in fittings, loose pins or joints,
issued a life jacket and harness, which
• Check the propeller shaft’s stern damage, and metal fatigue.
they should adjust to fit them tightly. • Check running rigging for fraying
gland and greaser, if fitted.
On the skipper’s instructions, they • Make sure batteries are and chaffing. Are the bitter ends and
should then either wear them right fully charged. whippings in good condition?
away or keep them somewhere where • Is a suitable toolkit on board, with • Check the sails, especially the
they can be easily reached. sufficient spares for your engine and seams, stress points, cringles,
The skipper should also check other vital pieces of equipment? strengthening patches, batons,
and any earlier repairs.
if any of their crew are taking special
medication or have health issues and Boat equipment
• Check the condition of the anchor Navigation equipment
whether they can swim, have any • Do you have an up-to-date chart
chain. Know how much is available.
personal anxiety about being afloat, Check that the end of the chain is on board for your sailing area?
or have skills that could help in secured on board to a strong point • Do you have local tide tables, tidal
emergency situations. that is easily reached. atlas, and local sailing instructions?
• Know your bilges—is it a dry • Are all the navigation instruments
If anyone suffers from seasickness,
or wet boat? What level of water in working order?
this is a good time to remind them to
take their preferred treatment. Always is normal in your bilge?
• Check gas bottle fittings and piping General checks
carry a stock of seasickness tablets • Check all hatch seals for signs
and test the gas alarm.
with the first-aid kit and make sure • Operate all seacocks. Be sure you of leaks.
the crew knows they are available. have correct size bungs available. • Is all your deck hardware in proper
There should always be more than • Do you have a waterproof flashlight working order?
one crewmember on board who with spare batteries and bulbs? • Have you completed all necessary
• Are your navigation lights and repair jobs?
knows some of the distress signals
VHF radio in working order? • Do you have sufficient water and
for use in an emergency and, in
• Have you closed all hatches and provisions on board, with enough to
particular, can operate the radio allow for an unexpectedly long trip?
ventilators that may let in water?
equipment and follow the protocol
for making an emergency call (p.428).
 CRUISER SAILING
240

HANDLING UNDER POWER

Pressures of time, busy sailing areas, and crowded marinas Stern
Pivot point swings out
mean that most cruisers are now equipped with engines. Modern Boat turns around
marine engines are far more reliable than their predecessors and its pivot point

usually work when required. However, you should still allow for a
possible engine failure. Have an anchor ready to let go, and sails
ready to hoist, whenever engine failure could cause problems. Bow swings
Pivot point about
into turn
A boat under power does not steer like a car, and factors such halfway along hull

as prop walk and windage will affect the boat’s handling.

Boat handling Propeller effects the way boats turn

People who are new to sailing The key to handling a boat well When a boat is turned, its stern does not
often make the mistake of assuming under power is understanding the follow the bow through the turn. Instead,
that a boat steers in the same way propeller effect called “prop walk.” the boat pivots and the stern swings out.
as a car. In fact, when a boat turns, Water density increases with depth,
it pivots around a point near its so the lower blade of a propeller is
center, and the stern swings out always in denser water than the upper propeller tends to “walk” the stern
away from the direction of the blade, creating a paddlewheel effect, to starboard when moving forward.
turn. When handling the boat in which pushes the stern sideways in With most gearboxes, the direction
a confined space, you should be the same direction in which the of rotation reverses when going
aware of the stern’s swing as you propeller rotates. A typical right- astern, “walking” the stern to port.
turn the boat. handed or clockwise-rotating When going ahead, the rudder
is more efficient and will easily
START counter prop walk as soon as you
have steerage way. When going astern,
however, the rudder is less effective
on most boats, especially at the slow
speeds normally used in reverse, and
prop walk will be more apparent. You
AHEAD ASTERN can discover the extent and direction
of prop walk in reverse before you
leave your berth. With the boat tied
up securely, put the engine in reverse at
Going ahead half throttle. Look over the side to see
The stern is pushed
to starboard
Going astern from which direction water turbulence
The stern is
pushed to port appears. This is the flow off the
propeller. If free to move, the stern
START will swing away from the disturbance.

prop walk ahead prop walk astern Boat characteristics

With a clockwise-rotating propeller, the With a conventional gearbox, the How a boat handles under power
stern will tend to move to starboard propeller rotates counterclockwise when depends on a number of factors. These
when the engine is running ahead. running astern and pulls the stern to port. include engine size, propeller location
 HANDLING UNDER POWER
241
and direction of rotation, type of low speed. Prop walk will result in a whereas the stern moves in the
keel and rudder, and the amount tighter turning circle in one direction, opposite direction. Keep practicing
of windage above decks. A long- often when turning to port going your handling skills until you are
keeled boat with its rudder hung on ahead or astern. fully proficient at turning the boat
the back of the keel is usually difficult When motoring astern, remember in tight spaces. Even then, always
to steer when going astern. In some that the effect of moving the tiller is plan for the unexpected, and have
cases, it may be impossible to get such reversed: the bow will swing in the an anchor and sails ready for
a boat to go astern in a straight line. direction in which the tiller is moved, instant use.
It is important to know your
boat’s limitations so that you can
plan your maneuvers to avoid such
TURNING UNDER POWER
situations. The effect of wind on the Turning in a confined space is usually the most difficult maneuver under
boat can also help or hinder your power. Unless you have the space to execute a power turn with the helm
maneuvers. A wind blowing from hard over, you will need to use your slow-speed handling skills and any
the side tends to push a boat’s bow
wind effects to help you turn safely under full control. Prop walk can be
very helpful for this kind of maneuver.
downwind when moving at slow
speed. If this effect counteracts the Prop walk
effect of prop walk, you may be able If the stern moves to port under prop walk when you go astern, start your
to reverse in a straight line. If the turn to starboard. Put the tiller hard over to port and hold it there. Power the
wind contributes to the prop walk engine for a few seconds to start the boat turning. With the rudder hard over,
effect, you will not be able to stop the the water pushed by the propeller is deflected by the rudder. This makes the stern
bow from turning rapidly downwind. move in the opposite direction. Shift to neutral when the boat moves forward.
Reverse and give another burst of power, keeping the tiller hard over to port. Prop
walk in reverse moves the stern to port. As the boat moves astern, shift into
Steering under power forward gear and give another burst of power.
Many modern fin-keeled cruisers,
especially those with a spade rudder,
steer astern well, even at slow speeds. Reverse gear Forward gear
If you are steering this type of boat Give a burst Engage forward

using a tiller, however, beware when astern to stop 2 gear, keeping the
the boat and rudder hard over
motoring quickly astern. The forces use prop walk
on the rudder can be strong and will to turn

be transmitted to the tiller. Unless 3

you hold it firmly and avoid large Reverse gear
Give another burst
movements, the tiller may be
wrenched from your grasp and swing
1 astern to stop forward
movement and
continue the turn
violently to one side. If this happens,
the boat will turn rapidly, and you Forward gear 4
may get trapped by the tiller unless Put the rudder
hard over and
you stand clear of its end. start the turn Motor away
You will be using the engine to The turn is complete;
center the rudder
maneuver in confined spaces, so you and motor away
must learn how your boat behaves in Prop wash
Water disturbance shows
different conditions. Experiment in a the direction of prop wash 5
stretch of clear water to find out how
it handles. Try steering in a straight
turning with prop walk
line astern at different speeds, check Use alternating ahead and astern bursts of power from the engine to turn, with the
the extent of prop walk, and see how tiller held hard over. The aim is to use the propeller thrust to turn without moving
tight a turning circle you can achieve the boat forward or backward significantly.
under full power, half power, and at
 CRUISER SAILING
242

HANDLING UNDER SAIL

The handling characteristics of a cruiser depend on a number of Take note of how far you have
factors, including its hull and keel shape and its rig configuration. traveled before you lose rudder
control and the boat comes to a
Every class and design of cruiser is different and will behave in its complete standstill. You should
own particular way under sail and power. The differences are repeat these exercises with a range
apparent when you are sailing or motoring at normal speed, but of starting speeds and in different
wind and sea conditions to build
they are much more obvious when it comes to handling the boat
up a complete picture of your
at slow speeds and in confined spaces, such as when entering or boat’s behavior.
leaving harbor or berthing. It is these occasions that usually cause
the most difficulty for inexperienced skippers and crews. The only Mainsail alone
Once you have explored how
way to become fully proficient in handling your boat is to learn your boat stops and drifts, hoist the
how it behaves at all speeds, including when you are sailing and mainsail alone and try sailing on all
motoring very slowly. points of sailing. How well or badly
your boat sails with only the mainsail
will depend on the rig configuration
Drifting characteristics boat moves through the water. Next, and the underwater hull shape. Many
To start learning about your boat, check to see how quickly your boat modern cruisers sail well under
take it to an area of clear water, will stop when put head-to-wind. mainsail alone. This is especially true
away from other boats, and see how Motor head-to-wind and put the of those with a fractional sloop rig,
it behaves when left to drift. Go out engine in neutral. The boat will which has a proportionally larger
under engine with the sails stowed. slow down and eventually stop. mainsail and relies less on the headsail
When you are clear of other boats, than a full masthead design.
put the engine into neutral, turn the You will probably find that the
boat into the wind, and let it come boat will sail downwind very easily
to a stop. Let go of the tiller and see with only the mainsail but will
how the boat behaves. The bow will perform less well on a reach or when
blow off downwind and the boat close-hauled. The lack of a headsail
will pivot around its keel until it will cause the boat to sail slowly on
takes up its natural drifting position. a reach. You will probably experience
Watch carefully to see how quickly considerable weather helm as the boat
the bow blows downwind—you will tries to turn up into the wind and you
need to know this for situations when are forced to counter this direction
you must maneuver at slow speeds. with a large amount of rudder.
Some boats will lie naturally You may find that sailing
beam-on to the wind, but most point close-hauled is even more difficult.
farther downwind. If the wind is Try tacking the boat to see if it will
strong enough, you will find that you turn through the wind and bear
can steer the boat downwind with
the windage of rig and hull giving headsail alone
steerage way. You should experiment Some well-balanced yachts will sail to
to see how broad an angle on either windward under headsail alone. Try out
side of dead downwind you can sail different sizes of sails in different wind
under bare poles and how quickly the strengths to see how your boat responds.
 243
away onto the new tack. If your
boat will tack and sail slowly to
windward under mainsail alone,
this will be helpful when you need
to sail slowly in confined spaces. Try
turning the boat in as tight a circle
as possible. You will find it easy to
luff up, especially if you pull in
the mainsheet rapidly as you start the
turn, but bearing away will be more
difficult without the headsail to assist
the maneuver. The boat will need to
be moving as fast as possible, and
you must let the mainsheet all the way
out before you try to turn, or the boat
will respond very slowly, if at all.
Being confident in your ability to
sail the boat slowly but in full control
under mainsail alone is a valuable
mainsail alone
skill. It allows you to lower the jib Knowing how your boat handles under mainsail
and clear the foredeck before picking alone can be particularly useful when dealing
up a mooring, laying an anchor, or with rough weather. Here, a small cruiser is using
coming alongside, which makes life a deep-reefed mainsail alone in heavy conditions.
much easier for the foredeck crew.

Headsail alone
Now try sailing the boat under and sea states as possible to determine of letting the boat slow down too
headsail alone. Set the largest headsail how your boat handles. What works much when trying to sail close-hauled
you can for the prevailing conditions in ideal cruising conditions may not under headsail alone. If it slows too
and put the boat on each point of work in light or strong winds or in much, the bow is likely to blow off
sailing in turn. The boat will sail well rough seas. It is far better to find this quickly downwind, and you may find
downwind and should be comfortable out in an exercise than in a situation it difficult to regain control quickly.
all the way up to a beam reach. It will where the boat’s safety depends on it.
sail more slowly on a reach than it Finally, try turning the boat in fairly Putting it all together
would with full rig and will probably tight circles under headsail alone, For most of the time when cruising,
demonstrate lee helm. Try sailing on trying different-sized headsails in turn. you will use both sails together.
a close reach and then close-hauled, The boat will bear away readily, but In a properly tuned cruiser, the
if possible, but do not be surprised if luffing up may be difficult as the turning effects of the mainsail
your boat will not respond well to headsail attempts to counteract and headsail, when correctly set,
sailing close-hauled under headsail the force of the rudder. Get the boat will counteract each other and
alone. Much will depend on the moving as fast as possible before result in a balanced helm without
amount of wind and the size of the luffing; pull in the headsail sheet significant weather helm or lee
headsail. Try changing down to a slowly, letting it shake at the luff, to helm. If the sails are trimmed
smaller headsail and see what reduce its countereffect on the rudder. properly, it should also be possible
difference that makes. Experiment You will probably not be able to turn to steer a cruiser using sail trim
with all your headsails in turn. a full circle, as the boat may not tack. alone, just as you can with a
You should repeat the exercise However, at least you will find out dinghy (pp.136–137). Experiment
with different headsail sizes in how close to the wind you can luff with sail trim to see if your boat
as many different wind strengths while still retaining control. Beware can be steered in this way.
 CRUISER SAILING
244

TACKING
The principle for tacking a cruiser is the same as for tacking a
dinghy (pp.92–95), but in practice, the maneuver has to take into
account the facts that a cruiser is much heavier, is slower to turn,
and has a lot more load on its sails and sheets than a small boat.
Tacking a larger boat takes longer than a small one and requires
a routine that will depend on the type of rig, the number of sails
to be handled, and the size of the crew that you have available.

Know your boat more prone to stopping head‑to‑wind tacking with a full crew
Each cruiser will handle slightly during the tack. Multihulls, too, are When racing, it is important to tack
differently, depending on its weight, often reluctant to tack, as the windage efficiently, and the crew must work
type of keel, hull shape, and rig type, of their topsides and cabin structure, together to sheet the sails onto the new
so it is important to get to know your combined with their very light weight tack and move themselves across the boat.
own boat’s handling characteristics. and lack of momentum, conspire to
Once you know how your boat stop the boat quickly as it turns into
handles in a range of conditions, you the wind to tack. during a tack. If you are the skipper,
will be able to tack the boat with brief the crew beforehand to avoid
confidence, knowing how to avoid Tacking procedure confusion. For example, if the boat’s
getting stuck in irons (p.95) or When tacking a cruiser, your aim is design characteristics make it difficult
stalling so that the boat sails slowly to turn the bow through the wind and to tack, you may prefer the headsail
and slides sideways after the tack. This sail the boat onto the new course with to be backed to help the bow turn
is important if you have to tack in a minimum loss of speed. You will through the wind, so be sure to brief
confined situations, such as when usually tack from a close‑hauled course the crew on how and why you want
sailing in to a harbor or approaching on one tack to a close‑hauled the jib to be handled during the tack.
a mooring or anchorage. course on the other tack while
Most production cruisers are beating to windward, but you may Slowing the turn
fin‑keeled, Bermudan sloops and, also need to tack from a reach to a The ease or difficulty the crew face
despite many other differences, they reach in other situations, such as when when handling the jib during the tack
tend to have very similar handling maneuvering in confined waters. is often dependent on how the helm
characteristics. In general, the longer The cruiser’s size and weight chooses to steer the boat through the
the keel on a cruiser, the slower it will mean that tacking will be much tack. By slowing down the turn, once
tack, so a long‑keeled traditional slower than in a dinghy. There will the bow has passed through the
cruiser can be expected to tack more also be more work for the crew wind, the helm can give the crew
slowly than a modern cruiser with a because the sails are bigger. There more time to sheet in the headsail
fin keel that is quite narrow in a fore may be more crew aboard, which before it fills with wind. If the helm
and aft direction. Different rigs also will make the job easier, but they is not careful or considerate, the boat
have different handling characteristics need guidance from the helm to may turn too far on the new tack,
and are likely to effect the way a boat coordinate their actions effectively. If and it will be more difficult for the
tacks. Cruisers with complex rigs, you are a member of the crew, make crew to sheet in the sail when it is
possibly with two masts and a sure that you know how the helm full of wind. However, holding the
bowsprit, have more windage aloft likes to perform the tack and, if you boat close to the wind after the bow
than a Bermudan rig and may be are unsure, ask how the boat handles has passed through head‑to‑wind is
 TACKING
245
difficult in some boats or conditions, this is rarely the case. Most cruisers to use its tack function to steer the
and if not done properly may sail with a couple, or a family boat through the tack while you
result in the boat ending up in irons, crew, and even if a full crew is on handle the jib sheets.
so the helm should practice the board, some may be off watch,
technique and take account of the leaving just one or two people Tacking in rough weather
boat’s particular characteristics. on deck. Sometimes there may be Sailing in strong winds and large waves
This is not a technique that will only one person in the cockpit, and adds to the risk of getting caught
work well in a light boat, such as it may be necessary to tack the in-irons and being blown back onto the
a catamaran, or when tacking in boat single-handed. old tack. Make sure to have the correct
steep waves. If the boat is steered with a tiller, sail area for the conditions so that the
In all cruisers, remember to get it is often quite easy for the helm to helm is balanced, and make sure that
the boat sailing at full speed before push the tiller to leeward and hold it the boat is moving fast before the tack.
you attempt to tack, and do not ease there with a hip or a foot while they Try to pick a flat spot between waves
the jib sheet until the sail shakes cast off the old jib sheet as the boat in which to complete the tack.
at the luff. Speed before the tack reaches head-to-wind and pull in If you sail a boat that is difficult
helps ensure you do not get stuck the new one. The task is made easier to tack, you may wish to back
in-irons, and keeping the jib sheeted if the boat is fitted with self-tailing the jib to force the bow through the
in until it loses drive will help power winches (p.233) and if the cockpit wind and onto the new tack. In this
the boat into and through the tack. is laid out so that the sheet winches case, hold the old jib sheet in until
are in reach of the helm. If the boat is the jib fills on the wrong side, then
Short-handed tacking fitted with a wheel, it is more difficult release it. The backed jib will force
Most instructions for tacking a cruiser to steer without using your hands, the boat’s bow onto the new tack,
are given assuming that a full crew but it can often be achieved. If an at which point you can release the
is available. In practice, however, autopilot is fitted, you may be able old sheet and winch in the new one.

TACKING
Prepare to tack by sailing on a close-hauled course. The skipper must make
sure the new course is clear. If there are enough crewmembers, it is best to
have one manning each jib sheet winch. Otherwise, a single crew must prepare
the new winch before releasing the old jib sheet.

1 The helm calls “ready about.” A 2 The crew calls “ready,” and the 3 When the jib blows across to the
crewmember puts two turns of the new helm, calling “lee-oh,” starts to turn new side, the new sheet is pulled in.
sheet on its winch and pulls in the slack. the boat into the tack. The crew on the When load comes on the sheet, the crew
The other crew then uncleats the working working sheet watches the luff of the takes another turn or two on the winch.
jib sheet but keeps it tight to prevent it jib, and, as it starts to flap, eases and Then the handle is inserted and the
from slipping on the winch. then releases the sheet. crew winches the sheet to trim the sail.
 CRUISER SAILING
246

JIBING
Like tacking, the principle for jibing a cruiser is the same
as for a dinghy (pp.96–99), but the different size, weight, and
handling characteristics mean that more care must be taken
and an allowance made for the much higher loads that act
on the larger boat’s sails, sheets, winches, and cleats.
staying in control
The most important part of jibing a
Know your boat power of the rudder to steer the boat. cruiser is preventing the boom from
As with tacking a cruiser (pp.244–245), Although the same procedures apply swinging across the boat out of control.
there is no substitute for knowing the to jibing a cruiser and a dinghy, a
characteristics of your boat, although cruiser has much heavier gear. It is
there is less difficulty when jibing, vital, therefore, to control the boom tries to turn, they must be ready to
since there is no danger that the boat through the jibe. Do not allow it to steer back downwind to prevent the
will stop during the maneuver. In many sweep across from one side to the boat from turning toward the wind.
ways, jibing is a simpler process than other (known as jibing all standing), Once the boom has swung across
tacking, but it can also be more violent, except in light winds. under control, the mainsheet should
especially in strong winds, and has If the headsail is poled out, the be eased rapidly to set the mainsail
inherent dangers for the crew, who pole must be removed before the jibe. at its correct angle. On all but the
must be prepared for the maneuver. The mainsheet traveler should be smallest cruisers, it is easier if a
When jibing a Bermudan sloop, cleated in the middle of its track to crewmember handles the mainsheet
you only have to deal with a mainsail prevent it from slamming along the rather than the helm, who should be
and a jib, or possibly a spinnaker or track from one side of the boat to free to concentrate on steering
gennaker (pp.254–261). But if you the other, which can be very dangerous through the jibe.
sail a ketch, yawl, or schooner (p.203), to any crewmember in its path.
you will have two boomed sails to deal When you are ready to jibe, steer Jibing in rough weather
with, and with some rig types, you onto a run and sheet in the mainsheet Jibing is easy in light winds when
may have two or more headsails to to bring the boom into the middle of the boat speed is low and the loads
handle. Whatever the rig arrangement, the boat. In small cruisers, or if you on the sails and sheets are light, but
the principle of jibing remains the are sailing a larger boat in light winds, in strong winds and rough seas, the
same, and if you have more than one sheeting in can be done by hand. maneuver becomes harder and
boomed sail, treat it as you would a However, larger boats usually have more dangerous.
normal mainsail. If you have more a mainsheet winch to handle the high Before you start a jibe in rough
than one headsail to deal with and loads. Make sure the mainsheet is weather, consider whether it is
are limited in the number of crew cleated before the jibe. Continue the necessary or whether it would be
available, jibe the largest sail first. turn slowly until the mainsail fills on safer to luff to a close reach before
the other side. Sheet the jib to the new tacking around and bearing away to
Jibing procedure side when it blows across the bow. the new course. Tacking puts less
When jibing a cruiser, your aim is In medium and strong winds, pressure on the rig than jibing in
to turn the stern through the wind the boat will try to turn to windward rough weather, but it does involve
safely and smoothly without the as soon as the mainsail is jibed. The turning into the wind and waves
wind’s causing the boat to broach out helm should anticipate this and to complete the tack.
of control (turn rapidly toward the counteract the turn by ensuring that If you decide to jibe, brief the
wind) as the steering effect of the sails the rudder is centered when the boom crew before starting the maneuver
and the heeled hull overcome the crosses the centerline. If the boat still and make certain that the person
 JIBING
247
handling the mainsheet fully the mainsail, tell the crew handling the run (p.40), you will be less at risk from
understands their task. It is important mainsheet to ease it out rapidly to set an unexpected wind shift or a wave
in strong winds to sheet the mainsail in the mainsail correctly on the new jibe. pushing you off course. Alternatively,
tight to the centerline before the The jib can be jibed either before, rig a preventer line to lock the boom
jibe, then let it run out quickly after, or at the same time as the in position and stop it from swinging
after the jibe to ease the loads on the mainsail depending on the availability across, even if the wind does get behind
rudder that will try to turn the boat of crew. If headsail roller furling is the mainsail. A preventer is a rope
to windward. Remind everyone to fitted, it can be easier to roll away the attached to the aft end of the boom,
keep their heads below the level headsail, then jibe the mainsail before led forward to a turning block on
of the boom during the jibe. unrolling the headsail on the new side. the foredeck, and back to the cockpit
Like dinghies, a cruiser will be where it can be adjusted, or released
easier to jibe when it is moving fast, Avoiding an accidental jibe quickly, if necessary, in an emergency.
since this is when the loads on the An accidental, “all standing” jibe is
rig will be least. Pick a time to jibe potentially dangerous, but when the Short-handed jibing
when the boat is on the face of a boat is on a run, quite a small wind If you have to jibe without help, take
wave, possibly surfing, and make your shift or deviation from course may your time and deal with the mainsail
steering actions positive to force the cause an unintentional jibe. You first. Sheet it in tight to the centerline,
boat to turn where you want it to can avoid this problem by not sailing turn the boat through the jibe, then
go. As soon as the boat has turned on a dead run, especially in choppy ease out the mainsheet fully on the
to bring the wind onto the new side of conditions. If you sail on a training new side. Then jibe the headsail.

JIBING
Prepare to jibe by sailing on a run. In anything but light winds, the boom
should be pulled in tight to prevent it from sweeping across the boat as you
jibe, which may cause damage or injury. On larger boats, the mainsheet is
often led to a winch and the sheet must be winched in.

1 The helm warns the crew by calling 2 While one crewmember prepares 3 The helm starts a slow turn into
“stand by to jibe.” The mainsheet is pulled the new jib sheet by taking a turn or two the jibe, calling “jibe-oh.” As the jib
in to bring the boom to the centerline. If on the winch and pulling in any slack, blows across the bow, the crew releases
the mainsheet runs on a traveler across the other uncleats the working sheet and the old sheet as the new one is pulled
the cockpit, the traveler is cleated in the prepares to release it. When the crew is in. The helm steers carefully downwind
center before the jibe. ready, they tell the helm. as the mainsail is let out on the new side.
 CRUISER SAILING
248

SAIL BALANCE
achieving better speed while heeling
less will allow the cruiser to make
faster and more comfortable
passages. Good balance can also be a
Keeping a sailing boat balanced is as important in a cruiser as distinct safety feature, since it is easier
it is in a dinghy. When a dinghy gets out of balance, it is usually to handle heavy weather in a boat
that is balanced correctly. A cruiser’s
quickly apparent as the boat heels, slows down, and develops rig and sails are tuned using the same
more weather or lee helm (p.129). The same occurs in a cruiser, principles that apply to tuning a
but, because of its greater size and weight and its relatively slow dinghy (pp.178–183). If you find it
difficult to tune your boat, ask your
response, you may find it harder to spot when the boat is not
sailmaker to sail it and advise you on
well balanced. Get to know your boat so that you understand any changes that may be required to
the best sail trim for all conditions. mast rake, mast bend, and sail shape.

Weather and lee helm

Boat tuning and exhibit much less weather helm Most yachts have a degree of weather
Many cruising sailors think that than a boat whose owner has not helm, but it should never become so
boat tuning is only of interest to taken the trouble to ensure that the great as to require large angles of
racing sailors. Nothing could be rig and sails are working in harmony. rudder deflection to keep the boat
further from the truth. A well-tuned While ultimate speed is not the on course. Similarly, lee helm should
cruising boat will sail faster, heel less, cruising sailor’s main objective, not be permitted, as it makes it very

good sail balance

This cruiser is sailing fast with little
heel while close-hauled in moderate
to strong winds. The mainsail
has been reefed and sail balance
has been maintained by partly
furling the roller-reefing headsail.
 249

bearing away
The crew is using the sails correctly
to help the boat bear away
smoothly without heeling. A crew
lets out the mainsheet as the helm
bears away, while the headsail is
kept full to assist the turn.

difficult to keep the boat on course

and can be dangerous. If the boat HEAVING-TO
has lee helm and the wheel or tiller is Heaving-to can be a very useful technique in a cruiser. You can heave-to to
released for any reason, the boat will stop the boat in order to prepare and eat a meal in comfort or to take in a
bear away and keep sailing, possibly reef if the wind strength increases. Heaving-to is also often a good tactic
accelerating as it does so, rather than for riding out rough weather.
turning head-to-wind and stopping How to heave-to
as it should. This can lead to The procedure for heaving-to in
Heave-to by
backing the
accidents and should be avoided. cruisers is the same as that for headsail to
Try your boat on a close-hauled dinghies (p.102)—tack the main, windward
course in a good Force 3–4 breeze. but don’t touch the headsail or its
With the boat sailing properly to working sheet; finally, lash the tiller
windward, there should be a small to leeward. This arrangement balances
the actions of the sails and rudder.
amount of weather helm. If there is
Traditional long-keeled craft often
too much weather helm or, worse heave-to very well, typically lying with
still, lee helm, you must tune your the wind between 45 and 60 degrees
boat to get the desired balance. off the bow. Modern cruisers, with
shallower hulls and shorter keels, do
Turning forces not always heave-to so steadily, but
The sails on a cruiser create you should be able to achieve an
angle of about 60 degrees off the
exactly the same turning forces as
wind. Experiment with your boat
they do on a dinghy (pp.80–83), but and try different combinations of
many cruising sailors fail to use (or mainsail and rudder position. A
to make allowances for) the effects typical arrangement has the jib
of these forces. Instead, they rely sheeted hard aback, with the mainsail
solely on the rudder to turn the boat. eased slightly, and the tiller lashed to hove-to
This can lead to loss of control in leeward. If the boat will not lie close A cruiser is hove-to by tacking while
to the wind, try using a smaller leaving the headsail sheet cleated on
strong winds. Therefore, you should
headsail. A boat hove-to drifts at the old side. The tiller should be lashed to
always remember to use the sails to between 90 and 135 degrees to the leeward (or the wheel lashed to windward)
assist you when altering course. This wind direction, but it will lie much so that if the boat does try to sail, it will
is especially important when bearing more quietly than if it were sailing. turn toward the wind and stop.
away in strong winds.
 CRUISER SAILING
250

REDUCING SAIL AREA

For all sailing boats, there is a certain wind strength in beyond about 20 degrees of heel, so
which the boat is fully powered up. Beyond this optimum you should reef earlier than you might
if sailing a more traditional design.
wind speed, the boat will be overpowered, will heel excessively, Get to know your boat’s sailing
slow down, and be harder to steer. The wind speed at which this characteristics and how it behaves
overpowering occurs varies according to boat type, size, rig, and in rough weather so that you can
reduce sail in good time before the
keel shape. It also depends on sea conditions and air temperature.
boat starts to struggle.
Cold air is heavier and exerts more force on the sails, and rough
seas throw the boat around and make it harder to steer. Shorten sail early
The easiest time to reef the mainsail or
to change to a smaller headsail is before
Know your boat Whether a boat can cope with a lot you leave your berth. Before any trip,
Novices often think that a boat that of heel depends predominantly on remember to get an up-to-date forecast
is heeled sharply over, throwing lots its hull shape. A relatively narrow, just before departure. If conditions
of spray across the decks, naturally moderate, or heavy displacement appear borderline for reefing your boat,
sails faster than a boat that is more yacht (pp.200–203) with a long keel it is good seamanship to reef before
upright. In fact, most modern boats will sail to windward well heeled and leaving harbor rather than wait until
sail faster if they are sailed as upright will be comfortable with the lee rail you are at sea to assess the conditions.
as possible and will slow down if down to the water. On the other Remember, it is much easier to
they are allowed to heel too much. hand, the majority of modern mass- take in a reef while still in sheltered
Excessive heeling also makes it produced cruising boats are relatively water than when the boat is heeled
much harder to steer, as weather wide, light or moderate displacement and pitching in a rough sea. If, when
helm increases to the point, in some designs and are better sailed much you reach open water, conditions are
boats, where it can be difficult or even more upright. Such boats will become not as rough as you expected, it is
impossible to hold the boat on course. increasingly uncomfortable if pressed easier to shake out (take out) a reef
than to put one in while being buffeted
by wind as you try to leave harbor.
If you are at sea and the wind
sailing in rough weather
In high winds and large seas, a yacht starts to strengthen, take in a reef or
should be reefed sufficiently to allow change to a smaller headsail as soon
it to sail efficiently and comfortably. as you think it may be needed. It is
very natural to delay the task in the
hope that it will not be necessary, but
this very often proves to be wishful
thinking. Any delay will give time for
the conditions to deteriorate further,
which will make it harder to do the job
when you finally decide it must be done.
Another time when you should
reef early is if night is falling and you
suspect conditions will worsen. In
this case, it is much easier to reef
in daylight than to have to complete
the job in the dark.
 REDUCING SAIL AREA
251
Maintaining balance balance between the area of the reduced too much in proportion to
When it becomes necessary to reduce mainsail and the jib. The pivot point the jib, the opposite will occur. The
sail, it is very important that you do of most sailboats is just behind the boat will develop lee helm and will
so in a way that maintains the mast, and your aim should be to try to turn away from the wind.
reduce the sail areas in front of Most boats handle best if the jib
and behind the mast in proportion is reefed first as the boat becomes
reefing both sails
to each other. If the jib is reduced overpressed. If the wind continues to
Many modern cruisers are rigged with
a roller-reefing headsail and a fully too much in proportion to the increase, the next step is to take the
battened mainsail. The first step mainsail, the sailplan will not be first reef in the mainsail. Continue
when reefing is usually to roll away balanced and the boat will develop a to reef both sails as necessary to
some of the headsail before taking a lot of weather helm and tend to turn maintain the balance between them
reef in the mainsail. toward the wind. If the mainsail is as the wind increases.

Headsail
rolled as far as
practical—if
Mainsail further reduction
with one is needed, hoist
Headsail is Mainsail with
Full mainsail slab reef storm jib
Full-size rolled up a two slab reefs
headsail few turns taken in

Loose sail is
First slab usually tidied up
is often with a lacing line
left loose at this stage

UNREEFED FIRST REEF SECOND REEF

Storm sails roller headsail, onto a specially rigged

Storm jib rigged Roller
Cruising boats that make long stay just aft of the furled jib on the on removable headsail
passages should carry separate forestay. You should practice rigging inner forestay furled on
forestay or
storm sails that can be used when the trysail and storm jib in calm removed
conditions go beyond those for which conditions to be sure that everything Trysail rigged in from stay
your normal sails are designed. Storm works and that you understand how place of mainsail

sails are much smaller and tougher to set them efficiently before you
than normal sails. They are made of need to use them in earnest in gale- Mainsail stowed
heavier cloth (which is usually orange or storm-force winds. on boom

for high visibility) with additional

Twin sheets
reinforcement and seam stitching. led to each
trysail and storm jib
A small triangular sail called a quarter,
An offshore cruising boat should always then to
trysail is set in place of the mainsail, winches
carry sails designed for storm conditions.
which is stowed on the boom. The A small trysail replaces the mainsail, while
trysail is usually set loose-footed with a storm jib is set on the forestay or on a
two sheets led to blocks on each removable stay if the forestay has a roller
quarter. A small storm jib is hanked jib. Both sails are made from orange cloth
to the forestay or, on a boat with a so the boat can be seen easily.
 CRUISER SAILING
252
Reducing headsail size is required). Nevertheless, many To change a hanked-on headsail, the
How you reduce headsail area coastal cruising sailors choose to old sail is lowered, unhanked from
depends on the type of headsail sail with this equipment because of the forestay, and the sheets removed
system on your boat. If you sail the ease with which the sail can be from its clew. The old sail is stowed
with a roller-reefing headsail, you reefed and furled on the forestay. away in its bag and moved below,
simply need to take a few rolls in the and the new sail is attached and
sail by easing the sheet and pulling Changing headsails hoisted in the normal way.
in on the furling line. When sufficient The alternative to a roller-reefing Changing a hanked-on headsail
sail has been rolled away, the furling system is to have a number of requires at least one crew member
line is cleated and the sail sheeted in headsails of various sizes to suit to go forward and work on the
again. The main problem with this different wind strengths. Each jib foredeck, which will be wet and
system is that it rarely results in a is hanked onto the forestay when in moving very violently in rough
well-setting sail once a few rolls have use. If you plan to sail far offshore weather. The job is made easier
been taken in. Roller-reefed headsails or expect to have to deal with rough if two crew are available to work
usually develop a baggy shape that weather on a regular basis, this together. One works at the mast
makes them inefficient when sailing system offers the advantages of handling the halyard and changing
to windward and adds to the heeling being simple, efficient, and less the sheets, while the other works
forces (which is the opposite of what prone to equipment failure. at the forestay.

MAINSAIL SLAB REEFING

Slab reefing is a common system on
production boats. If the reefing gear
is properly organized, reefing should
be quick and easy. In many boats,
reefing can be carried out from the
cockpit. In this case, each reef has
luff and leech reefing lines led back
to a cockpit winch. In some systems,
a single line system is used for the
first and second reefs. This system
connects the luff and leech lines to
1 First, ease the mainsheet to spill all 2 Ease the halyard to bring the first reef
the wind from the mainsail. Then ease the down to boom level. Pull the luff reef cringle
an adjusting tackle within the boom. boom vang. Take the weight of the boom down to the boom by using a reef line or
Both can then be tightened or on the topping lift, unless you have a solid by hooking it under a ram’s horn at the
released by adjusting a single line. vang that will safely support the boom. gooseneck, and tighten the halyard.

3 Pull the leech reef line tight to pull 4 Keep winching in the leech reefing line 5 There is now a fold of sail hanging
the leech cringle down and out toward until the reef cringle is pulled down tightly down along the length of the boom. This
the boom end. There must be no wind to the boom. Release the topping lift, trim can be left free or tidied into a neat roll
in the sail while doing this, and the vang the mainsheet, and tighten the vang. Check and secured by a light line laced through
must be loose or the sail may tear. that the halyard tension is sufficient. the reef cringles from leech to luff.
 REDUCING SAIL AREA
253
If you are sailing upwind when you bring the boat upright and reduce
need to change a headsail, you should the strength of the apparent wind. The REEFING HEADSAILS
slow the boat down to make the crew going forward should always Some jibs designed for heavy
task easier and safer before you send move along the windward sidedeck weather have a row of reef
someone forward. This can be done and be clipped on. Drag the sailbag points so that they can be
by easing the sails, heaving-to, or by rather than carry it and brace yourself reduced in size quickly and easily.
altering course downwind, which will securely before starting the job. To reduce their area, the sail is
partly lowered, the new tack
is attached to the bow, the
MAINSAIL REEFING sheets are moved to the new
A mainsail has to be able to work as efficiently as possible in a wide range clew, and the sail is rehoisted.
of conditions, from no wind to a full gale. This is achieved by reefing it as
the wind strength increases. There are a number of reefing systems
available; the most popular on modern boats is slab reefing (below). An
alternative is roller reefing where the mainsail is rolled around the boom,
or its modern version where the sail is rolled up around a tube inside the
boom. Another system is in-mast roller reefing where the sail rolls around
a tube inside the mast. Here, the mainsail is loose-footed with the clew Area of sail Upper tack,
attached to a car running in the top of the boom. The mainsail is often cut to be reefed clew, and
with a hollow leech so that it does not require battens. An alternative reef points
arrangement is to use vertical battens.

Second reef
First reef taken
slab is usually
Modern slab in—slab is
tidied with a
reefing is often left loose
lacing line
used on fully
battened sails
unreefed
A reefing headsail is made slightly
heavier and stronger than a normal
sail of the same size but is set in the
SLAB REEFING usual way if unreefed.

Battens that
Short battens The amount might be
Line furls New tack
must be used reefed can vary rolled into the
middle of sail attached
for in-boom from one to boom must be
to stem
roller reefing several rolls parallel to it
Sheets
attached to
new clew

ROLLER REEFING

The sail is
If battens are used,
rolled around
they must be vertical The amount
a tube inside
reefed can vary
the mast
from one to
several rolls
Sail must be
reefed
loose-footed
When reefed, the upper tack and clew
fittings are used. The bundle of loose sail
along the foot is laced with a light line.
IN-MAST ROLLER REEFING
 CRUISER SAILING
254

INCREASING SAIL AREA

The modern Bermudan sloop is the most efficient rig upwind, downwind sails to choose from to
but it tends to be underpowered downwind in light and moderate improve performance at varying
costs and levels of complexity.
breezes. In these conditions, it is necessary to increase the sail area to
maintain a reasonable performance. This can be achieved by hoisting Spinnakers
a special downwind sail, such as a conventional or asymmetric A spinnaker is the traditional,
light-air, downwind sail used on
spinnaker or a gennaker (sometimes called a cruising chute).
Bermudan-rigged racing boats and
many cruisers. It is essentially the
same as a dinghy or small keelboat
DOWNWIND SAILS spinnaker but will be bigger, more
powerful, and made of heavier
In light to moderate breezes, the the Bermudan rig is the most sailcloth. There is a range of
modern Bermudan rig is not very efficient on upwind courses, sail shapes, cloth weights, and
efficient downwind. In fact, gaff- sailing a Bermudan-rigged cruiser construction methods available
rigged cruisers often perform better downwind in light conditions can depending on the type of boat,
downwind and even on reaching be frustrating unless one or more whether the sail is for racing
courses, as the gaff rig allows more special sails are carried to improve or cruising, and the wind strength
sail to be carried for a given boat performance. Fortunately, there in which the sail will be used.
length and mast height. Although are several types of light-air and Many cruisers have a single,
general-purpose spinnaker (usually
a tri-radial sail; pp.146–157), used
when reaching or running. For light
spinnaker
A spinnaker adds considerably weather, some cruisers also carry
to the sail area of a Bermudan a lighter crosscut or radial headsail.
sloop and increases the boat Cruiser-racers carry a number of
speed on downwind courses. different spinnakers for running or
reaching in various wind strengths.
These sails are built to work in
a certain maximum apparent wind
strength, so care should be taken to
select an appropriate sail for the wind
strength to avoid an expensive repair.

Asymmetrics
Some modern, fast cruisers follow
the lead of high-performance
dinghies and small keelboats and
use asymmetric spinnakers. An
asymmetric does not use a spinnaker
pole, but requires a bowsprit—often
made of carbon fiber for lightness—
to hold the sail’s tack ahead of
the bow. The bowsprit is usually
extended and retracted by control
 INCREASING SAIL AREA : DOWNWIND SAILS
255

asymmetric gennaker topsail

Some fast cruisers use an asymmetric A gennaker is smaller than an asymmetric A gaff-rigged cruiser can increase sail area
spinnaker with a retractable bowsprit, and does not require a bowsprit. It by hoisting a topsail to fit in between the
just like a high-performance dinghy or is easier to handle than a spinnaker but is yard and the topmast. Some also carry
sportsboat. This offers good performance less efficient, especially on a run. It is the a downwind foresail, called a balloon jib,
without the complexity of a spinnaker. favorite choice of many cruiser sailors. which can be flown from a pole, as here.

lines. The lack of a pole makes as a headsail. It is not usually as A conventional spinnaker can be used
an asymmetric much easier to use large or as powerful, however, and is on reaching courses but is harder to
than a conventional spinnaker. An attached at the tack to the bow-fitting handle and cannot usually be flown
asymmetric uses two sheets, like rather than to a bowsprit. This makes above a beam reach, and then only
a headsail, but the lazy sheet is led it easy to use. However, a gennaker in light winds. An asymmetric or a
around the forestay rather than is inefficient on a dead run, as it is gennaker can be flown more easily
between the stay and the mast. blanketed behind the mainsail. To on a reach and will usually suffice for
An asymmetric is efficient on overcome this, the gennaker’s clew can most cruisers, but a specialist reacher
a beam or broad reach but less so be held out to windward with a pole. can still be a good addition to the sail
on a dead run, because it falls into wardrobe for a long-distance cruiser.
the wind shadow of the mainsail. Reachers
Cruiser-racers that use an asymmetric A reacher is a light sail designed for Sails for other rigs
tend not to sail dead downwind. use on courses between a close reach Although the Bermudan sloop is
Their light weight and surfing and a broad reach. Jibs and genoas the most common rig, other rigs
ability make it far more effective are designed primarily for good can also increase their sail area in
to sail downwind on a series of performance on upwind courses light winds. Gaff-rigged cruisers often
broad reaches in most conditions, and are less efficient on reaching hoist a topsail above the mainsail
which is easily achieved as jibing courses, especially in light winds. and may also carry a lightweight
(pp.260–261) is much easier than By comparison, a reacher is usually reacher. Ketches, yawls, and
with a spinnaker and pole. made from much lighter cloth and schooners (p.203) can utilize both
has a fuller shape. It is usually flown masts to hoist various offwind sails
Gennakers loose-luffed, attached only by its and often carry a large reaching
Like an asymmetric spinnaker, a head (to the halyard) and tack (to sail between the two masts in
gennaker does not use a spinnaker the bow), but versions that hank addition to a spinnaker, asymmetric,
pole and is sheeted in the same way to the forestay can be easier to handle. gennaker, or reacher at the bow.
 CRUISER SAILING
256
ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT
All downwind sails require some cruisers, twin sheets and guys are the head, and two sheets are tied
additional equipment, even if it is used, with one pair rigged on each to the clew. The sheets are led outside
only a halyard to hoist them and side. Only one pair is used at any one everything to turning blocks located
sheets to trim them. A conventional time. The windward guy leads from near the stern on each side deck.
spinnaker requires the most complex the tack, through the pole end, then From the blocks, the sheets lead
arrangement, with the asymmetric through a block ahead of the cockpit, forward to cockpit winches for
spinnaker and gennaker requiring and to a winch. The leeward sheet adjustment. The sheets of a gennaker
much less equipment. Reaching sails runs from the clew through a block usually pass between the mast and
require the least, as they can often be at the stern and onto a winch. the forestay (below).
hoisted on a jib or spinnaker halyard An asymmetric has an
and only need a single sheet. Asymmetric and arrangement similar to a gennaker’s,
gennaker equipment except that its tack is usually held
Spinnaker equipment The equipment required by an out ahead of the boat by a retractable
A conventional spinnaker is flown asymmetric spinnaker or a gennaker bowsprit. The bowsprit is pulled in
from a spinnaker pole attached to is much simpler than a conventional and out by two control lines and a
a bracket on the mast. The height spinnaker. The gennaker has the tack line usually runs through the
of the pole’s outer end is controlled simplest system. Here, the sail’s pole and exits at its end. It is attached
by an uphaul and downhaul or an tack is attached by a rope strop to to the asymmetric’s tack and is used to
uphaul and foreguy (p.258). the headsail’s tack fitting or to the pull the tack out to the end of the
The spinnaker is controlled by a anchor roller on the bow fitting. One pole. The sheets of an asymmetric are
sheet attached to its clew and a guy end of the strop can be tied or spliced led the same as on a gennaker, except
attached to its tack. The guy is led to the gennaker’s tack while the that they must pass around the
through the end of the spinnaker pole other is usually tied or spliced to forestay and not between the forestay
and controls how far forward or aft a quick-release snap shackle. A and the mast. They may also have to
the pole is set. Except on small spinnaker halyard is attached to pass around the sail’s luff (below).

Lazy sheet may be Gennaker tack

led outside the attached to bow
bowsprit when the
space between
the sail’s luff
Fore guy and the forestay
is insufficient to
jibe the sail
Sheet Uphaul

Sheet Lazy sheet

Guy
Sheet
Lazy guy
Lazy sheet
Lazy sheet

spinnaker equipment asymmetric equipment gennaker equipment

A spinnaker requires a pole with uphaul An asymmetric is usually flown from a A gennaker has its tack attached to
and downhaul and a sheet and a guy that retractable bowsprit and has two sheets the bow and is controlled by two sheets
may be duplicated on each side. that are led to winches in the cockpit. that are led to winches in the cockpit.
 INCREASING SAIL AREA : ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT
257
Packing a spinnaker corner temporarily to hold it free from the head. The objective is to
The key to trouble-free spinnaker of the bulk of the sail. Now follow gather the sail into a long sausage
hoisting is a well-packed sail. Any along the foot tape to find the between the head and the two clews.
twists, tangles, or misidentification third corner and fasten it with If using yarn, start at the head and
of the clew, tack, and head while the previous corner. work toward the foot, tying a
packing will cause problems when If the boat and spinnaker are length of yarn around the sausage
the sail is hoisted. small, the sail can now be packed at regular intervals. An easier way
Unless the sail is hoisted in a sock into its bag, starting with the bulk is to use a bucket with the bottom
(below), it will be packed in a bag or of the middle of the sail between cut off. Slip a number of elastic
“turtle.” The best place to pack the the head and the clews. Push the bands over the bucket, then pull
spinnaker into its bag is down below sail into the bag until only the three the sail through the bucket, starting
where it cannot be caught by a gust corners remain outside it. Keeping at the head. At regular intervals,
of wind. Because the spinnaker is the the corners correctly oriented slide an elastic band off the bucket
biggest sail on board, it will usually to each other, tie them together and around the sail.
require the full length of the interior with the tapes inside the bag and With the spinnaker gathered
to lay out and pack it. fasten the bag’s lid over the sail. into a long sausage, pack it into its
Identify the head of the sail, If the boat is larger than about bag, starting in the middle of the
pull it out to one end of the interior, 33 ft (10 m), the sail’s size will make sausage so that the head and two
and temporarily fasten it to any it difficult to pack this way without clews are the last part of the sail
convenient fitting to hold it in place. creating a twist in the sail. In this packed into the bag. Secure with
From the head, work down one case, the sail is best “stopped” with tapes as before to hold the three
luff tape until you reach one of yarn or elastic bands at intervals of corners in their correct orientation
the bottom corners. Fasten that about 6.5 ft (2 m) working down to each other.

USING A SOCK The sock’s

mouth is pulled
The trick to handling all lightweight, downwind sails is to keep them up and down by
under full control during hoisting and lowering. The easiest way to control lines

do this on a short-handed cruising boat is to use a sock. This is a

lightweight nylon tube with a bell-shaped opening at the lower
end and two light control lines to pull the bell up and down. The
sock can be used with a conventional spinnaker, an asymmetric
spinnaker, or a gennaker. The sock covers the sail during hoisting
and lowering, being pulled up out of the way when the sail is set.

Hoisting with a sock

With the sail stowed in its sock, asymmetric, or gennaker in the
the top of the sock is attached lee of the mainsail. To collapse the
to the halyard, and the sail’s sheets sail, ease the guy of a spinnaker,
and guys are rigged. The head of the tack line on an asymmetric
the sock is then hoisted to the spinnaker, or the sheet on a
masthead. When the halyard has gennaker. Then pull the sock down
been cleated, pull the sock up clear using the sock’s downhaul until it using a sock
of the sail using its uphaul and encases the sail. Once all of the sail A sock makes it far easier to hoist and lower
set the sail in the normal way. is in the sock, lower the halyard any downwind sail because the sail is held
and gather the sock tube onto the under control inside the sock during these
Lowering with a sock foredeck. Remove and stow the tricky procedures. Make sure that the sail is
To lower the sail, first steer onto sheets, guys, and halyard. The sock fastened firmly to the top of the sock and fit
a broad reach and hoist the headsail. is stowed with the sail left inside a swivel between the sock and the halyard
The aim is to collapse the spinnaker, it ready for use. to prevent the sock from twisting in use.
 CRUISER SAILING
258
HOISTING AND TRIMMING
Before hoisting a downwind sail, Preparing an asymmetric the clew can be reached and the sheet
its sheets must be rigged and other spinnaker or gennaker tied on. If the lazy sheet is rigged, it
equipment prepared for use. In the If the sail is to be hoisted from a bag, is led forward and around the front
case of a spinnaker, the pole must fasten the bag to the pulpit or the of the forestay then back, outside
be set and the sheets and guys led, leeward guardrail. Pull the tack out everything to its turning block and onto
outside everything, through their of the bag and attach it to a tack line a winch. On some boats, it is easier
respective turning blocks and to their from the stem fitting (for a gennaker) to jibe the gennaker or asymmetric if
winches. If a retractable bowsprit is or to the tack line from the end of the lazy sheet is led around the sail’s
used with an asymmetric spinnaker, the bowsprit (for an asymmetric). If a luff, as well as the forestay.
it must be extended and the tack retractable bowsprit is used, this must
line and sheets attached to the sail. be extended before the sail is hoisted. Hoisting the sail
Attach the leeward sheet, which When all is ready, the sail can be
Rigging a spinnaker pole will be the working sheet when the hoisted. The helmsman should sail on
The spinnaker pole should be rigged sail is hoisted, and lead it outside a broad reach during the hoist to keep
before the sail is hoisted. Attach the everything to a turning block on the the sail in the lee of the mainsail. Aim
pole’s inner end to the mast fitting, sidedeck near the stern, then to a to get the sail to the masthead (or
then attach the uphaul and downhaul winch. If it is not intended to jibe, it hounds on a fractional rig) quickly
to the pole’s outer end. Place the is not necessary to attach a windward, and the halyard cleated before the sail
working guy—the one on the side lazy sheet. If it is required later, it can can fill with wind. Trim the sheet to
opposite the main boom—into the be attached while the sail is flying by fill the sail, then neaten up the halyard
pole’s outer end fitting, and hoist sheeting in on the leeward sheet until tail and lower or furl the headsail.
the pole into a horizontal position
with the uphaul so it projects on
the side opposite the main boom. Uphaul Tack
The uphaul controls the angle of the pole;
Preparing a spinnaker it runs into the mast and then down and
aft to the cockpit for adjustment
When you are ready to hoist the
spinnaker, attach its bag to the pulpit
or to the leeward guardrail. Unfasten
the top of the bag, then attach the
Bracket Piston-release line Foreguy
halyard to the head of the sail. The pole is attached to Running the length of Once the pole is set,
If your sail uses twin sheets and a mast bracket, which the pole, the release line the foreguy holds it
can be adjusted for operates both plungers from down and forward.
guys, fasten a guy to each clew height on a track. It is inboard, allowing the pole Like the uphaul, it is
and a sheet to each guy shackle often locked in place and the guy to be released led back to the cockpit
by a thumbscrew when required for adjustment
(not to the clews). When the sail
is hoisted, its windward sheet and Guy
leeward guy are left slack, or “lazy,” The windward guy controls the spinnaker pole‘s angle
to the wind. It is usually led through a block on the rail
while the sail is controlled by the near the middle of the boat, then to a winch in the cockpit
“working” guy to windward and
spinnaker pole
the “working” sheet to leeward. If
The spinnaker pole holds the sail’s tack clear Lazy sheet
your sail uses a dinghy-type system of the boat on the windward side. It is held by The windward sheet is left slack
with a single guy and sheet, attach an uphaul and a foreguy. The inner end fits onto (as is the leeward guy) and is
them to the tack and clew, respectively. a mast bracket, which may slide on a track. A called the lazy sheet. The sheet
and lazy sheet are usually led
If your sail is fitted with a sock piston-release line allows a crewmember standing through a block near each quarter
(p.257), attach the halyard, sheet, at the mast to release the guy from the pole. and then to a cockpit winch
and guy with the sail in its tube.
 INCREASING SAIL AREA : HOISTING AND TRIMMING
259
HOISTING A SPINNAKER 1 Attach the 2 Attach the
Steer onto a broad reach with the spinnaker bag to halyard to the
headsail still hoisted. Then hoist the pulpit (as here) head of the sail
the sail and cleat its halyard. Pull the or to the leeward and a sheet and
guy to get the clew to the pole end, guardrail if more guy to both clews.
but leave the sheet slack. Then trim convenient. Fasten Check that the
the guy to set the pole at right angles the bag in position sheets and guys
to the apparent wind. Then cleat the with its straps and are led correctly
guy and trim the sheet to fill the sail. open its top. and run freely.

3 Rig the 4 Pull the 5 Once the

spinnaker pole halyard to hoist spinnaker is
with the windward the sail to the hoisted and
guy led through masthead as sheeted, furl
the end of the quickly as possible. or lower the
pole, and make Pull the guy headsail. Stow
sure the halyard to bring the it ready to be
is clear. clew tight to hoisted again
the pole end. when needed.

TRIMMING DOWNWIND SAILS

The secret to trimming all downwind sails is to ease the and only the sheet needs adjusting. A conventional
sheet as much as possible without collapsing the luff spinnaker is more complex, as the guy and sheet,
of the sail. With a gennaker or an asymmetric spinnaker, together with the pole uphaul and downhaul, must
the tack is fixed to the bow or to the end of a bowsprit, be adjusted to trim the sail.

Adjusting the halyard the apparent wind, cleat the guy, Playing the sheet
The halyard of a conventional tighten the foreguy, and use the sheet For maximum performance, the
spinnaker should be hoisted as high to trim the sail. If the apparent wind sheet on all downwind sails should
as possible to prevent the sail from moves forward or aft, adjust the be adjusted constantly to keep the
oscillating from side to side, but pole angle to match. sail eased as much as possible
the halyard of an asymmetric or a without collapsing. Most well-cut
gennaker may need to be eased to Adjusting the pole height downwind sails can be eased until they
allow the sail to fly with the correct In light winds, a spinnaker pole curl at the luff, indicating the sail is
shape in its luff. Experiment with must be lowered to keep the clews perfectly trimmed. You should still be
the halyard setting in various wind level. As the wind increases, the free able to ease more sheet before the sail
strengths and ask your sail-maker clew will rise under wind pressure. collapses. If it does collapse, it will
for advice if necessary. The outer end of the pole should be be necessary to pull the sheet in quite
raised to lift the tack of the sail until vigorously before the sail fills again.
Adjusting the pole angle it is level with the clew. If the mast Once the sail has filled, ease out most
With a conventional spinnaker, end of the pole can be raised and of the sheet you have just pulled in.
the pole is trimmed aft by easing the lowered, usually by sliding its fitting Unless you do this, the sail will be
foreguy and pulling on the guy, and on a track, adjust it to keep the pole overtrimmed and the boat will slow
trimmed forward by easing the guy horizontal so it has maximum down, heel more, and be harder to
and pulling on the foreguy. Trim the projection from the mast. If you steer, which could possibly lead to a
guy to set the pole just forward of sail with an asymmetric, you will broach in stronger winds (p.261). In
a position at right angles to the not have to adjust a pole, but will most situations, a cruiser’s crew will
apparent wind. Check the apparent have to extend and retract a bowsprit. not wish to constantly play the sheet
wind direction by looking at the Since a gennaker does not require a of the downwind sail. In this case, the
masthead wind vane or burgee. pole or a bowsprit, there is nothing to sheet should be slightly overtrimmed
With the pole set at right angles to adjust except the halyard and sheet. and then cleated.
 CRUISER SAILING
260
JIBING AND LOWERING
When a jibe is required, downwind DIP-POLE SPINNAKER JIBE
sails must be changed from one side It is important that both the
to the other. The technique used to spinnaker and the pole are kept
do this varies, depending on the under full control throughout the
type of downwind sail being used. maneuver. During a dip-pole jibe,
the inner end of the pole remains
attached to the mast, while the outer
Jibing a gennaker or
end is released from the old guy,
asymmetric spinnaker
lowered so that it can be “dipped”
Jibing a gennaker or an asymmetric inside the forestay, attached to the
spinnaker is quite easy, as both are new guy, and hoisted up to its
controlled by two sheets just like a horizontal position on the new
headsail. The lazy, windward sheet side. Depending on the particular
of the gennaker leads from the clew arrangement, the inner end may 1 The foredeck crew releases the
old guy from the pole end by pulling
forward around the back of the sail have to be raised up the mast on its the piston-release line. The inner end of the
and around its luff and the forestay, track temporarily to allow the outer pole is raised and the uphaul eased to drop
and back to its fairlead and winch. end to dip inside the forestay. the outer end of the pole inside the forestay.
An asymmetric’s windward
sheet can be rigged in the same way,
or it can lead inside the sail’s luff
(but outside the forestay), in which
case it will jibe inside its luff (like a
headsail) rather than outside it. In
either case, the sail is jibed by easing
the old sheet as the boat jibes and
pulling in the new one. Where an
asymmetric has to pass between its
luff and the forestay, the new sheet
should be pulled in as much as
possible before the old one is eased.
2 The foredeck crew takes a bight of 3 The inner end of the pole is now
the old lazy guy forward, guides the pole lowered to its normal position and the
end inside the forestay, and clips the new outer end is raised with the uphaul. The
Jibing a spinnaker working guy into the pole end fitting. guy is trimmed to pull the pole end aft.
A spinnaker is more difficult to jibe
because the spinnaker pole has to be
moved from one side to the other
during the maneuver, which can
be difficult or even hazardous, as it
requires working on the foredeck.
Small cruisers may have a
dinghylike double-ended pole system,
in which case the jibing method for
dinghies (p.153) is used. More often,
they have a single-ended pole, with the
uphaul and foreguy led to the outer
end of the pole (p.258). This system
4 The mainsail was sheeted near the 5 With the boat on its new course, the
centerline during the spinnaker jibe to mainsail is let out to its correct position.
requires the more complex dip-pole avoid it blanketing the spinnaker. The The guy is used to set the pole angle, and the
method of jibing (right). mainsail is now jibed (p.247). spinnaker is trimmed with the sheet.
 INCREASING SAIL AREA : JIBING AND LOWERING
261
Lowering
When lowering a downwind sail, it MAINSAIL AND
must be kept under complete control HEADSAIL ALONE
until it is in its bag or below deck.
In moderate to strong winds,
Always steer onto a run or broad
most cruisers will not use
reach before lowering the sail so that additional downwind sails, but
it can be lowered in the wind shadow will sail downwind under mainsail
behind the mainsail. A headsail is and a headsail. Many cruisers
usually hoisted or unrolled before suffer from a rolling motion
lowering the downwind sail, as it sailing downwind if these sails
prevents it from wrapping around the are not set correctly.
forestay. There are two ways to lower
the sail: trip (release) the sail’s tack tripping a spinnaker Mainsail control
and pull the sail down by its sheet The foredeck crew should brace Set the mainsheet so the boom
or grasp the foot of the sail and pull themselves securely and keep their head is just clear of the shrouds. Then
safely below the pole so that it will not tighten the vang. This prevents the
it down as the sheet, halyard, and
hit them as it springs back when the sail boom from lifting and stops
tack line (or guy) are eased. The sail the mainsail from twisting forward
is tripped. Ease the guy to let the pole
can be dropped onto the foredeck move forward and ease the uphaul to at the top. This will reduce rolling.
and down the fore hatch, or under lower the end of the pole to within reach In light to moderate winds, ease
the main boom, and down the of the foredeck crew, who releases the the mainsail outhaul to make the
companionway. Do not lower the sail by tripping the snap shackle that sail fuller. In strong winds, tighten
sail faster than it can be gathered in. attaches the guy to the tack of the sail. it as much as possible to flatten the
sail. When sailing in strong winds,
rig a line as a boom preventer to
avoid an accidental jibe (p.247).
BROACHING Run it from the end of the boom,
Broaching may occur when the boat is sailing under a downwind sail in outside all the gear, to a block on
moderate to strong winds and the sail is sheeted in too hard. The boat the foredeck, then back to a cleat
heels and rounds up very quickly toward the wind. in the cockpit.

Avoiding a broach
The best way to avoid a broach is to Pole holds headsail
reduce sail area in good time when to windward to
increase effective
sailing in moderate to strong winds. A sail area
broach occurs when the boat is pressed
too hard and turning forces develop
that overcome the effect of the rudder.
A broach is most likely to occur
in large waves, which make it difficult
to keep the boat balanced. Once a
broach begins, the helm will have
no control over the boat’s direction
as the boat spins around toward
the wind and heels violently. Even
in moderate winds, a broach can
occur when sailing on a reach under regaining control
spinnaker if the sheet is pulled in This cruiser-racer has broached violently
too much, causing the boat to slow under spinnaker. Now beam-on to the poling out
down and heel—the first signs of strong wind, with its boom end in If the wind is too strong for a spinnaker,
a broach. Drop the spinnaker if a the water, the boat is heeling heavily. In pole the headsail out to windward
rising wind threatens a broach, and order to regain control, the crew must let when on a run or broad reach to add
sail under mainsail and jib (right). go of the boom vang and spinnaker sheet. speed and reduce rolling.
 CRUISER SAILING
262

BERTHING
winds are forecast and you need to
be able to leave quickly, avoid lying
on the windward side of a pontoon.
Be aware of your boat’s handling
It is very common for cruisers to berth alongside a pontoon characteristics at slow speed, and do
or dock. Pontoons tend to be preferred in tidal waters because they not attempt to enter a tight marina
berth if it is too difficult to leave
float and are thus able to move up and down with the rise and fall safely. Alongside berths have obvious
of the tide. This means that you do not have to adjust your warps to attractions, but it is often safer, more
allow for changes in the water level. With dock walls, however, your comfortable, and cheaper to anchor
or pick up a mooring elsewhere.
boat will rise and fall in relation to the wall as you lie alongside, and
may even dry out if the harbor is shallow. In addition, docks are often Effects of wind and tide
busy with fishing boats and other craft. This makes maneuvering When approaching or leaving an
more difficult, and yachts may have to raft alongside one another in alongside berth, the most important
factor is the combined effect of
order to save space. All alongside berths present different challenges, wind and tide on your boat. As
but the basic methods of coming alongside and leaving are the same. usual when handling a boat in close
quarters, you should always try to
leave or arrive at a berth pointing
CHOOSING A BERTH into the strongest element. If in
doubt, assume that the tide will have
Your choice of berth will determine is pushed off by the wind rather than the greatest effect. When approaching
the comfort of your stay. If possible, being pressed against the berth. This
choose a berth that is sheltered from will make it easier to leave and will
the wind and any swell. If the berth provide a more comfortable stay. If
is affected by a swell rolling into the you cannot lie on the leeward side
harbor, the boat could be damaged. of a berth, the next best option is to Use prop walk in
astern to swing the
Always lie on the lee side of a pontoon lie head-to-wind, as this keeps the stern into the berth
or dock if possible so that the yacht companionway sheltered. If strong if appropriate

Warp keeps boat Steer to come

close to, but not alongside head-to-tide
tight against,
the pontoon

head-to-tide
Boat lies clear Approach a berth into the tide, using it to
of the pontoon stop the boat by the dockside. Use prop
walk to swing the stern into the berth.

Boat pressed leeward berth

against pontoon It is more comfortable to berth on the
leeward side of the pontoon, where
the boat is held off by the wind instead
of being pushed against the pontoon.
 BERTHING: CHOOSING A BERTH
263
a berth under power or sail, the
aim is to stop the boat in the chosen USING FENDERS
position alongside the berth so that Fenders are used to protect the boat from contact with whatever it
the crew can step—not jump—safely is lying alongside. They should be concentrated around the point of
ashore and secure the lines. In the maximum beam, not spaced at even intervals along the hull.
absence of any tide, head into the
wind, if possible, and use the boat’s Types of fenders
wind resistance to help you slow Plastic fenders are made in
a variety of shapes and sizes.
down and stop. When a tidal stream
You should use at least four
is present, this will usually have the when lying alongside and
strongest effect on the boat. Except have some spare in case
in a strong wind and weak tide, you someone berths alongside
should choose to stem the tide in without enough fenders to
your final approach. protect both craft. The
Never attempt to come alongside movement of fenders can itself
damage the gel coat or paint
a berth downtide in a strong stream.
on the hull. You can avoid this
Even with a powerful engine, it will by hanging a fender skirt
be very hard to stop the boat where between the hull and the
you choose. The same considerations fenders. When mooring
apply to leaving a berth: always leave alongside an uneven wall,
pointing into the strongest element if it can be difficult to keep attaching fenders
possible. Sometimes you will find that the fenders in position; a Attach the fenders to the coachroof handrails
fender board (a wooden or the toerail. If possible, avoid attaching them
you are berthed stern-to a strong tide.
plank) hung outboard of the to the lifelines or stanchions, which may be
In this situation, you will have to fenders solves this problem. damaged by their movement.
leave astern or turn the boat in its
berth using warps (p.226).

DRYING OUT ALONGSIDE

It is sometimes necessary to dry out alongside a dock, upright on their hulls, and long-keeled boats dry out well
either to work on the hull or because the harbor dries sitting on their keel and leaning against a wall. Fin-keeled
at low tide. How well a boat behaves depends on its boats with narrow keels are less stable and are prone to
keel shape and configuration. Multihulls sit happily tipping down at bow or stern.

Initial check on shore. Tighten the halyard as the

Ask the harbormaster about the state boat drops to keep it heeling slightly
of the bottom before you dry out. Debris toward the wall. You must also ensure
on the seabed can damage a hull or keel. that the mooring warps are arranged Mooring warps
If the seabed slopes steeply away from so that the boat cannot move too far hold the boat
close to the wall
the wall, the keel could slip outward from the wall as it drops; otherwise, it
and cause damage to the hull. will lean in at a large angle and could
damage its topsides or rigging. Make
Correct angle sure that all warps lead out through
Fenders protect
Once in the berth, ensure that fairleads so they cannot foul the the hull
the boat leans slightly in toward the guardrails; lash the warps into open
wall as it drops on the ebbing tide. fairleads if there is a danger of lines
Achieve this by placing heavy gear, lifting out of them. The farther you drying berth
such as the anchor and chain, on the can lead your warps fore and aft of the Secure your boat close to the quay wall
sidedeck closest to the wall or by boat, the less you will need to adjust with warps and use plenty of fenders to
leading a halyard to a strong point them as the tide falls. protect the hull while drying out.
 CRUISER SAILING
264
LEAVING A BERTH
When you are preparing to leave Leaving under power
an alongside berth, make a careful If the tide is the strongest element
observation of all the factors that affecting you and it is on the bow,
could affect the maneuver. Assess then you should leave bow first. If the
the strength and direction of wind tide is from astern, then leave stern
and tide and their relative effects on first or turn the boat using warps. Tide will help push
the bow away
your boat. Sound knowledge of your If the tide is not significant, leave into
when you cast off
boat’s handling characteristics will be the wind if possible: bow first if the
of value here, especially with regard to wind is forward of the beam, stern
its behavior at slow speed, its drifting first if it is aft of the beam. However,
characteristics, and how it reacts to these rules cannot be rigidly applied,
wind on the beam. Look for any because much depends on the boat’s bow into tide
obstructions in the vicinity and decide particular configuration, its engine When the boat is facing into a tidal
how to clear them. Consider the power, and the strength of the wind. stream, leave bow first. The bow line
strength and experience of your crew. and stern spring will take the load of the
If the wind is light, there is little tide boat; the stern line and bow spring will
be slack and can be cast off first when
running, and there are no obstructions
you are preparing to leave the berth.
nearby, it is often easy to untie the
warps, push the boat off, and sail or
motor away. Most situations are more
stern into tide
complex, however, and it takes careful
When the stern is facing into a tidal
preparation and execution to avoid stream, leave stern first. If your boat
damaging the boat. Tide will help push does not handle well in reverse, turn the
the stern away
when you cast off boat using warps (p.228) and leave bow
Preparing to leave first, as above. If leaving stern first, cast
After taking all the factors into off the bow line and stern spring first.
consideration, decide on a plan to
leave the berth and brief the crew.
The task will be easier with a full
crew, but if you sail single-handed
or with just one other person, you
should work out routines that suit
your particular boat and crew.
In many cases, it is easiest and
safest to leave under power, as this
can give you greater control. Do
not, however, assume that you must
Wind forward
always use the engine. Many berths of beam
Wind aft
of beam
can be left safely under sail, and it Leave
is satisfying and instructive to do so Leave bow first stern first
when possible. If you do need to
use your engine, start it and leave it wind ahead wind astern
ticking over in neutral to give it time If the wind is the significant factor, and If the wind is aft of the beam, leave
to warm up before departure. Check it is forward of the beam, leave bow first. stern first, or turn the boat using warps
which warps are under the most load If the wind is off the dock, it will push if handling astern is a problem. If the
and plan to cast these off last. the bow away. If it is onshore, spring off. wind is onshore, use a spring to help you.
 BERTHING: LEAVING A BERTH
265
Pushing off
If you were to try to leave—even with
no wind or tide to cause problems—
by casting off your lines and motoring
away, the boat’s stern would hit the
dock or pontoon as you turned. The
way to avoid this is to turn either end
of the boat away from the dock before Bow
spring
motoring off. In small, light boats,
rigged as
this can often be achieved by simply Stern slip line
pushing the bow or stern off with a spring
rigged as
boathook. In strong, offshore winds, slip line
the boat will drift clear of the dock Use reverse gear Use forward gear
to pull bow out to push stern out
once the warps are released, making
from quay from quay
it a simple matter to motor away.

Using springs
leaving bow first leaving stern first
A more controlled departure can be
Rig the stern spring as a slip line (p.229) Rig the bow spring as a slip line, position
achieved by using one of the springs
and position a fender right at the stern. a fender at the bow, and cast off the
to help turn the boat, enabling you to
Cast off the other warps and motor gently other warps. Motor slowly ahead and
leave bow or stern first. Once you astern, steering the stern in toward the steer carefully toward the dock. When
have cleared the berth and are in open dock as the bow begins to swing out. Once the stern has swung out far enough,
water, stow the warps and fenders, the bow has swung far enough to clear any engage neutral, slip the spring, and motor
making sure that all lines are kept out obstructions, engage neutral, slip the spring, slowly astern until you are away from the
of the water and clear of the propeller. and motor away slowly in forward gear. dock and able to engage forward gear.

Leaving under sail

It is often possible to leave a berth
under sail, but if the wind is light
and the tide is strong, you will have
reduced control: it is usually easier
to leave under power. If the wind
is blowing onto the berth, you will
not be able to sail off at all. Use an
engine, warps, or lay an anchor using
the tender to get yourself out of the Headsail hoisted Mainsail hoisted
berth. If tide is present, always leave ready to sail off ready to sail off

bow-into-tide for best control. If the

boat is lying stern-to-tide, turn it using
warps before you attempt to sail off.
Once you are lying head-to-tide,
sail off under jib only if the wind is
offshore wind aft of beam offshore wind ahead
on or aft of the beam. If the wind
Hoist the headsail but let it flap freely. Hoist the mainsail and let it flap. Prepare
is from ahead, sail off under mainsail First, cast off the warps not under load, the headsail for immediate hoisting.
alone, or mainsail and headsail then cast off the others. Trim the headsail Cast off all warps, starting with those not
together if the wind is light. If the and sail off under headsail alone. Once under load, and push the bow off, with a
wind is from directly ahead, hoist and clear of the dock, turn head-to-wind boathook if necessary. Trim the mainsail
back the headsail to push the bow off. before hoisting the mainsail. and sail off, then hoist the headsail.
 CRUISER SAILING
266
Rig fenders and prepare the bow
ARRIVING AT A BERTH and stern warps by leading an end
out through their fairleads, pulling
Approaching an alongside berth can Once you have decided on your sufficient through and making them
be a complicated maneuver that strategy, brief the crew and give them fast to deck cleats. Take the outer ends
requires thought, planning, and a plenty of time to get the gear ready, of the bow and stern lines outside
well-briefed crew. If possible, take a particularly the fenders and warps. everything to the middle of the boat
practice run to assess the situation. If you have sailed into harbor but just aft of the shrouds. The crew
Check the wind and tide effects at intend to come alongside under should normally step off from here
the berth and look for any nearby power, start the engine in plenty of when taking their lines ashore, as it is
hazards that you will have to avoid time to allow it to warm up. Drop the widest part of the boat and should
on the approach. Remember to allow the sails and loosely stow them before be closest to the berth when coming
for last-minute problems by planning you approach the berth. alongside. You may not need to rig
an escape route that will take the the springs until you are alongside
boat safely back to clear water. Check Preparation and secured by bow and stern lines.
which side will be alongside the berth. Get the warps ready on deck; when However, a stopping spring can be
If it is necessary to raft alongside you are berthed, you will normally a very useful aid (p.267), especially
another boat, ask permission first. lie to at least four warps (pp.228–229). if the engine is not efficient in reverse.
Once you are alongside, secure the
bow and stern lines. The stern spring
Arriving under power is usually rigged next, if the wind or
If wind and tide effects are not significant, choose to come alongside on the side tide are on the bow, as this warp will
toward which prop walk (p.240) will push the stern when you engage reverse take much of the load and will hold
gear to stop. This will help you end up alongside, parallel to the berth. Once the the boat parallel to the berth. Finally,
boat is close alongside, the crew steps ashore and makes fast. When the wind or rig the other spring and neaten up all
tide are significant, however, approach by heading into the strongest element. warps, making sure that there are no
This gives you greater slow-speed control and will help you stop accurately loose coils of rope left lying on the
at the berth. Do not approach down tide or with a strong wind behind, if it quay or pontoon where passersby may
can be avoided (and never attempt this maneuver without a powerful engine). trip over them.

Use the tide to

help you stop
Approach at a
in the berth
sharp angle

Approach berth Wind pushes

heading into boat sideways
the tide into berth

wind and tide onshore wind offshore wind

together or opposed Approach into the tide, but aim to stop In a strong offshore wind, the bow tends
Use the tide to stop the boat by putting your boat a few feet to windward of to blow downwind when you stop
the engine into neutral as you approach the berth. Allow the effects of windage alongside. Counter this by leading the
your berth. Use reverse gear to help stop to push the boat gently sideways into stern line farther forward than usual,
the boat if prop walk will act to pull the the berth. If the bow blows quickly and approach at a sharper angle. The
stern into the berth, but use it sparingly if downwind, stop the boat with the bow crew must get the lines ashore quickly
prop walk acts in the opposite direction. slightly upwind to allow for the effect. and straighten up the boat in its berth.
 BERTHING: ARRIVING AT A BERTH
267
Arriving under sail power. Always head into the strongest
Berthing a cruiser under sail, element of wind or tide so that you SHORT-HANDED
especially in a confined space, can use it to stop you when you reach TECHNIQUES
requires skill and good judgment. the berth. If you approach too fast
Approaching a berth is relatively
The success of the maneuver will in the final stages, back the mainsail
easy with a full crew to handle all
depend on your knowledge of your (if you are approaching into the the warps, but it can be tricky with
boat’s handling characteristics and wind) or lower the headsail (if you the typical short-handed crew—
on the efficiency and speed of the are approaching downwind). The crew often only two people on board.
crew. The choice of approach is much will need to hold the leech of a partly
the same as when approaching under lowered headsail to keep it drawing. Using an amidships spring
One way of entering a berth when
short-handed is to use an amidships
spring to control the boat. A line is
led from a sidedeck cleat just aft of
amidships to a cleat ashore that is
level with the stern or farther back.
Boat blown sideways Approach at This allows the boat to be held in
into the berth a sharp angle position, parallel to its berth, by
under headsail putting the engine slow ahead.
If the boat swings toward or away
from the berth, counteract this
with the tiller.
onshore wind offshore wind When coming alongside, all the
Approach downwind under headsail Come in against the tide with the mainsail lines are rigged as normal with
alone, turning into the tide to stop to alone if the wind is forward of the beam. the addition of the amidships spring.
As the boat stops alongside, the crew
windward of the berth so that the boat Use the headsail alone if the wind is on
steps ashore with the spring only and
blows sideways into its berth. Stop the or aft of the beam. Approach at a sharp
makes it fast on a cleat or bollard.
boat with the bow pointing slightly angle and lead the end of the stern line
The helm puts the engine into slow
upwind to allow for its drifting faster farther forward so that the crew can step
ahead and adjusts the tiller to hold
downwind than the stern. Lower the ashore from ahead of the shrouds. Get
the boat parallel to its berth. The boat
headsail and get the warps ashore. the warps ashore and make fast quickly. is now secure and the shore crew can
make fast the normal mooring warps.

Stopping springs
The amidships spring can be used
as a stopping spring if the boat is
Approach
moving too fast when it comes
under headsail alongside. To do this, the shore crew
takes one full turn around a cleat or
Approach bollard before strain comes onto the
under mainsail line. As the line becomes taut, they
ease it under control (known as
surging a line) to slow the boat
down. Do not let the warp jerk tight
or it may break. Surging a line is a
wind and tide together or strong tide opposing good way to stop even a large boat.
strong wind opposed weak wind Using a bow spring as a stopping
If wind and tide are together, or if a strong Approach from upwind under headsail spring does not work as well since it
will pull the bow into the berth once
wind is opposed by a weak tide, approach alone. If the headsail alone will not push
strain comes on it, but the amidships
on a close reach under mainsail alone. Ease you over the tide, try hoisting just the
spring will keep the boat straight.
the mainsheet to slow down and turn into head of the mainsail to provide extra
the wind when you reach the berth. Get the drive. Slow down by letting the headsail
bow and stern lines ashore and make fast. flap. Get the warps ashore quickly.
 CRUISER SAILING
268

MARINA BERTHS
that are often crowded with boats.
If you are uncertain of the marina
layout or if your boat is difficult to
handle, choose an outside berth if
Common in busy sailing areas, marinas provide a large number possible, perhaps maneuvering into
of sheltered berths, usually with good shoreside facilities, such as an inside one later using warps. Most
marinas have reserved berths for
fuel and fresh water, showers, stores, restaurants, bars, pro shops, permanent berth holders, with others
and repair yards. Marinas are therefore very popular and tend to for use by visitors. Make sure you
be crowded in the busiest months of the sailing season. Boats are select a visitor’s berth when visiting
a marina for the first time. It is not
berthed very close together on a network of floating pontoons, so
usually wise to attempt to sail into
maneuvering space is limited. Good boat handling is essential. You a marina because of the confined
should always enter and leave a marina with caution, especially if space, although you may be able to
your boat does not handle well under power. Be well prepared pick up an outside berth under sail.

before you enter a marina, brief your crew, and have your warps Preparing to berth
and fenders rigged before you start the approach. Before you arrive, contact the
marina’s berthing master by VHF
radio to obtain directions to a
Choosing a berth you should avoid particularly tight suitable berth. Remember to ask
Before approaching a marina, it or difficult berths. Marinas usually which side of the boat you will
is vital that you know your boat’s have a number of outside berths near berth on so that you can prepare
characteristics at slow speed and are the approach channel, with additional warps and fenders on the correct side.
able to turn in tight spaces using the berths inside the network of pontoons. If you have enough fenders, hang
effects of prop walk (p.240). If your They are usually reached through them on both sides of the boat so that
boat does not handle well in reverse, narrow channels between pontoons you are well protected. This will also
give you a choice of berthing on either
side if the situation changes at the last
moment or you find the planned berth
too difficult to enter.
Marinas are often located out
of the main tidal stream, so the
effects of tide may not be significant
in your final approach. Study the
situation carefully, however, because
if a pontoon sticks out into the tide,
it may have a significant effect that
you will have to allow for. When
preparing to berth, you should
assess the situation and pick the
best approach method (pp.266–267).

busy marina
Marinas are popular because they
provide safe berths and numerous useful
facilities. They can be crowded and noisy,
however, and charges can be quite high.
 MARINA BERTHS
269
TURNING IN A NARROW CHANNEL DIFFICULT BERTHS
Sometimes, you may need to turn in a very narrow channel between Marina berths in confined spaces
pontoons without enough space to execute a normal turn under power. can be very difficult to enter or
On many occasions, you can use prop walk to turn the boat in nearly its leave in certain conditions of
own length (p.240), but a strong wind or poor boat performance under wind or tide. If you are concerned
power may render this impossible. about whether you have enough
room to maneuver, or that the
Using the anchor Allow the anchor chain to run out wind or tide may cause you to
Sometimes, when negotiating a freely until you have paid out about lose control, use your warps
marina to find a berth, you may find twice the depth of water. Now put to help you arrive or leave safely.
yourself heading down a narrow the engine into neutral; start the boat
channel that turns out to be a dead turning in the desired direction; and, Using warps
end. In such circumstances, you need at the same time, secure the anchor The exact method of using warps
to be able to turn the boat or to chain by taking a turn around a will depend on the particular
reverse out the way you came. foredeck cleat or bollard. The anchor berthing situation; no hard and fast
However, many sailing boats do chain will draw taut and pull the rules can be given. The skipper has
not reverse well under power, and a bow around until the boat has turned to assess the effects of prop walk,
strong following wind may make it through 180 degrees. You can now wind, and tide on the boat while
difficult or impossible to turn in the motor slowly forward, recover the it is moving slowly into or out
space available. If you cannot use anchor, and make your exit safely. of its berth and should plan to
prop walk to assist you, you should use the appropriate mooring warp
consider using the anchor to help to prevent or promote turning as
turn the boat. Use the depth sounder required. A mooring warp used
to check the depth of water and turning with an anchor in this way should be rigged as a
prepare the anchor for dropping as Using an anchor to turn is an easy and slip line so that it can be released
you motor slowly along the channel. effective technique. Most marinas are quickly and easily from on board.
When you reach the point at which dredged regularly, so there should
you want to turn, drop the anchor be no bottom obstructions to foul Into the wind
but continue moving slowly ahead. your anchor. You may often find that you have
to reverse out of a berth against a
strong wind. Windage on the bow
will tend to keep it downwind, and
engine power may not be sufficient
to turn in the space available. Use
a spring to help you turn.

Hold the stern

Boat swings on line on a cleat
anchor and
Put engine in motors out
neutral, cleat
chain, and
start turn

Pay out anchor

chain to twice the
depth of water Rig the stern
line as a slip
Drop anchor

reversing out
Rig the stern line as a long slip and
reverse out slowly. Cleat the stern line
to hold the stern as the bow swings
out. Slip the line and motor away.
 CRUISER SAILING
270
Leaving a marina berth thoroughly and get them to make
exiting the berth
Before leaving the marina, start ready any slip lines you may need
Your position in relation to the
the engine and allow it to warm to control the boat as you leave.
wind and tide, and whether you are
up in neutral while you assess They should be told in what order
bow-in or stern-in to your berth, will
the situation and plan your exit. the lines are to be released and determine how you leave. Be aware of
Consider how the wind and tide must make sure that no warps are other boats on neighboring pontoons
will affect the boat as you leave left in the water where they might and of boats entering or leaving the
the berth and as you maneuver foul the propeller. Take your time marina at the same time that may
within the marina. Brief the crew and proceed carefully. interfere with your plans.

Bow-out, leeward berth Bow-in, windward berth Bow-in, windward berth

Lying bow-out in a leeward berth makes for an If your boat has good control If you do not have room to
easy exit. Recover the warps; the boat will then under power in reverse, and if spring the stern out, or if your
blow clear of the pontoon, allowing you to motor there is sufficient space between boat handles poorly astern, pull
straight out. Be careful of boats moored on your you and your neighbor, you can the boat back along the pontoon
leeward side on the opposite pontoon spring the stern out before using the bow spring and stern
motoring out backward line until you can motor clear

Spring Warp boat back

stern off along pontoon

Bow-in, stern-to-wind berth

If you are lying bow-in, you may be able to use prop walk
to pull the stern clear of the pontoon as you motor astern.
If prop walk does not operate in the required direction and
instead pushes the stern onto the pontoon, spring the stern
out before reversing clear. With a weak engine, the crew
can help by walking the boat back to the end of the
pontoon using a stern line and bow spring

Bow-out, head-to-wind berth

If your boat is head-to-wind and bow-out,
you have an easy exit route. Simply start the
engine, release the warps, and push the bow
off before motoring straight out
 MARINA BERTHS
271
Arriving at a marina berth When you have found a berth, plan
entering the berth
Give yourself plenty of time to pick your entry with care. Brief the crew
The direction of the wind and the
a berth. If necessary, sail past the and give them time to prepare the
angle of the berth to the wind will
marina a few times to get a good idea gear. They should know on which side
determine how you arrive at your
of its layout and the location of any to secure fenders and which warps berth. Your boat’s ability to perform
likely berths. Call the marina on VHF are to be secured first. They must well at very low speeds and to prop
and ask them to allocate you a berth. also check that no warps are trailing walk will also have a bearing on your
Tell them if your boat is difficult to in the water where they might foul choice of berth and the way in which
handle and ask for a suitable berth. the propeller as you maneuver. you enter it.

Bow-in, leeward berth Reverse in, leeward berth Windward berth

You should approach the berth with enough If you have good control in reverse Motor fairly slowly into the
speed to be certain that the boat will not slow and little prop walk, reverse into a berth bow first, aiming slightly
down or stop before reaching the pontoon. If leeward berth with enough speed to to windward of the pontoon. Put
this happens, the boat will drift downwind into avoid being blown downwind away the engine into neutral and let the
the neighboring boat. The stronger the wind, the from the pontoon. Use a strong burst boat drift sideways into the berth
more important it is to have enough speed. Be of forward gear to stop the boat and
ready to use reverse gear or a stopping spring get the warps ashore quickly

Bow-in, wind astern berth

If your boat does not handle well in reverse gear, enter
a wind astern berth slowly, bow first. Take the stern line
and bow spring ashore to stop the boat and put the
engine into reverse. However, beware of prop walk
pushing the stern away from the pontoon. A stopping
spring can be used on its own if you are short-handed

Stern-in, wind ahead berth

If you have good control when motoring astern,
then reverse into the berth, using a burst of
forward gear to stop when you are alongside.
This will leave you lying head-to-wind, reducing
drafts in the cabin
 CRUISER SAILING
272

RAFTING ALONGSIDE
Stacking boats, one outside the other, beside a pontoon or inconvenient if an inside boat
dock, in between piles, or around a mooring buoy is known as wants to leave before you. If you
are on the inside, you have to put
rafting. This is a common method of making the most of the up with crews from boats outside
limited space in crowded harbors. Although it is not an ideal you crossing your decks to get
method of berthing, rafting alongside may be the only option aboard or ashore. In an exposed
location, the boats may rub and
available to you in a busy harbor. It is advisable, therefore, to
roll against each other, causing
learn how to raft safely, making sure that you do not damage your discomfort and sometimes damage.
own or anyone else’s boat. You also need to know how to leave
safely from the inside of the raft, as well as from the outside. Joining a raft
Although joining a raft involves
Rafting can be a straightforward procedure, as long as you follow coming alongside another boat, the
a few basic strategies and observe certain courtesies to other method you use is exactly the same
members of the raft and to those arriving or leaving. as when coming alongside a dock or
pontoon (pp.266–267). Plan your
approach, taking into account the
Rafting protocol alongside a boat smaller than your effects of wind and tide. Always head
Always secure to the shore, pontoon, own. When you join a raft, position toward the element that will have
or piles with bow and stern lines and your boat so that your mast is not in the most effect on your boat as you
to the boat next to you with springs line with that of your neighbor. This stop alongside. It does not matter
and breast warps. Do not rely on your will prevent them from clashing and if you are not facing in the same
neighbors’ shore lines to hold your causing damage as the boats roll. direction as the boat you are going
boat—this is bad practice and also When going ashore across other to be beside. Brief the crew and
discourteous. Do not join a raft in boats in the raft, always cross by prepare fenders and warps in the
which only the innermost boat has their foredecks, never their cockpits. usual way. You will need three sets
rigged shore lines. Such a raft will This helps preserve privacy. of warps—bow and stern lines led
swing fore and aft under the effects to the shore, and breasts and springs
of wind and tide and will provide an Disadvantages of rafting attached to your neighbor.
uncomfortable and insecure berth. One of the main disadvantages of Coming alongside another boat
A raft is more stable if the largest rafting is that it can restrict your rather than a pontoon or dock is
boat is on the inside and the smallest freedom to leave when you wish. harder for the crew. They will have
on the outside, so try to avoid rafting When you are on the outside, it is to climb over two sets of guardrails
and make their way along the
other boat’s sidedeck to find suitable
cleats to secure the bow and stern
breast ropes. It is important that
these warps are attached as soon

a typical raft
The boats are rafted with bow and stern
Bow shore line Stern shore line breast lines and springs between each
boat. Bow and stern shore lines are also
Bow breast line Stern breast line rigged, and the boats are arranged with
masts staggered.
 RAFTING ALONGSIDE
273
as possible to bring the boat LEAVING FROM WITHIN A RAFT
under control before rigging all If you are on the inside or middle of a raft, leave with the strongest
the other lines. element—here, the tide. Otherwise, the boats outside you will become
The procedure can be made much uncontrollable when their warps are released for you to leave.
easier if the other boat’s crew are on
deck. First, ask them for permission 1 Check whether the wind or tide
is the most significant factor and plan
to come alongside. Then, if they are
to leave downtide or downwind.
willing to help, your crew can hand Also, check carefully that there are
them the ends of the bow and stern no obstructions, such as another raft,
breast lines. Once they have been in your line of departure. Next,
made fast, the lines can be adjusted recover your bow and stern shore Shore lines
from on board your boat. This means lines so that your boat is now attached
that your crew do not have to climb only to the boats on either side of it.
aboard the other boat. Rig the springs
as quickly as possible, then take your 2 Recover your warps from the
boat that is outside you. Unfasten
bow and stern lines ashore. Lead them
the outside boat’s bow line and
outside all the boats between you and
relead it around and behind your
the shore or pontoon. Adjust them so boat and back to the shore. Next, Lead the bow
that they are clear of the water, but release your breast ropes and springs line around
have some slack in them. from the boat inside you and allow your boat
your own boat to move out slowly
Leaving a raft with the strongest element.
If you are the outermost boat in the
raft, leaving it is the same as leaving 3 As your boat moves downtide
out of the raft, the shore line of the
from a pontoon (pp.264–265), but
boat outside is pulled in and secured,
you must recover your shore lines and the boat is secured to the inshore
first. Before doing this, decide if the boat with breasts and springs. If your
wind or tide is the strongest element, crew have been on the raft helping
choose your exit strategy, and brief secure the outside boats, circle back Outside boat is
pushed inward
the crew. Then maneuver clear as and come alongside the outside boat by the tide
you would if you were leaving an to pick them up when they are ready.
alongside berth.
When you are inside the raft, you
must always leave with the strongest RAFTING ON A BUOY
element. If you leave against it, there Boats are sometimes rafted
Moor directly
is a danger that the boats outside you on large mooring buoys, but to the buoy Rig breasts

will be at the mercy of wind or tide. usually only in areas where and springs
to other boats
To avoid problems, crew members there are no significant tides
may have to take control of other
or currents.
boat’s warps as you leave. You will
Mooring
then have to pick the crew up at the Boats moor directly to the buoy
outside of the raft once you are clear. and attach springs and breast
Another raft close by may prevent warps to their neighbors. They
you from departing until the boats leave stern-first simply by casting
outside you have left. If you are not off. If necessary, a crew member
stays on the raft to refasten the
sure that you can clear all nearby
other boats’ springs and breast
obstructions, either ask the outside
warps and is then picked up. BUOY RAFT
boats to move to let you out or be
prepared to wait until they leave.
 CRUISER SAILING
274

BERTHING BOW-
OR STERN-TO
In areas without the complications of tide to consider, it is
common to moor by the bow or the stern to a pontoon or dock.
An anchor (or, occasionally, a pair of small piles) is used to hold
the other end of the boat. This method saves space alongside
and makes it easier for individual boats to arrive or leave without Drop kedge
disturbing others. When arriving, it is usually simpler to come in anchor from stern

bow first, which also provides more privacy in the cockpit while
you are berthed. However, you may find it easier to get to and
from the shore if you berth stern-to the dock or pontoon.
berthing bow-to
Arriving bow-to kedge has a length of chain between Approach in a straight line from some
Brief the crew and prepare the warps, it and the warp, stow the chain in a way off. Drop the kedge anchor over
fenders, and anchor well before you bucket to keep it clear of the deck as the stern about three to five boat
approach the berth. Hang fenders on it runs out. Make sure that the chain lengths from the berth. Stop just clear
of the dock so the crew can take the
both sides of the boat to protect it and warp are led so that they run out
bow lines ashore.
from contact with neighboring under the pushpit and through a
boats. For berthing bow-to, you will fairlead. Always lay the anchor clear
need two bow lines and the kedge of other boats’ anchors. The best way to adjust your line of approach,
anchor (p.282) with a long anchor to achieve this is by making a long using tiller and throttle as needed,
warp or chain. The anchor must be approach with your boat lined up to give a steady and straight run
ready to drop from the stern. If the with the berth. This gives you time into the berth.

tUrning USing  wArPS

If you wish to moor
stern-to but your boat
does not handle well in
reverse, you should first
moor bow-to. You then
have to use the anchor
and the bow line to turn
the boat while keeping it
under complete control.
Ensure that your crew
Long bow
understands how you line rigged
Take anchor cable
Pull boat back
to bow and bow
intend to complete the as slip line line to stern into berth
maneuver, and keep an
eye out for a cross wind
that could push your boat 1 Rig the bow line as a long 2 Pull on the anchor cable 3 Turn the boat using the
slip line, making sure that you to move the boat clear. Take warps and pull it back into
into its neighbors.
have enough rope to complete the anchor warp to the bow the berth stern first, easing
the maneuver. and the bow line to the stern. out the anchor warp as you go.
 BERTHING BOW- OR STERN-TO
275
When you are about three to five cable to run out. As your stern When leaving a pile and pontoon berth,
boat-lengths from the berth, drop the approaches the dock or pontoon, leave stern-first by simply releasing
anchor over the stern and let its cable snub the bow anchor and give a your bow warps and motoring out
run free. Continue your approach burst ahead on the engine to stop the backward, provided you have good
until you are about half a boat length boat. The crew can then step ashore control in reverse and there is no strong
from the berth, then snub the anchor with the stern warps and make them cross wind. As you motor astern, release
cable. This is done by taking a turn of fast. If your boat does not handle well the pile lines as they come within reach.
the cable around a cleat or bollard and in reverse but you still wish to berth If there is a strong cross wind,
holding the end tightly enough to put stern-to, first berth bow-to and then however, you should release only
some load on the warp while allowing turn the boat using the bow line and the downwind bow and stern lines,
it to slip slowly around the cleat. This anchor cable (opposite). rigging the two remaining warps as
will set the anchor and slow down the slips. Next, take the stern line to the
boat. Put the engine in reverse if Leaving middle of the boat. Motor slowly
necessary to stop the boat just clear Leaving a bow- or stern-to mooring astern or pull the boat back on the
of the dock or pontoon, so that the is usually straightforward. Simply stern warp, gradually easing the bow
crew can step ashore with the bow release the shore lines and pull on the warp and keeping some tension on the
warps and secure the boat. anchor cable to move the boat clear bow warp to prevent the bow from
of the berth, using the engine to help blowing downwind. When the middle
Arriving stern-to if necessary. Then recover the anchor of the boat is level with the piles, slip
If you wish to berth stern-to, you (p.286) and motor clear. If a strong the lines and motor clear.
have two choices, depending on how cross wind makes it hard to hold the If your boat does not handle well
well your boat handles in reverse. If it boat straight as you leave, rig a long in reverse, rig both pile lines as slips
handles well in reverse, approach from slip line to the shore to help control and lead them forward to the middle
some way off, reversing in a straight the boat. Keep the line under low of the boat. Release the bow lines
line toward the berth. Drop your tension as you move clear to stop the and pull the boat back on the stern
bow anchor about three to five boat- boat from blowing downwind. Slip lines, slipping them when the piles
lengths from the berth and allow the the line once clear of the berth. are abeam and motoring clear.

PILE AND PONTOON BERTHS

Some harbors use a combination of piles and and piles to make berthing easier. If you are entering
pontoons for berthing bow- or stern-to. Most resident a visitor’s berth, however, you will have to use your
berths have permanent lines attached to the pontoon own warps. These are best rigged as slips.

Arriving
Although it is possible to berth
Two bow
stern-to if you have good control Motor in lines
Point bow
in reverse, most sailing boats are upwind
easier to berth bow-to in this to allow Stern Crossed
situation unless the wind is off the for drift lines stern
Pile lines
pontoon. Prepare two bow warps
and two stern warps, with the latter
rigged like springs, with the port
stern line running to the starboard
pile and vice versa. Brief the crew
and have a boathook ready. Make 1 If there is a cross wind, 2 Lasso the second pile 3 Stop the boat just clear
the approach slowly under power. approach the upwind pile with the other stern line. of the pontoon and make
Be careful of any beam wind that first under power. Lasso Then motor in, taking care fast ashore using two bow
could blow the bow downwind the pile with a loop of the to keep the lines clear of warps. Position the boat
and spoil your approach. stern line and leave slack. the propeller. just clear of the pontoon.
 CRUISER SAILING
276

PILE MOORINGS Mooring warp

tied to ring

Ring slides on
upright bar
Some tidal harbors use pile moorings to provide fore and aft
moorings along the edges of a channel, parallel to the main tide flow. Upright
metal bar
Piles are large wooden or metal stakes driven into the seabed, with
fittings to which mooring warps are tied. Boats often raft up between
Pile buried
pile moorings, although there will usually be a limit to the number of in seabed
boats allowed on each pair of piles. All the boats should be secured to
both the piles and their neighboring vessels when rafted between piles.

UNDER POWER PILE MOORING

Leaving a pile mooring is generally Slip the bow line Rig both
quite a simple procedure. The main and motor away lines as slips
thing to consider is your exit in
relation to any nearby hazards.

Leaving under power Rig the Drop back

If you are lying alone between a pair bow line and release Slip both lines
as a slip the stern line and motor away
of piles, leave into the tide, either
bow or stern first. If you are inside
leave into the tide strong wind on beam
a raft, recover your pile lines using Pull the boat up to the uptide pile while If a strong wind on the beam threatens
the tender, then leave as for a raft paying out the other line. To leave bow to cause difficulties, rig both bow and
(p.273). If you are the outside boat, first, rig the bow line as a slip, drop back stern lines as slips. Ease both out to allow
recover your pile lines and leave as to the stern pile, and release the stern the boat to blow to leeward, then slip
for an alongside berth (pp.264–265). line. Motor ahead and slip the bow line. both lines and motor away into the tide.

Arriving under power

First, attach Attach the
Picking up a pile mooring is quite the stern line bow line Attach the
simple. If you select empty piles, you stern line

will only need two mooring lines

and can complete the operation from
on deck. If you choose to come
Attach the Motor
alongside another boat, approach as bow line forward Motor at an
angle to the wind
for an alongside berth. You will need
six warps, plus fenders, and you will
running moor strong wind on beam
have to use the tender to attach the
Approach into the strongest element. Approach the stern pile from the leeward
pile lines. The skipper should plan to
Stop the boat alongside the rear pile with side. Stop with the pile alongside the
approach into the strongest element the pile ahead of the shrouds. Attach the windward shroud. Secure the stern line.
and should brief the crew in advance. stern line. Motor forward to the bow Motor forward with the bow angled
Have a boathook handy, as well as pile and attach the bow line. Adjust both to windward. Stop with the bow pile
the mooring lines, and appoint your lines so you are positioned midway on the leeward bow. Secure the bow line
quickest knot-tier to attach the lines. between the piles. and center the boat between the piles.
 PILE MOORINGS: UNDER POWER/UNDER SAIL
277
UNDER SAIL
If the immediate vicinity is not too
crowded with other boats, you can
often leave a pile mooring under sail.

Leaving under sail

It is a fairly easy maneuver to leave
under sail if you are berthed alone Hoist the Rig bow
between piles. If you are the outside mainsail and and stern
let it flap lines as slips
boat in a raft on piles, you may be
Slip both lines
able to leave under sail if you are and sail off
on the leeward side, after recovering
your pile lines with the tender.
As pile moorings are usually
found in tidal areas, it is best to leave situations under sail, use the mainsail wind forward of beam
bow into the tide; this gives you the alone or with the headsail if the Rig both pile lines as slips and prepare
most control. If you are lying stern wind is forward of the beam and the the mainsail for hoisting. Plan your exit
to the tide, turn the boat using warps headsail alone if the wind is on or aft route and brief the crew. Hoist the
before you try to leave. With the bow of the beam. Rig the bow and stern mainsail and let it flap freely, then cast
off the stern line. Pull in on the bow line
pointing into the tide, your method lines as slips before hoisting sails, and
to give the boat steerage way, then slip
of leaving will be determined by wind use them to turn the boat one way or
the line and sail away.
direction. As with other berthing the other if it helps you sail off.

Arriving under sail

Approach under
If you choose to approach a pile headsail alone
mooring under sail, always make Stop at bow Sail on to Stop by stern
your final approach into the strongest pile and attach bow pile pile and attach
bow warp stern warp
element. This will usually be the tide.
However, if a very strong wind
opposes a very weak tide, you should
plan your approach into the wind.
Brief the crew well in advance
and make a practice run, if necessary,
to assess the situation. Prepare bow
and stern lines and have a boathook
at hand. Your method of final wind is on or aft of the beam, wind on or aft of beam
approach will depend on the relative approach under headsail alone, using With the wind on or aft of the
direction of the wind. If the wind is the jib sheet to control speed. In this beam when you are pointing
ahead of the beam, then make your case, use a running moor (above). into the tide, sail upwind of the
piles and lower the mainsail.
final approach under mainsail alone. Let the jib flap to stop by the stern
Make your final approach under
Approach on a close reach and aim pile first to attach the stern warp
headsail alone, easing the sheet
to stop alongside the bow pile. Make before sailing on to the bow pile to as necessary to spill wind and
the bow warp fast, then lower the attach the bow warp. If the wind is slow down. You should attach
mainsail and drop back to the stern light and you cannot make way over the stern line first, then sail
pile to attach the stern warp. Center the tide, hoist the top part of the on to the bow pile to attach
the boat between the piles. If the mainsail to get extra drive. the bow line.
 CRUISER SAILING
278

MOORINGS
with the tidal flow. In this case, the
heavy chain riser of each individual
mooring is connected to a long
ground chain that is attached to a
Keeping a boat on a mooring or using one for a lunchtime or an heavy anchor or weight at each end.
overnight stay are both popular and practical options. Moorings
Choosing a mooring
are often laid in harbors, rivers, and bays to provide convenient When you visit a harbor with
securing points for yachts. They are often easier and less stressful visitors’ mooring buoys, choose a
to use than coming alongside in a busy harbor or crowded mooring suitable for your boat. Make
sure the mooring is strong enough,
marina; however, they do require that you have a tender available
that it is laid in water sufficiently deep
for trips ashore, unless a water taxi is available. so that your boat will still float at low
tide, and that there is enough room to
swing around the buoy with the wind
About moorings secured to a cleat. Other moorings and tide. You should also consider
A mooring consists of one or more have a larger buoy, either with a ring how sheltered the mooring is from
heavy anchors or weights on the on top to which the boat is tied with both wind and swell, especially if you
seabed attached to a heavy-chain riser. a mooring line or a separate, smaller are planning an overnight stop. It is
This, in turn, is attached, sometimes by pick-up buoy that is brought aboard also important to think about how
rope, to a floating buoy. Moorings to secure the boat. Moorings are often easily you will be able to approach
intended for light craft usually have laid in rows, called trots, along the and leave the mooring under power
a single, small buoy that is picked edges of river channels, usually in line or sail, as well as the proximity of the
up. The rope or chain underneath is
passed through a bow fairlead and
FORE-AND-AFT BUOYS
Fore-and-aft mooring buoys are usually laid in rows at the edges of tidal
and river channels. You should use them just like pile moorings and secure
your boat between them.
Main Pickup
mooring buoy Picking up buoys
buoy Eye Picking up fore-and-aft buoys is the same as picking up pile moorings
(pp.276–277): before you pick them up, check that they are suitable
Nylon strop for your size of boat. Reaching the buoys from the deck of a cruiser
can be difficult. The crew may have to lie on the deck, so have a
boathook handy. Some fore-and-aft buoys have smaller pickup buoys
Riser chain attached to them to make it easier to pick them up. When you leave,
tie the pickup buoys together to make recovery easier. Come alongside
Heavy
ground
the pickup buoys and take the forward buoy to the bow and the other
chain to the stern. Check the quality of the line attaching them to the main
buoys; if it is suspect, rig your own lines to the mooring buoys.

fore-and-aft buoys
If the mooring buoys have Lightweight Fore-and-aft
pickup buoys mooring buoys
lightweight pickup buoys
mooring buoy
attached to them, pick up
This mooring is attached to a heavy the small buoys and take
ground chain that forms the base of a their lines to bow and stern.
string of moorings in a “trot.” The pickup Otherwise, rig your own
buoy is attached to the chain riser under lines to the buoys.
the main buoy by a strong rope that
often has an eye spliced into it so it can
be quickly dropped over a deck cleat.
 MOORINGS
279
mooring to other boats and to the
shore. Be careful not to pick up a
permanent mooring, as its owner
may return at any time and claim
the berth. If you do have to pick up
someone else’s mooring, never leave
your boat unattended in case the
owner does appear. If possible, ask
the harbormaster or a local sailor
to advise you.

Securing to a mooring
It is simpler to pick up a mooring
than to come alongside a pontoon
or other boat, but be prepared before
approaching. Detail one or two crew
members to pick up the mooring;
they should have a mooring line and buoy or thread a mooring line. In drying mooring
boathook ready. Make a practice this case, come alongside the buoy Be sure to check if a mooring dries out
run up to the mooring to check just forward of the shrouds, where at low tide before securing to it. Here,
the approach and inspect it closely, the freeboard is usually less. As a shoal-draft cruiser sits on the mud at
particularly its pickup arrangement. you make your final approach, the low tide between its fore-and-aft
mooring buoys.
Check the depth of water and that foredeck crew should indicate the
there is room to swing. position and distance of the buoy by
On larger cruisers, the bow hand signals, as the helm may lose Once the buoy is alongside, the
may be quite high out of the water, sight of it in the last few yards. Hand foredeck crew can either pull
making it difficult to pick up the signals are used because it is often the pick-up buoy on board and
impossible to hear spoken commands use the warp or chain underneath
picking up a buoy
or information. Work out a system to secure the boat or tie the mooring
The foredeck crew should be equipped that suits your crew. A common line to the ring on the buoy or to
with a boathook and have a mooring method is for the foredeck crew the chain under the buoy. Take
warp available. Hook the buoy with the to use the boathook to point a round-turn through the ring or
boathook and tie up with a mooring line. continuously at the mooring. chain, then tie a bowline with a
long loop (p.47) so that it can be
Boathook reached from the deck, which will
Foredeck crew points with the
boathook at the buoy on the final make leaving much easier.
approach and grabs the ring on If a pickup buoy is pulled
the buoy when it is within reach
aboard, check the condition of
Mooring buoy the rope or chain between it and the
Some have a main riser. If it looks at all suspect,
smaller pickup
buoy attached, use one of your own warps to tie to
but this one has the main chain. Make sure that the
a ring on top to
which the boat
mooring line is led through a fairlead
is secured with a or over the anchor roller. Ensure
mooring warp
the foredeck crew signal to the
cockpit when they have secured
the boat. It is wise to rig a second,
separate mooring line so that the
boat is not relying on one line alone.
 CRUISER SAILING
280
to give yourself time to assess the
ARRIVING AND LEAVING situation and plan your approach
and an escape route. If necessary,
When arriving at a mooring, decide and be able to stop. If in doubt, make a practice run at the chosen
on a method and route of approach approach into the tide. If you are spot. Brief the crew and give them
and brief the crew so that they know planning to approach under sail, time to prepare a mooring line
what is required of them. The aim you must decide whether to make and station themselves with the
is to proceed slowly, coming to a your final approach under mainsail boathook. They will also need time
standstill with the mooring buoy alone or headsail alone. The rule to lower or furl whichever sail is
at the bow or alongside the shroud. is: if the wind is forward of the not going to be used.
beam for your final approach, use If you decide to approach under
Making the approach the mainsail only; if it is on the power, lower and stow the sails in
The first step is to decide how your beam or farther aft, then approach plenty of time. Then motor slowly
boat will lie once it is moored. under headsail only. around the area while you plan your
Check how other boats in the If the mainsail is used with the approach. Make sure that the crew
vicinity are lying and decide if the wind on or abaft of the beam, you are fully briefed and understand
wind or tide will have most effect will not be able to let it out far your intentions. If there is a tidal
on the boat. The secret is always to enough to spill all the wind, so you stream present, make your final
approach into the strongest element will not be able to slow down or approach head to tide, motoring
of wind or tide to retain control stop. Sail around the area slowly slowly up to the mooring buoy.

Arriving under sail toward the mooring buoy under

With the wind forward of the beam, headsail alone. In strong winds,
approach under mainsail alone to you may have to lower or furl the
keep the foredeck clear of a flapping headsail and sail under bare poles. In
headsail. If the wind is aft of the light winds, you may have to partly
beam, sail upwind of the mooring, hoist the top of the mainsail to create
lower the mainsail, and sail slowly enough power to counter the tide.

Let the sail

flap to stop
the boat at
the mooring

Let the sail flap to

stop the boat with
the mooring on the
windward bow

Ease or trim
the headsail to
lassoing a mooring
control speed If it is difficult to grab the mooring with a
boathook, it is possible to lasso the buoy
Ease or trim the
mainsail to control by throwing a large loop of mooring
speed as you approach warp so that it encircles the buoy. The
line used must be one that sinks, such
as nylon. Once it has encircled and sunk
beneath the buoy, tighten the line so that
wind ahead of the beam wind aft of the beam it pulls against the chain underneath the
Approach on a close reach under Sail upwind of the mooring, lower the buoy to secure the boat. Rig another line
mainsail alone. Let the sail flap in your mainsail, and sail slowly back toward to the mooring buoy’s ring and recover
final approach to stop the boat. As soon the mooring under headsail alone. Pick the first line from under the buoy by
as the mooring is secured, drop the sail. up the buoy and drop or furl the headsail. pulling on one end.
 MOORINGS: ARRIVING AND LEAVING
281
Leaving under sail
The same rules apply to leaving under
sail as to arriving. How you leave will
be determined by the wind direction
Sheet in
relative to the boat as it lies on the Mainsail fills as the
the headsail
boat bears away
mooring. If the wind is from ahead to sail off from
the mooring
of the beam, you should leave under Pull the buoy
mainsail only, or mainsail and headsail aft along the The headsail is
sidedeck before hoisted and flapping,
together. If it is on or abaft the beam, releasing to pull ready to sheet in
leave under headsail alone. Decide the boat forward
Hoist the
on the route you will take, check for mainsail and
obstructions, then brief the crew. let it flap
When you are lying on a mooring
and wish to sail off, the boat can be
wind ahead of the beam wind aft of the beam
given steerage way and turned in the Hoist the mainsail and prepare the Hoist the headsail; when you are ready
desired direction by pulling the buoy headsail. If the wind is light, or if your to drop the mooring, sheet it in and sail
aft along one side of the boat before boat does not handle well under mainsail away. Sail into clear water before turning
releasing it. This pulls the boat alone, hoist both sails. Drop the mooring head-to-wind to hoist the mainsail and
forward and creates steerage way. and bear away to your chosen course. sailing off on your preferred course.

Arriving and leaving been brought aboard, its line should sure that it is thrown clear of the
under power be uncleated and held with a turn hull and away from the intended
Under power, approach the mooring around the cleat. If a mooring rope course. Retrieve all lines cleanly.
into either the wind or the tide has been tied to the buoy or chain, Mooring warps trailing through the
(whichever is the stronger). This will it should be led again as a slip line, water may catch around the keel or
give you maximum control over with both ends on board; it can then rudder; worst of all, they could foul
where you stop. If you are not sure be easily released and recovered. the propeller and leave you stranded
which is the stronger element, look When the buoy is dropped, make in a crowded mooring area.
at other boats of a similar type to
yours that are moored in the vicinity.
Plan your course clear of other boats
or obstructions and have an escape Stop at the buoy
route planned in case of unforeseen or at the chosen
anchoring spot
circumstances. Brief the crew and
give them time to prepare. Drop the buoy
and head off into
When you leave the mooring,
the wind or tide
your boat will be pointing toward
the wind or tide, whichever is
stronger. This is the direction in Reduce speed as
you head into the
which you will set off, unless an
wind or tide
obstruction requires you to steer
another course. As when you
arrived, brief your crew to prepare
how to approach how to leave
them for departure. Motor slowly into the wind or tide Drop the mooring buoy or motor forward
To leave a mooring, the foredeck toward the mooring buoy or your chosen to recover the anchor. Head initially into
crew must prepare the gear to allow anchorage spot. Reduce speed until you the wind or tide, whichever is stronger, as
them to drop it immediately on are stationary alongside the buoy or at this will give you maximum control before
command. If a pickup buoy has the anchoring spot. turning to your preferred course.
 CRUISER SAILING
282

ANCHORING
an all-chain cable. The kedge will
usually have an all-rope cable with
a short length of chain—about 6 ft
(2 m)—at the anchor.
The ability to anchor easily and with confidence is a very A long-distance cruiser should
important one for a cruising yacht, especially one that ventures carry a more substantial inventory
of anchors and cable to cope with
off the beaten path and away from marinas. Anchoring is one of a variety of anchoring situations.
the fundamental techniques for a cruising sailor to learn, since it Four anchors would be typical, with
provides them with the ability to secure their yacht to the seabed a main bower anchor, a secondary
bower of about the same weight
without relying on any outside facilities, such as a mooring. The
but a different design (opposite)
cruising sailor must know how to anchor and should understand to cope with different bottom
the advantages and disadvantages of the various types of anchor conditions, a kedge anchor, and a
and the equipment needed to deploy an anchor efficiently. heavy storm anchor for exceptional
conditions. A selection of chain and
rope will be carried to allow the
cruiser to anchor in deep water
Reasons for anchoring Anchoring equipment when necessary and to set two or
Anchoring may simply provide a All yachts should carry at least two more anchors simultaneously.
way to enjoy a quiet anchorage suitably sized anchors, together with
away from the bustle of a marina, appropriate lengths of chain or rope Anchor design
or to stop for lunch or a swim, but cable. The choice of anchor and the Anchors vary from the classic
it is also a vital skill to master, as it decision whether to use chain or Fisherman’s anchor, which has several
allows a boat to wait out a foul tide rope depend on the characteristics parts and can be dismantled, to single,
or ride out a gale in shelter. It can of your boat and the areas in which one-piece anchors such as the Bruce.
hold a boat away from a dangerous you normally sail. Suppliers of All anchors have one or more flukes
lee shore and, should an engine fail anchors and chain will suggest that are designed to bury themselves
on a windless day, it may be the suitable sizes and weights for your into the seabed or hook onto rocks,
only way to hold position rather boat, and you can also ask advice
than drifting into danger. from experienced sailors. For serious
offshore sailing—when it is likely that
you will, at times, need to anchor
in exposed anchorages, very strong
tides, or bad weather conditions—
it is sensible to increase the number
of anchors, their size, and the
amount of cable that you carry.
A typical setup for a coastal
cruiser will include a main anchor,
called the bower anchor, and a lighter
anchor, called a kedge. The kedge is
used for short stops in good weather
anchor bow roller
or for kedging-off after running
Most cruisers carry their bower
anchor on a bow roller for easy storage, aground (pp.298–299). The cable for stern anchor stowage
deployment, and recovery. If a headsail the bower anchor may be rope with Some cruisers carry a stern anchor, and
roller furler is fitted, it should be mounted a short length of chain between the this can be a good place to stow the
high enough to clear the anchor when anchor and the rope to better resist kedge. This cruiser has an anchor and
it is being dropped and recovered. the chafe of the seabed, or it may be windlass mounted on the stern platform.
 ANCHORING
283
plus a shank to which the cable is parts of an anchor
attached. The flat anchor types, such All anchors have a shank
as the Danforth and Fortress, have to which the cable is Stock
two large, flat flukes and a pivoting attached and one or Fluke

shank, together with a stock mounted more flukes that dig into Shank Shank

at the crown. The plow type do away or hook the seabed. Some
have a stock designed to Fluke
with a stock and may have a pivoting
turn the anchor so that Fluke
or fixed shank.
the fluke(s) can dig into the
Some of the latest types are bottom. The shank is
spadelike with a large, single fluke attached to the fluke(s) at
Stock

and a rigid shank. These designs try the crown. Some anchors Crown Fluke Crown
to maximize the fluke area and control (below) have only a single
the angle it presents to the seabed. fluke and a shank. FISHERMAN’S ANCHOR DANFORTH ANCHOR

TYPES OF ANCHOR
The classic Fisherman’s anchor is designed to hook seabed is sand, gravel, or mud, this works well, but
the bottom with one of its flukes, but modern anchors in rock or thick weeds, a modern burying anchor is
are designed to bury themselves in the seabed. If the often less effective.

bruce anchor plow anchor spade anchor

The Bruce anchor is solid with large Plow-type anchors are very popular, The Spade anchor is a newer anchor
flukes and no moving parts. It is a especially the original CQR anchor. that is proving popular with cruisers.
popular choice as a bower anchor Most have a hinged shank, but some Available in aluminum, galvanized
and stows well on a bow roller. have a solid construction. They stow steel, or stainless steel, it stows well
However, it does not hinge flat, so well on a bow roller but are awkward on a bow roller and can be dismantled
it can be awkward to stow on deck. to stow on deck. for stowage in a locker.

danforth anchor fortress anchor fisherman’s anchor

The Danforth anchor uses a hinged plate The Fortress is a lightweight anchor made The Fisherman’s anchor performs better
to form the flukes and a stock to prevent from aluminum. Like the Danforth, it has than most other types of anchor in rock
it from rolling over. Because it lies flat, it is wide flat flukes, but their hinge angle can or weeds. However, it is much heavier
easy to stow on deck or in a locker, but it be adjusted to suit sand or mud bottoms. than modern designs and, because of
is less suitable for stowage on a bow roller. The Fortress can be dismantled. its shape, is very awkward to stow.
 CRUISER SAILING
284
TYPE OF ANCHOR CABLE CHOOSING AN ANCHORAGE
Anchor cable can be made from
rope or chain or a combination of When choosing an anchorage, wind direction or strength. Consult the
both. Cruisers that do not anchor you need to consider the amount tidal atlas and tide tables to see if any
frequently often choose rope with of shelter from wind, swell, and changes will affect your anchorage. If
a short length of chain, but long- waves, the depth of water now and you are anchoring in shallow water,
distance cruisers generally use throughout your stay, the type of make sure there will be sufficient water
chain for the bower anchor and seabed, swinging room, and the ease at low tide to keep you afloat and to
rope for the kedge. of approach and departure under sail allow you to leave safely at any time.
or power. You should also consider
Chain cable the practical issue of getting ashore. Types of seabed
The best material for anchor cable If possible, try to anchor where the Check the chart or local sailing
is chain, as long as your boat is
wind or tide will push you away directions for a description of the
not very sensitive to weight and
you can physically handle the from the shore if your anchor drags. type of seabed. Be careful when
weight when anchoring. Chain is anchoring on rock, weeds, or
stronger than rope and is much Changing conditions coral covered by thin sand, as these
more resistant to chafe against the An anchorage that is sheltered from bottoms provide poor holding for
seabed. The weight of the chain the wind when you anchor can most anchors. Very soft mud also
itself provides some holding ability become untenable if the wind swings offers poor holding, as the anchor
and also creates a catenary (curve)
and the anchorage becomes exposed. is likely to pull through the mud.
between boat and anchor. This
catenary helps absorb shock loads, The same may happen if a tidal stream If possible, choose to anchor in
as a wind gust must first straighten changes direction and causes a change sand or firm mud, which provide
out the chain’s catenary before in the sea state. Check the weather the best holding. Avoid anchoring
the boat will snatch at its anchor. forecast before you anchor, and take near wrecks, areas of foul ground, or
Because of its weight, the chain near into account any predicted changes in where underwater cables are present.
the anchor lies on the seabed and
transfers the load to the anchor in a
horizontal direction, minimizing the
tendency for the anchor to be pulled Anchor Scope the following ratios. The absolute
upward and out of the seabed. An anchor’s holding power is minimum scope for chain is 3:1 and
dependent on the amount (scope) for rope 5:1. However, you should
Rope cable of cable you can pay out; this, in aim for 5:1 for chain and 8:1 for
If a rope cable is used, it should turn, will depend on the amount you rope. In rough conditions in an
be nylon, which stretches well to
can carry and the depth of water. exposed anchorage, you may have
absorb the shock loads from wind
Estimate the maximum depth to pay out 10 or more times the
gusts and waves. When rope is
used, it is normal to place a short of water you expect during your depth of water to avoid dragging.
length of chain (6–9 ft/2–3 m) stay and add the height of your Remember to allow for the rise of
between the anchor and the rope bow from the water, then apply tide if you anchor at low water.
to take the chafe from the seabed.
Always protect the rope where it Allow for any rise Allow a scope Add Allow a scope of
passes through the anchor roller or in the tide and of 5:1 for chain the height 8:1 for rope cable
fairlead with plastic tubing or other calculate scope of the bow
for high tide to the depth
protection to avoid chafe, which can of water
destroy a rope very quickly.
A nylon rope cable is particularly
appropriate for the kedge, as it may
have to be used from the tender,
where the lightness of rope will
make the job much easier.
 ANCHORING: CHOOSING AN ANCHORAGE
285
lowered to the seabed and then moves order to let go. The anchor should be
Yachts lie slowly backward as the full scope lowered under control, into the water,
clear of each
other until of cable is paid out. This prevents and the cable allowed to run out under
wind shifts, the cable from piling up on top of the control until the anchor reaches the
when they
are in danger
anchor and possibly fouling it. When seabed. Pay out the rest of the cable as
of colliding
Wind
arriving under power, it is a simple the boat drifts away from the anchor,
shift matter to slow down and stop at your then snub it (take a turn on a cleat or
chosen spot, then slowly reverse to lay engage the windlass brake) to set the
out the cable as the anchor is dropped. anchor (make it dig into the seabed).
Yacht anchored Under sail, you should also approach A better way to set the anchor is
with chain on
into the strongest prevailing element, to apply reverse engine power with the
5:1 scope
under mainsail or headsail alone cable securely cleated. Watch the cable,
Yacht anchored with
rope on 7:1 scope
(p.280). Aim to sail slowly to the points ashore, and the water alongside
drop zone, then stop the boat before the boat to see if the anchor is holding
avoiding others dropping the anchor. Then lower the or dragging. A correctly set anchor
Avoid anchoring close to other yachts, sails so that the boat begins to drift should be able to hold full reverse
especially if they are of a different type or backward, away from the anchor. thrust on most cruisers.
have a different cable or scope from yours. When leaving under sail, steerage You can also check if the anchor
way can be provided by pulling the is holding by putting your foot or
boat up to the anchor. When the wind hand on the chain. If you can feel any
Other boats is aft of the beam, break the anchor vibration or bumping, this suggests the
Before anchoring, consider any other out (pp.286–287) before hoisting the anchor is dragging along the seabed.
boats that are already anchored, the headsail, then sail slowly while the When the anchor is set, take a
likely position of their anchors, and anchor and cable are stowed before series of bearings on two or more
the route you will take to approach you hoist the mainsail. With the wind points on shore to make sure that
and leave your chosen spot. Allow ahead of the beam, hoist the mainsail the boat is not dragging its anchor.
plenty of room between you and all and sail slowly away while stowing the Recheck these bearings at regular
the other boats, leaving enough space anchor and cable. intervals. If the anchor drags, let
to swing clear of others if the wind out more cable and repeat the setting
or tide change direction. Try to anchor Dropping an anchor procedure. If this does not work,
with boats of a similar type and size Prepare the anchor and cable before weigh the anchor (pp.286–287) and
to your own, as they will react in the final approach to the chosen spot. try another spot.
much the same way as your boat With the anchor stowed in its bow
to the effects of wind and tide. roller, release any lashings or securing 010ºC
(016ºC)
Remember that if your boat fouls pins and check the connection of the 050ºC
another that was anchored before you cable to the anchor. Also, make sure 4

arrived, it will be your responsibility that the anchor cannot drop before 4
8

300ºC
Ru

to move to another spot. you are ready. Check the depth of (316ºC)
7
9
3
(049ºC)
water using the depth sounder and 9
Stationary at anchor
Arriving and leaving calculate the amount of cable required. 8
3

(Dragging anchor)
8

The techniques described for arriving This length should be pulled on deck,
and leaving a mooring (pp.280–281), so that it is ready to run without 10

by pointing into the strongest element snagging, and then cleated. Anchor
15

of wind or tide, apply equally to cables should be marked with paint

anchor bearings
anchoring except that anchoring does or colored cable ties at predetermined Once the boat is anchored, take at least
not require the precision of stopping intervals so it is easy to see how much two, and preferably three or more, bearings
at a mooring. It is, however, important has been deployed. When the boat on prominent shore features. Check these
to ensure that the boat stops moving reaches the chosen spot and has bearings periodically to ensure that the
through the water before the anchor is stopped or is moving astern, give the boat is not dragging its anchor.
 CRUISER SAILING
286
WEIGHING ANCHOR
The ease with which an anchor can be direction of the cable to the helm, stowed the anchor and cable. If the
weighed (recovered) depends on the who will be unable to see it from the anchor cannot be broken out by hand
weight of anchor and cable, the depth cockpit. When the boat is over or windlass, you may have to haul the
of water, wind and sea conditions, and the anchor, the crew should inform the cable as tight as possible, then cleat it,
the strength of the crew or the anchor skipper that it is ready to break out. and use the power of the engine or
windlass. The first step is to bring the Stop the boat over the anchor and sails to break it out. The best way is
boat over the anchor. In a small boat haul up the cable by hand or windlass to motor gently astern, increasing the
or good conditions, this can be done until the anchor breaks out. power until the anchor breaks out.
by pulling in the cable, but in a larger Alternatively, cleat the cable and Do not motor forward or the cable
boat or stronger conditions, you will use the engine to break out the anchor. may damage the bow or topsides
need the help of the engine or sails. When the anchor breaks out, motor or and the direction of pull may bend
A crew member should indicate the sail slowly until the foredeck crew has the anchor’s shank.

Laying two anchors (the kedge) from the bow and pull Second bower or
To provide extra security, possibly in the main cable while letting out kedge anchor
against predicted bad weather, lay two the kedge cable to position the boat
anchors, either both in line on one midway between the two anchors.
cable or at a 30–45 degree angle to Join the two cables with a shackle
each other using two cables. This and let out both to lower the join Chain shackled
to crown of
technique is especially useful if you are below the boat’s keel. Secure both
bower anchor
expecting heavy weather. To stop your cables on cleats.
boat from swinging far when the tide If you want to hold position,
changes, lay two anchors ahead and perhaps in a channel with a current
astern of the boat. To do this, drop or tide that reverses direction two anchors in line
the main anchor and reverse the boat periodically or in a very restricted Attach a second bower or kedge anchor
while paying out twice the length of anchorage, lay two anchors but with a short length of chain (6–9 ft/2–3 m)
cable needed. Drop the second anchor lead the kedge cable to the stern. to the crown of the bower anchor.

Kedge
Bower anchor Kedge anchor cable led
laid as normal cable is led Set the anchors at about
to bow and
to stern 30–45º to each other
shackled
Join in cables
to bower
and lower below
cable
keel so boat can
rotate freely

holding position reducing swing two anchors and cables

Two anchors dropped ahead and astern Two anchors dropped ahead and astern For extra security, lay two anchors about
with cables led to bow and stern will hold of the boat and joined together at the 30–45º apart in the forecast wind direction.
the boat in line with, say, a reversing bow will restrict its swing to a very small This system will tangle if a change in wind
current but will not allow it to swing. radius compared to a single anchor. or tide direction causes the boat to swing.
 ANCHORING: WEIGHING ANCHOR
287
allowed to freewheel. The chain from
the anchor runs from the bow roller USING THE TENDER
to the windlass, over the gypsy and Sometimes it will be necessary to
down a chainpipe that takes it through use the tender to lay or recover
the deck and into a chain locker. Many an anchor. This is easier to do
windlasses can handle chain or rope with a solid dinghy than with an
cables, but only chain will self-stow inflatable. It is also easier if rope
in a locker due to its weight. cable is used rather than chain.
Windlasses are available in both
manual, electric, or hydraulic models. Laying an anchor
The powered versions should have a To lay an anchor from the tender,
manual facility in the case of power tie the tender securely alongside
anchor windlass the cruiser and transfer the anchor
failure. Electric windlasses are common
This windlass has a vertical gypsy with and all the cable required into the
and very useful, but they do require a dinghy. Coil the cable in the stern
a rope drum above. The chain passes
lot of battery power. Before using the of the tender so that it will run out
around the gypsy and down a chainpipe.
windlass, start the engine so that its smoothly. Make the end fast aboard
The socket on top is for a manual handle.
alternator can replenish the battery the cruiser. It is much easier to
as the windlass is used. handle the anchor if it is hung over
Using a windlass Be careful when working the tender’s stern and held by a
length of line tied to the thwart with
A windlass is a powerful winch with with anchoring equipment. The
a slip hitch. This allows you to release
a horizontal or vertical gypsy (drum) gear is heavy and loads are high, the anchor while seated and is much
designed to take the links of the so handle equipment carefully, safer than trying to manhandle the
anchor chain. Some models also have wear good deck shoes, keep safety anchor over the side. Row or motor
a smooth drum for winching rope. A harnesses and loose clothing away, the tender in the direction you want
windlass can pull the cable in or let it and don’t stand where you could to lay the anchor. Then, when all
out under control and can also be be hit should the system fail. the cable has run out, slip the
retaining line to release the anchor.
The crew left on board can now
TRIPPING LINES pull in the slack to set the anchor.

It is very easy for an anchor to become fouled by an obstruction on the Retrieving an anchor
seabed. Motoring around the anchor and pulling its chain from several Sometimes you may have to recover
directions may free it, but it is best to avoid the problem in likely areas an anchor using the tender, usually
of foul ground by using a tripping line. when you have set two anchors and
you cannot recover them both from
Using a tripping line the yacht.
A tripping line is a light line Line attached to
Recovering an anchor can be
tied to the crown of the anchor. a small buoy or hazardous in an inflatable and is
The other end of the line is either fender or brought easier and safer in a rigid dinghy.
brought back on board, where it back on board Pull the tender along the anchor
is left slack but secured on a cleat, cable, with the cable running over
Tripping line tied to the
or attached to a small buoy to float crown of the anchor
the tender, until the cable leads
over the anchor. vertically down into the water.
Beware of using a buoy on the The tender’s buoyancy, combined
tripping line in crowded anchorages, with a strong pull on the cable, is
as it may get caught by another usually enough to break out the
boat’s propeller or be mistaken for retrieving a fouled anchor anchor, which can then be pulled
a mooring buoy and picked up. In If an anchor is fouled, it can be up and brought on board the tender.
such cases, it is better to bring the retrieved by pulling on the tripping Return to the cruiser by pulling
end back aboard, although a longer line. This will capsize the anchor and on the cable, coiling it into the
length of line will be needed. retrieve it upside down. tender as you go.
 CRUISER SAILING
288

PASSAGE MAKING
Role of crew
Good crew are worth their weight in
gold. The most important qualities are
a positive attitude, a sense of humor,
There are few things more pleasurable for the cruising sailor and the ability to get along with
than a well-executed passage culminating in a safe arrival at the others in the confined space aboard
a cruiser. If the crew also have good
destination. It does not matter if you arrive at a harbor you sailing or navigation skills, the skipper
know well; the sense of satisfaction cannot be equaled by any can consider themselves fortunate.
other form of travel. As skipper, you alone are responsible for the The crew should be fully involved
in the boat’s management and passage
safe handling of the yacht and the welfare of the crew. If your
planning, and the skipper should
experience is limited, start with short day trips, building up to always listen to their opinions. The
a longer cruise lasting several days or more. crew must remember, however, that
a vessel at sea might appear to be a
democratic environment, but ultimately
Role of skipper duties and give the crew tasks the skipper is in charge and must
All aspects of the running of that are appropriate to their level make the final decisions.
the yacht, its safety, and the of ability and experience so that Skippers vary tremendously in their
crew’s well-being are the skipper’s they are neither underworked nor approach to running a yacht. Good
responsibility. The skipper should overburdened. Most importantly, ones demonstrate calm professionalism,
be comfortable with the sailing and a good skipper should be patient while those unsure of their own abilities
navigation skills, inspire confidence with inexperienced crew members are often loud and tense. As crew, you
in their crew, and be a good and be able to run the yacht may encounter very different styles of
communicator. They should be with a light touch while retaining boat management, and you will need
able to keep on top of all their respect and authority. to assess how you approach the
idiosyncrasies of your skipper. No
two skippers are alike in the way they
operate a boat and the way they prefer
jobs to be done. If you crew for a
succession of skippers, you may even
find that their ways of doing things are
contradictory. If you aspire to become
a skipper, then you will build up your
own working practices—hopefully
learned from the best skippers you
have sailed with.

Learning to be a skipper
It is fairly easy to define the technical
sailing and navigation skills required
of a skipper, and you can learn these
skills and obtain certificates at sailing

discussing plans
Plan your passage in detail before you
set sail, and make sure that the crew are
involved in the planning. Include backup
plans to allow for bad weather.
 PASSAGE MAKING
289
Do not undertake passages that
are beyond your level of experience.
crew morale Sailing is as much about the journey
If, at the end of the passage, the crew as the arrival, and successful day
is healthy and happy and can enjoy trips will provide just as much
a chat in the cockpit reminiscing pleasure for the skipper and crew
about the passage, then the skipper
as more ambitious passages. Short
has done a good job.
trips also involve more close-quarters
boat handling with which to
improve skills.
Although ultimate responsibility
lies with the skipper, their job will be
much easier if some of the crew have
offshore passage-making experience.
Passage making with an inexperienced
crew puts great demands on a skipper,
who may feel under immense pressure
if there is not an experienced crew
member to whom some tasks can
be delegated. If you cannot find an
experienced sailor to come with you,
adjust your plans to suit the crew’s
level of experience.

schools. The ability to manage The technical sailing and navigation Becoming a better skipper
people aboard a small yacht and skills you learned at sailing school Try to always learn from the time
develop your crew’s teamwork is, can be honed by regular use, so try you spend afloat, slowly building
however, less easy to define and to get as much experience as possible. knowledge of the sea, weather, and
more difficult to acquire. If you have Preplan each passage carefully and, if your boat. Do not get disheartened
business management skills, these will you feel at all unsure, ask a more or discouraged if something does not
help, but you will need to modify your experienced sailor to check your go according to plan; instead, learn
approach significantly, as running a plans and confirm your interpretation from it. Surprisingly quickly, you will
boat is not like running an office. of wind and tides. develop the skills and confidence
Crew members are not paid employees If you are concerned about necessary to undertake longer cruises
(unless you aim to be a commercial maneuvering your boat in tight lasting several days or more.
skipper) and are sailing with you for spaces, seek advice from other Although it is important to
experience and fun, so they must be skippers on similar boats or on develop technical skills, focus on
handled with consideration and similar moorings or marina berths. improving your interpersonal and
understanding. Very often they are If you need a hand, then ask for crew management skills. Novice
family or close friends, and your it—this is a sign of a good skipper. crew can be anxious about the
relationships can be harmed by If you have problems handling passage ahead, while others may
stressful experiences afloat. the boat in a crowded marina, be overconfident and want to push
Your crew will feel more relaxed well-stationed crew with roving too hard. A good skipper takes an
and confident if you are calm and fenders can often help avoid or interest in everyone on board and
show confidence, so try not to let soften a collision. Remember to pays special attention to novice
your own nerves show or affect your perform berthing maneuvers slowly; or nervous crew members. As an
behavior. Try to avoid high-stress this way, if you do have a collision, improving skipper, concentrate on
situations by only attempting what it will be a gentle one and only ensuring that everyone has a safe
you feel comfortable doing. your pride may be damaged. and enjoyable experience.
 CRUISER SAILING
290
PASSAGE PLANNING
Planning for a cruise or passage registration papers are on board. estimated date and time of arrival. On
starts some time before the day of You should also carry paperwork reaching the destination, the skipper
departure. The skipper, or navigator confirming the yacht’s tax status if then notifies the coast guard of their
if there is one, prepares a detailed you cruise in an area, such as Europe, boat’s safe arrival. This system allows
navigation plan (p.362). From this, that requires VAT or other tax to the coast guard to begin a search-and-
you can estimate the departure time, be paid on a boat. Failure to carry rescue operation if a yacht is overdue.
the number of hours or days for confirmation could result in a fine or You can also preregister your boat’s
which you will be sailing, and whether even the yacht’s being impounded. details with the coast guard so, in
the passage involves night sailing. It is also useful to have several the event of an emergency call from
Remember to have an alternative plan photocopied crew lists with you. your vessel, they immediately know
in case the weather or other factors These provide authorities with the type of boat, its distinguishing
require a change of plans. Also, on details of who is aboard, next of features, what safety equipment you
a cruise, build in days for rest and kin, passport number, and contact have, and other details. This will help
shoreside recreation, especially if details. Many countries now require them coordinate a speedy search and
there are children on board. a small-boat skipper to possess a rescue. If the coast guard in your
Using the cruise or passage plan, certificate of competence, so make area operates such services, it is wise
you will be able to work out your sure that you have it with you. to take advantage of them. Always
fuel, food, and water requirements remember to inform the coast guard
and can allow for stops to replenish Coast guard services on arrival or if your plans change
supplies if necessary. Check your In most countries with a coastline, a and you divert to another harbor.
yacht’s insurance details to be sure coast guard service is responsible for
that you are covered for the passage managing rescue operations at sea, Watch systems
and, if you are going abroad, make either using its own resources or those When passage making, it is
sure that all your crew bring their of the navy, air force, lifeboat service, essential that all members of the crew,
passports and make any visa or any shipping in the vicinity. including the skipper, get sufficient
arrangements that may be necessary. Many coast guards operate a rest so that they continue to perform
If you will be sailing in foreign system in which a yacht setting out on at their optimum. Sailing offshore can
waters (even if you do not intend to passage can inform the coast guard of be mentally and physically tiring,
enter port), check that your yacht’s its passage plan, destination, and especially in rough weather.
If everyone is to enjoy the
passage and be able to contribute to
the sailing of the yacht, you need to
ensure that the crew stay alert and
are well fed and rested throughout.
When setting out on a passage of
more than a few hours, you should
operate a defined watch system that
allows all crew members to have time
off watch for rest and sleep. A watch

keeping watch
The on-watch crew must keep a regular
lookout because it is very easy to be taken
unaware by a ship appearing over the
horizon, especially from astern.
 PASSAGE MAKING: PASSAGE PLANNING
291
system divides the crew into two passage, it is very easy for tempers
or more watches, one of which is to fray if the watch on deck is not TRADITIONAL
responsible for the sailing of the relieved on time because the new WATCH SYSTEM
yacht, while the other rests or watch has overslept. The on-watch
Watch systems are arranged to
prepares meals. Larger crews aboard team should wake their colleagues
run from midnight to midnight,
bigger racing or cruising yachts are about half an hour before they are splitting the 24 hours into periods
often split into three watches, each needed on watch to give them time of on-watch duty and off-watch
led by a watch leader. While one crew to be fully alert and properly dressed rest. The traditional system uses
is on watch, a second is off watch, for the prevailing conditions. This four-hour watches at night,
and the third is on stand-by to assist can take some time, as it may require which may be too long when
the on-watch crew and to undertake putting on a full set of oilskins, life conditions are difficult.
domestic tasks. With large crews, the jacket, and safety harness in a
skipper, navigator, and sometimes a confined and moving space.
A B
cook are left out of the watches. It is courteous to prepare a hot 0000
The traditional, two-watch system drink for the new watch. This is also HRS
has one watch on duty for four hours, the time for the new watch to be
followed by four hours off-watch. briefed and receive standing orders
To prevent each watch from having the and any instructions for the ongoing
same periods on watch each day, passage. Look out for each other’s 0400
the watches are staggered by two “dog safety during the changeover—
watches” of two hours each in the late don’t allow the new watch to come
afternoon and early evening, during on deck at night without clipping on
which everyone is usually awake. first, and be sure the new helm is
comfortable with the course to 0800
Personalized systems steer and any other navigational
There is no need to use a traditional issues before taking over.
system. Many experienced skippers When the crew is large enough,
devise their own system to suit the the skipper may stay outside the
1200
particular needs and size of their watch system but remain on call
crew and the length of the passage. at all times. In such instances, they
What is important is that everyone will issue standing instructions as
gets sufficient rest and that light and to when to be woken. Reasons will
noise are kept to a minimum below include an increase in wind strength,
1600
when the off-watch crew is sleeping. the approach of another vessel, the
Whichever system you adopt, sighting of land or navigational
make sure that everyone fully marks, or when the crew is uncertain 1800
appreciates how it will operate. Put about anything. It can feel awkward
a chart on the bulkhead above the waking the skipper, but don’t delay; 2000
chart table listing names and watch situations can develop very quickly,
times if that helps. There is nothing and a good skipper would rather
less likely to induce sleep than lying be woken unnecessarily than not be
in your bunk worrying about when awake when a crisis unfolds.
you are next required to be on watch. Despite the best-laid plans, it 2400
may be that a crew member becomes
Keeping time overtired. If this occurs, they should key
Make sure that everyone understands be taken out of the system for a watch
the importance of being on time for or two. The skipper may need to
their watch. In the confines of a small deputize for them until they are ON WATCH RESTING MEALTIMES
yacht, when people are tired on able to stand watch again.
 CRUISER SAILING
292
LIFE ON BOARD
On longer passages, of about two Unfortunately, cabins and berths Agree on times in the watch system
days or more, a routine should be at the ends of the boat are the least when everyone is awake, interacting,
quickly developed, dictated by the comfortable for sleeping, or even sharing meal times, and enjoying
needs of the boat and the need to relaxing when sailing in waves. In entertainment. At these times, it is
maintain a fit crew. The crew, divided rough conditions, the only usable appropriate for the crew to be
into watches, goes about their duties berths will be near the middle of the animated and for music to be played.
of sailing, navigation, and boat boat which, in a small cruiser, means
maintenance and takes their rest the settee or pilot berths in the Domestic chores
as set by the watch pattern. saloon. Berths farther aft, alongside It is important that the boat is kept
Two important factors when the cockpit, may be tenable but often clean and hygienic. A small boat at
you are running a watch system are induce claustrophobia, and being close sea can very quickly degenerate into
self-discipline and respect for each to the cockpit makes them noisy. an unpleasant environment, which is
other, particularly for the off-watch bad for morale and for maintaining
crew’s need for good-quality sleep. Minimizing noise a healthy and motivated crew.
The safety of the boat and Noise is often a problem for crew The galley, heads, and main
crew depends on having an alert and trying to sleep, and the on-watch accommodation areas should be
efficient crew on watch, and this is crew should try to keep it to a thoroughly cleaned very frequently,
not possible on a long passage if they minimum. Noise can come from probably on a daily basis, depending
do not get sufficient sleep. Where many sources—banging of hatches on the size of the crew and boat and
possible, the off-watch crew should and lockers, whistling kettles the weather conditions. Antibacterial
sleep in berths away from the saloon, (popular on boats), chatter from the cleaning agents are useful for
navigation station, and galley. Cabins cockpit, the VHF radio, instrument maintaining countertops and other
forward and aft afford some privacy alarms, the whirring of winches, and hard surfaces. Cleaning tasks are
and relative quiet. This also allows even the water rushing past the hull. unlikely to be popular, so make sure
for some lighting to be operated in It is not possible to eliminate noise, they are incorporated into the watch
the galley and navigational areas but remember how disturbing it can system routines and that each task is
without disturbing the sleeping crew. be to the crew trying to sleep. unambiguously allotted to one or
more crew members.

Conserving water
In normal shoreside life, an unlimited
water supply and the high level of
personal hygiene it affords are taken
for granted. On a boat, fresh water
is in short supply, and there is rarely
enough to allow daily or even
frequent showers when on an
offshore passage. In warm climates,
it may be possible to take a seawater

secure berths
Bunks intended for use when sailing
should have sturdy lee-cloths to hold the
person in the berth when the boat heels.
Some yachts have sleeping cabins with
upper and lower berths, as here.
 PASSAGE MAKING: LIFE ON BOARD
293
wash in the cockpit and rinse off Cooking
with fresh water using a deck shower, Food preparation is often the least
but long, luxurious showers will have favorite task on board, unless you
to wait until the next port is reached. are fortunate enough to sail with a
If you intend to allow swimming seagoing chef, but the importance
off the boat, you should enforce strict of food and meal times is heightened
safety guidelines. Always stop the at sea. It is important that meals are
boat and trail the dinghy or long prepared at the correct times and
floating lines with fenders attached that the crew is as well fed as
to act as safety lines for swimmers to possible under the circumstances.
grab if needed. Alternatively, insist Not everyone on board will
that swimmers wear safety harnesses consider themselves a good cook,
attached by lines to the boat. For and as a result, some crew members
each crew member swimming, make may shy away from the galley. It is
sure they have a “buddy” on board important, however, that as skipper,
to keep watch over them and that you don’t allow the better cooks to
someone competent in boat handling feel put upon by having to do the
stays aboard. If in any doubt about majority of meal preparation unless
the conditions, don’t allow anyone to they are relieved of some other
swim; instead, use a bucket on a rope onerous duty, such as dishwashing
to scoop up seawater. Remember, or cleaning. As with boat cleaning,
though, that a bucketful of water can meal preparation should be made preparing meals
easily be ripped out of your hand or a part of the watch system duties. The layout of the galley has a lot to do
with whether cooking is a pleasure or a
pull you overboard if you try to fill Food preparation is made easier
chore. A U-shaped galley with sufficient
it when the boat is moving. Tie the if the boat has refrigerator or freezer
counter space allows the cook to work
bucket’s lanyard to a cleat and do not facilities. For passages of a few days out of the way of other crew moving
wrap it around your hand when you or less, meals can be prepared at around the interior. Deep fiddles on galley
fill the bucket. home and frozen. They then simply counters keep items in place even when
need reheating. If that is not possible, heeled, and secure storage space close
Keeping the boat tidy select some simple but tasty recipes at hand keeps the galley well organized.
Encourage crew members to keep that won’t be difficult to prepare at
their own personal belongings neat— sea. Buy good-quality produce and
it’s all too easy for clothing and other check its expiration date. Keep fresh handy for the on-watch crew. From
items to spill across the boat as it fruit and vegetables in a cool, dark, the meal plan, make a shopping list
heels or tacks. If this happens, the but well-ventilated locker if possible. so that you know exactly what you
interior will quickly deteriorate into Prepare a menu plan for enough days need. If you are shopping for a long
an unpleasant place that will to cover your passage and any passage, take a calculator to the
discourage crew from going below eventualities. Check any special supermarket with you to avoid
when off watch. requirements, allergies, or preferences going over budget.
Wet gear should be kept away your crew may have; feeding them Mealtimes should be communal,
from dry clothes. A dedicated wet their favorite food certainly helps allowing both watches and the skipper
locker for hanging oilskins is ideal if morale. Bear in mind that if a long to spend time together. Keep one person
there is sufficient space; alternatively, passage involves a change of climate, on deck as a lookout and rotate this
use the heads compartment, as it dietary requirements may change. task frequently. Mealtimes are a good
usually has a sump into which the Always have some quick and time to discuss the passage and confirm
wet gear can drain. easy convenience food standing by future plans. It also gives the skipper
Organize a rota to share domestic in case of heavy weather, and keep a forum to pass on information,
duties, and delegate crew to clean up a container of chocolate, cookies, answer any questions, and set any
immediately after each meal. raisins, and other easy-to-eat snacks standing orders.
 CRUISER SAILING
294

AVOIDING COLLISIONS
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea At night, be careful to show the
(Col Regs) specify the responsibilities of all types of craft. They apply correct lights when you are sailing or
under power. Be careful not to show
to all vessels on the high seas and connected waters, and it is essential the lights for a sailing vessel if you
that you learn the most common rules. As the skipper of a small boat, are motor-sailing. This is an easy
you have exactly the same responsibility for avoiding collisions as the mistake to make if you have been
sailing and turn on the engine to enter
skipper of the largest liner or supertanker. Ignorance of the rules is no
harbor. It is easy to forget to switch
defense and, quite apart from the dangers of collision to boat and from your masthead sailing lights to
crew, the penalties for lack of rule observance can be severe. your deck level navigation lights and
steaming light required when you are
under power (p.307). Unfortunately,
Rules of the road sailing, practice spotting who has right the masthead combined light used
In addition to the Col Regs, national of way among the boats around you. on most sailing boats to conserve
governments and local authorities Involve your crew in this exercise; as power is of no use in close-quarters
can impose their own regulations they should be involved in keeping a situations when low-level lights
covering harbors, rivers, and inland lookout, it will be useful for them to are required.
waterways. Details of these additional practice identifying potential collision
regulations can be found in local pilot situations. Study the full regulations Identifying the stand-on vessel
books. If you are preparing a passage for a more complete understanding The concept of there being (at least)
plan, particularly in unfamiliar waters, and have a reference guide to the one give-way and one stand-on vessel
be sure to check if there are local rules on board. Radar and AIS in any potential collision situation is
bylaws in place that may apply to you. (Automatic Identification System) fundamental to an understanding and
Make sure that you know and (p.334) can provide invaluable observance of the collision regulations.
understand the basic “rules of the backup, especially at night or when The rules are designed to identify
road” (pp.54–55). When you are out visibility is poor. Be sure to learn the which vessel should hold its course
rules that govern boats under power,
as well as those under sail. Remember
that if your engine is running and in
gear and propelling the boat, your
Red Green boat becomes a power-driven vessel,
Port sidelight Starboard
sector—112.5º sidelight sector— whether or not you have sails hoisted. Crossing
from dead 112.5º from This boat
ahead dead ahead is the
Daylight shapes and Crossing stand-on
This boat is
navigation lights on the other’s
vessel

Always hoist the correct daylight port side

shape (p.297) when you are motor- and must
White give way Overtaking
sailing to indicate that you are under This boat is passing
Stern light sector—135º
power and sail. Also remember to and must give way
hoist the appropriate shape when
navigation light sectors
you are anchored. It can be a chore stand on or give way?
Under power at night, use the other power to find and hoist the correct daylight In daylight, imagine the angles of
boat’s light sectors to decide when you shapes, but they are an essential aid the navigation lights to help assess the
must give way. In the white or red sectors, for others trying to identify your situation as you approach other boats
give way; in the green sector, stand on. boat’s status. on a potential collision course.
 AVOIDING COLLISIONS
295
stand-on vessel. When under sail, it
is possible for the situation between
two converging sailing vessels to be
12 unclear. If one sailing boat is sailing
upwind and the other, to windward,
is sailing on a run on a converging Sailing yacht on
9 3
course, it can be difficult to determine port tack must
which tack the running boat is on. assume it is the
give-way vessel
6 This only matters if the close-hauled
boat is on port tack, in which case It may be hard
to identify
a boat running on starboard tack
which tack this
would be the stand-on boat. If the yacht is on

clock-notation system
running boat was on port tack, it
Use the clock-notation system to tell the would be the give-way vessel under
confusing situations at night
skipper where an approaching vessel is in the windward-boat-keeps-clear rule
Under sail at night, it can be hard to
relation to your yacht—here, a large ship is when two boats are on the same identify the give-way vessel, especially
at 10 o’clock and a motor yacht at 8 o’clock. tack. In poor visibility or at night, when one boat is sailing on a run and
it can be difficult or impossible to the other is close-hauled on port tack.
determine the situation until the The port tack boat must assume it has
and speed and which should take vessels get very close. to give way.
avoiding action in any situation where Other situations where it is difficult
vessels meet. Confusion sometimes to identify which tack a sailing boat is
arises when judging which boat is on are when it is running under crew has seen your boat or correctly
the stand-on or give-way vessel. spinnaker alone or when it is hove-to. interpreted the situation. It may be
When under power, this can be most In the former, the spinnaker pole will that they are just as sure as you are that
easily understood by reference to the be set on the windward side of the they have the right to stand on. Or a
sectors of the basic navigation lights. boat and will identify which tack it boat you were expecting to give way
Using this system, it is easy to see is on. If the position of a hove-to may be hampered by other vessels or
that an overtaking boat is not just yacht is uncertain, check which side unable to change course because of a
one approaching from directly astern, the main boom is on. navigational hazard or shallow water.
but is any approaching vessel within In any situation where you Always be ready to take avoiding
the sector covered by the stern light. cannot clearly identify the status of action, and remember that when a
Similarly, a vessel crossing from the the other vessel, you should assume stand-on vessel finds itself so close that
port side in the port light’s sector is that you should keep clear and do collision cannot be avoided by the
a give-way vessel. A vessel crossing so as early as possible. action of the give-way vessel alone,
from the starboard side in the sector the stand-on vessel must take any
covered by the starboard light is a Taking action actions it can to avoid a collision.
In some situations, especially when
A SAILING VESSEL under sail, it can be considerate to A POWER-DRIVEN
alter course or speed, even if you have
UNDER WAY SHOULD VESSEL UNDER WAY
the right to stand on, if it is easy for
KEEP CLEAR OF: SHOULD KEEP CLEAR OF:
you to do so but more difficult for the
• A vessel not under command • A vessel not under command
other boat. But if you decide to do so,
• A vessel restricted in its ability always make your course alteration • A vessel restricted in its ability
to maneuver in plenty of time and make sure that
to maneuver
• A fishing vessel your intentions are obvious so as • A sailing or fishing vessel
• A vessel constrained by not to confuse the other boat’s helm. • A vessel constrained by
its draft Equally, when you are the stand-on its draft
vessel, do not assume that the other
 CRUISER SAILING
296
CHANNELS AND TRAFFIC-SEPARATION ZONES
When sailing, you will almost boats or those moored alongside the to fishing vessels, ships in a state of
inevitably begin and end a passage channel. Always be considerate of emergency, and those crossing the
in a narrow channel or river leading to a other water users and keep your lanes. Vessels entering a traffic lane
mooring or a marina. It is likely that you speed low. Look behind the boat should do so at the ends of the lane
will be under engine rather than sail, so occasionally and make sure you are where possible, or at a shallow angle
the rules that apply to power vessels not making a large wash. at other parts of the lane.
will apply to you. Local traffic must use the inshore
The rules for proceeding along Traffic lanes zones and keep out of the lanes. If you
a channel require all boats to stay on When you cross a busy shipping lane must cross a traffic-separation area, the
the starboard side of the channel, and for the first time, you will be amazed rules state that you should do so as
you should remember to follow this at just how much commercial shipping quickly as possible on a heading that is
requirement. Be aware of the possibility plies its trade along the coasts. Because at a right angle to the lane. Do not
of boats entering the channel when of the volume of traffic, the size and adjust your course to counter the
you pass the entrances to marinas, rows speed of the ships, and the dangers of effects of tide, as this will lengthen the
of moorings, piles, or pontoons collision, traffic separation plans are time spent crossing the lane; steer a
alongside the main channel. Obey any used in busy areas and in areas with course at right angles to the lane and
speed limits and be ready to reduce significant navigational hazards to proceed across as quickly as possible.
speed if the channel narrows or you bring some order to the traffic flow. If the visibility is poor, do not cross a
encounter boats maneuvering. Shipping traffic is channeled into lane unless it is essential to do so,
If you are in a line of traffic and wish two lanes with a median strip, or or you have radar with which to spot
to pass, remember that it is your “separation zone,” which allows the position of shipping. Commercial
responsibility to give the boat you are vessels to pass safely in opposite shipping often travels at over 20 knots,
passing a wide berth and to keep clear directions. These traffic-separation which means that a ship will cover
until you have passed. Be aware of your plans also keep local traffic apart 1 mile in three minutes. If visibility is
wake and the effect that high speed from through traffic. Separation zones only half a mile, you will have only
and a large wake can have on small between the traffic lanes are restricted 90 seconds between first seeing the
ship and its being on top of you.
cS.G Wk
S

31
27
Wk
25 28 Remember that as well as traveling
Wk
11
Wk B G quickly, commercial shipping takes
32
21 30 36 Wk a long distance to stop or to alter
Inshore zone
28
S.Sh
33
32
course by a significant amount.
31
34
G.Sh
When crossing a traffic separation
30
30 45
30
lane, have sufficient crew on deck to
Traffic lane 33 33 maintain a full-time watch all around
S.St Course followed the horizon and have someone
due to tidal stream
32
47 manning the radar if you have one.
34 34 33
Separation zone
43
32
separation zones
44 38
Traffic lane From its departure point, A, the yacht
50
travels along the inshore zone, then steers
55 29
37 at right angles to the traffic lanes to get
37 A across as quickly as possible. It then
36

Inshore zone Boat steers at 34 proceeds to the destination, B, using the

right angles Wk
Wk 41 to lane S.G inshore zone. When crossing the lane,
34 43 Wk
34
33 Wk 37 the yacht does not steer to counteract any
tidal stream, but steers directly across.
 AVOIDING COLLISIONS: CHANNELS AND TRAFFIC-SEPARATION ZONES
297
Keeping a lookout whenever an approaching vessel is decide to take avoiding action, make
The Col Regs state that all vessels seen. If you are uncertain if you a significant course change so that
should keep a proper lookout, by all are on a collision course, use a hand your intentions are obvious. Avoid
available means, at all times. The crew bearing compass (p.327) to take crossing the bows of another craft,
should look, listen, and use radar if a bearing of the approaching ship. especially a large ship, which may be
available. If you are sailing with a large Record the bearing, then take a series moving much faster than you think.
headsail, then someone should sit near of compass bearings on the same part Where possible, pass astern of the
the leeward rail to cover the area of the ship at frequent intervals. If the other vessel. If in doubt, turn onto a
masked by the genoa. As skipper, you bearing remains constant, then you parallel course, in the same direction
should instruct your crew to alert you are on a collision course. When you as the vessel, and wait for it to pass.

SOUND SIGNALS AND DAYLIGHT SHAPES

Sound signals are used in clear visibility to indicate During the day, vessels use daylight shapes hoisted in
that a vessel is carrying out a maneuver. When vessels the rigging to make identification easier. For instance,
under power are in sight of each other and one is when a yacht is under power but still has a sail hoisted, it
altering course, it must indicate its intentions by the should hoist an inverted cone shape up the forestay to
use of horn signals. Most sailing boats keep an aerosol indicate that it is motor-sailing. Another occasion when
type foghorn aboard. This is ideal for producing loud a yacht should use a daylight shape is when anchored;
sound signals, but be sure to have a spare reserved the regulations require you to hoist a ball shape in the
just for use during fog. At night, an all-around white fore-triangle. Refer to the Col Regs themselves for a full
light can be flashed the appropriate number of times. list of all the sound signals and daylight shapes.

sound signals ( = short blast ; = long blast) daylight shapes

Altering course to starboard Vessel under sail and power

Vessel at anchor
Altering course to port
Vessel fishing or trawling
Engine going astern. Large ships take time
to stop; they may still be moving ahead even Vessel constrained by its draft
when their engine is running astern

Vessel restricted in its ability

Vessel indicating that another’s intentions to maneuver
are not clear

Towing and towed

Wishes to pass another vessel on its starboard

Not under command
side in a narrow channel

Wishes to pass another vessel on its port side

in a narrow channel

Mine Underwater Vessel

Vessel agreeing to be passed in a narrow channel clearance operations aground
 CRUISER SAILING
298

RUNNING AGROUND
There are very few experienced sailors who have never run weeks or more until the tide returns
aground. In theory, careful navigation and good seamanship will far enough to float the boat. If
you ground under sail, you must
avoid a grounding, but in the real world, it is an occupational decide immediately if you can use
hazard. Most groundings result in little more than wounded pride, the sails to help you get off. If you
but the situation is potentially dangerous. Quick and effective ground on a lee shore, the wind
will push the boat into the shallows,
action is required to refloat the boat immediately if possible or
and you will not be able to use the
to minimize the danger and potential damage if you are stuck fast. sails to get off.
When the sails cannot help, drop
them and, under power, try backing
Assessing the situation whether the tide is rising or falling. off the way you went on. If the
If you run aground, the amount If it is rising, the situation is less bottom is muddy, the keel will have
of danger that your boat is in will serious; the tide will soon float you plowed a furrow. It will be easier to
depend on the bottom and on the sea off, as long as you can prevent the reverse out than to turn the boat and
state. Grounding on rocks in a heavy boat from being driven farther into motor off forward.
sea will wreck the strongest boat, but shallow water. If the tide is falling,
grounding on sand or mud in settled however, you may have only a few Grounding in channels
conditions should present little threat. moments to get off before you are Grounding can easily occur when
Check your charts and test around stuck until the tide rises again. In tacking up a channel with shallow
the boat with the spinnaker pole or the worst case—running aground water on each side. If you hold a
boathook to find out what the bottom at the top of a tack too far, the boat will touch
is like. If weather conditions are spring tide—you bottom. In this situation, you should
forecast to deteriorate, try everything may have to immediately try to tack the boat
possible to get the boat off quickly. wait two so that it is pointing back into deep
water. If you are successful and the
Taking action sails fill on the new tack, sheet them
First actions on running aground in very tight, and the boat may heel
can be crucial if you are to get off far enough to reduce its draft and
quickly. It is important to know sail clear into deep water. You can

Halyard
Lay an anchor and tie
getting off the cable to a halyard
Fast actions are needed to get off to heel the boat

if the tide is falling. Test the depth

Lay the kedge anchor
of water, heel the boat, and row Use a tender to row the
Heel the boat
out an anchor. Suspend a weight from kedge anchor to deep water
the boom—here, a
Test depth dinghy half-filled
Test the depth all around with water
the boat using a boathook
 RUNNING AGROUND
299
avoid this situation by checking Returning tide shifting weight to the side you want
the depth sounder frequently when If you are stuck fast until the tide it to heel toward. Alternatively, push
tacking along a channel. returns, try to lay the boat over with the bow or stern around, or pull it
the mast pointing toward shallow with an anchor line, to point the boat
Turning the bow water. If you have grounded on a in the right direction. If the bottom is
In a small boat with a shallow slope and the boat lays over toward rocky or uneven, pad the outside of
draft, you may be able to send a deep water, it may flood through the hull before it lies on its side.
crew member over the side to push the deck openings, such as This will help protect the hull
the bow around. If a crew member hatches and ventilators, before from crashing on the seabed
goes over the side, tie a line to keep the boat can rise on the as it rises and falls on the
them attached to the boat and first returning tide. If the boat returning tide. Use bunk
check the depth of water around has already settled heeling cushions, sail bags, or a
the boat with the spinnaker pole or the wrong way, try partly inflated dinghy.
boathook. Alternatively, you could
try pushing off with a spinnaker Leaning out Leaning in
pole or boathook from the deck. The boat is lying with The boat is lying with
the mast toward the mast toward
deep water shallow water
Reducing draft
Sometimes, you may be able to reduce
draft to enable the boat to sail or motor
clear. If your boat has a centerboard,
raise it immediately and head for
deep water. In a deep-keeled boat,
you can try heeling the boat to
reduce its draft. If the wind is leaning the wrong way leaning the right way
blowing off the shallows, try sheeting If the boat is heeled with the mast lying If the boat is heeled with the mast lying
the sails in tightly to increase the toward deep water when the tide is rising, toward shallow water, lay an anchor and
heeling force. Alternatively, have try to correct it or the boat may flood. wait until the tide rises and floats it off.
the crew sit on the end of the boom
and swing it out over the side of
the boat. Make sure that the topping USING A KEDGE ANCHOR
lift is strong enough before you do If the tide is not falling quickly, you may have time to launch the tender
this, however. If the crew is reluctant and row out the kedge anchor toward deep water. Try using it to winch
to sit on the boom, try hanging a the boat into water deep enough to float in.
heavy weight, such as an anchor,
Laying the anchor
from its end and swinging it over Lay the anchor on the longest cable possible. Back aboard, take the cable
the side. This weight should be to the bow or stern, depending on which end you are going to try to pull
sufficient to heel the boat and reduce toward the deep water. Lead the cable through a fairlead and then to an
its draft. This may be enough to anchor windlass or sheet winch. If necessary, lead the cable around two
allow you to sail off. winches and wind on both of them. If your gear is strong enough, you may
Many boats have their deepest be able to winch the boat into deep water, recover the anchor, and motor or
sail away. It can help free the boat if the crew who are not required to
draft at the aft end of the keel. In
winch the cable try to heel the boat, or rock it from side to side, to break
this case, draft can be reduced the suction if the keel is trapped in mud.
slightly by putting all the crew on the
bow to lift the stern. A bilge keel boat Stuck fast
draws more when heeled than upright If you are stuck fast, lay the anchor as far as possible toward deep water
because of its keel configuration, so to prevent the boat from being pushed farther into the shallows by breaking
seas and to assist you in getting off when the tide returns.
you should bring it upright in order
to minimize its draft.
 CRUISER SAILING
300

MAN-OVERBOARD
couple of hours even in summer.
In the winter, survival time reduces
to a few minutes.

PROCEDURE
Injury or death from impact is
another serious danger for a person
who falls over the side. First, there is
the danger of hitting the boat as you
Having crew go overboard is one of the greatest fears of any fall overboard, then there is the risk
skipper. As soon as a person falls overboard, they are in very of being hit by other vessels—if the
incident happens in congested waters
grave danger. Only the prompt and efficient action of the crew such as the entrance to harbor—and
left on board can prevent a fatality. It is best to try to stop people finally there is the danger of being
from falling overboard in the first place: safety harnesses must be hit by the rescuing boat during the
recovery procedure.
available and worn when necessary. If a man-overboard situation
still occurs, it is vitally important to keep the person in sight and to Priority actions
return to them and pick them up as quickly as possible. The immediate priority when a person
falls overboard is to alert the rest of
the crew, including those off-watch,
The dangers automatic life jacket. A manually with a cry of “man overboard,” and to
A man-overboard situation can inflated life jacket will not save stop the boat or turn it onto a course
transform a pleasant sail into a someone who is unconscious; neither from which it is easy to return to the
potentially fatal accident in a matter will a buoyancy aid if the person is person. It is vital to keep the casualty
of seconds. To the inexperienced, face down in the water. in sight while deploying a lifebuoy
a person falling over the side on a Even if the person is conscious, and danbuoy immediately. Every
pleasant summer’s day may appear fit, and a strong swimmer, the shock second of delay in launching the
little more than an unexpected swim, of falling overboard may easily cause lifebuoy will result in it being dropped
but even in perfect conditions, a them to swallow water, panic, and farther away from the casualty, greatly
man-overboard incident has the sink below the surface. If the water reducing their chances of reaching it.
potential to become a tragedy. is cold, the natural reaction is to The next key step is to fix the
Whenever anyone falls overboard, hyperventilate, causing blood pressure person’s position by eye and any
they face the dangers of drowning, to soar. This in turn can lead to the other means available. Returning
exposure or hypothermia, and impact dangers of stroke or heart attack. to the person depends on knowing
injury. Drowning can occur quickly If the person is wearing a exactly where they are, and the best
if the person is not wearing an functioning life jacket, they are still way to do this is to never lose sight
in danger. Exposure, followed by
hypothermia and eventually death,
is a real fear, even if the air and
water temperatures are not cold. If a
person’s core body temperature drops
by just 3.6ºF (2ºC), hypothermia sets
in. Because the body loses heat 26
times faster in water than in air, a
person overboard in water as warm
as 75ºF (24ºC) still risks hypothermia.
on the boat Since water temperature in temperate in the water
If you can stop the boat close to the crew latitudes rarely reaches such a high If the person overboard is conscious and
overboard, a heaving line or, preferably, a temperature, survival time outside can reach the heaving line or rescue sling,
rescue sling, as shown here, can be thrown. the tropics may be as little as a they can be pulled back to the boat.
 MAN-OVERBOARD PROCEDURE
301
WEAR A HARNESS WHEN: PREVENTION
• Sailing at night or in fog Clearly, the risks to a crew member who falls overboard are real and
• The boat is reefed or when very serious, and it should always be treated as a life-threatening
a reef may be needed situation. The risk is so high, especially in rough conditions, when
• In areas of rough water the difficulty of recovery increases dramatically, that the whole crew
• You are working alone must focus on prevention and on learning appropriate recovery and
on deck survival techniques (pp.302–303). Often, it is when least expected that an
incident can occur. Offshore and in heavy weather, everyone recognizes
the danger and takes extra care, but inshore and when maneuvering
of the person. On a fully crewed boat, in confined waters, attitudes toward safety are often relaxed. It is wise
one or more crew should be detailed to remember that many man-overboard situations occur in benign
to keep a continuous watch on the conditions when the crew is caught off guard.
person overboard. In addition, they
Staying on board webbing rather than plastic-covered
should point with outstretched arms
Prevention includes wearing good wire (webbing does not roll underfoot
toward the casualty. This is essential nonslip footwear and learning the if stood on), do not leave them
if you are to have any chance of a boat’s deck layout so that you can permanently rigged or the stitching
successful recovery. A person’s head move around confidently when it will rot quite quickly due to
bobbing around in a sea, even with is upright, heeled, or pitching, and ultraviolet light.
just a little swell, will easily get lost. at night as well as day. If the deck In good weather and daylight,
Other ways of marking their layout does not work well or most skippers give experienced crew
has hazardous areas, consider the freedom to decide for themselves
position should be employed as soon
modifications to make it a safer when to wear their harness but
as possible. If the boat is equipped working area. Often, safety bars require them to wear it at night and
with a GPS set with a man-overboard can be installed near the mast to in other situations. They may ask
(MOB) function, there should be a allow crew members to brace novices to wear the harness and clip
dedicated MOB button. When pushed, themselves securely when adjusting whenever they leave the greater safety
this records the position, then the set halyards and mast-mounted control of the cockpit. Some will be content
can be used to guide the boat back to lines. Make sure that there are if a novice wears a combined harness
sufficient handholds for all sizes and life jacket without clipping on
that position. If the boat takes too
of crew as they move between in good weather.
long to return to the position, the cockpit and foredeck. Even when a harness tether is
person is likely to have drifted due Encourage your crew to get used, it is still vital to maintain
to wind, waves, tide, or current, but comfortable moving around on good handholds and avoid falling
at least it provides a fixed spot from deck and explain to any novices over. In fact, it is a good idea to
which to start a search. how to move from handhold to crawl in rough weather or if you
Physical ways of marking the handhold, always obeying the old feel insecure.
adage of “one hand for the ship, Keeping your weight low means
person’s position include dye markers
one for yourself.” you are much less likely to be thrown
or even using cushions or fenders to over the side. Always keep your
mark the route back to the casualty. Using a safety harness harness tether as short as possible,
At night, floating light sticks are very Each crew member should be and when moving around on deck,
useful. If the person is wearing a issued with a safety harness, try to do it along the windward side
personal locator beacon (PLB), make preferably of the type that is of a heeled boat. Then, if you do
combined with an automatic slip, your tether should keep you
sure the onboard receiver is working.
life jacket (p.221). The harness from sliding over the leeward
If the boat has sufficient crew,
tether is best clipped to jackstays side. Although it is better to be
one should be detailed to plot the time (p.220), which should be installed overboard but attached to the
and position on the chart and record permanently or before each yacht, it is best by far not to
the details in the logbook. This is a passage. If yours are made of be overboard at all.
life-threatening situation, so another
crew member should immediately
initiate a mayday call (p.427).
 CRUISER SAILING
302
RECOVERING THE MAN OVERBOARD
There are no set rules as to whether is under autopilot. Their actions spinnaker up, it must be dropped
you recover a casualty under sail or should depend on whether the immediately. Even if you plan to pick
power, although if you are already yacht is under power or sail and, up the man overboard under sail,
under power when the person falls if under sail, whether the standing start the engine anyway, leaving it in
overboard, you would return to them orders call for a crash stop or a neutral so that it is ready if needed.
under power. Most training courses sail-away-and-return method. The sail-away-and-return method
teach both methods. The size of the If the boat is under power when is the same as the man-overboard
boat, the number and experience the person falls overboard and the recovery method taught for dinghies
of the crew, and the weather will helm sees the person fall, they should (pp.118–119) and is often taught for
dictate the best course of action. immediately turn the bow toward the use in cruisers. It can work, especially
However, unless you are supremely person in the water. This action will with a full crew aboard, but has the
confident in the speed and accuracy swing the stern away from the person disadvantage of taking you away
of your sailing, the natural reaction and help keep them clear of the from the person in the water to gain
is to start the engine, drop the sails, propeller as the yacht passes them. sea room, which means that you risk
and motor back to the casualty. Having turned toward the person losing sight of the person. In very
Whatever method you use, all that initially, the helm should then put rough conditions or at night, it will
matters is that you keep the casualty the helm over the other way once the be virtually impossible to keep the
within sight and return under full man overboard has cleared the stern. casualty in sight among the waves,
control without hitting them with Swing the boat around in a tight and boat handling will be difficult.
the boat as you approach. circle and throttle back, and you
should be in a position to maneuver Crash stop
Helm’s first actions alongside the person within seconds Another method to consider is the
When someone falls over the side, of their falling overboard. crash stop. This has the advantage of
there are a number of things that keeping the boat close to the person
must happen almost simultaneously Sail away and return in the water. With this technique, the
(pp.300–301). How they are done and If you are under sail when the person helm should push the tiller hard to
by whom will depend on the size falls overboard and the standing leeward as soon as the person goes
and type of boat and the size and orders call for the sail-away-and-return over the side. Whatever the point of
experience of the crew. The details method, luff or bear away as necessary sailing you are on, this action usually
should be included in the standing to turn to a beam reach. If you have a results in the boat tacking or at least
orders set by the skipper. The helm’s
actions are critical because they will Stop to windward of man
have a major influence on the rest of overboard if seas are not too rough
the recovery procedure.
Tack around and
Usually, the skipper will take approach on
over the helm for the recovery, but a close reach
the initial actions should be taken
by the person steering or the person
in charge of the watch if the yacht

sail away and return

Sail away from the man overboard on a
beam reach (to the apparent wind), tack Sail away on a reach
to get room to tack
around, and approach the person on a
close reach, stopping to windward of them.
 MAN-OVERBOARD PROCEDURE: RECOVERING THE MAN OVERBOARD
303
Boat has tacked and, with the jib still
cleated on the old leeward side, it
GETTING THE
will heave-to and drift toward PERSON ABOARD
the person. Adjust sails and
Once you have maneuvered
tiller to maneuver closer
Person overboard the boat alongside the person,
or start the engine
swims to lifebuoy
if possible and immediately secure them to the
holds hand aloft boat with a line tied under their
to remain visible armpits using a bowline (p.47).
Boat is head-to-wind. It Factors to consider
may not have sufficient
momentum to tack but
How you get the person aboard
will stop fairly close to the will depend on their ability to help
When a person
person in the water themselves (if conscious), the height
falls overboard, of the boat out of the water, and
throw lifebuoy and the crew strength on board. Bear
put the helm hard in mind that it is much easier to
over to leeward Boat turns rapidly recover a man overboard on the
toward the wind
leeward side, where the boat’s heel
reduces the freeboard. In some
turning into the wind and stopping. crash stop circumstances, it may make sense as
If the boat tacks, leave the jib sheet With this method, the helm should a first step to get the person into the
put the helm to leeward immediately tender if that can be launched.
cleated and the boat will end up
hove-to (p.249). Push the tiller to the so that the boat turns into the wind
Lifting tackle
new leeward side to keep the boat and stops or tacks and heaves-to.
It is nearly physically impossible to
stopped. There will be much flapping pull a wet, heavy, and unconscious
of sails and temporary disorder, but person out of the water, so some
the boat will stop and lie relatively Final approach form of lifting tackle will be needed.
Make up a sling and tackle for
steady. Stopped in the water, the boat Whichever method you use to return
this purpose, or buy a specially
will drift in a way similar to the to the man overboard under sail, made system. Stow it where it can
person, so you should not become you should aim to make the final be reached quickly. The tackle can be
separated too far. This method gives approach on a close reach. This attached to a spare halyard or to
you time to assess the situation and allows you to adjust your speed easily the end of the main boom. Use an
plan what to do without sailing by easing or trimming the mainsail. arrangement appropriate for your
away from the man overboard. If If possible, lower or roll up the jib boat and practice using it before
it is needed in a real-life situation.
you are sailing under spinnaker, to keep the foredeck clear of flapping
the boat will almost certainly not jib sheets that can cause injury.
Tail of Lifting sling
tack when you crash stop, and the In moderate conditions, aim to tackle led under armpits
situation will be chaotic until you stop with the bow to windward of the to cockpit
winch
lower the spinnaker. Nevertheless, casualty so that it drifts to leeward as
the boat will still be relatively close it slows down. This allows the
to the person. casualty to be grabbed and brought
After a crash stop, you may be aft to just behind the leeward shrouds.
close enough to throw the person a In heavier conditions, it is safer to
line. If not, try to work the boat closer stop to leeward of the person in the
by adjusting the sheets and tiller. water so that the boat is not pushed sling and tackle
Alternatively, lower the headsail, sheet onto them by a wave, causing injury. A ready-to-use lifting sling and tackle is
the best solution for lifting a person out
the main in tight, and use the engine Have a rope ready to throw in case of the water. The system should allow
to approach the person overboard. you cannot get alongside and have the weakest member of the crew to
Before starting the engine, make another ready to tie them to the boat recover the heaviest person on board.
sure there are no lines in the water. as soon as you have contact with them.
 CRUISER SAILING
304

SAILING AT NIGHT
ones, are used below in the galley
and navigation area. Turn off
all unnecessary lights.
Work out a watch system
In good conditions, sailing at night can be very rewarding. (pp.290–291) and make sure the
It reinforces a sense of solitude and of being solely responsible for crew knows exactly when they are
on watch. Make sure that the crew
your boat and crew. Moonlight and phosphorescence can make understands the reasons for having
for a beautiful nighttime passage, and dawn at sea is one of the a watch system and the importance
most exquisite experiences afloat. To fully enjoy the experience, of being on time when due on
watch. Remind the crew of the
however, you and your crew must make preparations before
importance of the off-watch getting
darkness falls. For your first nighttime passage, try to have at least adequate rest.
one crew member who has had experience of night sailing. At As skipper, make sure those on
night, all vessels must display navigation lights according to their watch understand that they must
call you if they are concerned about
size and type. Make sure you have a suitable reference book anything or at any times or in any
aboard to look these up, since it can be difficult to remember situations that you specify. Watch-
all the possible light combinations. keepers must dress warmly and
wear waterproofs if necessary.
Wear safety harnesses and clip
Advance preparation All crew who work on deck during them on at all times when in the
Before leaving on a passage that will the night must be familiar with the cockpit or on deck, even in calm
include an overnight sail, check all equipment they may need and be weather. Before going on watch, use
your navigational lights, flashlights, able to find and use it in the dark. the restroom and take extra clothing,
and other electrical equipment. Replace Retaining night vision on deck is something to drink, and some snacks
broken bulbs and dead batteries. Carry important. This is made easier if into the cockpit with you so that you
a generous quantity of spares. red lights, or at least very dim white avoid disturbing the off-watch crew
if you get hungry or thirsty.

nightfall
Before nightfall
As dusk falls, dress Prepare and eat a hot meal before
warmly and wear a safety dark, and clean up immediately. Stow
harness, which should be all loose gear below. Check the deck
clipped on at all times and stow any unnecessary equipment.
when in the cockpit or Make sure that at least one flashlight
when working on deck. and spare batteries are on hand in
the cockpit. Take the foghorn, too;
if the watch-keepers encounter a
problem that is fully occupying them,
they may not be able to summon the
off-watch, but sounding the foghorn
should wake those below.
Complete any sail changes
before darkness makes the job harder.
It can be helpful to change to a
smaller headsail or roll away part of
a roller-reefing headsail to improve
the helm’s visibility. Reducing sail
 SAILING AT NIGHT
305
area should certainly be considered log with the time if you sight an
and undertaken while all hands are important navigational mark. If you
awake. Not only is it easier to reef can see more than one lit navigational
with a full crew, but it will slightly mark, consider taking the opportunity
depower the boat so that it can sail to get a visual fix with a handbearing
more upright and provide a more compass and plot it on the chart as a
stable platform for the off-watch crew valuable check for the GPS position.
to sleep. However, do not sail the boat If the boat is equipped with
undercanvassed in light weather. Sail radar, keep it on standby and have
with a spinnaker at night only if the an experienced crew member check it
crew is experienced, as spinnakers can regularly. Alternatively, if electrical
be difficult to take down in the dark. power is sufficient, have it in active
At dusk, turn on and check the mode and use its guard facility to nighttime shipping
navigation lights, update your position help identify any approaching vessels. Maintain a constant lookout at
on the chart, and review your passage The radar can also help confirm the night and do not forget to look
plan for the hours of darkness. Write identity of any navigational buoys astern regularly—ships can appear
standing instructions for the on-watch that you spot. quite unexpectedly.
crew in the logbook or on a deck slate.
Include the course to steer and any
light that you anticipate being visible. COPING WITH THE DARK
Everything should be preplanned; It is important to know about some of the effects of night sailing. The
watch-keepers are better on deck at boat’s behavior does not alter, but the crew’s perceptions of it may
night keeping a lookout rather than change. Conditions may feel rougher than they really are, and it
performing navigational duties down will be more difficult to judge distances accurately. On the positive side,
it can be easier to identify navigational marks, shore features, and other
below. If you are a watch-keeper, write
vessels at night when they are illuminated. Although it can be difficult
your own notes from the skipper’s
to pick out an individual navigation mark against the light pollution of a
instructions and keep simple written
populated coastline or harbor entrance, with practice you will develop
navigational notes in the cockpit with
a sharp eye for spotting lights.
you. Remember to have a copy of the
Col Regs or other reference book on Crew and helm Sail setting
hand to help identify any lights you Inexperienced crew may feel Checking the set of the sails is much
see around you. nervous and disoriented at night. harder at night. Shine a flashlight on
Wherever possible, they should be the luffs periodically to check that the
paired with a more experienced crew sails are set properly. On larger boats,
Keeping a lookout this may mean someone needs to go
member. To avoid eye strain from
When sailing at night, especially in staring at the compass, the helm forward to get a good view. Some
cold or wet conditions, it is very should use a star, the moon, a cloud, boats have spotlights set into the
tempting to curl up in the shelter or other reference point ahead of deck near the forestay and shining
of a cockpit sprayhood, or inside a the boat to steer toward, checking the upward to illuminate the luff of
wheelhouse if your boat has one, but course by the compass at frequent the headsail and the telltales.
intervals. The crew members on At all times, stay clipped onto the
this should be avoided. Take a good
watch should be extra supportive boat by using the jackstays. Rather
look all around the horizon at least than shouting back to the cockpit,
of each other at night. If someone
every five minutes if the visibility needs to go below, perhaps to write use predetermined hand signals,
is clear and more frequently if the the log, they should check their silhouetted against the illuminated
visibility deteriorates and there is team members are happy for them sail, to communicate adjustments to
a risk of being taken by surprise by to leave the cockpit. the trim back to the cockpit crew.
an approaching ship. Keep noise to a minimum; avoid Above all, avoid shining a light
slamming locker doors and moving into someone’s eyes, as this will ruin
Try to identify every light you see,
around or talking unnecessarily. their night vision for up to 20 minutes.
deciding if it is a navigational, ship,
or shore light. Make a note in the
 CRUISER SAILING
306

UNDERSTANDING NAVIGATION LIGHTS

The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at No extra lighting should be used in a way that will confuse
Sea (the Col Regs) specify the type, size, layout, arc, and identification or that impairs the ability to maintain a
distance of visibility of lights to be used by all types of proper lookout.
vessels. Various combinations indicate, among other When using your engine, even if a sail is hoisted as well,
possibilities, whether a boat is anchored or under way, make sure that you display the correct lights for a vessel
under sail or power, or fishing or trawling. under power.
All vessels display basic navigation lights and may also Make sure that you know all the common arrangements
show one or more masthead lights (“steaming lights”), of lights and check that your own boat’s lights conform to
which show a vessel is under power and making way. the Col Regs. The most common lights and their required
Navigation lights are required to be used from sunset arcs of visibility are shown here, but you should also carry
to sunrise, and additionally at times of low visibility. a complete reference workbook on board.

basic navigation lights

white light stern and combined sidelights

A small dinghy (less than 23 ft/7 m) under Sailing vessels over 23 ft (7 m) long must
sails or oars must carry a flashlight to show show red and green sidelights, each
a white light when required. covering an arc of 112.5º. Under 66 ft (20 m),
the sidelights can be combined in one
lantern, but over 66 ft (20 m), they must be
all-around white light separate. The stern light must be visible over
A boat up to 23 ft (7 m) long, under power an arc of 135º. Alternatively, a tricolor light
but capable of less than 7 kn, must have a may be used (left).
fixed all-around white light.

masthead tricolor light separate lights

Sailing yachts under 66 ft (20 m) may Yachts over 66 ft (20 m) are required to use
combine the sidelights and stern lights in two separate sidelights and a stern light. They
a masthead tricolor light where its height may not use a tricolor masthead light (left),
offers greater visibility. A separate stern light but they can choose to show the optional
and sidelights must still be installed for use sailing lights (opposite) that are often used
under power, with a steaming light (below). on large sailing vessels.

masthead lights

combined stern/ single two masthead lights

masthead light masthead light Larger power vessels
A power craft under A power-driven over 165 ft (50 m) in
66 ft (20 m) can combine craft less than 165 ft length must show two
its stern and masthead (50 m) long must masthead lights. The
lights. Sidelights may be show a masthead forward light should
combined in a single steaming light, visible be positioned lower
bow-mounted light. over a 225º arc, than the aft light.
positioned above
the sidelights.
 SAILING AT NIGHT: UNDERSTANDING NAVIGATION LIGHTS
307
recognizing navigation lights

power vessel <165 ft (50 m) hovercraft sailing vessel <66 ft (20 m) sailing vessel optional
A power vessel under 165 ft A hovercraft shows the Under 66 ft (20 m), the sidelights Over 66 ft (20 m), separate
(50 m) has separate sidelights same lights as a power vessel and stern light can be combined stern light and sidelights
and a single masthead light. plus an all-around flashing in a single light at the masthead. plus optional all-around
If it was over 165 ft, it would yellow light. red over green lights.
need two masthead lights.

under tow (side lights) (stern lights) trawling fishing

A towing vessel shows two masthead lights in a vertical line A trawler making way shows A fishing vessel shows
(three if tow is over 655 ft/200 m) together with sidelights, all-around green over white all-around red over white
stern light, and a yellow towing light above the stern light. light, side and stern lights, light, plus side and stern
The towed vessel shows sidelights and a stern light. plus masthead light if over lights when making way.
165 ft (50 m).

not under command restricted underwater operations mine clearance

Vessel not under command maneuverability Restricted maneuverability plus Mine clearance shows three
shows two vertical all-around Vessel shows red, white, and red two red lights on danger side and all-around green lights plus
red lights plus side and stern all-around lights, plus masthead, two green lights on side clear to side, stern, and masthead
lights when making way. stern, and side lights when pass (plus nav and masthead lights when making way.
making way. lights when making way).

constrained by draft pilot vessel on duty at anchor aground

In addition to the lights for All-around white over red Vessel under 165 ft (50 m) A vessel aground shows
a power-driven vessel, three lights at the masthead has an all-around white light. two vertical all-around red
all-around red lights in a plus stern and sidelights Over 165 ft, two all-around lights plus anchor lights.
vertical line. when underway. white lights as shown.
 CRUISER SAILING
308

SAILING IN FOG
Fog is possibly the greatest of all dangers a sailing craft can
face. It can certainly represent a greater danger than rough
weather to a small boat. Your visibility can be reduced to near
zero, making you vulnerable to collision with another craft or with
the shore. Do not put to sea unless you are absolutely sure that the
fog is landbound and that conditions at sea are clear. When
checking the forecast prior to sailing, be sure to listen for the
fog at sea
visibility rating in your area. If you are at sea when fog forms, you In fog, it is very difficult to estimate the
must take steps to ensure your safety. Make sure you have a radar size and speed of another boat and the
direction in which it is traveling. When
reflector mounted as high up as possible, use the appropriate visibility is very poor, the risk of collision
sound signals, and avoid any other vessels in the vicinity. with another boat may be extremely high.

Type of fog used in yacht construction, fiberglass it is. However, when purchasing a
There are different causes and types and wood, are very poor reflective radar reflector, it is worth checking its
of fog (pp.380–381), and when materials of radar signals. Radar technical specifications. Reflectors come
considering your options in fog, it reflectors work by using metal plates or in a variety of shapes and sizes, and
will be advantageous to know what film, combined in a geometric pattern, some work much better than others.
type you are experiencing. Radiation to reflect microwaves. Ideally, a radar The traditional octahedral metal plate
fog may dissipate as the sun burns it reflector delivers a much bigger target variety looks unsophisticated, presents
off, whereas advection or sea fog may for radar sets on other vessels than quite a lot of windage, and may snag
be much more persistent. Advection your yacht does without the reflector. In and damage sails, but this simple and
fog is by far the sailor’s worst enemy. general, the larger the reflector and the cheap reflector often performs better
The prevailing weather in your higher it is mounted, the more efficient than more modern cylinder types. It is
sailing area will dictate at what times also easy to dismantle and stow below
of year and in what conditions these if required, although it is best if it is
different fog types will develop. In mounted permanently high up on the
many waters, advection fog is more mast so it is always working to make
likely in the spring when water the yacht more visible to mast.
temperatures are at their lowest but Cylinder-type reflectors are easy
air temperatures are rising. to mount permanently on the mast,
or can be hoisted when needed, and
Radar reflectors have no sharp edges to catch sails.
All commercial vessels and many However, many of these types have
yachts use radar as a primary means of performed badly in comparative trials,
collision avoidance, so it is in your best so be sure that the one you choose has
interests to help them see you by using a good reputation and authenticated
a reflector. test reports. Active radar reflectors are
Radar reflectors are designed to cylinder radar reflector the most effective. These powered units
increase the radar visibility of your Cylinder-type radar reflectors have provide a greatly enhanced reflection
boat. Other than the aluminum mast the advantage of being easy to mount that stands out on another vessel’s
and spars, the most common materials permanently on the mast. radar display.
 SAILING IN FOG
309
the time to discover that the can is
empty of compressed air; always
carry spares. Station extra lookouts
and, if you are motoring, place a
lookout on the foredeck as far away
as possible from the noise of the
engine. If you are sailing under
spinnaker or other complicated rig
that reduces maneuverability, then it
is wise to take it down and proceed
under plain sail.

octahedral reflector
Personal safety
In tests, the simple octahedral reflector Make sure that all the crew put
often performs better than many others on life jackets—there will be no
but is more awkward to mount. The best time to do this if a collision occurs.
monitor the radar screen
arrangement is to mount it permanently Recovering a person overboard is If your yacht is fitted with radar, make
at the masthead, as here. likely to be impossible in fog. Think sure it is in active mode and appoint
carefully before making the crew a crew member who is experienced
clip on safety harnesses, however, as at using radar to monitor the set and
Immediate actions they must be able to jump clear in a report any targets to the skipper.
If fog appears when you are at sea, collision. If the weather is rough, the
the safety of your crew and boat greater danger of falling overboard for instant release, and have some
must be your first consideration. may require harnesses to be used, red and white flares on hand. If the
Immediately plot your boat’s present but if the fog is very thick and the weather is calm, consider putting
position on the chart by taking a fix, sea is calm, it is probably better to the dinghy over the side and towing
if possible, or working up an be free to jump clear in a collision. it astern so that it is available should
estimated position (pp.352–361). Crew members down below you have to abandon ship.
Update your charted position should wear life jackets and remain It is helpful to have an idea of
regularly and do not simply rely on fully clothed and near the main the visibility. Sighting a buoy or
a GPS readout or an electronic chart hatch steps so that they can get other object can give you a rough
plotter; should electronic systems fail, up on deck instantly if necessary. idea. Alternatively, drop a bundle
you will be lost unless you have a Make sure the life raft is ready of paper over the side and monitor
recent plot on a paper chart. Unless the time it takes before it disappears
it is permanently installed, hoist your Aerosol foghorn from sight; knowledge of your
radar reflector as high up in the boat’s speed allows you to work
rigging as possible. If you use an out the distance.
octahedral type, make sure it is If your yacht is equipped with
hoisted in the “catch-rain” position radar, station a crew member
so that it is correctly oriented to with experience of using a radar
give maximum strength of return screen to monitor it. Radar is very
to reflected radar signals. useful in fog, but it is important to
Turn on the correct set of Mouth- interpret the display correctly. Do
operated horn
navigation lights depending on not rely entirely on radar, however;
whether you are under sail or power you must still have lookouts on
(pp.306–307) and delegate a member types of foghorn deck. At the same time, monitor
of the crew to make the appropriate Aerosol foghorns are the most common any local harbor and port radio
sound signals (p.311). If you are on board yachts, but simple mouth- frequencies that may warn of
using an aerosol foghorn, this is not operated horns are also available. impending shipping movements.
 CRUISER SAILING
310
Regulations you should avoid altering course possible. Proceed under power if by
The Col Regs give instructions for to port for a vessel forward of the doing so you can more quickly cross
appropriate conduct in restricted beam, other than for a vessel being the lane and reach shallow water.
visibility that apply to all vessels. overtaken, and avoid altering course Once in shallow water, either
Remember that restricted visibility toward a vessel that is abeam or heave-to or anchor until the fog
may be caused by conditions abaft the beam. lifts. Remember that other yachts
other than fog. Visibility may be The reason for these restrictions may have had the same idea, so
severely restricted in heavy rain, is to reduce the risk of turning toward keep a good lookout and make
a hailstorm, or even heavy snow, another vessel and increasing the the appropriate sound signals.
and the regulations apply equally risk of collision.
in these cases as in fog. Making harbor
All vessels should proceed at a Tactics at sea If a harbor with a safe entrance is
safe speed adapted to the prevailing When fog descends while you are close by and you are confident in
circumstances and conditions of on passage, your choice of tactics your navigation skills, make for
restricted visibility, and a power- will depend on whether you are it by the most prudent route. This
driven vessel should have its engines close to land, in a busy shipping may not be a direct line—it may
ready for immediate maneuvering. area, or well out to sea. If out to sea, be better to approach outside areas
The actual speed is left to the take the immediate actions to ensure where traffic can be anticipated,
discretion of the ship’s master, and the boat and crew’s safety (p.309) and such as the shallow areas outside
it is wise to remember that many continue on course, keeping a good of the main channels.
commercial ships cannot maneuver lookout and making the appropriate Do not rely solely on electronic
at low speeds and must maintain a sound signals. Where possible, aids such as the GPS to ensure your
significant speed to retain steerage way. proceed under sail, as the noise of an safe entry, although a GPS combined
This, together with the commercial engine will limit your ability to hear with a radar set can be extremely
pressures to avoid delays, means that other boats. If it is calm and you useful for navigating in confined
many ships travel quite fast, even in have to motor, do so at a reasonable waters in restricted visibility. However,
thick fog. speed so that you have good steerage if you use electronic aids in such a
From the point of view of a way and can turn quickly if necessary. critical situation, you should always
yacht, the regulations mean that Stop the engine at regular intervals maintain a continuous plot on a
you must decide what speed is to listen for other vessels or paper chart. Then, if your electronic
safe and must be prepared to stop, navigation aids. Keep the mainsail 9

reverse, or otherwise maneuver hoisted, as this will make you more

42

as a situation requires. Remember, visible to another vessel.

if a collision occurs, you will have
10
40

to justify your speed and actions In shipping lanes

before the collision. The regulations A shipping lane is not the place to
also state that, on hearing a fog be in a yacht if there is even a risk 35

signal apparently forward of the of fog. If fog is forecast, then change 5 5

Yacht heads for shallow

beam, you must reduce speed to your plans to avoid being caught water and follows38
the minimum required to maintain out in a busy shipping area in poor depth contour

steerage way and, if necessary, stop visibility. If, however, you are in or 36

until the danger of collision is over. near a busy shipping lane when fog
Another regulation concerns unexpectedly descends, your first 5

the use of radar. If you detect by priority is to get clear of the lane as
radar alone the presence of another quickly as possible. Plot a course to shallow water
vessel, you must determine if the take you into shallow water, which Heading for shallow water is the best
risk of collision exists and, if so, will be free of large vessels. If you defense against risk of collision with large
take avoiding action in ample time. have to cross a shipping channel, do ships. A convenient depth contour can
However, the regulations say that so at a right angle and as quickly as also provide a useful position line.
 SAILING IN FOG
311
systems fail for any reason, you can
move seamlessly to a manual plot SOUND SIGNALS
on the paper chart.
In foggy conditions, you must make the appropriate sound signals at
Another instrument that can be the correct time intervals to indicate whether you are sailing or motoring,
a great help, especially if you do not aground, or at anchor. Foghorn signals are either prolonged (four to six
have more sophisticated instruments, seconds) or short (one second). A bell can be sounded as a single ring or
is a depth sounder. Knowing your as a rapid ringing for five seconds, while a gong is rung rapidly. The most
depth can help pinpoint your position common sound signals are shown here. You should also keep a reference
on the chart, and you can also use it book on board detailing the full list of signals as required by the
to follow a depth contour. Thus, if you International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea.
sail into shallow water to escape the
risk from shipping, you may identify
the 33-foot (10-meter) contour as a KEY FOGHORN BELL RAPID BELL-RINGING GONG
safe haven beyond which shipping
will not venture. Work out the height Under sail (and some other vessels): One
of tide above chart datum (pp.342– prolonged and two short foghorn blasts
345) and add that to the depth of the at intervals not exceeding two minutes.
contour. Sail toward shallow water
and monitor the depth sounder until Making way under power:
you reach the depth you require. You One prolonged foghorn blast at
are now on the depth contour, and intervals not exceeding two minutes.
you can use it, if necessary, as a
position line which, together with Under way but not making way:
one or more other position lines, can Two prolonged foghorn blasts at
intervals not exceeding two minutes.
give you a fix or confirm a GPS fix.

Sound signals Aground—under 328 ft (100 m):

Vessels in fog employ sound signals Three bells, rapid ringing, three
bells, at one-minute intervals.
to indicate their presence to other
boats (right). Many navigational
aids, such as buoys and lighthouses, Aground—over 328 ft (100 m):
Three bells, rapid ringing, three bells,
are also fitted with sound signal
gong sounded aft, every minute.
equipment to help you identify them.
The type of signal that they emit is
At anchor—under 328 ft (100 m):
marked on charts and in pilot books.
Rapid ringing of bell forward in
Sound can be distorted by fog, boat at one-minute intervals.
so do not assume a direction for the
sound. Stop to double-check, and
At anchor—over 328 ft (100 m):
proceed with caution. Craft indicate Rapid bell ringing forward, gong
their presence, size, and activity sounded aft, at one-minute intervals.
with a combination of foghorn,
bell, and gong signals. A boat under Pilot boat on duty: Four short foghorn
39 ft (12 m) is required to carry only blasts (under way or making way)
an “efficient sound signal.” Most every two minutes.
use some form of compressed air
or aerosol foghorn (p.309). Larger Oil rigs/gas platforms: Two short and
boats, over 39 ft (12 m), must also one prolonged foghorn blasts. (Morse
carry a bell, and vessels over 328 ft U—“you are running into danger.”)
(100 m) will also use a gong.
 CRUISER SAILING
312

ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING
The onset of heavy weather is a great test for the strength Close all deck hatches and any
of the crew and the seaworthiness of the boat. The definition of ventilators that may leak—the
Dorade type (p.403) can be left open
rough weather depends less on the wind strength than it does longer than other types—and fit the
on the experience of the crew, the type of boat, the state of the washboards in the companionway. It
sea, and the course you are sailing. A novice crew in a small is important to try to keep the living
areas dry and, as there is a possibility
cruiser may have a rough ride upwind in a Force 5 against the
that your boat will ship water, pump
tide, whereas an experienced crew in a large yacht would be the bilges before bad weather arrives
comfortable in much heavier conditions. Every skipper must and then at regular intervals. Close
know the strengths and weaknesses of the boat, its gear, and all seacocks that may flood the galley
sink or the heads if the boat heels far.
its crew and must have tactics for dealing with heavy weather. Navigation will be harder in rough
weather, so bring the logbook up to
Preparing the boat lashings on the life raft and tender. date. Plot your position on a paper
As soon as you know that bad weather Check the integrity of the jackstays chart even if you have an electronic
is on its way, begin preparing for it, and their deck securing points; they chart plotter and, by studying the chart
even if you plan to get to a harbor may be put under a lot of strain in and pilot book, decide on a course of
before it arrives. Ready the boat for heavy conditions. If jackstays are not action. Turn on navigation lights if
heavy seas by clearing the decks of permanently rigged, then rig them visibility is poor. If you do not have
loose gear and double-checking the before the weather gets rough. a permanent radar reflector, hoist one

heavy seas
In heavy weather, rough seas are
usually more of a problem than the
wind strength. Here, a cruiser is sailing
fast in rough seas with a small jib and
reefed mainsail.
 ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING
313
safety harness snacks for consumption during the
Safety harnesses must be used in rough storm. Issue anti-seasickness tablets to
weather to ensure the safety of the crew. those who want them and try to give
Adjust them so that they are comfortable each crew member some rest before
and clip the lifeline only to strong fittings. the worst of the weather arrives. The
crew may be anxious, and the skipper
should take time to reassure them.
Preparing the crew If you have not been operating a
A warm, dry, and neat cabin in which watch system, impose one now. While
to rest, cook, navigate, and sleep is maintaining a proper lookout, keep
vital. Ensure that everything is stowed surplus crew out of the cockpit, where
securely and make every effort to keep they are in more danger and may
water from getting into the cabin. become cold.
Put on warm layers (and gloves If a crew member gets very cold,
and a hat in cold weather) and wear relieve them at once and have them
waterproofs and boots. If spray and warm up below. If a crew member in
rain are heavy, the helm may find it the cockpit feels the need to be sick,
to increase your visibility (p.308). useful to wear clear ski goggles in guide them, if possible, to the leeward
As the wind strength increases, be order to maintain comfortable vision. side. Make sure they are clipped on
prepared to reduce the sail area to All crew must wear safety at all times, as it is natural to lean out.
suit. Reef the mainsail and change harnesses and clip on whenever they Assign a “buddy” to comfort them
or reef the headsail (pp.250–253) are in the cockpit or on deck. A strong until the sickness is passed. If the sick
to keep the boat moving quickly but securing point by the companionway crew member is below, make sure they
without excessive heel. Remember should allow a crew member coming have a bucket available by their bunk.
to reef early. This will reduce strain on deck to clip on before leaving the
on the gear, and the sooner you do security of the cabin. storm sails
it, the easier the operation will be. If possible, cook and eat a hot They will be used very rarely, but when
If conditions and sea-room allow, meal before the bad weather arrives, you are hit by severe weather, you will
sail downwind while changing the and prepare vacuum flasks of soup or be grateful if your boat has a trysail
headsail to provide the foredeck crew hot drinks, together with nutritious and storm jib in its sail wardrobe.
with a steadier working platform.
Reef both sails to preserve balance
and avoid excessive weather helm.
If you have storm sails on board,
as you should if sailing offshore,
make sure they are easily available
and not buried at the bottom of a
locker. Check that they have been
stowed properly in their bags,
complete with their sheets. Since
it can be a difficult operation in
bad conditions, be sure you have
practiced rigging the trysail (p.251)
and setting the storm jib.
Check all the safety gear and
ensure that anything that may be
needed in a hurry, especially flares, are
easily accessible and the crew knows
their location and how to use them.
 CRUISER SAILING
314
TACTICS AND ACTION
Deciding on tactics Heaving-to Lying a-hull
Your plan of action for rough weather The normal procedure is to heave-to As conditions deteriorate, consider
should be based on the capabilities under a deeply reefed mainsail or lying a-hull. You will drift to leeward
of the boat and crew, the severity of trysail and a storm jib. Be sure to more quickly than when hove-to,
the expected weather conditions, securely lash the tiller to leeward or so be sure you have sufficient sea
and the proximity of any shoreline. tighten a wheel’s friction lock to hold room. To lay a-hull, take down all
The most important thing to it to windward. Heaving-to involves sails and lash the tiller to leeward
remember is to stay away from lee balancing the forces on the boat so (or wheel to windward). The boat
shores. In severe conditions, it can be that it lies as close to the wind as will find its natural angle to the wind,
very difficult or impossible for even a possible while making little headway. normally somewhere near beam-on.
modern cruiser to beat to windward The rudder and mainsail try to turn As the boat drifts to leeward, roughly
away from a lee shore, and should the boat toward the wind, while the side-on to wind and waves, it will
the boat be driven ashore, it will backed jib pushes it the other way. leave a flatter “slick” to windward.
quickly be destroyed. Many cruisers will heave-to at The problem with lying a-hull,
Head for harbor only if you an angle of about 60 degrees to the however, is that it is dangerous when
are certain your chosen refuge is safe wind, their motion will be considerably seas begin to break. Then the boat is
to enter in strong winds and rough reduced, and they will rise to the seas vulnerable to being hit by a breaking
seas. Make sure there are no off-lying while drifting slowly to leeward. The wave and rolled over or falling down
shallows or other navigational dangers relative amounts of headway and the face of a wave and landing on its
and that there is no risk that you leeway vary with the boat and sea side in the trough. This can
could end up on a lee shore. A conditions. Depending on conditions
windward shore with a sheltered and the type of boat, you can remain
harbor or anchorage can offer hove-to until or unless the boat starts storm tactics
protection, but you must be certain being knocked down by the waves, Your choice of tactics will depend on the
that the wind will not shift to turn at which point it will become too design of boat, the severity of the weather,
it into a lee shore. uncomfortable or dangerous. and your proximity to the shore.
Seeking open water to ride out the
bad weather clear of the shore is often Hove-to
Heave-to under a deeply Lying a-hull
the best option. Head offshore and get By removing all sails and
reefed mainsail and storm
as much sea room as possible between jib or a trysail and storm jib lashing the tiller to leeward,
or wheel to windward, the
your boat and any potential lee shore. yacht will lie approximately
beam-on to the seas
Taking action Sea anchor
If conditions become too rough to A properly designed
sea anchor can
hold your chosen course, your aim hold the yacht’s
should be to keep the boat as safe bow into the waves
and comfortable as possible while
still making some progress toward
your destination if feasible. The
procedure you choose depends on the Under Towing a drogue
handling characteristics of your boat; bare poles Streaming a drogue
Running from the stern slows
however, the normal first step when downwind under the boat and helps
conditions deteriorate too much to bare poles can hold the stern into
be a good tactic the waves
continue on course, especially when if the boat is
your chosen destination lies upwind, easy to steer
is to stop the boat by heaving-to.
 ROUGH-WEATHER SAILING: TACTICS AND ACTION
315
cause serious damage to even the
strongest yacht. Portholes, windows,
and even the cabin side on the
sea anchor
leeward side could be damaged A sea anchor is deployed from the bow to
and flood the boat. hold the yacht’s bow into the seas. A long
nylon warp between sea anchor and boat
Running downwind helps absorb the shock loads by stretching.
If you have plenty of sea room
to leeward, consider running before
the wind, either under bare poles
or with a storm jib. Many modern,
shallow-hulled, fin-keeled cruisers
will surf downwind comfortably when
steered by an experienced helm. If
your chosen course is downwind,
this might be the safest procedure.
However, if you have a heavier the bow roller. Sea anchors are also stop. While lying to a sea anchor,
boat that does not surf easily or used by fishing boats and cruisers the boat is held bow into the waves
a less experienced or tired helm, in less extreme conditions to hold and its motion will be gentler than
you must slow it down as much position during a fishing or overnight if left to drift.
as possible for safety (right). The
danger is that the bow buries itself
into a wave trough and a following SLOWING THE BOAT
wave, catching up with the boat, A number of techniques can be used to slow the boat down
breaks over the stern and floods when running before the wind, but all employ the same principle
the cockpit. of creating more drag. The simplest technique is to trail warps. The
Alternatively, the boat could most effective technique is usually to tow a very long warp in a loop
from the stern (below). A drogue (similar to a small sea anchor) may
broach (p.261) and end up on its
also be trailed from the stern to increase the drag and help hold
side, broadside onto the waves and
the boat’s stern into the seas and prevent broaching. Experiment
extremely vulnerable to the next
with various rough weather sailing techniques in less extreme
breaking crest. In extreme conditions,
conditions to discover how your boat might behave in a storm.
a wave could lift the stern so high
that the whole boat could be thrown
stern over bow, known as pitchpoling. trailing warps
While running downwind without sail or with
just a small storm jib, secure your longest warp
Using a sea anchor to the headsail winches and cleats and trail
Some long-distance cruisers prefer to the bight (loop) over the stern. This will slow
use a sea anchor in storm conditions. the boat and help keep it in line with the seas.
A sea anchor is a large and strong
parachutelike arrangement made
Mainsail stowed
of nylon and strong nylon webbing,
on boom
connected to the boat by a long Bight trailed a hundred yards
length of stretchy nylon rope. It is (91 m) or more astern
deployed from the bow and let out
about 10–15 times the boat’s overall
length. To avoid chafe, it is best to
attach the nylon rope to the end of
the yacht’s anchor chain and pay out
a short length of the chain through
NAVIGATION
To gain the true freedom of the seas, a sailor needs to learn the art of navigation. It may
appear to be a complex subject, but anyone who can balance a checkbook will be able to
cope with the mathematics required to navigate proficiently. The immense satisfaction gained
when a planned destination appears out of an empty sea at the end of a sailor’s first offshore
passage is ample reward for the small effort involved.
 NAVIGATION
318

STARTING TO NAVIGATE
You need to understand only a few basic concepts to begin of the Needles Lighthouse on the Isle
navigating. Once you understand the meaning of some simple of Wight in the UK could be uniquely
defined as 3,039.7 nautical miles
terms—such as position, direction, distance, and depth—you north (of the equator) and 60.9
will be able to apply them to practical navigation. Then you will nautical miles west (of Greenwich).
experience the great satisfaction all sailors feel when they This method of describing a position
is not very convenient in practice.
complete a passage, perhaps out of sight of land, and reach
Because Earth is a sphere, not flat,
a new destination through their own navigational efforts. there is an alternative and easier way
to define a position—using an angular
measurement. Latitude is the angle
Position makes each meridian a Great Circle, formed at the center of Earth
The position of any spot on Earth’s the term given to a section through between the position and the equator,
surface can be described accurately Earth whose plane passes through the while longitude is the angle formed
and unambiguously by reference to center of the planet. The perimeter of at the center of Earth between the
the lines of an imaginary grid laid a Great Circle is actually the shortest position and the Greenwich meridian.
on the planet’s surface. distance between any two points on Latitude and longitude are measured
Imagine Earth covered by the perimeter. This is not the case in degrees (º), minutes ('), and tenths
graph paper with the horizontal and for a segment that does not pass of a minute. There are 60' in 1º, and
vertical lines forming the reference through Earth’s center. 360º in a circle.
grid. The lines running east to west Theoretically, it would be possible
are known as the parallels of latitude. to describe a position on Earth’s Latitude and longitude
(The equator itself is 0º latitude.) surface in terms of its distance in miles on nautical charts
Now imagine cutting Earth along north or south from the equator and Navigational charts have latitude
the parallels of latitude in slices east or west from the Greenwich and longitude scales printed at their
parallel to the equator. The farther meridian; so, for instance, the location edges, with grid lines going across
away from the equator you cut, the
Parallels of latitude Parallels
smaller the slice and the shorter do not converge of latitude
Meridians converge Meridians
and meet at the Poles of longitude
the circumference of its perimeter.
The lines that run north to south
on the imaginary grid are called the
meridians of longitude. The prime
meridian (0º longitude) runs through
the Greenwich Royal Observatory
in England, from which it takes its
name. Unlike a graph paper grid,
Earth is not flat, so on the globe the
meridians run between the North and
South Poles where they converge, like
the segments of an orange.
Unlike the parallels of latitude, latitude slices longitudinal segments
the meridians of longitude are of If Earth was cut laterally along the Cutting Earth along a meridian of
equal length, and cutting along any parallels of latitude, the slices would be longitude will always result in two equal
longitude line would result in two at their largest at the equator and their halves, as the resulting circle passes
equal halves of the globe. This smallest at the poles. through the center of Earth.
 STARTING TO NAVIGATE
319
measuring latitude and 18' 17'
longitude on a chart
50 49' 24N
o

A position on the chart is measured

1 16' 60W
o
using the latitude and longitude scales. Read off
Use dividers to transfer the distance from longitude on
Use dividers chart scale,
convenient grid lines to the scales at the to transfer here 1º 17.3'
chart edges. Measure longitude on the scale distance
49'
at top or bottom and latitude at the sides.
Keep dividers set
on distance
measured and
them at regular intervals in the transfer them to
horizontal and vertical directions. edge of chart
The latitude scale runs along the Position to 
two vertical sides and the longitude be measured

scale runs along the top and bottom

Measure
of the chart. The scales allow
distance to
positions to be easily measured nearest grid
or plotted on the chart. line on chart

When positions are described or

written down, latitude is given first
in ºN or ºS of the equator, followed degrees may not be printed anywhere Chart datums
by longitude in ºE or ºW of the near the area of interest. Test your Because Earth is not a perfect sphere,
Greenwich meridian. So the position precision by reading off latitudes and it is impossible to agree on a single
of the Needles Lighthouse is given as longitudes of known marks, then location for the center of Earth that
50º 39'.7N, 01º 35'.5W. comparing them with published values. works everywhere across the globe.
When learning to navigate or If you are inaccurate at first, repeat the But latitude and longitude cannot be
using charts for the first time, practice exercise until you are confident that defined without reference to the center
accuracy when reading the latitude you are reading the scales correctly. of Earth. Therefore, all surveys
and longitude scales. It can be easy to Be accurate when using dividers have to assume a position for
misread, especially on larger scale (p.330). Adjust them using the hinge Earth’s center from which to measure
charts where the whole number of screw so that the arms are snug. their positioning data. As a result,
a number of different chart datums
Greenwich
Equator Angle of latitude meridian Angle of longitude exist, and charts using these
datums will give a different latitude
and longitude for the same position.
Different manufacturers of
paper and electronic charts may use
different chart datums, but the most
widely used datum currently in use is
the satellite-based WGS 84 (World
Geodetic Survey carried out in 1984).
All paper and electronic charts
are marked clearly with the datum
to which they refer, usually near
their title (p.324). When using GPS
latitude longitude
or other satellite or terrestrial
The angle of latitude is measured at the The angle of longitude is measured at the positioning systems, make sure that
center of Earth along the prime meridian center of Earth along the equator from the equipment is set to give positions
from the equator (0º) and ranges from 0º the prime (Greenwich) meridian (0°) and relative to the same datum as the
to 90º north or south. ranges from 0º to 180º east or west. charts you are using.
 NAVIGATION
320
DIRECTION
When sailing in coastal waters, you In some parts of the world, it is areas on the same boat. In this case,
will often find it easier to define a negligible; in others, the amount magnetic variation and deviation will
position with reference to a fixed is very significant. not change over a sailing season and
sea- or landmark using direction and A magnetic compass can also their application will soon become
distance rather than using latitude be influenced by local effects, second nature.
and longitude. This method makes it particularly the close proximity of
easier to plot a position on the chart. metallic objects. Compass north is Distance and speed
Direction is always measured defined as the direction in which The unit of distance used at sea is
clockwise as an angle relative to north. your compass points. If there is no the nautical mile, which is defined
When describing the direction of an local magnetic interference, it will as one minute (1') of latitude.
object in relation to your boat’s point to magnetic north, but if there Because Earth is not a perfect
position, or between two objects such is local interference, the compass sphere, the actual length of a nautical
as buoys, it is called a bearing. When needle will be deviated from magnetic mile varies, being shorter at the
describing the direction in which your north. The angular difference between equator (6,046 ft) and longer at
boat is sailing, it is known as a heading. compass north and magnetic north is the poles (6,108 ft). However, by
known as deviation (p.329). international agreement, it is
North The lines representing the standardized to 6,076 ft (1,852 m)—
Direction is usually defined relative meridians of longitude printed slightly longer than a statute mile.
to north. However, “north” can have on charts are aligned to true north, The unit of speed used at sea
three separate meanings: true north, but the sailor guides their boat using (and in the air) is the knot. This is
magnetic north, and compass a compass that points at compass defined as 1 nautical mile per
north. True north is the direction or magnetic north. Therefore, hour (equivalent to 1.15 mph).
you would need to travel to navigators often have to convert Distance is measured on charts
eventually arrive at the geographic between true, magnetic, and compass by reference to the latitude scale at
North Pole—at the very top of the north (pp.328–329). Although this the sides of each chart. The longitude
globe. However, the most common can seem complex initially, it should scale, at the top and bottom of a
way of finding north is by using a soon become straightforward, chart, should never be used to
magnetic compass (pp.326–329). especially if you cruise the same measure distance because a degree
This utilizes a magnet that naturally
aligns itself with the lines of magnetic
flux surrounding Earth. In doing TRUE NORTH TRUE NORTH
this, a magnetic compass points to 45º T
magnetic north, the direction of 120º T
the magnetic North Pole rather
than to true north. W E 135º T
Because Earth’s iron core—
TOWER
which generates the planet’s
magnetism—is molten, the magnetic
S
North Pole is not in a fixed position 315º T
but moves around, although at a
known rate. The difference between
headings bearings
magnetic and true north is known A heading is the direction in which you The direction of an object from your
as variation (p.328). The amount steer your boat. This is always measured position, or between two objects, is
of variation between magnetic clockwise from north—either true, known as a bearing. Here, the tower is
and true north varies according magnetic, or compass north. In this on a bearing of 135ºT from the boat.
to your position on Earth’s surface. case, the boat’s heading is 120ºT. From the tower, the boat bears 315ºT.
 STARTING TO NAVIGATE: DIRECTION
321
of longitude is only the same as a Depth and height you will find less water beneath you
degree of latitude at the equator. As Depth and height are measured in than the depth shown on the chart,
you move away from the equator, meters and tenths of a meter on most and usually the water will be deeper
a degree of longitude decreases charts, although older charts may than that shown because of the
in distance until it falls to zero show depths in fathoms and feet. additional height of the tide (p.345).
at the North and South Poles, where One fathom is equal to 6 feet. Navigators also need to know the
the meridians converge to a point. Depths are indicated by spot heights of objects both on dry land
Also, when measuring distance on measurements and by contour lines and at sea. For instance, the clearance
a chart, it is important to use that part that join places with the same depth under a bridge or power line at a
of the latitude scale on the sides of the of water. Depth is shown on charts particular state of the tide or the
chart that is level with the area of relative to a fixed datum, usually extent to which rocks may be exposed
the chart where you are measuring the the lowest astronomical tide (LAT). by the falling tide are both items
distance. This is particularly important This is the lowest water level ever of information that may be critical
when working on small scale charts expected. It is comforting to know to know when planning a passage.
that cover large areas of sea. This that charts usually display the The datum from which heights are
will avoid discrepancies due to the worst-case scenario for water depth. measured depends on whether the
variations in the length of a nautical Although it is possible in certain object is ashore or is sometimes
mile due to latitude. weather conditions, it is unlikely that covered by the tide (p.345).

NAVIGATIONAL TERMS AND SYMBOLS

A variety of terms and symbols are used to record (as far as possible) the risk of misunderstandings and
information on charts and to write down bearings, enabling all navigators to understand the calculations.
headings, and other important navigational data. You need to know and understand these symbols to be
The symbols are recognized universally, eliminating able to navigate successfully.

symbol measurement definition

°T Degrees true Suffix attached to a direction measured relative to true north, e.g., 095ºT.

Suffix attached to a direction measured relative to magnetic north,

°M Degrees magnetic
e.g., 135ºM.

Suffix attached to a direction measured by the compass and not converted

°C Degrees compass
to ºT or ºM, e.g., 110ºC.

The unit of distance at sea. A nautical mile is equal to one minute of latitude
M Nautical mile (standardized at 6,076 ft/1,852 m). It is divided into 10 cables (ca) or tenths
of a nautical mile. Each cable is 200 yd (185 m).

kn Knot The unit of speed used at sea. One knot is 1 nautical mile per hour.

The standard meter is used to display depth and height on charts. Meters
m Meter
are divided into decimeters; 7.1 m is shown on charts as 71.

The old unit of depth, equal to 6 ft (1.8 m), sometimes found on older
fm Fathom charts. Parts of a fathom are shown in feet, e.g., 38 ft is shown as 62.
 NAVIGATION
322

CHARTS
transfer it to a Mercator chart on
which it will be represented by a
curved line between the two points
(unless the course is north or south).
A chart is the essential tool for navigation at sea. Charts are Transfer the great circle track by
produced by the hydrographic agencies of most maritime countries. plotting the positions where the track
on the gnomonic chart crosses each
They were originally produced for professional seagoers. Today, meridian on to the Mercator chart
many hydrographic agencies and some specialty publishers also and join up the positions with a
produce special yachting charts, in paper and electronic form, that smooth curve. On passage, small
changes of course are needed at
are derived from the official data but tailored to suit the sailor’s
regular intervals to follow the curved
needs. Often available in folios covering the most popular sailing track on the Mercator chart.
areas, many include harbor plans and other useful local information.
Scale
Charts are available at various scales.
Projection These may be used for small-scale, Small-scale charts cover whole seas
A chart is a representation of a curved ocean passage planning charts or very or oceans. They are used for overall
surface on a flat sheet of paper, which large-scale harbor charts. On small- planning and for plotting position on
presents the cartographer with several scale, gnomonic charts, the meridians long passages. Medium-scale charts
problems. The main consideration is are represented by straight lines that are typically used to cover sections
how best to represent (or project) the converge at the poles, while the parallels of coastline. These are useful for
curve of Earth while minimizing of latitude are drawn as equidistant coastal and offshore information
distortion of the shape and size of curved lines. On large-scale gnomonic around your departure point and
land masses. charts, the area covered is so small that destination. Large-scale charts cover
The Mercator projection is the the meridians appear to be parallel. small areas in great detail. They are
most common form found on charts. Gnomonic charts are ideal for essential when you are entering an
It represents the parallels of latitude planning long voyages between distant unfamiliar harbor or navigating a
(p.320) as straight horizontal lines that ports, as a straight line drawn between difficult stretch of water.
are drawn farther apart toward the two points on a gnomonic chart is a When on passage, always refer to
poles, while the meridians of longitude portion of a great circle and represents your largest-scale chart of the area you
are represented as parallel but the shortest distance between the two are sailing through since it will provide
equidistant straight vertical lines. Some points. In practice, to sail along the you the most detailed information.
charts use the gnomonic projection. great circle track, it is necessary to Small-scale charts should only be
used for plotting when far offshore.

Chart corrections
Great Charts are prepared from surveys
Great circle conducted at regular intervals,
circle track
depending on the importance to
track
shipping of the area covered. As
man-made features (and, occasionally,
geographic ones) change, the chart is
brought up to date with published
gnomonic projection mercator projection
A gnomonic chart is used for planning On a Mercator chart, the shape of corrections and a new one is issued
long ocean passages and determining land masses is depicted differently due periodically. Chart authorities issue
the shortest track (a great circle track) to the differences in projection. A great regular corrections so you can update
by drawing a straight line between circle track is curved (except when your charts, or you can return them
two places. north or south). to a chart agent for correction.
 0 34 Ma
t iionnt a i n e d
1
_3 1
_8 J
2 Sea Miles 1
_4 66
P 06 12 Calshot Spit depth BY

Tu
Calshot

n
04 CHARTS

ne
Or
28 FI.5s 12m 11M No
12 . 6 m 323

ls
2 1
_4 Horn(2)60s Power rth
R
9000
NAUTICAl10 000 Feet
CHART 09 Latitude and longitude Station
Tidal stream information C
1
_6
Iso.R.10s6m5M
An up-to-date chart 05
is essential for safe
Horizontal lines of latitude and vertical
5 1 2 Entry
S e e Restricted
Cdiamonds
Tidal a u located 94
Outfall 9 are used to plot position.
Dn lines of longitude 6
4 0 1
CHIMNEY at key points relate to an 69 VQ
& 4F.R
navigation, especially 22 and
in a confined
15 Horn(1)20s
0 Distance is measured using the latitude scale
(198) t (see
i o n Note)
information panel on the
1
_3 J chart. From this, you can Bel
congested area. The area illustrated here at the sides of the chart. The grid formed
(Q.R Lt) 5
06 that is used
is an extremely busy18channel
by the lines of latitude and longitude can be calculate the direction and
4 11 BY
2 Calshot Spit 1 M
Tu
n

used in conjunction with plotting instruments

1 strength of the tide at the
ne

by commercial shipping and yachts. 12 FI.5s 12m 11M

6
ls

(pp.330–331) to measure direction tidal diamond at any time

1 2
8 Horn(2)60s
27 R
symbols 2 1 21' 20' 19' 18'

Entry Restricted
17'

94

10
15 50 49' 24N
o

74 Chilling
Iso.R.10s6m5M
1.5 2 Sea Miles
Symbols are used on charts to 09

1 16' 60W
24

o
(34)TOWER (Mar-Oct)

(see Note) 7
Y
29
Outfalldangers areas of22 32
Power Radar Sc CG Castle 14

31 15 & and
indicate 4F.R 3
8000 9000 10 000 Feet Station Activities FI(2)R.4s 11
Black Jack
Centre R 76
0 FI(3)G.10s
Horn(1)20s
CHIMNEY _7
Reach
particular importance. Learn (198)
(Q.R Lt)
7
15 49'
55

L
G
0
114
M34
_8
38
the most common1ones and 02

E
8
16

5
carry a reference guide to 1 5 Wk
7
2
_6

N
0

12
_8

39
76

Eas
74 24

the complete list of symbols.

302 9 27 5 54
15

N
04

0280 10
010 1
2
62
QG
Sluice WC _8 2
_5 24
0 68
P

A
03 0

10
_3 R
86
0 1
N Thorn
_8 IQ.R.10s 26
Danger 1
64 03

H
_2
S.G

30530Limiting danger line

04 Maintained
2
34

32
0

64
Wooded G
1
_8
1 7 66

3
_4 4
P depth
31
Calshot

C
WC Or 04 No
12 . 6 m rth
Eddies 53
030
FI.R.3s
1
05

_4
Y 09
0

Country Park 1
_6 24 See Cau
05 16

L
69
Some water disturbance Bourne Gap
Dn VQ

oyal Thames
es 1
_3
0
Jt i o n Bell(1)30s 53
34
06

yn

04 R ro Calshot

E
0

BY
06 12 Calshot Spit

Tu
G
Obstruction

nn
FI.5s 12m 11M
168 Obstn

els
Depth known 0
28 46

5
TOWER 1 Horn(2)60s

Mar-Oct)
06

Wk
_6 2

5
39W o o d 0e d 7 36

N
R
N
0

Entry Restricted
070

15 94 51
East K
Iso.R.10s6m5M 09
6 4 5
Outfall & 4F.R 22 (see Note)
Obstruction 39 8 P
15
8
N 54
R

QG45
Horn(1)20s

168 Obstn 1 18
16
114 55
M
0 1
080

_5
1
WC
A
O

27
Swept to depth shown S.G

6N Thorn 6Knoll
Thorn
2

10
43
090

Stanswood
H

7
2 4
05

45
21
32
H

Farm 31 3
0 Overfall, tide rips G
7235
48'
090

0
_9

64
12

L
34
Y
0

E
W

22
C

Water surface disturbed

5
T

Wk

N
Wooded
39
5
7 31
East Knoll
53
5
44
28
FI.R.3s

N
39 10 54
01
89Country Park 5 G

A
QG

34
64
03 S
10 0

H
21
Rock awash Bourne Gap 2
G
35 64 N Thorn

C
Bay
S.G
53 23
al Thames
FI.R.3s
Wooded _1
R
67
Bourne Gap
38
At chart datum Royal Thames
120

es
(Mar-Oct)

N
Y
36

-Oct)
110

68 4

R
_ 936 oyn
45
N
06

Obstn 1
Rock ledge 0
O
38 62 Thorn Knoll

68
18

H
Boat 1
_
72
4 r
Ho 22

T
Tide gauge
0

Wooded
R

Exact depth unknown

6 4West
44 89 5 East
06
03
G
0

Oys 34

Knoll
2
12

7 5 S.G
67 19

19
15
0 08 68
86 ter 0 Knoll
O

38 _9
Traffic-separation
10
Thorn Knoll B A N K 1_ 1
67 06
75
Stone Farm 0
_8 86 West Knoll 19
7
0

62
107 B A N K 1_ 1
TOWER
65 75
13

1
06

scheme
2
FI.G.5s G 21
_6
G
H

FI.G.5s
0 35 G Thorn Knoll 12
0
72 14
_8 06
0

8
One-way traffic lane 57

22
0 06
T

_8 32 33

Thorn Knoll
68
070

86 Bramble
150 G
44
28
12
88
89
Or

551

34 0
f.S 72
Wreck
20 Wk
Depth taken
170
160 06 7 82 45
43
32
_ 66
82 54
0306Ossory Y 52

S.Gby sounding
( Mar-Oct)

5 7 67
G.S.Sh 76 39
82
VQ(9)10s
07 8 54 58

06
69 H Bell

32
52 35
20 Wk Wreck Country Park
Stansore Point M.S YBY
W Bramble
Racon(T) 72
5

0
47 S.Sh

86
Pyl (20) 51
Depth unknown; thought
P safeRY R
1
_ 11 Spanker (Mar-Oct) _9
37
33 71 Bramble
SW

Quinnell 88
28
PA Y
74

86 8 Wk 67 Or
FI(3)R.10s 67 141
06
WC (Mar-Oct) 82 Y 115
lim

Obstn NE88Gurnard R
West Knoll
Y
86
Wreck f.S
72
82 195
19
it

194 47'
Stone Point _ 2 Rep(1988)
0 WESTERN APPROACH 104 113

86 to depth1 shown1
10
of

4 G

0
66 B A 5N1 K51
080

15
CHANNEL
107
_2 195S.Sh
Po

Swept 1
_6 05
75 FI.G.2.5s _ 146

1 54
_1 215
rt

G
195
Maintained depth 12.6m
32
105
_1
of

132
F 195

G
So

133 176

45 (M
0 195
See
FI.G.5s
_4 1
_ 05
ut

0
_5 0 43 195 195
Wreck
ham

105 89

43
06 13 134
pt

S.G
186 Caution
Thorn Knoll
on

S.G
07 195
Wreck showing hull 09
G 129
12
2
S 95 S.G.bkSh 195 173

7 0
92 G.Sh

39
25 171
13
_8 195 192
06
090

Wreck
Stanswood 6 3
75
5
10
9
Entry Restricted
S.G
33
FarmVQ(9)10s 116 75 193 19
57 21
188 204
54 58
06
95 (see Note) 202
Considered dangerous 93

32
85
Bell
Motortune
090

0
105 109 206 Radar Reference Line
_9
(Mar-Oct)
78 185 (see Note)

52 12
Y

86 See Caution 208

151 106 Bramble
W Bramble
75
Lead

Wreck 13 191 18 201 G.Sh 175 E 20

88 28
63 S.G
Or
f.S 7272
WARNING - LARGE
W 5
ing Li

YBY 116 VESSELS TURNING 20 208 15

133
Not considered dangerous 165 182
47
VQ
S.Sh
8
2793
ghts

Os
205 129 Prince Consort

51
15 165
65 93
Wooded
51
134 104 17
12
32 66 2854 (Mar
164

BY

Spanker 37
20
2021 81 195 191 S.G
Depth soundings 45
131 fS.Sh

(Mar-Oct)
58 104 205 187 106 FI(4)Y.10s 162 Lim Diffusers
Anchoring and Trawling 33
199 93
156 it o
43
113 fH
8
20
Depths shown are related to chart 119

01 74
Prince arb
Y 67 Consort
FAIR

ou
8 23 Q cS.Sh
96 Trap r
datum (p.343), which are the P r o h i b i t7e d 67
86 P.G.cS.bkSh 133 183
39
Gurnard Shoal
79
10 0

(Mar-Oct)

11516
93 S.P 225 BY
WAY

119 M
S. 122

86
East Lepe
lowest depths to which the water 235 177 13 101
125
VQ(9)10s
FI(2)R.5s 7 85 FL.Y.5s
215

54
R
Bell

B a5y8113
17 202 64 FI.G 32 CO W E S ROADS
can usually be expected to drop. 5 18 76

STERN APPROACH
10
16 18

10 41 rose
3 6 No.3 G 24
50·
88
13
Bell 37 B
3 RW 24
Wooded
Contour lines join points of equal Compass
52 compass roses _1 Buoyage
187 Egypt Point 1
_2 46'

n dW Bramble
19 08
15 0 _6 0

FI.G.2.5s
6 20 _3

depth. Here, areas thatl e a at Pipeline A r e There

a
RYS. V 22

3
Tr & Fs

CHANNEL
Small Craft
dry out are several Fs
Buoys0 are marked Mud on the chart,
7 146 Royal Thame
120

S.Sh
V Moorings
5 8
BUILDING The Shrape _3
YBY 12 (Apr_Nov) 1 1
2
_8
21 4
low water are green, depths 0–15 located on the
12 chart. They allow together with details of their
4G7 0 S.Sh
22 Iso.2s6M FI.R.3s3M

Maintained depth 12.6m (Mar-Oct)

5 12
Y
( s 19e e N o t e ) 5
20

195
_9
1
ft (0–5 m) are blue, and depths 17 true (°T) and magnetic (°M)
19
1 light characteristics (pp.336– _8

13 1
R

Spanker (Mar-Oct) 3
110

8
19 2 Keel
15–30 ft (5–10 m) are light blue. bearings to be read directly 2 Y Tr
7 M The direction
337). ofMetres
buoyage
19 33
24 06
15
(Mar-Oct) East Cowes Pt

13 1 10

Obstn 1
Feet Fms
5 17 1
8 Y3 6
S
S.bkSh 12
An underlined figure in areas that from them. Information given in 1may also be marked, especially
7
5 5 Ancasta 3
23
8
Marina

two channels meet that 4

5
G

67
13 1 19

3
9
dry at low water indicates their the rose provides details of the when
11 1
2 3
1

1 8
R 1
15
drying height above chart datum 20 FI(4)G.15s 6
5 Gurnard 3 Gurnard
magnetic
Bay Boatvariation (pp.328–329)
_
WC

1 86
Sp 2
could otherwise cause confusion
72
3
5
WEST COWES

10411 1341
Ledge G
Ho Tide gauge EAST
113
G
Wooded
TERN APPROACH
10
0 2 1
S.G
4 1 5 24

Cau
32 R.fS COWES
1861
207 3
0

9
Gurnard

1461731O yster
15
FI.G.2.5s
17
12

Ledge RY 5 CRANE 28

CHANNEL
129 07 6

S.Sh
19

0
5
Hosp
183 12
0
_2 0
_
 NAVIGATION
324
ELECTRONIC CHARTS
The development of electronic chart a chart, the data is stored on multiple At the minimum, the system allows
systems has produced a revolution in layers. One layer might show the the user to scroll and pan around the
navigation that has impacted on even shape of the land, another depth chart, as well as zoom in and out.
the smallest boats. Electronic charts information, another buoyage, and so With a vector system, zooming
provide information to dedicated on. Some information, such as a buoy’s in may automatically call up
chart plotters or navigation software light characteristics, is concealed to additional levels of detail as the chart
programs running on a laptop reduce clutter but is revealed in a scale decreases. Waypoints can be
computer, tablet, or even a smartphone. popup box when the cursor is clicked entered, edited, and manipulated
They allow practical navigation to be on or hovered over the object. and can be combined into routes.
conducted using a keyboard and There is no limit to the information GPS data provides current position
mouse, plotter interface, or touchscreen. that can be added, including tidal and track plotting, and data from
Crucially, the plotter or computer graphs, pilotage notes, and aerial other instruments can be shown,
program can also interface with other photographs—anything the publishers usually within boxes on the display.
electronic instruments and displays feel is helpful. The layering of vector A radar picture can often be overlaid
and utilize the data they provide. charts allows the navigator to select on the chart to compare features, and
the information they require and to AIS targets (p.335) can be displayed.
Types of electronic chart remove the rest from view. There is Some systems include tidal height
The two main types of electronic chart usually also a facility for the navigator and tidal stream data. This enables
are the raster chart and the vector to add their own annotations, images, the software to plot courses, allowing
chart. The raster chart is created by or comments on another layer. for tidal set and drift (pp.348–349).
scanning an existing paper chart and Vector charts may be more Most systems have a logbook function
storing the information digitally. This user-friendly than raster charts, but to record system data, and many are
process creates a digital picture, stored information can be incomplete if linked to an autopilot to steer the
as millions of dots; the denser the dots, data layers are not made visible. boat along the predetermined track.
the better the quality of the electronic Some can also create polar performance
chart. A drawback of the raster chart Features curves from instrument data. With
is the size of the files, which use Chart-plotting software, in either these, and internet weather files,
considerable disk space and which dedicated plotters or programs for routing software can work out the
are often slow to load when required. personal computers, can be simple to best route to take. It is even possible
A vector chart is not scanned but operate, but most systems have a host to simulate differences between night
traced from a paper original. Rather of extra features that may or may not and day—for instance, showing the
than being a single-layer picture of be useful, depending on your needs. light characteristics of navigational

vector chart—basic display vector chart—standard display vector chart—full display

Because a vector chart is made up of a This system’s standard display adds depth, The full display includes all depth
number of layers of information, layers buoyage, navigation light information, and soundings; land features; light details; and
can be turned on and off as desired. some land features to the basic display. any personal, user-added information.
 CHARTS: ELECTRONIC CHARTS
325
are usually designed to integrate missed or the impression given
easily with other onboard of greater accuracy and level of
instrumentation, especially that detail than actually exists.
from the same manufacturer. Using these systems is not an
A software plotter running on alternative to learning to navigate
a laptop or tablet can be much more using paper charts, which must still
convenient and flexible. Passage be carried on board. Always plot the
planning can easily be done at home, boat’s position on a paper chart and
allowing practice with the system. record information in a paper logbook
Information from other instruments at least hourly when close to land.
personal computer
can often be integrated, and
A laptop is a popular choice for running additional functionality can be added,
such as weather routing. Care is CHART TITLE AND
navigation and chart plotting software
and can be set up to interface with other needed to keep the equipment dry, INFORMATION
electronic instruments on board. however, since nonmarine computers When you first use a new chart,
are vulnerable to water damage. begin by studying the information
near its title. It will tell you a
marks—or to display 3D views of Benefits and disadvantages number of key things that you
the land around you and of the of electronic charts should know before you use the
seabed beneath. Electronic charts and plotting chart or plot positions derived
from electronic fixing systems.
Electronic charts, like paper systems can display the information
ones, can be purchased singly or in you need in one place and allow you The information printed near the
folios. Charts are supplied on disk, to identify positions, courses, and chart’s title includes the scale of
by download, or on memory card, distances simply by manipulating the chart, the datum it uses, the type
depending on the plotter system a cursor. of projection, units of measurement,
how they were taken, and datum
being used; PC-based software However, there is a real danger
of depths (soundings) and heights.
usually works with charts supplied that a chart plotter will distract the
Essential information about
on disk, while dedicated plotters skipper from the business of being navigational hazards and important
generally use memory cards. When in charge of their boat in the real, regulations will also be displayed.
charts are purchased on disk, there not virtual, world. Although The date of issue is also shown,
are often many more charts on the paper-based chart work is more often in the lower left margin of a
disk than have been paid for. These laborious, the fact that lines must paper chart, and any subsequent
updates should be dated alongside
can be accessed at a later date by be physically drawn, scales read
the initial publication date.
purchasing access codes. Electronic off, and distances and angles
The chart itself is a mine of
charts need updating just like paper measured by hand makes for a information. It depicts not only
versions. How this is achieved, and safer self-checking process. the land and sea areas, depths,
the cost, depend upon your supplier. Electronic systems are costly navigational marks, and buoyage,
You should check what is included and are vulnerable to power but countless other useful details,
when choosing a chart system. failure. Navigators must learn such as the nature of the seabed
(useful when anchoring), areas of
how to use them properly and
strong currents, eddies or disturbed
Dedicated plotter or to interpret the information they
water, tidal information, and
computer software? provide. Digital systems give the suggested bearing lines for safe
Electronic charts can be purchased impression of great accuracy, but passage around hazards or for
to work with dedicated chart plotters this should never be assumed unless approaching harbor entrances.
and personal computers, tablets, information can be checked using Charts also include conspicuous
or smartphones running plotting another source. shoreside features that are useful
for taking compass bearings on to
software. Dedicated chart plotters Under- or overzooming an
produce a position fix.
are designed to be robust and may electronic chart is also a potential
be waterproof or splashproof. They danger—information may be
 NAVIGATION
326

THE COMPASS GETTING BACK

ON COURSE
If you wander off course, it can
A compass is the most important navigation instrument on be hard to know which way to
board a yacht. It is the primary means of identifying direction, turn to regain your course.
Use this simple rule to avoid
enabling you to steer a course and to plot position by taking confusion. If the number on the
bearings of navigational marks and shore objects. The compass compass is higher than the
is also used to check the bearing of other vessels to help avoid required course, turn to port.
If the number on the compass is
collision. Two types of compasses are usually used: a steering
lower than the required course,
compass for steering a course and a hand bearing compass turn to starboard.
for taking bearings of objects and other vessels.

Earth’s magnetic field It helps to imagine Earth’s so one end points to the magnetic
If Earth did not have a magnetic magnetic field as being caused by north pole and the other to the
field, navigation would be a giant bar magnet running between magnetic south pole. Near the
considerably harder than it is, the poles, but the real cause is believed poles, the lines of the magnetic
not only for humans, but for those to be the result of movement in the field point downward, causing the
birds and animals whose sensitivity planet’s iron core. The majority of compass needle to also try to point
to the magnetic field is thought the core is thought to be molten downward as you move toward a
to allow them to navigate over iron, but at the heart, the pressure is pole. The angle from the horizontal
long distances. so great that the iron is crystallized is called the angle of dip.
into a solid ball. This ball is believed Because Earth’s field is weak, a
Geographic
north pole to rotate due to convection currents magnetic compass must be sensitive to
Magnetic
north pole in the molten core and the rotation detect it, which means it is also capable
of Earth. It is the rotation of the of detecting other weak magnetic fields
solid core within the outer molten such as those emanating from large
area that is believed to generate metal objects (like a steel hull or a
Earth’s magnetic field which, at boat’s engine) or from electrical wiring
the surface, is quite weak. when current is flowing. The effects
The magnetic poles do not of local magnetic fields that deviate the
align with the geographic poles compass needle from magnetic north
because Earth’s magnetic axis is is known as deviation (p.329).
skewed slightly from the rotational
axis. The angular difference between Marine compasses
Magnetic the direction of true north and magnetic To operate correctly, a direction
field north is known as variation (or finding compass must be designed
Magnetic
Geographic south pole south pole
declination) (pp.328–329). to react accurately to the horizontal
element of Earth’s magnetic field.
earth as a magnet
The magnetic compass To achieve this, it usually employs
Earth acts as a huge magnet with lines
In its simplest form, a magnetic two or more bar magnets attached
of magnetic flux emanating from the
magnetic north and south poles. The flux compass comprises a small, light to the underside of a circular card,
lines become more vertical the closer to magnet, usually referred to as the marked in degrees around its edge.
the poles you are, but it is the horizontal compass needle, balanced on a nearly The card is mounted on a pivot and
component that is used by the traditional frictionless pivot. The compass needle is encased in a glass or plastic bowl
magnetic compass. aligns itself with the magnetic field, filled with a damping liquid to slow
 THE COMPASS
327
down its rotation. Internal or should be treated with caution since
external gimbals keep the card level errors are not readily apparent, and
when the boat heels and pitches. A there should always be a magnetic
light should be installed to allow steering compass available.
the compass to be used at night.
The compass aligns with the Steering compass
magnetic field and points at magnetic Fit your boat with the best-quality
north and south. As the boat turns, the magnetic steering compass you
compass continues to point at magnetic can afford. Choose one that has a Lubber
north and south, while the boat’s large card, or display, with easy-to- line
course, relative to magnetic north, read markings. steering compass
can be read from the numbers on the When siting the steering compass, it This conventional steering compass
compass card. The course, or bearing, is important that it can be seen directly is designed for bulkhead mounting,
is read with reference to the lubber by the helm. It should be mounted usually on either side of the
line, which is a line marked on the with the lubber line on or parallel to companionway.
inside of the bowl. The compass must the boat’s fore-and-aft line. For these
be mounted with the lubber line reasons, wheel-steered boats usually
parallel to the boat’s fore-and-aft line. have the steering compass in a binnacle
(casing) on top of the wheel pedestal.
Fluxgate compass Tiller-steered boats often use one or
Electronic, fluxgate compasses two bulkhead-mounted compasses on
dispense with cards, pivots, and the cabin bulkhead, to the sides of the
liquids and use an electronic circuit companionway. In either case, in order
to sense the lines of magnetic force to minimize the effects of deviation,
or flux. Their reading is displayed as the compass must be at least 6 ft (2 m)
a digital readout to the nearest degree. away from the engine. It must also
mini hand bearing compass
A fluxgate steering compass may also be as far as possible from any other A small hand bearing compass is easy to
have an analog readout that acts large ferrous-metal objects and the use and convenient to carry in a pocket
as a course pointer. ship’s wiring system. Keep movable or hang around the neck. A magnifying
Fluxgate compasses can easily magnetic items, such as some drink prism enlarges the compass scale under
provide heading information to other cans, well away, too. the lubber line, making it easier to read.
electronic instruments. The apparent Despite your care in siting it, there
accuracy implied by a digital readout is still likely to be some deviation;
swing the compass (p.328) to identify violently since it will take time for the
the error before using it for navigation. swinging card to come to rest. Brace
yourself in a secure position away
Hand bearing compass from metallic objects and keep your
Most steering compasses are not sited hands as steady as possible.
in a position that allows bearings to There are three types of hand
be taken all around the boat, so a bearing compasses: the traditional
portable hand bearing compass is bowl compass with a handle, the
often used. To use a hand bearing smaller “mini” compass, and a hand-
compass, line up the lubber line with held fluxgate compass. The type
the object for which the bearing is you choose depends on personal
electronic compass display
An electronic, fluxgate compass comprises being measured, such as a vessel or preference; all will deliver good
a fluxgate sensor mounted in a sealed box buoy, and read off the bearing. With results if used properly. Try to use a
below decks and a display head that is practice, you will be able to take few types afloat, preferably in rough
usually mounted in the cockpit within accurate bearings quickly. Do not conditions, to decide which suits you
direct sight of the helm. move a magnetic compass around best before buying one.
 NAVIGATION
328
VARIATION AND DEVIATION D West D East
4º 3º 2º 1º 0º 1º 2º 3º 4º
ºC D

000º 000º 1ºW

The compass error is a combination your steering compass. Once the 030º 030º 2ºW
060º 060º 2ºW
of variation and deviation. There deviation is known, and if it is 090º 090º 3ºW
is nothing that you can do about excessive, a compass adjuster will use 120º 120º 2ºW
variation (below) when using a small magnetic correctors sited around 150º 150º 1ºW
180º 180º 0º
magnetic compass other than allow the compass to reduce the deviation 210º 210º 1ºE
for it when converting courses effects as much as possible. Employing 240º 240º 1ºE
from magnetic to true or vice versa. a compass adjuster is usually only 270º 270º 2ºE
300º 300º 1ºE
Deviation, however, can be measured, necessary if you have a steel-hulled 330º 330º 0º
minimized, and corrected (right vessel that creates a considerable 360º 360º 1ºW
and opposite). local magnetic field. In some cases,
Key: D = Deviation, ºC = Compass heading
the effect of deviation in a steel vessel
Dealing with deviation can only be overcome by using deviation card
There are a number of specialist a gyrocompass, which uses the Measure the deviation on courses at least
compass adjusters who will come properties of a gyroscope to point every 30º and note them down. Then
aboard your boat and measure, very at true north rather than magnetic plot a deviation curve using graph paper.
accurately, the deviation present in north. However, these are expensive

and complicated and are rarely

MAGNETIC VARIATION used on small boats. Whatever the
The angular difference between magnetic and true north (pp.320–321) construction materials of your boat,
alters year by year. It is called variation, and its amount and direction— it is rare that deviation can be
either east or west of true north—depend on where you are on Earth’s eliminated altogether. So the amount
surface. The movement of the magnetic poles is predictable and slow of deviation must be measured by a
and is marked on charts. Currently, the magnetic north pole is located
process called “swinging the compass”
in the Canadian Arctic.
and a deviation card created from
Allowing for variation which the amount of deviation can be
Magnetic north True north
All charts display a compass rose read off for each compass course.
aligned with true north, along Easterly Westerly
variation variation
with a concentric inner rose Swinging the compass
aligned to magnetic north. Local You can employ a compass adjuster
variation and its annual rate of to swing your compass or you can
change are also marked on the
do it yourself quite easily. There are
rose. When shaping a course or
plotting a position, you will often several ways to do it, but the quickest
have to convert between true and and easiest is to have the helm steer
magnetic bearings. Do this using due north (000ºC) on the steering
the rose, or by simple addition or magnetic variation compass while another person uses
subtraction (below). Be consistent in The magnetic poles move over time, but a hand bearing compass to sight
your methods to avoid mistakes. their position and annual rate of change along the centerline of the boat while
are known and can be allowed for.
standing at the stern, well clear of
any magnetic interference.
TRUE TO MAGNETIC MAGNETIC TO TRUE Make sure there is no deviation at
ADD WESTERLY variation, or ADD EASTERLY variation, or your chosen spot by taking a bearing
SUBTRACT EASTERLY variation SUBTRACT WESTERLY variation of a charted transit and checking it
e.g., 150°T + 5°W = 155°M e.g., 155°M – 5°W = 150°T on the chart (p.336). Note the course
steered and the reading from the
hand bearing compass, then turn to
 THE COMPASS: VARIATION AND DEVIATION
329
030ºC and repeat the procedure. accuracy that is achievable in
Continue recording bearings every practice. Even the most experienced PUTTING IT
30º until you have completed a full helm cannot steer a course to ALL TOGETHER
360º. Plot the results on graph paper single-degree accuracy, even in
The navigator plots courses
to produce a curve giving the amount perfect conditions. The navigator
and bearings on charts that are
and direction of deviation for each should, therefore, expect the course aligned to true north. When
course steered. actually steered to be no more calculating a course to steer, it is
If deviation exceeds about 6º accurate than plus or minus 5º necessary to measure the true (or
on any course, employ a compass of the course requested. sometimes magnetic) bearing of
adjuster to correct the compass. Even more inaccuracy is likely the track. However, this must be
Use the card to estimate deviation to occur in rough conditions, when converted to a compass bearing
on any course when converting sailing in darkness, or with an for the helm, who will use a
courses from compass to magnetic inexperienced helm. Try to give the magnetic compass to steer by.
or vice versa (right). helm a course to steer in increments
of 5º—such as 030º or 035º rather Starting with a true bearing
Steering a course than 033º. It is easier to remember measured from the chart, the
When working in less than ideal and far easier to read on a navigator must convert it to a
conditions at a yacht’s chart table, conventional compass card, which is magnetic bearing by allowing for
variation. Then they must allow for
it is wise to recognize the level of clearly marked at 5º and 10º intervals.
deviation, if any. These corrections
will result in a compass bearing,
which is the course to steer by the
COMPASS DEVIATION steering compass to travel along
Compass alignment often differs from magnetic north due to on-board the true bearing drawn on the chart
magnetic fields. This is called deviation. It varies with the boat’s course (not allowing for leeway, p.349).
and is measured in degrees east or west of magnetic north. It may also This may seem complex, but if
be affected by the amount the boat is heeling. you sail regularly on the same boat in
the same sailing area, then you will
Avoiding temporary deviation Little or no error Magnetic north quickly get used to the calculations.
On passage, avoid temporary on northerly course When working from true bearings to
True north
effects by ensuring that beverage compass or vice versa, it is helpful to
cans, eyeglasses with metal Large error on
Large error
follow a simple formula that combines
on westerly
frames, personal music players, easterly course each step into one calculation.
course
and all other metal or electrical
equipment is kept well away from -W +E
the compass. Be strict in enforcing ºC D ºM V ºT
this, since a magnetic item left +W -E
close to the compass could cause
Key: V = Variation
very large errors.
ºC = Compass course ºT = True course
D = Deviation W & E = Direction of
Allowing for deviation magnetic deviation ºM = Magnetic course each correction factor.
When shaping a course or plotting The amount of error depends on the boat’s
a position, convert between heading and the relative positions of the To convert a course from ºC to ºM
magnetic and compass courses by interfering magnetic materials (here, the or ºT, the navigator simply works
adding or subtracting the amount engine), the compass, and magnetic north. from left to right on the diagram
of compass deviation (below). It is largest on easterly or westerly courses. (above), adding Easterly and
subtracting Westerly corrections
for deviation and variation. To
MAGNETIC TO COMPASS COMPASS TO MAGNETIC convert a course from ºT to ºM
ADD WESTERLY deviation, or ADD EASTERLY deviation, or or ºC, the navigator works from
SUBTRACT EASTERLY deviation SUBTRACT WESTERLY deviation right to left, adding Westerly and
e.g., 204°M + 4°W = 208°C e.g., 208°C – 4°W = 204°M subtracting Easterly corrections
for variation and deviation.
 NAVIGATION
330

PLOTTING EQUIPMENT
Before you can do any plotting work on paper charts, you will Parallel rulers
need to obtain a few navigation tools and learn how to use them. A navigator uses parallel rulers to
transfer a direction from the chart’s
Practice with these basic tools leads to confident chart work and compass rose to the part of the chart
accurate navigation, which will give you great satisfaction. on which they are working. First, the
ruler is lined up on either the true or
the magnetic compass rose. Depending
A chart table books, some of which will be on its design, the ruler is then either
A secure place to work is a major help quite large, and bulkhead space rolled or “walked” across the chart
in navigation. The best solution is to for instruments and communication to the appropriate area. Lines can
have a permanent chart table with a equipment. A small compass, then be drawn to indicate a course
horizontal surface large enough for mounted with the lubber line fore to steer or a bearing on an object.
a chart to be laid out with no more and aft (p.327), is useful for keeping When you are choosing a parallel
than one fold. A typical chart table an eye on the course being steered. ruler, it is best to try out a range of
has either a lifting top with chart If your boat is too small for both roller and walking designs at sea
storage space underneath or a drawer. a permanent chart table, use a flat to find out which most suits you.
Either type should allow the charts to board that is large enough to take a Generally, roller types are impractical
be stored flat when folded in half. folded chart but that can be stowed on a yacht and walking types can be
away when not in use. Clip the chart awkward on small chart tables.
Siting a chart table to the board and use it on your knees,
Some people prefer to stand up at a either down below or in the cockpit
chart table that is arranged fore and when conditions are suitable.
aft, but, more usually, chart tables
are built athwartships with a seat for Lighting a chart table
the navigator. Ideally, the chart table The chart table should be lit so
is situated near the companionway, that the navigator can work on charts
where there is least motion in the without disturbing sleeping crew or
boat, with the seat facing forward. affecting the helm’s night vision. A
This position makes communication small, flexible gooseneck lamp can be
with the helm and access to the useful for lighting the chart. Using a
cockpit fairly easy. There should be low-power red bulb can also help
shelf space for essential reference minimize loss of night vision. DIVIDERS COMPASS

PLOTTER

chart table and tools

The chart table should be a secure spot
to work, with space for spreading out a
chart and mounting instruments within
easy reach. A plotter, dividers, and a
compass are all essential basic tools.
 PLOTTING EQUIPMENT
331
LOGBOOK REFERENCE BOOKS
A logbook is used for recording position, course, distance run, and other Every navigator requires a selection
crucial information. You are required to keep one by maritime law and of reference books to provide
might have to produce it in the event of an incident at sea. information that is not included
on charts. These books should be
Making a logbook stored somewhere conveniently
You do not need to buy a printed logbook. There is no standardized format close to the chart table for easy
for logbooks, and many commercial ones include space for unnecessary reference and should be kept
information. Many experienced navigators produce their own, simply by ruling
as up-to-date as possible.
a few columns in a notebook or on loose-leaf sheets inserted into a ring binder.
The column headings can be adapted to suit your individual requirements.
Nautical almanac
The principal reference book you
Keeping records
require is a current copy of the
Try to keep your entries as neat as possible because you may need to refer back
nautical almanac that covers your
to them. Record the key data half-hourly or hourly when you are cruising close to
sailing area. This provides tidal
shore, and less often when you are well offshore. A rough notebook is handy for
information, harbor plans and
making notes and calculations; some skippers have a deck log for use by the crew
details, and other useful material.
on watch and transfer the information at regular intervals to the main logbook.
Pilot books
The navigator may want pilot
books to cover the area being
Plotters Dividers cruised. These vary from
A plotter achieves the same result as Used to measure distances on the publications produced specifically
a parallel ruler, and most people find chart, dividers are usually made of for yachting to those published
it easier to use on a small boat. The brass with steel tips. Buy a pair of by hydrographic agencies and
Breton, Hurst, and Portland plotters dividers that is at least 6 in (15 cm) intended for all types of seafarers.
are among the most popular brands. long so that it has a reasonable span.
All types of plotters are used The single-handed type, which has a Tidal atlases
Although tidal information is
in conjunction with the grid of bowed top, is easier to use than the
available from nautical almanacs
latitude and longitude lines marked straight type, which needs two hands and charts, tidal atlases of your
on the chart rather than with the to open and close it. sailing area showing the direction
compass roses. The plotter is Open the dividers to span the and rate of the tidal stream in
engraved with a compass rose and appropriate area, then read off the pictorial form may be useful,
a square grid of lines, any of which distance using the chart’s latitude depending on how you like to
are lined up with a line of latitude scale. If the span of the dividers is not see the information presented.
or longitude on the chart to orient large enough, set it to a convenient
Instruction manuals
the plotter with true north. The width using the latitude scale, then
Electronic navigation instruments
plotter’s straight edge is then lined step the dividers across the area. are often quite complicated to use.
up with the bearing to be measured, A simple drawing compass Make sure you have a full set of
and the bearing is read off from the should also be carried for use instruction booklets and study
plotter’s compass rose. when plotting curved lines of them carefully to get the best out
Some plotters allow variation position (p.358). of your equipment.
and deviation to be set on their
Lights and radio signals
compass rose, thus allowing magnetic Pencils If you are sailing long distances,
bearings to be read or plotted directly. Use soft pencils, such as 2B, on charts you may also want to carry
A plotter does not need to be used in to avoid permanently marking them. published references for lists of
conjunction with a compass rose, so it Hexagonal pencils are less likely than lights and radio signals, especially
does not have to be moved across the round ones to roll off the table when if you do not have a full set of
chart. This makes it easier to use and the boat heels. You will also need a large-scale charts for the area.
more accurate than parallel rulers. pencil sharpener and a soft eraser.
 NAVIGATION
332

NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS
For successful navigation, you require some form of log to at which water passes along the
measure distance sailed. Along with your compass, this will give hull; it cannot measure the speed
over the ground.
you the minimum information you need, although it is also If a yacht is anchored or moored
prudent to carry a depth sounder. More sophisticated systems in a tidal stream, the log will show
for performance measurement and position fixing are useful, but the speed of the water moving past the
hull, and if the boat is sailing against
they do not remove the need to use the basic skills. Nor are they
the tide, the boat speed indicated
foolproof—you must always be prepared to double-check their by the log will be greater than the
readings and be able to do without them if necessary. speed achieved over the ground. If
the boat is sailing with the tide, the
speed indicated by the log will be
Logs can get clogged. Doppler types less than the speed over the ground.
Most yachts are equipped with some measure the change of frequency in If a GPS set is installed (p.334),
form of electronic log, nearly all of a signal emitted into the water flow it will show your speed over the
which avoid the trouble of towing next to the hull and proportional ground, and this can be compared
a rotator behind the boat by having a to speed. It has no moving parts to the log’s display of speed through
transducer fitted through the hull or, and can be mounted inside the the water to estimate the set and
sometimes, mounted inside. Transducers hull, against the skin. drift of the tidal stream in which the
may be of the impeller, pressure, or A log’s display unit is usually yacht is sailing.
Doppler types. Most electronic logs use mounted in view of the steering
a small paddle-wheel impeller mounted position and/or at the chart table. Depth sounders
through the hull and connected to Most units use a digital display, but A traditional lead line (a weighted
the electronics in the display head. The analog instruments are also available. line that is dropped over the side),
impeller is usually retractable, so it can Many systems allow a repeater unit about 50 ft (15 m) long, is the simplest
be cleared of weeds when necessary. to be installed to allow two or more and most reliable form of depth
As with any through-hull fitting, a locations to be covered. sounder. You should carry one even if
wooden or rubber bung should be tied Even a simple log usually displays you have an electronic depth sounder;
to the fitting so that if it should fail speed and total distance run and has it makes a useful backup and is handy
for any reason, the resulting hole in a trip meter that can be reset. More for measuring depth all around the
the hull can be plugged quickly. The expensive units can also display other boat or for use from the dinghy.
vulnerability of the impeller to fouling data, such as maximum speed achieved Traditionally, a lead line is
is the main disadvantage of this type. and average speed for the trip, and marked at specific depths with certain
Pressure logs sense changes in many have timer and countdown types and colors of material, but
pressure, which are proportional to functions, which are particularly useful you can devise any marking system
speed. They have no moving parts when racing. Remember that the log’s that suits you. The traditional lead
outside the boat, but the tubes transducer can only measure the speed has a hollow in the bottom that can

DEPTH AND SPEED WIND MULTIFUNCTION

 NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS
333
Depth transducers are often mounted
externally, although they have no
moving parts, but most can be
mounted internally. This does reduce Depth
transducer
their effective range but removes the
risk of a hole through the hull.
Conical signal Signals reflect D
emitted from back from A E
B
transducer the seabed Wind instruments
A wind instrument may be as simple C
as a small flag (burgee) on a pivoting
support that is hoisted above the
depth sounding signal masthead on a burgee halyard or a offsets for depth sounder
The depth sounder’s transducer emits a The depth sounder will read the depth
pivoting wind vane mounted on the
conical signal, and errors can occur if the below it, B, unless corrected. Add D to
top of the mast. Burgees and wind
yacht heels significantly or if false signals give true water depth, A, or subtract E
reflect back off the keel.
vanes are commonly used on dinghies to give water depth under the keel, C.
and smaller boats and are equally
useful on larger cruisers.
be armed (filled) with tallow or More sophisticated instrumentation measured distance on the chart and
grease to collect a sample of the consists of a small vane and anemometer make two runs along it under power
seabed, which can be useful when placed at the masthead, connected to in opposite directions when the tidal
selecting an anchorage. a display head in the cockpit. The stream is slack. Note the distance for
Most modern yachts use an display usually consists of an analog each run from your log, add them
electronic depth sounder, which sends meter showing wind direction with a together, and divide by two to get the
out conical pulses of sound toward digital display for wind speed. On its average. The difference between this
the bottom and measures the time it own, a wind instrument will display figure and the distance marked on the
takes for them to be reflected back. the strength and direction of apparent chart is the log error. Electronic logs
They can display depth in feet, meters, wind (p.33) in relation to the yacht’s can usually be adjusted by inputting
or even fathoms, and many have deep- head. When instruments are connected the error correction; alternatively, you
and shallow-water alarm settings. It is together to share their data, a wind can simply record the observed error
prudent to add at least a meter or two instrument together with an electronic and apply it to each log reading.
to the boat’s draft and set this as a log will enable it to compute and The depth sounder also needs
shallow-water alarm. A deep-water display true wind strength and relative calibration. The vertical distance of
alarm can be useful for identifying direction. If a fluxgate compass is the transducer from the waterline must
a depth contour or for warning of a added to the system, it will enable be entered into the system as an offset
dragging anchor. The display head the wind instrument to calculate and so that the instrument can calculate
should be mounted in the cockpit display the actual direction, in degrees the actual depth from the surface.
where the helm can see it easily. magnetic, of both the true and Some sailors calibrate the other way
When the boat is heeled, the apparent wind. so that the instrument reads the depth
positioning of the transducer below the keel. Make sure your
relative to the seabed may change, Calibrating instruments crew knows which system you use.
thus affecting the depth reading. A Electronic instruments, especially Wind instruments also need to
soft seabed may also cause errors, those with a digital display, give the be calibrated to align with the ship’s
as may cavitation—when small air impression of great accuracy when, head. Racing boats mount their wind
bubbles, often generated by a in fact, the instruments can be wildly instruments on long wands to get them
propeller, reflect the signal back. inaccurate unless their transducers clear of the masthead and away from
When reversing over your own wake are functioning properly and the upwash effects that introduce errors.
or passing across a power boat’s instruments have been properly Cruising sailors do not require such
wake, you may suddenly see the calibrated. Whatever type of log you accuracy but should calibrate their
depth apparently drop dramatically. use, it should be calibrated. Find a instruments according to the manual.
 NAVIGATION
334
Satellite positioning A dedicated GPS unit can either be
Radio positioning by satellite signal of the type that is permanently
has revolutionized navigation on mounted, usually at the chart table,
land and sea. The original, and with an internal or external aerial, or
most used, system is the US Global it may be a handheld set with a built-
Positioning System (GPS). GLONASS in aerial. Handheld GPS receivers are
(Russian), GALILEO (European), relatively cheap, have much of the
and COMPASS (Chinese) are similar functionality of larger units, and are
systems. In each, a constellation of often carried as a backup to the main
operational and standby satellites set. Alternatively, a GPS aerial and
circles Earth, providing an orbital receiver can be plugged directly into radar display
reference grid. a chart plotter to display the vessel’s A radar display presents its information in
In the GPS system, at least four position directly on the digital chart. picture form. Some displays can overlay
satellites are visible from anywhere A GPS set requires setting up the radar plot on an electronic chart or
display them side by side, as here.
on Earth. Each satellite permanently before use. Among the options, you
transmits a signal, giving any receiver can usually specify the chart datum
in range a very accurate time signal for its reference position (p.319), your Radar
and the position of the satellite. When preferred unit of distance (statute or On boats larger than about 36 ft
a GPS receiver is in touch with three nautical miles), and whether to use (11 m), radar can be the most useful
or more satellites, it has enough data true or magnetic north for bearings. electronic aid and is the only one with
to triangulate its own position (and As with a visual three-point fix position-fixing and collision-avoidance
altitude) on the surface of Earth. (pp.356–357), the accuracy of the capabilities. Ideally, you should attend
The GPS system is freely calculated position is increased when a course to learn to use radar properly.
available to anyone with receiving the satellites are well spaced across the A radar set consists of a
equipment and a GPS set will sky. The amount of spread is called display screen with controls, linked
calculate its position within 49 ft the Horizontal Dilution of Precision to an antenna usually mounted on
(15 m) 95 percent of the time. More (HDoP). Some GPS receivers display the mast, or on an arch or pole at the
accurate DGPS sets (Differential HDoP data so you can assess the stern that transmits signals and
GPS) receive additional signals from accuracy of a fix. receives reflections. These may be
land-based stations that are used to GPS units can provide position from the shore, buoys, other vessels,
correct errors in the GPS system. information as a digital readout of or anything else capable of adequately
DGPS sets can achieve an accuracy latitude and longitude or as a bearing reflecting the signal. The radar then
of around 4 in (10 cm). and distance from any chosen location. provides a bearing and distance
The latter is often easier to use for between the yacht and a target shown
plotting position on a paper chart. on screen. If the object is fixed and
Receivers can also be programmed is marked on a chart, you can use
with 100 or more waypoints— the range and bearing to plot your
positions of charted objects, turning position. However, radar systems are
marks, or any other positions you far more accurate at determining
choose. Routes, consisting of two or range than bearing, so the most
more waypoints, can also be stored reliable radar fix uses three ranges of
in the unit’s memory. GPS is a major charted objects (p.359).
navigation tool. However, the prudent If the object is another vessel, you
navigator recognizes that GPS sets can determine its course and speed and
chart plotter
or their power supply can fail, or whether it represents a collision risk.
When connected to a GPS set, the the signal can be degraded by many This is particularly useful in restricted
chart plotter display your boat’s factors or even jammed. You should visibility or in crowded shipping lanes
position and track, superimposed always have another method of when there may be multiple targets on
on the electronic chart. plotting your position. the radar display.
 NAVIGATION INSTRUMENTS
335
If you have a chart plotter or an in touch. Satellite systems are also
onboard PC with chart plotting available for voice, data and fax INTEGRATED SYSTEMS
software, then it is often possible transmissions and for GMDSS signals. The continuing trend toward
to display the radar picture as an integration of electronic aids
overlay on the chart plotter screen, GMDSS and DSC gives the navigator information
or alternatively the chart on the First introduced in 1992, with vessels that would otherwise require
radar screen. This makes it much required to be compliant by 1999, the considerable calculation,
easier to interpret the radar picture. Global Marine Distress and Safety knowledge, and skill. Integrated
System (GMDSS) provides efficient systems can calculate course
AIS and enhanced communications and and speed, true wind speed and
AIS (Automatic Identification System) distress alerting. The system direction, velocity made good
is an automated tracking system incorporates DSC (Digital Selective to windward or downwind, plus
that allows vessels to view marine Calling) along with general broadcast much other specialized data.
traffic in their area and to be seen by marine radio communication,
that traffic. The system is compulsory incoming Maritime Safety Information Unlimited possibilities
Most manufacturers offer systems
on ships over 300 gross tons and all (MSI), as well as emergency positioning
that integrate log, wind, and depth
passenger vessels. It is used by vessel indication equipment (EPIRB) (p.427). instruments. Usually a fluxgate
traffic services (VTS) for identifying Most DSC VHF sets incorporate a compass, GPS, a chart plotter, and
and locating vessels and has become prominent red distress button for a radar can be hooked in, too, so
common on cruising yachts in both emergency use. With these sets, the all the information is available to
active and receive-only forms. crew merely have to be able to hit the computers in the individual
AIS signals are transmitted over the distress button in an emergency. instruments. It is also possible to
add a PC with yet more calculation
VHF and require an AIS receiver or When a DSC VHF set is
possibilities. The dedicated racing
transceiver. A receiver displays local triggered to send a distress message, navigator will get great satisfaction
traffic on an AIS-enabled chart plotter it automatically transmits basic from all this information, but the
or computer screen while a transceiver information about your vessel vast majority of it is not necessary
also sends information about the together with your position derived for the cruising navigator who
vessel to other AIS receivers. from an onboard GPS set. Time simply wants to enjoy sailing
AIS information supplements radar permitting, you can also select while being able to periodically
fix his position and ensure a safe
and visual lookouts, which remain the nature of your distress to be
arrival at his or her destination.
the primary methods of collision included in the transmission.
avoidance. The most convenient way
of using AIS information is for it to Navtex and Weatherfax
be overlaid on a chart plotter display, These radio systems (pp.382–385),
when it can show the position, speed, sometimes combined into one unit,
heading, and many other details are very useful weather and safety
about AIS-equipped vessels in the information sources. Navtex
area. Such a system can also sound provides up-to-date navigational,
an alarm if there is a threat of collision. weather, and safety information for
a selected sea area, and Weatherfax
Communication systems delivers weather forecasts and
Most yachts carry a VHF (Very High charts. If you connect an onboard sharing information
Frequency) radio for short-range PC to an all frequency radio receiver, Integrated systems can share
communication with shore stations Navtex and Weatherfax information data between display heads,
or other boats. Cruisers sailing long can be received without the need calculate additional useful
information, and overlay or split
distances also often have more for separate units. With a satellite screen information such as radar
sophisticated medium- and long-range communication system, you can and chart images or, as here,
ship radios or Ham (amateur radio) also use the PC to obtain satellite multiple performance information.
sets installed to allow them to stay weather images.
 NAVIGATION
336

PILOTAGE
a safe track or a clearing line can
be measured using a hand bearing
or steering compass (pp.326–329).
Few steering compasses are mounted
Navigation by eye, compass, and chart, when in sight of land, where they can be used to take
is known as pilotage. The art of pilotage is to determine a series bearings all around the boat, but
if the boat can be pointed at the
of safe tracks, in between hazards, that lead to your destination object, the steering compass can be
and to be able to confirm at any time that your boat is on or close used to take a bearing. Otherwise,
to these tracks without having to plot a position on the chart. the hand bearing compass must be
used, so it should always be stowed
Pilotage skills are used mainly when entering or leaving harbor—
within easy reach when piloting.
occasions when you do not have time to plot fixes on the chart However, using transits is quicker
and where an error of a few boat lengths can be critical. and simpler than taking compass
bearings and can be more accurate,
so they are the first choice.
Bearings through constricted water, while
Two types of bearings are useful clearing lines define the boundaries Transits
when piloting. One is the bearing of a safe zone and are used to keep When two objects are in line, they
of the safe track between hazards the boat clear of potential hazards. are said to be in transit. If you see
and the other is a clearing line. The Once they have been identified on two objects in transit, your boat
safe track is the course you follow a chart or harbor plan, bearings of must be somewhere on the extension

CHOOSING AND USING BINOCULARS

A cruising yacht should have at least one pair of quality binoculars aboard. They are essential when you are in
restricted waters and need to be able to navigate by eye rather than using a chart and are very useful at other
times when trying to identify navigation buoys or shore-side features.

Choosing binoculars magnification and the size of the object the binoculars you choose have
Buy the best binoculars you can lens, which determines how much light rubber eyepieces that fit snugly
afford, perhaps having a cheaper is admitted. A pair of 7 x 50 binoculars against the glasses and exclude
second pair for general crew use. is a good choice. A magnification extraneous light.
Strong, waterproof binoculars with a higher than 7 makes the binoculars
rubber coating are best on yachts to difficult to hold steady unless they have
protect against inevitable bumps. built-in stabilization, and an object lens
Binoculars are categorized by their smaller than 2 in (50 mm) will not
work well in low light levels. Some
Built-in compass Molded eyepieces types have a built-in compass and/or
a range finder.

Using binoculars
When using binoculars on a moving boat,
try to brace the lower half of your body
and allow the upper half to move with
the roll to keep the binoculars as steady integral compass
as possible. The boat’s companionway is Some binoculars have an integral
Resilient, often a good place to position yourself, compass and some have a range finder.
waterproof casing as it allows you to brace yourself at waist These are handy for taking a bearing
height. If you wear glasses, make sure of an object and for determining how
BINOCULARS far away it is.
 PILOTAGE
337
USING TRANSITS TO NEGOTIATE HAZARDS
One or more sets of transits can often be employed to navigate along safe tracks between hazards. Examine
the chart to identify natural or purpose-built marks or features that can be used as transits or clearing lines.
The appearance of rocks and headlands will alter with the tides; take this into account when using transits.
closed transit
The rock (B) is described as closed
PYLONS in relation to the lighthouse. In the
diagram, this means that the yacht
must be clear of the dangerous
C rocks (A) off the entrance.

Safe track in transit

LIGHTHOUSE

Rock and
B The rock (B) and the lighthouse
here are in transit. If the yacht
lighthouse
in transit
steers to keep them in transit, it
will follow a safe track clear of the
rocks (A) until it is able to turn into
the harbor.
A
open transit
The rock (B) is described as open
in relation to the lighthouse. In the
following a safe track
diagram, this means that the yacht
To stay clear of rocks (A) at the entrance to the anchorage, keep
could be in danger of hitting the
the rock (B) closed, or in transit with the lighthouse. When the
rocks (A) off the entrance.
leading marks (pylons) come on transit (C), turn onto the safe
track into the harbor.

of the imaginary line that joins them. (above). When using an open or must allow for their appearance to
If the objects can be identified on closed transit as a clearing line, the change with tide height. Remember,
the chart, you have a very useful boat is steered to keep the objects too, that individual rocks may be
single line of position. When you open or closed, as necessary, in order difficult to identify with any certainty
first acquire a chart for a new to avoid a danger to the side of the in rock-strewn areas. Even purpose-
cruising ground, some major transits safe track. built leading marks can be difficult
and bearing lines will already be to identify against the background
printed on it, but you will be able Choosing transits clutter of shore-side buildings.
to identify many other potentially Transits are often purpose-built When studying a chart, try to
useful transits as you study the chart. objects, such as posts or beacons, that develop the ability to visualize the
Draw lines connecting conspicuous are specifically constructed to mark coastline as it will appear to you
features and see whether these lines safe passages (leading lines) into and in practice—horizontally from
could be used to define safe areas out of harbor. Natural objects, such sea level rather than from the bird’s-
and turning points, or for any other as rocks or headlands, may also be eye view a chart depicts. Some
navigational purpose. The nautical used as transits, as long as they are electronic chart plotting systems
almanac and local pilotage guides clearly visible and are identifiable have the ability to present chart
will also identify useful transits. on the chart. They must also be a information both above and below
Transits do not need to be in reasonable distance apart from each sea level in a 3D view, taking into
line to be useful. A clearing line can other and not too close to your boat. account tide height, which greatly
be defined by two objects not quite If you select objects that are in the aids the accurate interpretation of
in line, said to be open or closed water, such as rocks or posts, you two-dimensional charts.
 NAVIGATION
338
BUOYAGE OTHER MARKS
In addition to the main lateral and
Although navigation marks can be often numbered, starting from cardinal marks, various other
found well offshore, they are mostly seaward with even numbers on marks are used. An isolated danger
encountered near land, around port hand marks and odd numbers mark is used to indicate a small,
shipping lanes, or in coastal waters on starboard marks. single danger with safe water all
where they are used to identify Around coastlines, buoyage is around. A safe-water mark
dangers and safe channels. The typically arranged in a clockwise indicates safe water around its
system of buoyage is organized by direction. If the direction of buoyage position and is used for mid-
the International Association of is not obvious, check on your chart; channel or landfall marks. Other,
Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). it will be marked using an arrow special marks are used to indicate
There are, in fact, two systems: with two dots (p.323). a special area or feature but are
IALA system A is used in Europe, Preferred channel marks are not primarily intended to assist in
Africa, Australia, India, and most of modified lateral marks. They navigation. When lit, marks have
Asia; IALA system B is used in are used where a channel divides specific light characteristics (p.340).
North, Central, and South America to indicate the direction of the
and Japan, Korea, and the Philippines. main channel, which is usually
The key difference between the two is the deepest or widest (opposite).
in the color used for lateral marks.
ISOLATED DANGER MARK
IALA system A uses red for port Cardinal marks
Light white, Fl (2).
lateral marks and green for starboard Large or individual hazards are
lateral marks, whereas in IALA indicated with cardinal marks. They
system B, the colors are reversed. are named after the points of the
compass to indicate which side you
Lateral marks should pass by them to avoid the SAFE-WATER MARK
The edges of channels are indicated danger. In other words, you should Light white, Iso, Oc, long Fl 10s,
with lateral marks. These are arranged keep to the north of a north cardinal or MoA.
according to the direction of buoyage, and south of a south cardinal. They are
which is marked on charts. In rivers always pillar- or spar-shaped and
and estuaries, buoyage is usually in are painted black and yellow. They
the direction of the harbor from all have two black cone top marks
SPECIAL MARKS
seaward, so when traveling up a variously arranged one above the
river (in IALA A), the port-hand other, and at night their white lights Light yellow, any rhythm but
different from other buoys.
buoys are red and the starboard-hand flash in a sequence that indicates their
ones are green. Lateral buoys are quadrant (opposite and p.340).

EMERGENCY WRECK
Alternating blue and yellow
flashing light.

The shape of special marks is

optional, but where cones, cans, or
spheres are used, they show the side
lateral mark cardinal mark on which it is recommended to pass.
A red can is a port lateral mark in Cardinal marks have the same shapes, So a can shape is left to port and a
IALA system A. In system B, a can colors, and meanings in IALA system A cone to starboard, while a round
shape identifies it as a port lateral and system B. A pillar buoy with a black shape can be left to either side.
mark, but the color would be green. band over yellow is a North Cardinal mark.
 PILOTAGE: BUOYAGE
339

LATERAL AND CARDINAL MARKS

Lateral marks define the edges of channels and show which, of two channels, is the preferred one. They may
be lit (p.340), in which case the color of the light will be the same as the buoy’s color—red or green. Cardinal
marks define which side to pass a danger. At night, they display a white light in a specific sequence.

IALA A LATERAL MARKS IALA B LATERAL MARKS

Preferred channel Preferred channel
mark—here, channel mark—here, channel
is to port is to port

Posts use Posts use

color and color and
topmark to topmark to
indicate side indicate side

Port hand Port hand

mark— mark—
red can green can

Starboard hand Starboard hand

mark—green cone mark—red cone
Preferred channel Preferred channel
mark—here, mark—here,
channel is channel is
to starboard to starboard

CARDINAL MARKS

NORTH CARDINAL
Light white, Q, or VQ.

hAzARD
WEST CARDINAL EAST CARDINAL
Light white, Fl VQ (9) Light white, Fl VQ (3) 5s,
10s, or Q (9) 15s. or Q (3) 10s.

SOUTH CARDINAL
Light white, Fl VQ (6)+1 long 10s, or Q (6)+1 long 15s.
 NAVIGATION
340
BUOYAGE AT NIGHT LIGHT SEQUENCES
Different light characteristics
Navigation at night is made much abbreviations used in the diagram are are used to allow the navigator
easier through the use of lights that also found on charts (pp.322–323). to identify different navigation
identify buoys, shore beacons, leading You should familiarize yourself with marks at night.
marks, and lighthouses. Buoys are the abbreviations and the patterns
usually lit with short-range lights, associated with them. Some terms Period of Light Sequence
medium-range lights may be found may be unfamiliar: “isophase” means
on shore beacons, and long-range that there are equal periods of light
Oc Occulting
lights are normally used on and dark in the sequence; “occulting”
lighthouses. It can be difficult to means that the periods of darkness
Oc(2) Group Occulting
identify marks at night, especially in are shorter than the periods of
the vicinity of ordinary shore lights. light—in effect, flashes of darkness.
Oc(2+3) Composite Group Occulting
To make it easier, different Approaching a harbor at night
characteristics are used to light specific with a lot of shore lights can make
Iso Isophase
marks and aid identification. The it tricky to pick out a buoy you are
characteristic of each light is noted looking for. Using the hand bearing
Fixed
on the chart of the area and in sailing compass to sight along the expected
directions. Usually, lights are white, bearing of a buoy from a known
red, green, or yellow, but purple, position can make it easier to find. Fl Single Flashing

blue, and orange may also be used. Never assume that the light you see
is the one you are expecting; you L Fl Long Flashing

Light sequences may not be where you think you are.

In addition to the color, the flashing Always double-check and, if possible, Fl(3) Group Flashing

pattern of the light and the time sail close to the buoy to identify it.
taken to complete one sequence are Lighthouses and some other Fl(2+1) Composite Group Flashing

used as ways of identifying buoys. beacons often use colored sector

lights to indicate safe and dangerous Q Continuous Quick
Using a stopwatch, check the timing
of the flashing through three full areas. The chart will show details
sequences to be sure that you have of the colors and sector angles. The Q(3) Group Quick
correctly identified the light. Some edges of the sectors are often given in
of the most common light sequences pilot books as bearings and are from IQ Interrupted Quick
are shown in the diagram (right). The seaward toward the lighthouse in °T.
VQ Continuous Very Quick

Fixed & Flashing

G
VQ(3) Group Very Quick
W
IVQ Interrupted Very Quick
R

UQ Continuous Ultra Quick

lights on buoys sector lights IUQ Interrupted Ultra Quick

Lights with different colors and flashing Some lighthouses have different-colored
R W R W R W
characteristics are used to identify some lights in sectors. Seen from seaward, the
Alternating (here, WR—white/red)
buoys at night. Here, an IALA A starboard navigator will see either the green, white,
hand lateral mark has a green flashing light. or red sector depending on their position.
 L Fl (wh
ite) 341
PLANNING rk Write clear
ter Ma
Safe Wa instructions
w
inal ne of important
est Card
4. At W 5°C toward steps
31
bearing mark
Preplanning safe wa
ter
East Card
The key to accurate and safe pilotage s
Bla Q(3) 10
is to prepare thoroughly. Before you wh ck an in)
ite d 6m
leave on a passage, prepare a pilotage po
sts pro
x.
pprox.
(ap 0.8nm (a
plan. Study the chart, pilot books, and 3. After bearing
nm ) n ew
Show useful 1/2 10 m in
harbor plans to determine the safe transits 0.8 66°C
nm
tracks and find suitable transits near (ap
pro
your course. The best and most x. 1
0m
up Fl R 2s
prominent transits are usually marked .M. line in)
2. At P.H ew
m a rks on n

ots)
on charts or shown in harbor plans. lead in g .M.
3 1 1 °C RED P.H

5 kn
beari n g
Identify all the navigation marks

@
you expect to see on the route, draw making

min
ance
rina entr
in your intended track, and check a plan 1. At ma port

x. 6
3 0 °C to
Experiment with bearing

ppro
for dangers close to your course. hand m
ark
ways of writing or

m (a
y
When piloting at night, make a Red Buo
drawing the plan

1/2n
(not lit)
note of the characteristics of all the until you find one
light buoys near your course. Do Entrance
that suits you, then Marina
not trust your memory to retain all stick to that format.
this information—jot down the key This system is read
Show courses
details for use in a pilotage plan. from bottom to top. and distances
Indicate the marks you expect to see of each leg
Pilotage plans
When piloting, avoid using the chart placing it in a sealable plastic bag. If be a shortage of useful marks or
on deck because it will be difficult you use a list system, try starting the features ahead, such as when leaving
to keep under control in a breeze pilotage plan at the bottom of the harbor, but if you look astern, you
and may quickly be damaged or even page and working up. This way, the will find they are in plentiful supply.
blown overboard. In addition, if your information on courses, navigation Once pilotage is underway, double-
course is from north to south, it can be marks, and other important details check each piece of information. Avoid
difficult to interpret the chart upside is clearly presented in relation to the complacency and the temptation to
down. The best solution is to prepare a direction in which you are traveling make the facts fit your expectations.
pilotage plan for use on deck. Devise it and may help you avoid confusion. Aim to move only from one known
to suit your particular way of working Write down all the navigation safe location to the next so that you
and include courses to steer for each marks or other significant features do not stray from the safe track.
leg of the route, with distances you expect to see, together with their A chart plotter mounted in the
between turning points and details distance off the track. Also note the cockpit, linked to a GPS set, can make
of navigation marks you expect to see. bearings of any clearing lines. If you pilotage much easier, and it is then
Some people prefer to write a are going to pilot at night, make a possible to watch the yacht’s track
passage plan as a list of bearings, note of the characteristics of all the moving across the chart on screen.
marks, and courses, while others lit marks that are in the area. If you use an electronic system,
can only visualize the situation if the Do not forget the value of back do not rely on it, as it may fail at the
pilotage plan is drawn in graphical bearings. It is natural to look ahead worst possible time. Always prepare
form. Experiment with various ways along the track for marks and features a manual plan and double-check the
of preparing a plan until you find to use as transits or clearing lines, but information on the chart plotter by
one that suits you, then stick to that back bearings and back transits, using reference to your pilotage plan and
format. Use a suitable-sized notepad marks and features astern, can be just visual observation of transits, safe
and protect it when on deck by as useful. It is not unusual for there to tracks, and clearing bearings.
 NAVIGATION
342

TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS

When you sail in tidal waters, knowing the height of the tide and at any time between high and low
the direction of the tidal stream is important for safe and accurate water or the time that the tide will
rise or fall to a particular height.
navigation. Some areas, such as Canada’s Bay of Fundy, have enormous Tidal information for secondary
tidal ranges of 35 ft (11 m) or more, whereas others, such as the West ports is given as corrections, known
Indies, have very small ones. Areas with large tidal ranges may seem
daunting, but they are not difficult to cope with once you know the FINDING THE TIME AND
relatively simple procedures for calculating tidal heights and streams. HEIGHT OF HIGH AND
LOW WATER
The information on tide times

TIDAL INFORMATION and heights is provided in an

almanac. If the place you require
data for is a standard port, then
Tides are the vertical rise and fall Information sources the time and height can be read
of the surface of the sea, caused by The navigator can find information on directly from the relevant page
the gravitational attraction of the tide heights, ranges (difference in height 1
in your almanac ( ). In other
Moon and, to a lesser degree, the Sun between low and high tides), and cases, data is calculated using the
(pp.58–59). Earth’s rotation causes a times of high and low waters from a corrections given in the almanac
semidiurnal tide in most parts of the number of different sources. You can 2
for secondary ports ( ). Here,
time and height information is
world. In other words, there is a tide buy tide tables for local areas. These are
required for Ramsgate, which is a
with two high waters and two low often issued by harbor authorities and
secondary port. The standard port
waters every 24 hours, 50 minutes give tidal time and height information is Dover, and the almanac includes
(the length of the lunar day). for every day of the year. National and corrections to be applied to the
Some parts of the world, however, international data is found in nautical Dover high and low water times
experience a different effect due to almanacs, which provide the most and heights to calculate the
the path of the Moon and other comprehensive and authoritative times and heights of high and
factors and have only one high information for their areas. Tidal low waters for Ramsgate ( ). 3
and one low water every day. This predictions are also often included in
is called a diurnal tide and occurs chart-plotting software, and there are
DOVER SEPTEMBER 25 Time
mostly in the tropics. Diurnal tides many online sources of data. Remember, Low TIME ZONE (UT) zone
usually feature small tidal ranges tidal predictions from different sources water Low
time water
(vertical movement). A few other may differ due to different data sets or TIME M height
places experience a combination of methods of computation. Also, natural 0309 2.1
High 0836 5.8 High
diurnal and semidiurnal tides, called effects (such as wind and pressure water 1546 1.7 water
mixed tides, in which there are two variations) can cause the observed time 2118 6.0 height
high and low waters every day but tide to differ significantly from the
their heights vary considerably. predictions for both time and height.
Changes in the height of the sea’s A system of standard and 1 Refer to your almanac to
surface are of little account in the secondary ports is used to cover obtain the time and height of high
water (HW) and low water (LW)
open sea, but near coastlines, they all harbors within a particular area.
at the standard port on the day you
become crucially important. In some The times and height of high and
are interested in. Here, we require the
areas, the shape and orientation of low water are given for each standard time and height of the afternoon high
the coastline cause very large tidal port for every day. A tidal curve water and low water on September 25
ranges, and these huge movements of (p.344) is also often given to allow at Dover, which is the standard port.
water create powerful tidal streams. the calculation of the height of tide
 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS: TIDAL INFORMATION
343
as tidal differences. These can be Time zones Tide tables usually show their base
applied to the time and height data Tide tables usually give the times of time zone on each page. They also
from the standard port to find time high and low water in the port’s zone show the correction that must be
and height at the secondary port. time or standard time, although some applied to convert to local clock time.
If the tide you are calculating falls local tables show times already When working out secondary port
between springs and neaps, you corrected for any daylight saving time. information from standard port data,
will have to interpolate between Make sure you know which system do the calculations in zone time, then
the figures given to achieve the your tide table uses and be prepared convert the answer to local time;
best accuracy (below). to convert to clock time if necessary. otherwise, significant errors may occur.

When high water at Dover is 0600 or 1800, then If high water at Dover is 6.8 meters, then high If low water at Dover is 0.8 meters, then low water
high water at Ramsgate will be 30 minutes later water at Ramsgate will be 1.6 meters lower (5.2 m) at Ramsgate will be 0.2 meters lower (0.6 m)

2 Turn to the TIMES HEIGHT IN METERS

page in the almanac
that gives the LOCATION HIGH WATER LOW WATER MHWS MHWN MLWN MLWS
information for DOVER 0000 0600 0100 0700
secondary ports STANDARD PORT AND AND AND AND 6.8 5.3 2.1 0.8
1200 1800 1300 1900
(here, Ramsgate) to DIFFERENCES
find the time and RAMSGATE +0030 +0030 +0017 +0007 -1.6 -1.3 -0.7 -0.2
height differences
to apply to the
standard port When high water at Dover When low water at Dover When low water at If high water at If low water at
is 0000 or 1200, then high is 0100 or 1300, then low Dover is 0700 or Dover is 5.3 meters, Dover is 2.1 meters,
figures.
water at Ramsgate will be water at Ramsgate will be 1900, then low water then high water at then low water at
30 minutes later 17 minutes later at Ramsgate will be Ramsgate will be 1.3 Ramsgate will be 0.7
7 minutes later meters lower (4 m) meters lower (1.4 m)
Range is the height difference between LW and HW

Enter graph with height MLWN

APPLYING DIFFERENCES FOR SECONDARY PORT 2.1
Draw line joining
at standard port, 1.7 m 2.0
TIME (UT) HEIGHT (M) 1.8 end points
Heights (m) 1.6
Difference for
1.4
HW LW HW LW RANGE MLWS 1.2 MLWN
Draw this line
DOVER 2118 1546 6.0 1.7 4.3 1.0 parallel to end line
Differences +0030 +0012 -1.45 -0.55 0.8
RAMSGATE 2148 1558 4.55 1.15 3.4 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.6 -0.7
Difference for MLWS Differences Read off difference = -0.55

3 Create a table (or use a ready-printed one) to note the 4 The LW difference is harder to interpolate, but we can use
times and heights at the standard port (Dover), the differences a graphical technique to find the answer. Using any convenient
to be applied, and the resulting times and heights at the secondary lined paper, draw a horizontal line and mark off the differences
port (Ramsgate). from the almanac at any convenient scale. Then draw another
From the tide table ( 1 ), HW Dover is 2118 at 6.0 m and LW line, from the start of the first line and at an acute but arbitrary
is 1546 at 1.7 m. From the secondary port data ( 2
), the correction angle to it. On this, mark off the equivalent heights, again at
for HW is +30 minutes, whatever the time of HW Dover. any convenient scale. This scale need not be the same as the
The correction for LW depends on the time of LW Dover ( ). 2 one used on the first line.
If LW Dover is at 0100 or 1300, the correction is +17 minutes. If Join the end points of the two lines. Mark on the height scale
LW Dover is at 0700 or 1900, the correction is +7 minutes. From the height at the standard port for which you need to find the
the tide table ( 1 ), LW Dover is at 1546—roughly halfway difference at the secondary port (here, 1.7 m). From this mark,
between 1300 and 1900. Therefore, the correction needed is draw a line, parallel to the line you have just drawn to join the
+12 minutes, halfway between +7 minutes and +17 minutes. ends of the first two lines, to cut the differences scale. Read off
The height difference for HW is easy to interpolate, as the day’s the difference to apply, which here is –0.55 m.
HW height (6.0 m) is about halfway between mean spring (6.8 m) You can use this graphical technique whenever you need to
and neap heights (5.3 m). By interpolating halfway between interpolate between figures that are not easy to interpolate by
–1.3 m and –1.6 m, we get a high water difference of –1.45 m. eye or by simple arithmetic.
 NAVIGATION
344
TIDAL CURVES
Tidal curves can be used to calculate USING A TIDAL CURVE
the time at which the water depth Before using a tidal curve, use tide tables to find tide times and heights for
needed can be expected or to calculate the day. Here, the information for Ramsgate on the south coast of England
the depth at a given time. The most is used (p.343). Then use the steps below to find the height of the tide at a
accurate way to calculate depth of specific time. To find the time the tide reaches a specific height, reverse steps
water and time is to use the tidal 3–5: draw a line down from the desired height on the top scale; where this line
curves that are provided in the nautical intersects the diagonal line, draw a horizontal line to the curve; at the curve,
draw a line down to the timescale grid and read the time.
almanac. Alternatively, software in a
chart plotter, laptop computer, tablet, Springs curve
or smartphone can be used. H.W.Hts.m
0 2 4
2 6 8
Use the solid line to calculate spring tides
DOVER

M.L.W.N.

M.L.W.S.
How tidal curves work
A tidal curve is represented on a graph
5 0.9 MEAN SPRING
AND NEAP CURVES

that plots the progress of a tide over a 0.8 MEAN RANGES

complete tidal cycle. Where the cycle Springs 6.0m

Neaps 3.2m
varies between spring and neap tides, 4 0.7

two curves are shown. Spring tides are Springs occur 2 days after
new and full moon.
represented in the example (right) by 0.6
CHART DATUM

a solid line and neap tides by a dotted Neaps curve

Factor
0.5
Use the dotted
one. You can use the appropriate
line to calculate
curve to find out what time the tide 0.4 neap tides
will reach a specific height or what
the tide’s height will be at a specific 0.3

time. When the range is between

0.2
springs and neaps, estimate by eye
where you expect the tidal curve to be.
In some places, the time of low water 3 0.1
M.L.W.N.
M.L.W.S.

can be more accurately predicted than 0 2 4 L.W. -5h -4h -3h -2h
1
-1h H.W. +1h +2h +3h +4h +5h +6h +7h L.W.

that of high water. For these areas, L.W.Hts.m

tidal curves are based on low-water

times. Use them in the same way as in 1 Enter the time of the day’s nearest curve. If the day’s tidal range is in between
the diagram, but substitute the time of high water (p.343) in the timescale box neaps and springs (as here), it is usually
low water for that of high water. marked HW and fill in the other time sufficient to interpolate by eye—estimating
boxes, counting up and down from HW. the position between the two curves
according to the size of the day’s range
Secondary ports
The nautical almanac usually provides 2 Enter the height of low water on compared with the spring and neap ranges.
the lower scale, marked LW Hts, and the
curves for each standard port. These
can also be used to obtain the time
height of high water on the upper scale, 4 From the intersection of the curve
marked HW Hts. Draw a straight line and the vertical line, draw a horizontal
or height of tide at the secondary to connect the two marks. line across to meet the angled line
ports, simply by entering the tidal drawn in step 2.
data given for the secondary port. 3 To find the height of tide at a
First, calculate the time of high water particular time, enter the required time 5 From here, draw a line up to join
on the timescale grid. Then draw a line the top scale. The figure at this point is the
and the height of high and low
from this time up to the curve. If the day’s height above chart datum of the tide at
waters at the secondary port. Then tidal range is close to the spring range, the required time. To obtain the total depth
enter these into the tidal curve and draw the line to the spring curve. If it is of water at your position, you need to add
proceed exactly as for a standard port. close to neaps, take the line to the neap this figure to the depth shown on the chart.
 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS: TIDAL CURVES/TIDAL HEIGHTS AND CHART DATUM
345
TIDAL HEIGHTS AND ESTIMATING
CHART DATUM Vertical
clearance
TIDAL HEIGHTS
Tide tables show the height of
C the tide only at high and low
The depth of water shown on M HAT water, and you will often need
charts, and drying heights, are to know its height at other times.
Height of tide T
calculated from chart datum, which For an accurate figure, it is best
is usually the lowest astronomical tide to use the almanac’s tidal curve
(LAT)—the lowest level to which the Chart datum
(opposite), but for a rough guide,
tide is expected to fall. Check the you can estimate the height
information near the chart title to using the Rule of Twelfths.
vertical clearance
confirm to which datum it refers. The boat will pass under the bridge if the
Almanacs give figures for the height vertical clearance, C (given above highest
The Rule of Twelfths
of an average spring (or large) tide’s This method of estimating tidal
astronomical tide [HAT]), plus the amount
height assumes that it rises and falls
high and low waters—Mean High the tide is below HAT, T, is greater than the
symmetrically and that the duration
Water Springs (MHWS) and Mean height of the mast above water level, M.
of the rise or fall is six hours. This is
Low Water Springs (MLWS). Almanacs HAT is always a higher level than MHWS, suitable for many areas where high
also give the equivalent heights for an so it is okay to use MHWS as a level if accuracy is not required, but it
average neap (or small) tide’s high and HAT is not available. should be used with caution.
low waters—Mean High Water Neaps
(MHWN) and Mean Low Water The rule
The rule divides the tidal range
Neaps (MLWN). Heights of objects on that your calculations will provide
(from high water to low water and
land are measured from the MHWS you with a theoretically correct vice versa) into 12 and assumes that
level. At all times other than MHWS, measurement, but they do not allow the tide rises or falls as follows:
heights will be greater than shown, so for any meteorological conditions 1st hour 1⁄12 of the range
the navigator must be able to calculate that can affect the height of tide. 2nd hour 2⁄12 of the range
the difference (above right). Remember For instance, a strong onshore wind 3rd hour 3⁄12 of the range
may cause greater depths than your 4th hour 3⁄12 of the range
5th hour 2⁄12 of the range
calculations suggest. Similarly, a deep
6th hour 1⁄12 of the range
depths and heights
low pressure system over the sailing
Depths and drying heights are measured area will cause the water to rise higher An example
from chart datum, while the heights of than usual. An increase or decrease in To find the height of the tide at
objects on land are measured from the pressure of 34 millibars can cause a 15:15, or three hours after high
level of Mean High Water Springs. 1‑ft (0.3‑m) change in water level. water when the tide table gives
HW at 12:15, 4.8 m high and LW
Heights Spring range at 18:20,1.2 m high. First, calculate
Height
Heights of terrestrial objects Height difference between the range 4.8 – 1.2 = 3.6 m, then
measured from MHWS MHWS and MLWS
of tide
Vertical distance divide it into twelfths:
MHWS Neap range between chart • In the first hour (to 13:15), the
MHWN
Height difference between datum and tide drops 1⁄12 of 3.6 m = 0.3 m
MHWN and MLWN sea level
• In the second hour (to 14:15), the
tide drops 2⁄12 of 3.6 m = 0.6 m
MLWN • In the third hour (to 15:15), the
tide drops 3⁄12 of 3.6 m = 0.9 m
MLWS
• The tide will fall by 1.8 m
CHART DATUM (0.3 + 0.6 + 0.9) from HW by 15:15,
so the height of tide (above chart
datum) is 4.8 m – 1.8 m = 3.0 m
Chart datum Sounding Drying height
Datum from which soundings Depth of the seabed Height above chart datum of a
and drying heights are measured below chart datum feature that is sometimes exposed
 NAVIGATION
346
TIDAL STREAMS INTERPOLATING BETWEEN
SPRING AND NEAP RATES
The rise and fall of the tide causes a Using a tidal atlas To find the rate of drift during
horizontal flow of water known as In the tidal atlas, mark up the high periods between spring and neap
a tidal stream. Tidal streams are at water page with the time of high tides, use the formula: (range of
their strongest during spring tides water for the day at the standard tide for the day [HW – LW
and their weakest during neap tides. port, then mark up each page before heights] ÷ spring range of tide) x
The direction of the tidal stream and after the high water page with spring rate of drift (from chart).
at any time is called its set, and the the appropriate time. Turn to the
strength of the stream is called its page for the time you need and find
drift. A tidal set is always expressed the tidal arrow nearest your position. Using the chart
as the direction in which it is running. Measure its direction with a plotter On charts, positions at which
For example, a westerly tide runs (p.330) to find the set of the tide. tidal streams have been measured
from the east to the west—the reverse Note the spring and neap rates are marked by a letter within
of the way in which wind direction is shown by the arrow. If the tide is a a diamond and are known as tidal
described—a westerly wind blows spring or neap, use the appropriate diamonds (p.323). A table on
from the west to the east. rate given. If the day’s tidal range the chart, usually near the title
Tidal streams alter direction and lies in between the spring and neap information, shows the set and drift
vary in strength on an hourly basis in ranges, interpolate between the two for spring and neap tides at every
many places, and when a navigator is figures (above right).
shaping a course or plotting a position, An alternative to calculation
they need to know both the set and is to use the computation of rates tidal atlas
the drift for the area in which they are table in the tidal atlas. Alternatively, Tidal atlases and almanacs show tidal
sailing and the time they are sailing. some chart plotters and navigation stream information in pictorial form.
This information can be obtained software include tidal data and Direction is shown by the arrows, with
from a chart; almanac; tidal atlas; do the calculations automatically. numbers indicating the speed.
electronic chart system; or software
on a computer, tablet, or smartphone. Measuring direction
Use a plotter to measure
direction of arrow (in ºT
12,24

04
Tidal atlases relative to the grid, or the ,08
edges of the chart) to
A tidal atlas provides tidal stream
get the direction (set) 03,
information for a specific area in the 0 07
of the tide 05,1 10

09
02,05 04
,2
form of a separate page for each hour ,09 03,

,19
06
11,
23 02, 0
before and after high water at a 05
,09 6
standard port. Each page shows the 04 08,1
04

04,09
0
set of the stream using arrows and 10,2
,0
9

11,2
indicates the drift at spring and neap 2
Tidal arrow
tides in figures. Usually, a graphical ,22
11
,17

Arrow shows direction (set) and

08

indication of stream strength is given— numbers give speed (drift) in

tenths of a knot—the highest
the bigger and thicker the arrow 01,1 number is for spring tides and
line, the bigger the drift. Drift may be 2
,09

the smallest is for neap tides

04

shown in knots and tenths of a knot,

or it may simply be shown in tenths. 01
,12
(So 1.1 knots may be written as 5
1.1 or 11.) The nautical almanac may 07,1
08,16
also show tidal stream information 11,23
using small chartlets that are similar
to the pages in the tidal atlas.
 TIDES AND TIDAL STREAMS: TIDAL STREAMS
347
tidal diamond marked on the chart
for each hour before and after high WORKING THE TIDE
water at the standard port. When planning a passage, it is sensible to use the tide to your advantage.
To use the information in the table, Aim to travel with the tide where possible and be aware of how a change
you need to know the time of high in stream direction may affect conditions.
water at the standard port for the day
in question and the tidal diamond that Tidal gates Boat speed
is closest to your position. High tide is In areas of strong tides, you may Even in less difficult tidal situations,
shown as zero on the table. Select the encounter a “tidal gate.” This may be it is sensible to work the tide in a
a narrow passage, headland, or other slow-moving yacht, whether under sail
hour in which you are interested and
obstruction to the tidal stream where or power. With a fairly typical boat
read across the table to the column
the stream is intensified as it meets speed of five knots, a two-knot stream
headed by your tidal diamond letter. the obstruction or constriction. At running with you will give you a speed
Here, you can read off the rate of drift some tidal gates, it may be difficult, over the ground of seven knots, but
(written in knots and tenths of a knot) impossible, or even dangerous to only three knots if it is against you.
and the set of the stream, in ºT. Select fight the tide, and there may be a If you have no option but to travel
the spring or neap rate, or interpolate number of hours in each tidal cycle against a foul tide, then, if possible,
when the gate is effectively closed. stay in shallower water, where the
between the two rates if necessary
In these instances, it is critical to stream will be weaker. Conversely,
(opposite). If your position on the chart
time your arrival at the tidal gate if you have the benefit of the tidal
is between two tidal diamonds, plot stream, maximize the advantage
to allow your onward passage;
the results for both on the chart and otherwise, you may have no choice by staying in deep water.
interpolate between the two by eye. but to wait until the tidal stream
moderates or changes. Sea state
Tidal diamond
marked on chart to Position of At some gates, the stream may Also be aware of the effect on
show position the diamond run for longer in one direction sea state of the relative directions
data refers to than in the other, making the timing of wind and tide. A tidal stream
Tide
Tide strength— more critical when going in the running against even a moderate
direction; 50°36°6N its drift— direction against the longest flow. wind can create a steep and
its set 2 24-3W at springs Many almanacs and pilot books uncomfortable sea, while wind
in ºT (in knots)
give information and advice about and stream running together result
-6 230 0.5 0.2 tidal gates in the area they cover. in much smoother sailing conditions.
Hours 0.5
-5 235 0.2
before
HW -4 241 0.4 0.2
-3 253 0.4 0.2
-2 272 0.3 0.1
High
-1 279 0.2 0.1 Tide drift
water at
at neaps
standard
(in knots)
port 0 287 0.1 0.0

+1 ----- 0.0 0.0

+2 139 0.1 0.0
Hours +3 270 0.2 3.1
after
+4 210 0.3 3.1
HW
+5 226 0.4 3.2
+6 230 0.4 3.2

chart information
Tidal stream data is given on charts using
tidal diamonds. These are marked on the wind with tide wind against tide
chart, and a table gives the strength and With the wind blowing with the tide, With wind against tide, the friction
direction of the stream at that position for the friction between wind and water is between wind and water is greatly
every hour of the tidal cycle related to the low and the sea remains fairly calm. increased and waves are formed.
time of HW at the standard port.
 NAVIGATION
348

SHAPING A COURSE
The essence of navigating is setting a course to steer that will Course to steer
take you from your departure point to your destination. Known In the real world, it is rare that there
are no external effects that you need
as shaping a course, this process is a vital skill for accurate and to take into account. Even if there is
safe navigation offshore. To shape a course, the navigator requires no tidal stream, a sailing boat will
a chart of the area, plotting tools, tidal-stream information, and a always experience at least a small
amount of leeway when sailing on
compass. This equipment is used to plot the ground track to be
upwind or reaching courses, and this
achieved on the chart and to measure the bearings and distances must be allowed for before you can
for each leg of the trip. Finally, allowance must be made for tidal give the helm a course to steer.
streams and leeway. Programming an electronic chart plotter may
appear to be a simpler and quicker way to describe a course, but
the convenience factor is offset by potential pitfalls, and traditional
SYMBOLS
When plotting courses and
techniques should always be used as backup to electronic ones. positions on the chart, navigators
use symbols in order to save space
and avoid confusion. Standard
The ground track Next, assess how fast you believe your symbols are shown below. You can
The first step in shaping a course average speed will be. Studying the tidal devise your own if you wish, as long
is to draw a line on the chart streams and other factors you expect as everyone else doing chartwork
joining the departure point and to encounter, together with familiarity on your boat understands your
the destination. This is called the with your boat’s characteristics, will symbols and uses them consistently.
ground track and is marked by two make this relatively straightforward. Time is usually written using 24-
arrowheads. It is the course you want It is best to be pessimistic about your hour-clock notation (e.g., 14:15)
to follow, over the ground, to your average boat speed; it is better to and should include the relevant
destination. Check carefully along arrive early than to risk missing a tidal time zone (e.g., 14:15 EST).
the line you have drawn to make window or have to face a difficult
sure that it does not pass over or landfall on a falling tide after dark.
near hazards or restricted areas. Divide your total passage distance
Waypoint
Next, measure the length of the (A–B) by your anticipated speed to
track using the dividers to transfer calculate the expected duration of
X Dead reckoning position
the length of the line to the latitude your passage and hence an estimated
scale at the side of the chart; never time of arrival (ETA). Estimated position
use the longitude scale (p.319). In the absence of tidal stream,
If the length of the line to be or leeway, the ground track you have Water track
measured is longer than the span marked on the chart is the course you
of your dividers, set the dividers need to steer. You can measure its Ground track
to a convenient length using the direction on the chart using a parallel
latitude scale and count the number ruler or plotter (p.330). You can use Tidal stream or current
of times you can step this length either ºT or ºM to measure direction,
off along the line. Measure any but be consistent in your choice and O Fix

odd length left over against the make sure that others involved in Visual position line
latitude scale. The length of chart work know what you are
the line, A–B (opposite), is the working in. Write the distance and Transferred position line
distance to your destination. bearing of A–B alongside the line.
 SHAPING A COURSE
349
To allow for the effects of any tidal Measure its bearing using a plotter
stream, you must obtain the set and or parallel rules and convert to ºC LEEWAY RULES
drift of the stream from your chart (p.329) before giving the course to Use these rules to apply leeway:
or tidal atlas (pp.346–347). Plot the helm. Wind from port side
these on the chart in what is known water track – leeway angle
as a vector diagram (below). Allowing for leeway = course to steer.
This plotting exercise will give If you are sailing with the wind Wind from starboard side
you the water track, marked by a forward of the beam or are under water track + leeway angle
single arrowhead, which denotes the power in strong beam winds, you = course to steer.
course you want to follow through will have to allow for the amount by
the water. Remember, however, that the which you are pushed sideways—your
boat does not actually follow the water leeway. To estimate your boat’s leeway The amount of leeway will vary
track. It is important to have a mental angle, take a bearing on the boat’s according to factors such as the shape
picture of how your boat moves wake using the hand bearing compass of the hull, the type of rig, and the
within the vector diagram. Your boat (p.326). Compare this bearing with conditions. In practice, the adjustment
will not actually travel along the water the reciprocal of your compass heading. is often made by calculation (above)
track C–D but will move, relative to (Add or subtract 180º to or from the rather than being drawn on the chart,
the seabed, along the ground track compass heading.) The difference is but, to avoid confusion, you may
A–B while pointing in a direction the leeway angle. Adjust the line C–D wish to pencil in the wind direction
parallel to the water track C–D as to windward by the amount of the and adjust C–D toward it. After you
you steer to counteract the effect predicted leeway angle. The angle is have allowed for leeway, apply any
of the tidal stream pushing you off usually between 5 and 10 degrees. By corrections required for variation and
course. In the absence of leeway, the steering into the wind by this amount, deviation to determine the compass
bearing of C–D is the course to steer. you will offset the leeway. course to steer in ºC (pp.328–329).

ALLOWING FOR TIDAL STREAMS AND LEEWAY S.Sh 27

Wk
In many situations, you will have to make allowances for a tidal stream. A tidal 33

stream that is parallel to your ground track will not affect the course but will
30
D
affect the speed you achieve over the ground. For example, if your boat is
sailing at 5 kn against a 2-kn tide, your speed over the ground will be reduced
A B
to 3 kn. On the other hand, a 2-kn tide running in the same direction as your S
C 30
Course
course will give a speed over the ground of 7 kn. Quite often, the tide will be Draw the water to steer
track and adjust 28
at an angle to your ground track, and you will have to adjust your course to for leeway—
32
Wk

avoid being pushed off track. This is done by drawing a vector diagram. toward the wind Wind direction
37
34
25
Wk

P.S Wk 28s
4
Plot the tidal set and drift 36
34 Wk
from your departure point
3 Open your dividers to the distance
that you expect to sail within the next
A B 36
hour. Then place one point at C and scribe
Ground track joins A 34
Wk
B an arc to cut through the line A–B at the
21 30
your departure
point (A) to the
37
S.G C R.S.Sh point D. Now join together the points C–D
28
destination (B)
43
and mark the line with a single arrowhead.
550 41
34 34 Wk
Tide set 33 37 This is the water track required to offset
and drift
S.G Wk
the effects of the tide in the next hour.
Now adjust the water track to
1 Draw a line from your departure 2 With information from the tidal windward by the amount of leeway
point (A) to your destination (B). Mark it atlas, plot the direction of the tide’s set, to determine the course to steer. Finally,
with two arrowheads. This is your desired starting from point A. Use dividers and convert the calculation to ºC. Do not make
ground track. Measure the distance A–B the latitude scale to measure along that the common mistake of joining C to B
with dividers using the latitude scale at line the expected drift in the next hour rather than determining point D, with your
the side of the chart. (C). Mark the line with three arrowheads. dividers, on the ground track line A–B.
 NAVIGATION
350
LONG PASSAGES WAYPOINT NAVIGATION
On a long passage in tidal waters,
you will encounter tidal streams If you have a GPS set available, you course. When on passage, the GPS can
that change hourly in set and drift. have the facility to use waypoint provide the navigator with the
You can use one of two methods navigation techniques. In addition distance and bearing to the next
to deal with them. to continuously computing its current waypoint on a continuous basis.
position, a GPS can store, as latitudes
Changing tides and longitudes, many (typically Using waypoints
If there are no hazards near the track, 100 or more) preprogrammed Before you start planning a passage
you can use a simple plotting process. locations or “waypoints.” When using a GPS set, make sure it is set
First, estimate how long the passage
shaping a course, a navigator may to the same datum as your paper
will take. From your departure point
(A), lay off the first hour of tide. set up a “route” consisting of two or electronic chart (p.319). Draw
Then, from the end of this line, lay or more waypoints. the required course on the paper or
off the next hour of tide and continue A departure waypoint is set at electronic chart as a series of straight
the process for as many hours as you a convenient location outside the lines representing the safe ground
estimate the passage will take. Open departure harbor, and a destination track. Each change of direction
the dividers to the distance you expect waypoint is set in a safe location is usually entered as a waypoint.
to sail, then put one point on C and
outside the destination harbor. In Always take the time to run your
cut the track A–B. The line C–B is
the water track for the whole passage.
between, other waypoints can be eye along the ground track to ensure
It can then be adjusted for leeway, defined at turning points, or to keep that it does not pass too close to
variation, and deviation as normal. the yacht clear of hazards near the any hazards. From the chart, read off
If there are hazards close to
your track, you will need to keep the
boat close to the track at all times. B B
Mark the first hour’s tide and plot
the course to steer for the first hour.
From point D, lay off the second D
hour’s tide and plot the course to XTE
steer for the second hour. Continue
this process for the length of the
passage. Each hour will require C
a different course to steer, but
the boat will proceed along the
D
desired ground track. C
28s G.Sh
Cumulative tides 30s
28
Wk
Water track

C
32
33
A 31
B A A
NO HAZARDS
cross track error measuring vmg
36 33 33
cS.G
The GPS can continuously monitor cross VMG is the velocity with which you are
Wk
C First hour’s water track track error (XTE). This is the amount the closing on your objective. If this is upwind,
Ground track yacht has strayed laterally from its planned you will be tacking and will not be able to
course due to poor steering, tidal stream point directly at your destination. However,
DtideSecond hour’s water trackB
A First hour’s effects, or leeway. Here, the plan was to VMG will indicate your progress. Here, the
27Wk 33
travel from A to B, but because of excessive destination is B. By dividing the “direct line”
HAZARDS leeway, the boat has actually ended up at progress AD by the time elapsed to get to
C. The GPS will display the XTE value CD. C, the GPS can calculate the VMG.
 Home port Destination anchorage 351
WP006
Departure point
31
WP001 WP005 32

25
21 30

28

34 G
30

30

Wk

32
DIST TO WP005
WP002 6.4NW, 14ºT
34

Sandbank
WP005
WP006
Wk

37

34
47
Wk

R.S.Sh 32
37
38
41
33Wk 37
55º
34 Wk
S.G 37
36 WP003 S.G
34
Wk
WP004
GPS “ROADWAY” READOUT

following a route Many publications, including nautical no allowance for tides, current, or
Preprogrammed waypoints combine almanacs, pilotage guides, and the leeway. It may seem easy to set the
to form a route; they are the significant yachting press, publish waypoint lists autopilot to follow the GPS to your
milestones on your passage that for navigational marks and popular destination, but it may result in a
provide turning points and hazard locations. Be cautious about using longer route that may take you some
avoidance marks. The GPS display
published waypoints and do not enter way from the required track. This is
can provide the navigator with a visual
them into your GPS set without only acceptable if there are no
representation of progress, waypoint
(WP) by waypoint. checking them first (by plotting them hazards near the actual ground track.
on the chart) since typographical errors Another function available on the
do occur. When creating waypoints, GPS can alert you to any deviation
do not enter the charted position from the track. The GPS can measure
the latitude and longitudes of each of a navigation mark but site your cross track error (XTE), which is the
waypoint and program them into the waypoint a short distance away, lateral distance from the direct track
GPS’s memory. The GPS will calculate as otherwise there is a real danger you between two waypoints. Knowing
and display the bearing and distance might actually hit the mark if XTE allows you, or the autopilot, to
between each waypoint, and a quick an autopilot controlled by the GPS continuously alter the heading to get
comparison against the chart will or chartplotter is steering the boat. back on track. The GPS can also
confirm that you have entered all the Also, in busy cruising grounds, monitor VMG—velocity made
values correctly. It is easy to wrongly other boats may be using the same good—which tells you how fast you
position a decimal point, transpose waypoint, adding to the risk of are proceeding toward the next
numbers, and confuse longitudes east collision. This is another reason not waypoint. This may vary from your
or west and latitudes north or south to use published waypoints but to speed over the ground (SOG) due to
when entering the data, so double- select your own from the chart. tide, leeway, or if you are tacking
check everything on the chart. Do not forget that the GPS makes upwind to your destination.
 NAVIGATION
352

PLOTTING A POSITION
On any passage outside local waters, the prudent navigator When a GPS set is connected to a
must keep an accurate record of the course steered, distance chart plotter or PC, with appropriate
navigational software (p.325), it will
run, times of course alterations, and the leeway experienced. display your position continuously
These records are used to plot the position on the chart at regular on an electronic chart. The plotter
intervals of about half an hour or an hour unless you are well or navigation software can perform
a range of navigational tasks, including
offshore, where log intervals can be longer. This is very important
showing your actual position compared
even if electronic fixing aids are available; electrical systems and to your intended track and integrating
electronic equipment are vulnerable to failure on small boats. with an autopilot to steer the boat
along the required track. As helpful as
these devices are, they cannot entirely
Electronic instruments Even when the system is functioning replace conventional paper chart-based
A GPS set (p.334) can provide a accurately, a GPS display of latitude navigation. The paper-and-pencil
continuous readout of the boat’s and longitude is of no use unless it is approach needs no batteries, does
position in latitude and longitude related to a chart. When using a GPS, not fail you when thrown around
which, in most circumstances, is regularly plot your position on a the saloon, and can even stand getting
highly accurate. However, there are chart. Not only does this confirm damp. It does not require sensitive
occasions when accuracy is degraded that you are on course and proceeding equipment or sophisticated technology.
and some instances of gross errors according to plan, but it also By learning traditional navigational
caused by serious system failures. provides an immediate backup techniques, you will have a deeper
These potential errors and risk navigational solution should the GPS understanding of the forces at work
of serious failure mean that the fail. Wherever possible, confirm a because you will have assessed and
navigator must not rely exclusively GPS position using another method applied them individually.
on a GPS-derived position. for fixing position (pp.356–357).
The logbook
Time Course Remarks
Make log entries Detail course required and Include any
The logbook is a vitally important
at regular intervals course actually steered useful observations record and must be kept up to date
throughout the passage. Some
time log course course wind baro remarks electronic navigation systems
required steered automatically record an electronic
logbook, which can be very useful,
2230 574 060ºC 065ºC SW2 1005 Extremely misty
and damp

0000 582 060ºC 060ºC SW4 1005 Six knots regularly

0045 588 060ºC 060ºC SW4 1005 Yacht in sight

starboard bow

0200 594 060ºC 060ºC SW4 1005 Watch change

logbook
A simple ruled notebook will make a
Log Wind Barometric pressure
Use the log reading Record wind strength Can be used to perfectly adequate logbook, or you can
to measure progress and direction forecast weather purchase a specially designed logbook.
 PLOTTING A POSITION
353
but it is also essential to maintain a the line with a single arrowhead 21 30
S
28
paper logbook as your primary record. to show that it is the water track. Wk Wk

Do not neglect log keeping or plotting Measure along this line, using a 28

34
A A is the last
known, or
your position on the chart because you pair of dividers, the distance you 28
S.St. estimated,
trust your electronic aids. In the event have sailed from the last position, position
of equipment failure, your written according to the log reading. This
logbook will ensure that you can point is your dead reckoning (DR)
estimate your current position. position. Mark it with a short line Water track
The logbook should be updated across the track and record the time 49
P.S.
32 33
regularly and include distance run, and log reading beside it. If there is
course ordered and course achieved, no tidal stream or current, this should 55
B is the DR 31
estimated leeway, time of every be a reasonably accurate assessment 34
position
course change, and details of fixes. of the yacht’s position at that time.
Wk

34
Wk 36
B
The logbook must have two columns In theory, the DR position should
for course—required course and be plotted before allowing for leeway. 43
27
Wk 33

actual course—because it is often However, in practice, it is easier to

not possible to steer the ideal course allow for it before plotting the course plotting a dr position
to an objective. Each time the log but after correcting for deviation From known point (A), plot the water
is filled in, the helm should be asked and variation. Remember to apply track and mark it with one arrowhead.
for an honest assessment of the the leeway correction to leeward Measure off the distance sailed according
average course steered. Remember, of the course steered. to the log and mark the DR position (B).
you should only expect a helm to
be able steer within 5 degrees or
so of the required course. OTHER USES FOR THE LOGBOOK
If the destination is upwind, The logbook is not merely used for navigational purposes; it also records
you will not be able to steer a direct other activities and data relating to the boat or passage. Before each trip,
course. In this case, you must log note the date, where you are heading, where you are leaving from, and other
the course achieved and note the related information. Record the names and onboard responsibilities of all
crewmembers. Also record next of kin details. If you are traveling between
time, new heading, and log reading
countries, include crew information that you may be asked for by officials,
every time you tack.
such as passport numbers, dates and places of birth, nationality, and so on.
Dead reckoning Keeping a record
The most basic way of estimating Each watch change should be noted so it is clear who is in charge at all times.
position is known as dead reckoning. You may also want to record barometer readings, wind direction and strength,
It ignores any tidal or other factors cloud cover, and other general comments. Over time, these observational details
and relies solely on the most basic will confirm your impressions that conditions may be deteriorating or clearing
information—your course and speed. up. The rate of change of barometric pressure, as shown by the pressure readings
that are recorded every hour, will give you a good indication of the wind
If you know your starting point
strength that you will soon encounter.
and the speed and direction traveled, The logbook is also a good way of monitoring the hours of operation of
you can fix your position using dead engines, generators, water-makers, battery life, and other technical equipment.
reckoning. From your last known This will help you organize appropriate maintenance and servicing schedules.
position, draw a line on the chart, If you are concerned about a particular aspect of the boat’s operation or systems,
using a plotter or parallel ruler, in you can use the logbook to record and monitor the matter that is concerning you.
the direction you have traveled since For instance, if you believe you may have a slight water leak, you should make
a point of inspecting the bilges each time you make a log entry; in this way, you
you were at that position. Be sure to
will become aware of the underlying trend and be able to make an informed
convert the compass course to a true assessment about the suspected problem. You might also record details each
or magnetic bearing (depending on time you resupply with diesel and water. This will allow you to keep track
how you prefer to work on the chart) of costs and could, potentially, identify leaks.
before you plot it on the chart. Mark
 NAVIGATION
354
Predictive EP
ESTIMATED POSITION Knowing your boat speed, heading,
and prevailing tidal influence will not
An estimated position (EP) is plotted and latitude scale on the chart, only allow you to precalculate where
from the DR position by applying measure the amount of tide drift you expect to end up, but also the
the effects of any predicted tidal along the tide line. Draw a triangle track you will take to get there.
stream to the DR position. Using the with a dot in the middle to mark the This can be very useful if sailing near
tidal stream information on the chart point and record the time and the log hazards, as it can help confirm one
or from a tidal atlas, work out the reading alongside it. This is your EP way or the other whether you will
set (the direction the tide is moving) at the time that the DR was recorded. approach a danger too closely and
and amount of drift (distance the When in coastal waters, you allow you to alter course in good time.
tide has flowed) since the time you should record heading, distance,
were at your last known position. and other log information every Errors
Then, from the DR position, plot half hour or each hour, depending Navigation is not the exact science
the set of the tide by drawing on the complexity of the navigation that electronic devices can make it
a line on the correct heading and requirements. When you next appear; it is as much about assessing
marking it with three arrowheads. record the distance sailed and the likely level of accuracy at any
Remember that tidal data is heading, you should plot another time as it is about knowing the
tabulated in ºT. Using the dividers DR and EP position. Plotting hourly absolutes of your position and
works well, as tidal information is passage. Navigation errors arise for
34
21 30 36 Wk based on hourly segments. If you a variety of reasons—the difficulty
28 can align the times of your data of steering an accurate course, a log
30 recording with the times of tidal underreading in calm conditions
30
change, it makes it easier to plot the or overreading in rough seas,
Water track tidal information to create an EP. uncalibrated instruments, or an
S.St To plot successive DRs and EPs, inexperienced helm. Some arise
32
Wk start from the previous EP position from undue haste, misreading tables
34
and plot the next DR, then plot the such as tidal diamond information,
tidal set and drift to get the next EP. or forgetting to allow for local time
4
P.S DR Plot tidal set
corrections. Plotting errors can be
and drift R.S.Sh minimized by using sharp, soft-leaded
550
34 Wk
pencils—2B pencils are usually
S.G plotting an ep
36
Once you have plotted a DR position, recommended, as they can be
Wk EP
34
you can plot an EP by allowing for any sharpened to a good point and the
41
tidal effect. From the DR position, plot lines they produce can be easily erased.
43 33 Wk 37
the set and drift of the tide for the last In all cases, double-check your
hour to find the EP. workings; reread data; and, above
all, take your time. Errors are
Wk Wk
21 30 Second EP 36
34
Third EP

28 S.Sh

34
P.S Water track Tidal set plotting successive eps
4
30 and drift
Once you have plotted your first
30
estimated position and are satisfied
550
Water track 34 Wk
that you have taken into account
S.St 32 Tidal set and drift S.G
Wk
36 possible errors, you can use it to
Wk
34
41
33 Wk 37
34 plot subsequent EPs. Plot the water
43 track since the last EP. Measure the
R.S.Sh distance sailed since then before
First EP
plotting tidal set and drift.
 PLOTTING A POSITION: ESTIMATED POSITION
355
inevitable, so you must learn how Make a list of possible errors the distance traveled from the last
to take them into account when and estimate their maximum effect, known position. For safety, always
navigating. Practice and hone your concentrating on course steered, assume that you are at the point
precision in reading tables and distance sailed, leeway, and tidal within your circle of uncertainty
charts on dry land so that you are information. Pencil in any errors closest to any nearby hazard and
confident that you can be accurate you think are possible and use shape your next course accordingly.
without having to double-check them to create a circular area of As the circle of uncertainty widens
all your calculations. possible position. This is a much with distance, the clearance given
more realistic approach than to navigational hazards must also
Assessing errors assuming you are at the single point increase to ensure that even the most
The longer the boat sails without a suggested by your EP. In heavy pessimistic prediction keeps you away
confirmed position fix (pp.356–361), weather or when battling strong from danger. Whenever you can,
the more important it is that errors are tides or against poor sea states, the obtain a reliable and accurate fix
allowed for. Otherwise, the resulting diameter of this circle of uncertainty to clarify your position and so
EP could become very unreliable. can be as much as 10 percent of eliminate the circle of uncertainty.

32
21 30 36 Wk S.Sh
31

29 32 28 33
S
34
G 28s Actual 30
Wk
28 position due 33 30
Wk
PA to tidal stream
33
25 being stronger Area of uncertainty
32
than predicted S.St Plot your next course from the
31 32
point closest to any hazards
G.Sh
30s
Estimated
position
33
cS.G plotting errors
Estimate possible errors in the course steered and the distance sailed. A course error
33
Wk
would put you to one side or other of your track, whereas a log error would affect the
27
33 distance you are along the track. Plot possible errors to get an area of likely position.
35

increasing circles of uncertainty

Here, the yacht is on passage in rough weather and poor visibility. After 30 minutes,
the EP puts it 4 nm along the track with a circle of uncertainty of around 10 percent of
estimated and actual the distance traveled (in other words, a radius of 0.4 nm). At 1300, the increasing area of
This fix reveals that the set of the tide uncertainty suggests a position close to shallows. The EP is logged as being close to the
is stronger than predicted. Use this new danger. Later, the boat is passing rocks. By now, the circle of uncertainty has opened up
information to shape the next course to a radius of 2.1 nm. Again, the worst-case scenario is assumed and the EP is plotted
and to plot the next EP. near the rocks. When a fix is obtained, the area of uncertainty can be eliminated.

S
21 30
36 Wk
28s
28 G
28 Place EP at position Wk
34 closest to danger— 25 Large circle
30 here, the shallows Wk 32 of uncertainty
30 Shallow water

31 32
S.St 38
32
32 Increasing 1400
Circle of
uncertainty circle of 0021
1200 1230 33 1300 uncertainty EP placed closest
around EP S.Sh
0000 0004 0009 37 to danger—here,
37
the rocks
34
33
47 Wk Rocks
 NAVIGATION
356

FIXING A POSITION Boat is somewhere

along the curved
position line

No matter how accurately you plot your estimated position (EP)

on a passage, errors will always occur, making your exact position Charted object

increasingly uncertain. To confirm position, a navigator periodically

fixes the position of the yacht in relation to known objects. This is
simplest to do when close to a charted sea- or landmark, when curved position line
you can often determine your exact position by eye. In other cases, If the distance to a charted object (range)
is measured using a rangefinder, a sextant,
fixes can be obtained with a variety of instruments, such as a GPS or a radar set, the position line is a curve,
set, radar, hand bearing compass, or even a depth sounder. with its radius centered on the object.

Using electronic aids Position lines compass, identifying a transit (p.337),

Most cruising yachts today have If you are alongside a charted mark, watching a light just clearing the
a GPS set that offers the ability to you know exactly where you are and horizon, using the depth sounder,
obtain a continuous readout of can confidently plot a fix on the chart. or using a GPS or radar set (p.361).
position. However, it is vital that At other times, a navigator must
the navigator is able to fix the obtain a fix by producing a minimum Single position lines
yacht’s position without relying on of two position lines. To do this, you A single position line will not be
the GPS in case the set, the boat’s need to measure either the bearing or sufficient to give you an accurate
electrics, or the system should fail. the distance of a known object that is fix. You need to cross it with a
Even if the GPS is functioning shown on the chart, then plot the second, and preferably a third, as
properly, it is important to double- resulting line on the chart. Measuring an error check. However, a single line
check its accuracy periodically and the bearing of an object produces a does tell you that the boat is situated
confirm your position using another straight position line (below), whereas somewhere along that line. Also,
means of fixing position. Learning measuring the distance of an object if the position line is at right angles
to use other fixing techniques is also produces a curved one (above). to your track, it will confirm how
very satisfying and improves your There are several ways in which far along the track you are, while if
skills. Try to obtain a fix using two a navigator can obtain position lines. it is parallel to the track, it will
or more methods whenever possible. These include using a hand bearing show if you are on the track or to

single
Boat is somewhere
position line
along the bearing
A single position line
can tell you only that
the boat is located The small size of the
Marks must cocked hat indicates
somewhere along the be shown on good accuracy
bearing drawn on the the chart and
chart from the mark. identifiable
from the boat

three-point fix
Three visible objects that are also marked on the chart can be
used to give you an accurate fix. If possible, choose objects that
are about 60º apart, take their bearings, and plot the position
lines from them on the chart. The size of the triangle (“cocked
hat”) that they form is a good guide to the accuracy of the fix.
 FIXING A POSITION
357
one side or the other. Single position Compass bearings Cocked hat
lines formed by a transit are very Take bearings using the hand When you take bearings of three
useful when you are less interested bearing compass from a point on marks, it is very unlikely that the
in your actual position but need the boat that is known to be free three position lines will meet at one
an accurate direction along which of deviation (p.329). Brace yourself point. Instead, they will probably
to proceed. This is especially useful securely and take three bearings on form a triangle. This is known as
when entering harbors or as a each mark; it is helpful if someone a “cocked hat.” The size of the
clearing line (p.337). else writes down the bearings as cocked hat is a good guide to
you take them. Before you can accuracy—the smaller it is, the better.
Choosing marks plot the position lines, you must If your fix results in a large cocked
Before you can plot a visual fix, you use the three readings to calculate hat, then a mistake has been made,
must identify two or three sea- or the average bearing of each mark. either in selecting the correct mark,
landmarks on the chart that are If you plot in ºT on the chart, you taking the bearings, or in plotting
within sight. Nautical charts not only must correct the compass bearing the bearings on the chart. Make
include buoyage, but also show the by applying variation (p.328). Plot sure you have plotted the bearings
locations of conspicuous chimneys, the position line on the chart by correctly, and if so, check that the
church spires, and other land-based drawing a line through the object marks you can see are really the
objects. If these are in sight, use them on the correct bearing. ones shown on the chart. If so,
in preference to buoys, which can be Remember that the bearing repeat the procedure to obtain a new
physically moved, dragged in storms, from the object to the yacht is set of bearings. You will find that
or influenced by strong tidal streams. the reciprocal of the bearing accuracy will improve with practice.
It is preferable to use three you measured. Add or subtract Draw a circle around the triangle
marks, since any error is much more 180 degrees from a bearing to and label it with the time and log
obvious. If you are using only two calculate the reciprocal. You must reading. For added safety, assume
objects, try to pick marks that are work methodically but quickly to that your position is at the corner
about 90 degrees apart, as this will eliminate errors that may occur of the triangle that lies closest to
give the most accurate result. If you if you take your bearings some any hazard. You should then shape
use three marks, it is best if they are minutes apart. Clearly, the faster the next course from that point.
about 60 degrees apart. Choosing you are traveling, the less time you
marks that are quite close to the have to record all your data.
boat will increase your accuracy; if However, there will be an obvious bearing errors
you are a long way from the mark, order in which to take your fixes; When you take a compass bearing of
an object, there is always the possibility
a typical error of just 3 degrees in the bearing to a chosen mark ahead
of errors because of the difficulty in
the bearing will produce a significant or astern of you will change less
holding a compass steady on a moving
positional error. If you are close to than one to the side of your course. deck. Small bearing errors are inevitable
the mark, however, the error will be As the process will take a certain and will result in larger positional errors
much less. It is vital that you identify amount of time, the fix, when plotted, when the object is far away. Take bearings
the correct marks on the chart, or the will already be historical, as you will on closer objects when possible to
fix will be worthless. have moved farther down your track. minimize errors.

Larger error
Small error in position
in position
Small error in
compass bearing
 NAVIGATION
358
A fix by GPS latitude and longitude position on the The chosen mark can be the center
A GPS set measures its precise chart can be awkward and lead of a nearby compass rose, which
position from three or more satellites to errors. A better way is to find a makes it very easy and quick to plot the
and calculates the intersection suitable sea- or landmark near the resulting position. Once you have
point—your location—of the curved track and program its latitude and plotted the fix, mark it with a circle and
position lines obtained. A differential longitude into the GPS as a waypoint. dot, plus the time and log reading.
GPS set offers increased accuracy by The GPS can then be set to display the Check the depth from your depth
using radio signals from a base boat’s position as a bearing and sounder to give a secondary
station to refine the satellite signals distance from the waypoint, which confirmation of your position. Then take
and reduce built-in errors (p.334). is much easier for the navigator to plot an overview look at the chart. Does the
It is vital to be aware that GPS on the chart. GPS fix seem reasonable? Does the
signals may be degraded and may
33
sometimes be completely unavailable. G.Sh S cS.G
31
It is essential that you do not rely on 36 25
Wk G
Wk
the availability or accuracy of GPS, so 32
32
27
Wk 0.5NM
33
always double-check the information 33
31
against an EP or a fix obtained from 38 0.5NM
30
another source. A GPS set displays 28 28
30

the boat’s position in degrees, S.Sh Wk

minutes, and tenths of a minute of using a cross track error ladder

latitude and longitude. However, this is A cross track error (XTE) ladder can assist in keeping your craft away from dangers.
not usually the best type of display for Here, as the boat proceeds down a channel, an XTE alarm set at 0.5 nm will ensure that
the small-boat navigator. Plotting a you follow the safe track and keep you clear of all potential obstructions.

R.S.Sh

Destination 1NM 2NM 3NM

0 80 90 100 110 120 130 waypoint 270ºT

280ºT
TRACK SPEED 33
045ºT 06.7KN 1NM
32
290ºT
TRIP ALT S.St
34
Wk
34
032NM 08FT 300ºT
2NM P.S
POSITION 4
310ºT
34
N 050º 46.957' Wk 55º 36
41
W 001º 22.503' 320ºT
Position 37
S.G
3NM 330ºT
12:18:50 UT 47
34
Wk
020ºT 340ºT Wk

010ºT 000ºT 350ºT Wk 37

43 33

gps display drawing a waypoint web

Even the simplest GPS can display a lot A web of bearing lines and distance arcs drawn on the chart or pilotage plan in advance
of useful data. This handheld GPS set is of your passage makes it very simple to plot your position quickly. This technique is
showing an electronic compass, digital invaluable if you are traveling fast or if you need to concentrate your attention on a
reading of heading, speed over the difficult pilotage situation. If, in the example above, the GPS display shows a bearing of
ground, total trip mileage, altitude (not 005ºT and distance of 2.5 nm to the destination waypoint, it is very easy to quickly plot
really useful at sea), position, and time. your position on the web without drawing lines or measuring distances.
 FIXING A POSITION
359
depth tally with the charted value? Are position is locked at the center of the
you where you expect to be? Compare screen and the chart display scrolls
the GPS fix with the EP. If there is a under the boat’s position. 21 30

discrepancy, check back through your 28

Tower
workings for errors. If this does not Using radar 34

reveal an answer, double-check your A radar set is one of the most useful Position 30
position by using another source of tools on a small boat since it assists Size of cocked
information. with position fixing and avoiding hat indicates
accuracy of fix
collisions. Radar enables the navigator Buoy 21 30

Other ways of using GPS to measure bearings and distances of 28 Buoy

The final waypoint of your passage objects that are displayed on the radar
may be in the mouth of your screen. If the objects are fixed and can radar position fixing
destination harbor. From that point, be positively identified on the chart, a By noting the ranges of three or
draw a web of straight line bearings at fix can be obtained. If the objects are more identifiable radar targets in quick
suitable intervals—5º or 10º—and other vessels, the operator can identify succession, you can fix your position
arcs of distance (between 0.25 nm their course, the point of closest where the three range arcs cross.
and 1 nm is typical). As you approach, and whether they represent
approach your destination, set your a collision hazard.
GPS to display range and bearing to Using radar effectively requires skill radar is much more accurate at
this waypoint, and you have the and experience, and it is worth taking measuring distance. First, record
means to fix your position very a training course to develop your skills. the distance of two, or preferably
quickly. This technique is invaluable Radar reflections from coastlines can three, objects that you can positively
when you need to concentrate on be confusing, making identification identify and which are shown on the
visual pilotage to enter harbor safely. of objects on screen difficult, and chart. Then plot these ranges on the
Another technique uses the reflections from buoys can be hard chart as curved position lines using a
GPS’s cross track error (XTE) facility. to separate from the “clutter” created by a pair of drawing compasses. The boat’s
Draw a ladder of XTE either side of rough sea or heavy rain. position is fixed where the curved lines
your track between two waypoints. Radar bearings are not as accurate of position intersect. The size of the
By setting the GPS to display the as radar ranges because the width cocked hat signals the accuracy of
distance to the next waypoint, or of the radar beam causes the images of the fix. If your instrument system
from the last one, together with the the objects it encounters to be stretched incorporates a radar set and allows
XTE, you can quickly fix your position laterally. This makes it difficult to know the radar image to be overlaid
on the chart. The XTE alarm will exactly where to take the bearing from. A on the chart, it is much easier to
also help you avoid hazards. far better radar fix will result from using identify objects and create a fix
If your GPS set is linked to an the system’s ranging capabilities, since from radar ranges.
electronic chartplotter, the chartplotter
will be able to continuously display the
yacht’s position on the chart, together
with any waypoints that have been
programmed into either the GPS or the
chartplotter. Typically, the boat’s

radar overlay on chart

Identifying objects on a radar screen
takes skill and experience, and it is worth
getting training in using the system.
Having the facility of overlaying the radar
picture on an electronic chart can make
the identification of objects much easier.
 NAVIGATION
360
Distance off Calculating height the surface. Check that yours is not set
When you know the distance of On charts, the heights of lighthouses to measure the depth from the bottom
the boat from a mark, you can use and other landmarks are given as of the keel or the transducer level.
it to plot a position line. Whereas height above mean high water spring
a bearing on a mark produces a tide (MHWS; p.345). To work out Checking fixes with soundings
straight line of position, a distance the object’s actual height above sea Before using the depth sounder for
off a mark gives a curved line of level at any time, you must calculate checking fixes, you must convert
position. Curved position lines can the height of tide at that time (p.344). the depth observed to a sounding at
be combined with other curved or Deduct the height from the height chart datum (p.319). This is known as
straight position lines, obtained by of MHWS as shown in the almanac. a reduction to soundings. To do this,
any means, to give a fix. Add the result to the charted height use the tidal curves (p.344) for the
Distance off can be obtained from of the lighthouse or other object. If nearest standard port to find out the
a radar range (p.359) or by using a the height of tide is higher than the current height of tide above chart
visual rangefinder or a sextant. At MHWS level, subtract the difference datum. Subtract the current height
night, you can obtain distance off by from the charted height. of the tide from the observed depth
observing the light from a lighthouse to get the figure at chart datum.
when it first appears or disappears Using depth soundings Now compare this with the sounding
over the horizon as you sail toward A depth sounder is a useful but often marked on the chart at your fix
or away from it (below). Once you forgotten device for checking on a position. If they agree, you have a
have obtained a distance off an fix deduced from other sources. On useful confirmation of your fix. If they
object, set your drawing compass to occasion, it can also be used to obtain are different, you should check your
the distance. With one point of the a position line. Using a depth finder in calculations and confirm the position
compass on the object on the chart, this way is easiest if the instrument using another information source.
draw the curved position line. is set to show the water’s depth from
A fix from soundings
Depth soundings can also be used
LIGHTS RISING OR DIPPING to create a fix. Although this type of
A light rising or dipping on the horizon can be used at night to obtain a position fix is not very accurate, it is valuable
line or a fix. If you are approaching a charted lighthouse, note the time the
in fog or when other fixing aids are
light—not its loom (reflected light)—first appears above the horizon. When you
not available. This method works
first see the light, note the time and take a bearing on it with the hand bearing
compass. You will need to know your height of eye above the water. best when you are sailing into
shallower or deeper water across
the depth contours as marked on the
1 Note the charted height Height of observer’s eye Height of light
above sea level
chart. Note the time, course, and log
of the light and allow for reading and take a depth sounding.
the height of tide to get the
Hold a steady course and take a
actual height. With your
depth sounding at regular intervals,
height of eye and the light’s
height, use the almanac’s noting the time and log reading on
tables to find your distance each occasion. Once you have a series
off the lighthouse. of depths, reduce them to soundings
as for checking fixes.
2 Plot the bearing of 43 55 34
Wk Now, you can use the results to
the lighthouse on the chart A 36 Lighthouse plot your position. The easiest way
and, with the dividers set Distance off to plot soundings is to lay a piece of
34
to the distance off the
tracing paper on the chart, aligning
lighthouse, scribe an arc
its edges with lines of latitude and
(A) to cut the bearing.
This is the boat’s position Fix
41
Bearing longitude. Plot the boat’s water track
at the time the light first 33
37 37 on the tracing paper between the
Wk R.S.Sh
rose above the horizon. first and last soundings. Then plot
 FIXING A POSITION
361
the ground track by applying tidal
time log distance between soundings
set and drift. Mark the log readings
soundings in meters
along the water track. From these
points, draw lines running parallel 0640 55.1 – 46 m Plot tidal 59.1
set drift
to the tidal vector and cutting the
0650 56.0 0.9 38 m
ground track.
At the points on the ground track, 0700 56.9 0.9 25 m 10m 58.0
write the depth readings reduced to
soundings. Slide the tracing paper over 0710 58.0 1.1 17 m
Plot
the chart until the first depth sounding
0720 59.1 1.1 10 m water
is at the EP when the first sounding 17m track
was taken. Keep the tracing paper 56.9
aligned with the lines of latitude and fix by soundings
On tracing paper, plot the water track and the tidal set and 25m
longitude. The depth soundings should
drift to obtain the ground track. Mark the log readings on
now agree with the charted depths. If
the water track. Then draw lines parallel to the tide vector 56.0
they do not, move the tracing paper to cut the ground track. Write the depth soundings at 38m
around until you find a good match. If these points. Position the tracing paper on the chart with
there is no other good match nearby, the first depth sounding at the EP where the sounding was
46m 55.1
the last depth reading indicates the taken. The last depth reading indicates the position at the
position at the time of the reading. time the reading was taken.

TRANSFERRED POSITION LINES

There are occasions, such as when you are sailing along a useful fix using two position lines taken at different
a coastline, when there is only one identifiable sea- or times on the same mark. This is known as a running
landmark in sight. In such cases, it is possible to obtain fix or a transferred position line.

Plotting and accuracy the mark and the second one when you have passed it and
This type of fix will be as good as your plotting skills and its bearing has changed by up to 90 degrees. You must note
the accuracy that course, speed, and tidal data allows. It the time and the log reading when you take each bearing. The
also relies on the helm to steer a steady course between use of GPS to fix position has reduced the need for this type
the two bearings. Take the first bearing as you approach of fix, but it is still a useful way of practicing essential skills.

34 S.Sh 34 S.Sh
21 30
36 Wk
21 30 36 Wk Wk
Wk
28
28 A A B D 34
The first 34 30
bearing 30
30
C
30
Draw line parallel to Allow for tidal
The second first position line
bearing S.St
drift and set
S.St through point C
32 between the
32
two bearings

1 Take the first bearing and note the time and log reading. 2 Measure the distance sailed along the track. From that
When the bearing has changed by 60–90º, take the second point (B), lay off any tidal set and drift experienced between
bearing and note the time and log reading. Plot both bearings taking the two bearings (B–C). Now transfer the first position
on the chart. From any point along the first bearing (A), plot line to point C. The boat’s position at the time of taking the
the boat’s water track, allowing for leeway. second fix is where the first line intersects the second one (D).
 NAVIGATION
362

PASSAGE SKILLS
and arrival times. Even if there is
little chance that you will need to
sail in the hours of darkness, check
that all your navigational lights are
Once you have learned the individual navigational skills of functioning correctly.
pilotage, shaping and plotting a course, and fixing a position, you
Tide planning
will be ready to navigate on an extended offshore passage. The Check the times of high and
navigator’s job begins well before the cruise itself: you need to plan low water at the departure and
the trip carefully and make sure that you have all the relevant up-to- destination ports and work out
the strength and direction of the
date charts, pilot books, and other references that you may need on
tidal streams during the time you
passage. You must also prepare contingency plans to cope with will be on passage.
rough weather or fog and to provide alternative harbors of refuge. Work out whether the tidal
stream will be a help or a hindrance
to your journey. If you will have to
A complete passage Pencil the required tracks on the fight a foul tide at some stage of
Navigation from one harbor to chart and identify the position of your trip, is there a better time or
another starts with an outgoing any point at which you will make place to be when this occurs? Perhaps
pilotage plan for leaving harbor and a course alteration. If you have a you need to consider breaking your
reaching a safe, clear-water position, GPS set, program these points into journey to avoid a period of foul
called the departure point. From this it as waypoints. Make sure that they tide. Review your information and
point, the navigator shapes the course are clear of hazards, and double-check consider whether any of it suggests
required to reach the destination. their latitude and longitude. a better time to leave, even if it
During the passage, the navigator Be sure to study the detail of any means an early start or an overnight
periodically works up an estimated complicated or unfamiliar sections passage. You may discover that
position (EP; p.354), obtains fixes of your passage by referring to larger the trip would be better left to
(pp.356–359), and evaluates any errors scale charts that show much more another day, particularly if you need
found to check that the boat is staying detail than small-scale charts. Never to negotiate a tidal gate (p.347). An
close to the required ground track. attempt to create a pilotage plan in alternative destination may be more
Once the boat reaches an offshore or out of harbor from a small-scale suitable for the days you plan to sail.
point close to its destination, the chart, as important detail is likely
navigator commences in-going to be missed. Other considerations
pilotage to guide the boat safely into Check the weather forecast for a
harbor and to a berth. Navigation Passage length few days leading up to your departure
does not cease until the boat is tied Consider the length of the day. The trend in the weather is as
up or at anchor. For instance, a passage and calculate approximately important as the actual conditions.
harbormaster may allocate you how long your journey will take. Is the weather favorable? Will the
a visitor’s berth in an unfamiliar To do this, you will need to estimate wind direction mean you have to beat
location and the navigator will need your likely boat speed. Always be to your destination? How is the wind
to quickly identify the location and pessimistic about this; it is better to likely to combine with the tidal drift?
assess prevailing currents and wind arrive early and possibly have to wait Will you encounter lengthy periods
direction to suggest the best manner for the tide to rise sufficiently to enter of choppy sea as the wind blows
and direction of approach. harbor or berth in a marina than it is counter to the tide? If the weather is
to have to rush into harbor to catch good but has only recently moderated,
Planning a passage the tide or to miss it completely. has it left remnants of a big sea for
To plan a passage, start with a Consider how the length of your you to contend with? If the weather
small-scale chart that shows both the passage fits in with the hours of is changeable, are you going to be able
departure point and the destination. daylight, and convenient departure to sustain your course if the wind
 PASSAGE SKILLS
363

Departure
waypoint

Destination
waypoint

Waypoint 2 marks Waypoint 1

the turning point keeps track away
off a headland and from headland
inside a tidal race

changes direction? What if there is or pass through a hazardous area. small-scale chart
no wind? How far can you, or are Decide whether it is better to be in Whether using a paper chart or an
you prepared, to motor? Are there the area during daylight or night and electronic chartplotter, select a small-scale
suitable safe harbors en route in case whether you will require all hands chart that shows both your departure
of emergencies or for rest and shelter? on deck at that time. Consider any point and destination. Pencil in the route
on a paper chart or enter it onto an
Finally, are the boat and crew implications for the watch system.
electronic chart, identify waypoints, and
prepared? Do you have enough
check for hazards near the track.
food, water, fuel, and other supplies Making passage notes
to get you comfortably to the next Once you are satisfied with the track,
opportunity to restock? Is the boat transfer your plan to a notebook so that the time for HW is considered
sturdy enough for the passage? Are that you can refer to it easily during to be the middle of the hour of high
the crew up to the challenge? the passage. A section of the logbook water. So, if the time for HW is given
There are many questions that can be used for this purpose, but a as 1200, the hour of high water runs
need answering for a thorough passage separate notebook is better, as it can from 1130–1230. Similarly, the hour
plan, but it is important that you be taken on deck without risk to the HW+1 runs from 1230–1330.
consider them all before finalizing your logbook. Calculate the total distance Finally, make notes about your
plans. Once you are sure that your of the passage and the distance destination harbor from the pilot
plan is sensible and achievable, then between turning points or waypoints. book. You should aim to be familiar
you can make your final preparations. Note all track bearings between with all aspects of the passage before
turning points and the details of all you start. Consider what could go
Ensuring a safe passage navigation marks that you expect wrong and the consequences. If you
Carefully check along your track to see along the way. Don’t forget to need to take shelter in an intermediate
on the chart to make sure that it jot down the light characteristics harbor, have pilotage plans ready.
is clear of dangers. Adjust it as for buoys and other navigational aids Check that all charts and
necessary to keep away from any you may encounter if there is any reference books are on board and
charted hazards, such as shallows, likelihood of being at sea in darkness. that your VHF radio is working.
overfalls, or tide races. Note any List the times and heights of Just before departure, inform the
traffic separation areas and, if you low and high water for each of the coast guard of your plans so that
have to cross one, plan to do so with areas and days you will be sailing. they can alert rescue services if you
the boat’s heading at right angles Then mark up the tidal atlas with the do not arrive as planned. Make sure
to the lane. Make sure you consider correct times on each page, starting you inform them when you reach
the best time to cross a traffic zone at the page for high water. Remember your destination.
 NAVIGATION
364
Navigating to windward Using electronic aids
Avoidance
If your destination lies to windward, Modern chart plotters can store the G.Sh
waypoint
it will be impossible for the navigator whole passage plan for you, guide 25 28 33

to shape a course to steer, as the you from waypoint to waypoint, Wk

boat will have to beat to windward. and even pilot you in and out of 3NM
32 27

This means that the heading will harbor. However, you should always 28
Wk
33
Wk
be determined by the course that have a backup system available and
the helm can steer close-hauled, you should avoid becoming obsessed 33 32
Current
Alarm zone 332ºT
and it will change every time the boat with the virtual rather than real set around position
30
tacks. In this situation, the navigator world. Regard these electronic tools hazard
concentrates on recording the course as extremely useful, but understand 31 33

steered and periodically plots an that they may let you down. That
estimated position, the accuracy of said, their ability to utilize waypoints
avoidance waypoint
which will depend on how well the and an electronic track does offer By plotting a waypoint on a charted
helm estimates the course sailed. new techniques that can be useful on hazard and monitoring the distance
When you beat to windward, there passage. If you are passing a hazard, and bearing from it, you will always
is always a chance that the wind will you can set the cross track error alarm know your position relative to the
shift to one side or the other. If you to a distance that will alert you if you danger. Here, an alarm has been set
get too far to one side of the direct are drifting too far from the track or to ring if the distance falls below 3nm.
course, you may lose out because of toward a hazard. Isolated dangers or
an adverse shift. To minimize this risk large areas to avoid can be “cordoned
and fully exploit gains from beneficial off” with avoidance waypoints so A strategically placed waypoint can
wind shifts, draw tack limiting lines that at all times you have a range and also offer you an electronic clearing
on the chart and stay within them. bearing to the nearest hazard. bearing, keeping you away from a
potential danger. In these situations,
21 36
Wk
21 36 waypoints are used as warning
28
34
34 10–20
Wk
marks, not as navigational marks
Diverging tack 5–10º angle miles to be aimed at. If you set up your
limiting line 30 30
30
28
system in this way, be sure your crew
30
30
doesn’t use the avoidance waypoints
39 55
as targets to steer toward.
32
Parallel tack 32 As the GPS continuously monitors
limiting line
Downwind your position, it can derive your speed
objective line 34 34
over the ground rather than your
49
speed through the water as shown
Tack between 49 Tack
limiting lines 36
between by your log. This means it is easy to
55

34
limiting determine your real progress. If you
39 lines
34
Wk
34 Wk
41 are beating to windward in a series of
Wk
34 long tacks, it can be difficult to know
Wk Downwind
41
33
objective line 33
how fast you are closing on your
36 Wk 37
43 37
43
Wk destination. However, the GPS can
calculate this for you. The velocity
made good (VMG) gives your actual
diverging tack limiters parallel tack limiters
straight-line speed toward the next
For sailing short distances to windward, For sailing short distances to windward,
draw a line on the chart downwind from draw a line on the chart downwind from waypoint. Knowing how well you are
the objective, then draw two lines on the objective, then draw two lines on doing is vital on passage. If things
either side, diverging by 5–10º from the either side, diverging by 5–10º from the are not going according to plan, it is
center line. Tack each time your EP or center line. Tack each time your EP or good to know as soon as possible so
GPS fix reaches a tack limiting line. GPS fix reaches a tack limiting line. contingencies can be considered.
 PASSAGE SKILLS
365
S Navigating in fog a position (p.261). Depth soundings
The onset of fog prevents you from can also be used to follow a contour
25 240ºT
28
Wk obtaining visual fixes to determine line on the chart. If you are trying
G
Rocks
Wk 28
Current
position. If possible, the skipper to find a buoy at the entrance to a
32 position should head for shallow water to harbor, for instance, it may lie near
30
32 minimize the risk of collision with a depth contour. In this situation,
268ºT 31
large ships. The navigator must be choose a suitable contour, making
Clearing waypoint
ready to navigate to a safe anchorage sure that there are no charted hazards
or harbor. A GPS set will continue to along it. Calculate the height of tide
electronic clearing bearing
Place an electronic waypoint where it
deliver position-fixing information. to add to the depth at chart datum to
can provide a clearing bearing. Here, the However, you must check this data get the actual depth of water at that
clearing bearing is 240ºT. At the current against another source and never time. Then you should plot your
position, the waypoint bears 268ºT, which rely on it alone. Probably the best approach. You should try to cross
is safe, but if it drops below 240ºT, you electronic aid to have in these the depth contour well to one side
could be in danger of running aground. conditions is radar, as it will provide of the mark you are aiming for before
both position-fixing and collision- turning toward it. Then steer a zigzag
avoidance information. A GPS set course that crosses and recrosses the
Rough-weather passages together with a radar enable you contour, checking the depth sounder
In rough weather, the navigator has to cross-check all information. regularly. This course will lead you
to work down below while the boat is to your destination.
pitching and heeling. Experience and Fog and depth soundings
a resistance to seasickness are great The depth sounder can provide
advantages in this situation. However, valuable information when you
using depth soundings
you should also try to limit the time are navigating through fog. By Following a depth contour in shallow
you spend at the chart table by doing reducing the observed depth to water in poor visibility has the advantage
as much passage and contingency soundings (p.361), a depth reading of getting you out of the big ship channel
planning as possible before setting off. can confirm an EP or fix. Alternatively, while providing you with a reference line
Rough weather can quickly a line of soundings can be used to fix you can follow toward your destination.
lead to tiredness, particularly in an
inexperienced crew, which increases
the risk of mistakes. Take time to Deep water
double-check all information and channel used
remember to allow for steering errors by large ships

and log errors, which tend to be more

significant in difficult conditions. Depth contour
Follow the contour
When you plan a passage, you
to your destination
should always identify safe harbors
along the route or within reach
and have an alternative plan in case Shallow water outside
weather conditions deteriorate. As shipping channel
a skipper, you will find that your
leadership and management skills are
tested most in bad weather. You will Find the depth
contour, then follow
have to monitor your crew’s morale a shallow zigzag
and well-being in these conditions course back and
forth across it
and be prepared to head for harbor
if necessary. You must know your
crew’s, and your own, limitations
and avoid pushing beyond them.
WEATHER
The most awesome natural phenomenon on Earth is the weather. From light breezes
to hurricanes, from spring showers to monsoon rains, it affects everything we do, yet
we have no control over it. No one is more reliant on the weather than the sailor—without
wind, there could be no sailing, yet too much of it makes sailing hazardous. Understanding
weather systems—their causes and effects—forms an essential part of every sailor’s skills.
 WEATHER
368

CAUSES OF WEATHER
Weather occurs in a relatively narrow band of the atmosphere, capable of carrying far more water
called the troposphere. This extends about 10 miles (16 km) vapor than cold air, but it will
become saturated if it cools down.
above Earth’s surface at the equator, diminishing to half that When warm air cools, the excess
thickness at the poles. As the Sun warms Earth’s surface, some water vapor condenses into droplets
of the heat is transferred to the air above. This effect is greatest and forms clouds, mist, or fog. The
temperature at which this occurs
at the equator and least at the poles. Warm air tends to rise and
is known as the dew point. If air is
cold air to sink, causing vertical movements of air and creating cooled by its proximity to a colder
changes in air pressure. These movements and pressure changes surface, such as the sea, fog forms
take excess heat from the equator toward the poles, stabilizing when the air reaches the dew point.

global temperatures and preventing temperatures at the equator Clouds

from becoming progressively hotter and those at the poles from There are three main ways in
becoming progressively colder. which clouds form: air is heated
by radiation from a warmer area
of land or sea and rises through
Atmospheric pressure weather may be on the way. convection currents; air is forced
Air exerts a downward force under If it is falling, stronger winds and to rise when it meets obstacles such
the influence of gravity. This force, poor weather may be imminent. as mountains; or air rises over a
known as atmospheric pressure, is mass of colder, denser air. As the
measured in millibars (mb). At all Isobars air rises, it cools. When it reaches
times, we experience atmospheric Pressure is shown on weather maps its dew point, clouds form.
pressure that is equal to the weight by lines called isobars, which join Clouds occupy three main
of the column of air above us. areas of equal pressure in a similar layers: high cloud is usually above
The average pressure at sea level way to contour lines on a map. In 20,000 ft (6,000 m); medium-level
is about 1,013 mb, but pressure some places, isobars completely clouds are at 7,000–20,000 ft
on Earth’s surface varies widely enclose areas of relatively high or low (2,100–6,000 m); and low cloud
from this mean figure because of pressure, known as anticyclones and lies up to about 7,000 ft (2,100 m).
differences in air temperature. Cold depressions, respectively (pp.370–373). Different types and shapes of clouds
air is dense and heavy and tends to The spacing between isobars on form (pp.374–375) within these bands.
sink, resulting in high atmospheric weather maps represents the pressure Clouds are an invaluable guide to
pressure. Warm air is less dense and gradient between high and low in the the dominant weather system and
lighter and tends to rise, resulting same way that contours on a map provide the best visual forecasting
in low pressure. Vast circulation indicate a shallow rise or a steep aid for assessing likely change.
systems develop around the planet, hillside. The closer the isobars, the
as warm air rises and cold air moves steeper the pressure gradient and Rain, hail, and snow
in to replace it. the stronger the wind in that area. Water vapor can combine into
Changes in atmospheric pressure droplets and fall as rain, hail, or
are a significant indicator of changes Dew point snow. Droplets that form at higher
in weather conditions. This makes a Air contains water vapor, which altitudes in tall clouds freeze into
barometer or barograph (a barometer it collects as water evaporates from snowflakes or hailstones. They will
that provides a continuous record) an Earth’s surface. Air can hold large reach Earth’s surface in that form if
important forecasting aid aboard a amounts of water, but it eventually the air is cold at low levels. The
yacht. If the pressure is rising, good becomes saturated. Warm air is capacity of a cloud to produce
 CAUSES OF WEATHER
369
precipitation depends on its height Tropical Maritime (warm and quickly cool and stop rising. This
and size. Expect heavy rain from wet), and Tropical Continental is a stable airstream and features
large, tall clouds but little, if any, (warm and dry). layer cloud, steadier winds, and
from a thin layer of low cloud. reduced visibility.
Hot or cold airstreams
Air masses When a cold airstream travels
An air mass is an enormous over warmer sea or land, it picks Arctic Maritime
volume of air with particular up heat in its lower levels. This
characteristics. Its type depends forms convection currents that rise as
on whether it is warm or cold, wet air columns. If a column stays warmer
or dry. When an air mass starts than the surrounding air, it continues
Polar
moving because of global pressure upward, creating unstable conditions Maritime Polar Continental
differences, it is known as an that generally produce heaped clouds
airstream. An airstream from and good visibility. Wind is likely to be
a polar region is cold. If it has gusty as stronger, higher-altitude winds
Tropical Tropical
traveled over water to reach its are drawn down to Earth’s surface. Maritime Continental
present position, it will be relatively The amount of cloud and rain depends
wet, but if it has traveled over land, it on whether the air is wet or dry. european airstreams
will be relatively dry. These differences The opposite occurs when a warm Different types of airstreams converge
lead to an airstream being classified airstream travels over colder land or on Europe, including cold, wet Polar
as Polar or Arctic Maritime (cold and sea. The air near Earth’s surface cools, Maritime airstreams and warm, dry
wet), Polar Continental (cold and dry), and any rising pockets of warmer air Tropical Continental airstreams.

WORLD WEATHER
The temperature differences that exist between the in bands around the planet. These bands of relatively
poles and the equator, together with the rotation of low pressure or high pressure create fairly stable wind
Earth, result in pressure being generally distributed systems over the oceans.

Pressure distribution WINDS SURFACE

Lower-pressure bands are found at the Polar easterlies High pressure PRESSURE
equator and the midlatitudes, and bands of (polar high)
higher pressure at the poles and the subtropics. Westerlies
Low pressure
The arrangement is disturbed by temperature (roaring forties)
(temperate low)
changes caused by land masses, but over
Variables
the sea, the bands of pressure result in (horse latitudes) High pressure
semipermanent wind systems.
(subtropical high)
North-east
Wind direction trades
Air tries to move directly from an area of high
pressure to an area of low pressure; this flow Equatorial Low pressure
(equatorial low)
is felt as wind. The spinning of Earth makes trough
(doldrums)
the winds in the Northern Hemisphere bend High pressure
to the right, whereas those in the Southern (subtropical high)
South-east
Hemisphere bend to the left. trades
Low pressure
Variables
(temperate low)
(horse latitudes)
winds and pressures
The spin of Earth deflects wind to the right Westerlies (roaring forties) Polar easterlies High pressure (polar high)
in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in
the Southern Hemisphere. AIR CIRCULATION, WINDS, AND SURFACE PRESSURE
 WEATHER
370

WEATHER SYSTEMS
well-established and large anticyclone
will interact with passing depressions
and may force them off course
around its perimeter. Winds will
The local weather conditions that we experience are part of increase between the anticyclone
larger weather systems—the patterns of weather distributed over and the depression, where tightly
packed isobars, squeezed between
the whole planet. Most pleasure sailing takes place in the tropical the two weather systems, indicate
and temperate zones. The tropics are dominated by the trade a steep pressure gradient. In this
winds. The weather is usually fair, but with localized thunderstorms. situation, strong winds under
cloudless skies may be encountered.
Westerly winds predominate in temperate zones, although the
weather is changeable because of the passage of depressions and Depressions
anticyclones and the influence of polar fronts. A depression is an area of relatively
low pressure. They are shown on
synoptic charts by pressure readings
Anticyclones lighter. Anticyclones can cover that are lower than the surrounding
High-pressure areas are called very large areas and usually move areas and by isobars that are closer
anticyclones. They are shown on very slowly. Sometimes they remain together toward the center of the
synoptic charts by pressure readings static for days or even weeks. low-pressure area.
higher than the surrounding areas and Anticyclones typically bring Winds blow clockwise around a
by fairly widely spaced isobars (p.368). good weather, with light to moderate depression in the Southern Hemisphere
Winds blow clockwise around winds and clear skies. Thin layers of and counterclockwise in the Northern
an anticyclone in the Northern cloud may persist, but the clouds Hemisphere. The strongest winds
Hemisphere and counterclockwise usually disperse. A temperature are found near the center of the
in the Southern Hemisphere. The inversion (p.375) may form in depression, and lighter winds around
strongest winds blow around the outer anticyclonic conditions and the outer edge. Depressions vary
edge; winds toward the center are cause hazy weather or fog. A considerably in size, speed, and
intensity, but they typically travel
High-pressure
northern hemisphere
Low-pressure
from west to east.
area with colder
In the Northern air sinking area with Depressions usually bring
Hemisphere, the wind warm air
unsettled weather, strong winds,
rising
blows clockwise around and heavy rainfall, with the worst
anticyclones and
weather near the center of the
counterclockwise around
low pressure. Most depressions
depressions. This is because
of the spin of Earth, which
originate from activity at a polar
causes the wind to be front (opposite), although they
deflected to the right. can form in other circumstances,
ANTICYCLONE DEPRESSION including very thundery conditions.
Wind blows Wind blows
southern hemisphere counterclockwise clockwise Wind and pressure systems
In the Southern Air will attempt to move directly
Hemisphere, wind blows from high- to low-pressure areas,
counterclockwise around but it can do this only at the equator.
anticyclones and clockwise
Elsewhere, the rotation of Earth
around depressions. This
causes the wind to be deflected—to
occurs because the spin of
the right in the Northern Hemisphere
Earth deflects the wind
to the left. and to the left in the Southern
ANTICYCLONE DEPRESSION Hemisphere (opposite). This
 WEATHER SYSTEMS
371
deflection causes the wind to blow applies to a high-pressure system. isobar spacing when the isobars
in a circular pattern around the Above about 2,000 ft (600 m), the are curved around an anticyclone
pressure systems. wind, known as the gradient wind, than when they are curved around
is more or less parallel to the isobars. a depression. Scales are given on
Wind direction At Earth’s surface, however, friction synoptic charts to calculate wind
The direction of the wind is always will slow wind down and deflect it— speed from the isobars.
expressed in compass points (north in toward a depression and outward
or northeast, for example), which away from an anticyclone. Over the Polar fronts
describe the direction from which the sea, friction causes a deflection of A polar front is a demarcation
wind is blowing. 10–15 degrees; it can be double line between two powerful and
In the Northern Hemisphere, this over land. In unstable airstreams, different airstreams—a warm
wind revolves clockwise around wind brought down from higher airstream originating from a
anticyclones and counterclockwise altitudes can cause gusts, making the subtropical high and a cold,
around depressions, with the isobars wind closer in speed and direction to polar one. When the airstreams
forming closed, concentric circles the gradient wind. meet, the cold, dense air pushes the
around both weather systems. The spacing of isobars indicates warm air upward, forming a wedge
To find the approximate direction the gradient between high and low under it. Activity at the front is the
of a low-pressure system’s center in the pressure, and hence the wind speed. cause of depressions (p.372). Polar
Northern Hemisphere, stand with your This can be predicted by measuring fronts twist their way around Earth,
back to the wind; the low will be on the isobar spacing on a synoptic moving between about 35 and
your left. In the Southern Hemisphere, chart. Remember, however, that 60 degrees north and south,
it will be on your right. The opposite the wind speed is greater for a given depending on the season.

satellite image
Satellite images of weather systems
are a useful forecasting aid. The
position of weather fronts can be
deduced from cloud cover. Here,
an anticyclone is seen approaching
the British Isles from the west.
 WEATHER
372
passage oF FronTs Frontal depressions
Understanding the passage of a frontal depression and the associated Along a polar front, a warm, westerly
changes in conditions is important for the offshore sailor. Depressions are airstream meets a cold, easterly one.
often forecast in advance, but their speed and direction of movement can The warm airstream is lifted above
be unpredictable. It is an advantage if you can make your own judgments the cold one, which slides underneath,
based on observation. The type of weather you experience depends on creating unstable conditions that can
where you are in relation to the center of the low. Here, an observer in the
lead to depressions.
Northern Hemisphere is situated to the south of the low’s center as it passes.
Depressions are born along the
polar front when a pocket of warm
passing depression
In this diagram, a Northern
Direction of travel air encroaches on the neighboring cold
Hemisphere depression airstream. This pocket creates a small
PLAN VIEW Occluded
passes from west to east, wave in the front, with its crest on the
front
with its center north of the Cloud polar side. In the middle of the wave,
Rain
observer. There is an the air is warmer and rises faster, thus
Position of observer
occluded front (p.373) creating an area of low pressure and
near the center, but at the 5 4 3 2 1 allowing cold air from the polar side
observer’s position, they to push in from behind to take its
Cold front
see the warm front, the Warm place. As the low-pressure area
warm sector (a trough of front
deepens at the crest of the wave,
low pressure), and the cold
clearly defined fronts appear ahead
front pass in turn. The
photographs below show
of and behind the central trough of
examples of the possible low pressure, curving out from the
appearance of the sky at center of the low. These fronts form
each numbered stage. 5 4 3 2 1 the demarcation line between the
SIDE VIEW adjacent areas of warm and cold air.

1 The presence of thin, high cirrus 2 Closer to the warm front, the cirrus 3 On the approach of the warm front,
clouds, which are composed of ice cloud thickens into cirrostratus (high- the cloud thickens into altostratus and
crystals, indicates an approaching layer cloud). A halo may appear around then nimbostratus with a lowering cloud
depression about 12–24 hours away. The the sun or moon, caused by moisture in the base. The wind strength increases and
speed and extent of the cirrus clouds are upper atmosphere. The barometer will often backs further, and the barometer
guides to the depth of the depression. The continue to record falling pressure. The drops more quickly as the center of low
other clear indication of an imminent wind will back (swing counterclockwise), pressure moves closer. Visibility is reduced
depression is the barometer reading, often from westerly or southwesterly to under the low cloud base, and rain begins
which will start to fall. southerly or southeasterly. to fall as the front moves closer.
 WEATHER SYSTEMS
373
Winds frontal depression the air behind the occluded front
deflected in
toward
Depressions typically form when a is colder or warmer than the air in
center pocket of warm air encroaches into the front, it will be a cold-front type or
neighboring band of cold air along a warm-front type. A cold occluded
the polar front. The front curls around the front is more active than a warm one,
pocket, forming a wave with a warm,
bringing heavier rainfall and higher
leading front and a cold, trailing one.
gusts on the passage of the front.
Warm
front
Cold Life span of depressions
front
Warm sector Warm and cold fronts Because cold fronts move more
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE The leading front is called the warm quickly and catch up with warm
front because it has warm air behind fronts, depressions have a limited
Winds deflected in it, pushing over cooler air ahead. The life span. Secondary depressions can,
toward center Warm trailing front is known as the cold however, form along the cold front
sector front and has cold air behind it. The of a dying depression. These often are
Cold front cold front pushes under the warm air smaller, develop faster, and can be
Warm
in the warm sector ahead. The cold more intense than the parent.
front
front moves faster than the warm one. Depressions vary greatly in
size, duration, and severity, but all
Occluded front continually change as they grow,
As the cold front catches up interact with other weather systems,
with the warm front, the cold front and eventually die. They can move
pushes the warm-sector air off the at 50 knots or more, but those that
surface, and the two fronts form an cover a very large area tend to be
SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE occluded front. Depending on whether much slower-moving.

Direction of depressions
Frontal depressions in temperate
latitudes in both hemispheres tend to
move from west to east, with the center
of the depression toward the cold
airstream on the polar side.
In the early life of a frontal
depression, the low-pressure system
tends to move in the same direction
as the upper airstreams. This is
approximately the same as the
direction of the isobars in the warm
sector (the area between the fronts).
As the depression matures, it reaches
higher into the high-altitude
4 As the warm front passes over the 5 The cold front is often marked by jet-stream winds and begins to
observer, the wind veers, often to the cumulus or cumulonimbus (huge heaped move in their direction.
southwest or west, and the barometer clouds). The pressure may drop again Toward the end of its life, the
stops falling. The rain eases or stops, but because of a trough of lower pressure
depression system will generally slow
visibility is poor with low cloud or mist. ahead of the front. There may be heavy
down. It may also change direction—
If the center of the low is some distance rain, fierce gusts and squalls, and
away to the north, the cloud layer is likely sometimes thunderstorms. As the front usually to the north in the Northern
to be thinner, and breaks in the cloud passes, the wind usually veers sharply Hemisphere and to the south in the
cover may appear occasionally. northwest and the pressure starts to rise. Southern Hemisphere.
 WEATHER
374

DAILY CHANGES
and a possible change in wind
direction at the surface. Convection
currents reach their peak activity in the
mid- to late afternoon, when clouds
If you are sailing near the coast in settled conditions, the are at their highest and winds at their
weather you experience will change throughout the day. This effect strongest. If the convection currents
are particularly active, they may
is known as the diurnal weather variation. It is caused by the sun produce showers from rain-bearing
heating the land and, to a far lesser extent, the sea. Understanding clouds, and thunderstorms may occur.
diurnal effects enables you to predict wind speed and direction
Evening to night
change during the day and adjust your sailing plans accordingly.
As the land cools in the late afternoon
When sailing at night, you will understand when an inversion may and evening, the convection currents
form and bring light winds. stop and the wind drops in strength.
On clear nights, an inversion effect
may form (opposite). This is an
Morning to afternoon form as water vapor carried in the indication of settled weather.
As the land heats up with the rising of cooling air condenses into droplets.
the sun, it warms the air above it. The As the convection currents grow in Tips for sailors
warmed air rises through convection strength, they reach an altitude where Study the weather forecast before
currents. As it goes higher into the the winds are stronger than they are you go afloat. If conditions seem
troposphere, it gradually cools and at Earth’s surface. The sinking currents stable and are being influenced by
sinks again. The convection currents then bring down parcels of upper air, a nearby high-pressure system, check
are marked by cumulus clouds that causing an increase in wind strength the clouds when you reach your
sailing area. They will provide the
clues to identify local heating of the
THrOugH THe daY land. If small cumulus clouds are
By studying the types of clouds that appear through the day, you can make evident in the morning, expect to see
many deductions about the kind of weather and wind conditions to expect. diurnal effects bringing stronger
Practice observing clouds and making predictions to improve your skills. winds in the mid- to late afternoon.

cumulus enlarging cumulus mixed cumulus

Early convection currents produce small Cumulus may increase in size. Large Larger cumulonimbus sometimes
cumulus clouds and variable winds. Deep clouds with high tops may produce rain develop among smaller cumulus. These
clouds indicate that the good weather showers. Stronger gusts with wind shifts are very active areas and can produce
may not continue through the day. are found near the clouds. heavy showers and even hailstones.
 DAILY CHANGES
375
UNDERSTANDING INVERSIONS
It is normal for the temperature of the air to cool as it often happens in the evening or at night, when the
rises. However, in settled weather, an inversion of this land cools down quickly under clear skies, making
usual state of affairs may arise. Inversions occur when the air near Earth’s surface cool more rapidly than
colder air becomes trapped under warmer air. This air at a higher altitude.

The inversion effect

When an inversion has
Cooling air Convection currents
formed, it separates low-level
wind from wind at a higher
altitude, preventing the two
from mixing. This stops the
usual effect of high-altitude
wind speeding up low-altitude
wind. The wind at surface
level then slows down because Inversion layer
of friction. The lightest winds
occur around dawn, and fog
patches may form when the
air temperature reaches its
lowest level.

Inversion breaking
When the sun rises, it Low-speed wind High-speed wind
heats the land and forms
convection currents.
These columns of warm
air penetrate through the
inversion layer, causing
the surface winds and high-
altitude winds to mix again. AN INVERSION FORMING AN INVERSION BREAKING

thunderstorms clear skies dawn mist

A rising air mass under a large cumulus As the land cools, convection currents die At dawn, winds will be very light or calm
or cumulonimbus cloud may produce a and clouds disappear. With nightfall, the and fog may develop. Near land, the fog
thunderstorm. Heavy gusts and big wind land cools quickly, as there are no clouds is likely to evaporate as the sun rises and
shifts occur at the base of the storm. to trap the heat. An inversion may form. warms the ground.
 WEATHER
376

THE EFFECTS OF THE LAND

Understanding global weather patterns, depressions, the increased surface friction slows it
and anticyclones is a great help when predicting changes down and deflects the wind’s direction
more than over water, leading to either
in the weather, but the coastal or inland sailor also needs to converging (stronger) or diverging
understand how weather patterns can be influenced by the (weaker) winds. An onshore wind may
land. When you are sailing well offshore, you will experience be strong at the coast, but only a few
miles farther inland, its speed will be
wind conditions that are dictated by the nearest pressure
greatly reduced. An offshore wind will
systems; closer to land, local effects can interfere with the pick up speed as it leaves the coast
established pattern and cause localized changes in the weather. and blows over the smoother sea.
This is important for estimating the
strength of the wind at sea.
Land and the weather and nature of the land determine how
Land influences the wind and weather much heat it can absorb and radiate. Wind shadows
in a number of ways. Diurnal changes Flat beaches and fields close to the When you are sailing close to land, be
(pp.374–375), sea breezes, and land coast heat up quickly in the morning, aware of the effects of wind shadows
breezes all result from convection and large convection currents form (areas of reduced wind speed). An
currents that are formed over the land. above them. Steep hillsides and valleys offshore sailor will notice the large
The effects are greatest in summer, stay cooler, whereas large urban areas wind shadows often found in the lee
when clear skies allow Earth’s surface can absorb considerable heat. of large islands, and the coastal sailor
to heat and cool quickly. will be affected by smaller features in
Land and wind harbors and rivers. Trees, buildings,
Land and heat Land can alter the direction and ships, and high ground can all disrupt
Air is not warmed by the sun, but strength of the wind. Wind blowing the passage of the wind and cause
rather by the sea or land over which at a shallow angle onto a steep, high lulls, gusts, and wind shifts. Sailors
it travels. Land heats and cools far coastline will tend to be deflected who race on inland water need to be
more rapidly than the sea, and parallel to the coast. River valleys also particularly aware of wind shadows
different surfaces heat and cool tend to deflect the wind up or down and microclimate disturbances caused
at different rates. The topography the valley. When wind blows over land, by very localized heating and small
convection currents.

Sea breezes
One of the most obvious examples
Warm air rises
of winds caused by localized heating
over the land is the coastal sea breeze, common in
stable weather conditions during the
Cool air from the sea
moves inland

development of a sea breeze

During the day, warm air rising from the
land creates an area of low pressure that
is filled by cold air coming off the sea,
resulting in a sea breeze. The tops of the
convection currents above the land are
marked by cumulus clouds. Sea breezes
die down when the land starts to cool.
 THE EFFECTS OF THE LAND
377
katabatic wind
In areas where there are steep cliffs or MOON
mountains on the coast, katabatic winds
may occur. This often occurs on cloudless
Cool air flows down
nights, when the land cools rapidly. Air coastal slopes
moving over the cold ground becomes Land breeze
combines with Warm air
cooler and flows quickly downhill, pulled
katabatic wind rises from the
by gravity. When a land breeze effect water, causing a
combines with a katabatic wind, the low-pressure area
resulting wind can be quite strong.

summer. When coastal land is heated

by the morning sun, large convection
currents build up. As the air over the
land heats up, it rises and the pressure
drops. Over the sea, the air remains and some miles inland, but, in the set up, but this time the wind blows
relatively cool and moves toward the early stages of its development, it off the land. Land breezes are usually
low-pressure area to replace the rising may extend only a few hundred lighter than sea breezes, but their
air. A circulation system, driven by the yards from the shoreline. The effects may be felt several miles out
convection currents, quickly develops, presence of cumulus clouds along to sea. They are typically stronger in
and a sea breeze is born. the coastline is a sure indication of the fall, when the sea is warmer than
a developing sea breeze. Even if the it is in spring or summer.
Sea breezes and gradient winds day dawns cloudless and windless, a
A sea breeze typically blows directly sea breeze may bring a stiff onshore Katabatic winds
onto the coastline but will be wind by noon. Sea breezes drop off Sinking currents of air from mountains
modified by any gradient wind (the as the land cools later in the day. are known as katabatic winds. They
wind caused by pressure systems). may be experienced near mountainous
If the gradient wind is blowing onto Land breezes coastlines where cool air, drawn down
the coast, the sea breeze will add A land breeze is the direct opposite the slopes by gravity, causes a wind to
to it, causing stronger winds in the of a sea breeze. At night, under clear blow down the slopes and out to sea.
middle of the day. If the gradient skies, the land cools quickly while Katabatic winds usually occur at
wind is offshore, the two may cancel the sea retains its heat. Air over the night and may blow for several miles
out each other, and light winds or land cools and sinks, thus raising out to sea. A land breeze combined
calm may result near the coast. A the pressure; air over the sea stays with a katabatic wind off a steep
well-established sea breeze may be relatively warm and continues to rise. headland can bring strong gusts.
felt 5–10 miles (8–16 km) offshore Once again, convection currents are
Zephyr winds
Zephyrs are gentle winds that occur
Colder air sinks Warm air rises when air over land is warmed and
over the water from the land
rises, allowing cooler air over the
water to drift off the lake or river.

cause of zephyrs
In otherwise calm conditions, warm air
rising from the banks of a river or edges
of a lake creates an area of low pressure,
into which cold air flows. This results in a
zephyr wind, a gentle wind that can be
exploited by inland dinghy sailors.
 WEATHER
378

STORMS
convection currents form huge banks
of cumulus cloud that push upward
and grow larger—a sign that a
thunderstorm may develop. If the
Bad weather is caused by low-pressure systems and their ascending system becomes sufficiently active,
currents of air. When a large volume of humid air is forced rapidly cumulonimbus clouds form. These
towering, dark, and forbidding
upward, intense activity takes place and a revolving circulation of air clouds reach great heights and have
is created. Frontal depressions (p.372) can cover very large areas characteristic anvil-shaped tops that
and produce fairly strong winds, but smaller yet more intense low- point in the direction the storm is
traveling. The higher the cloud top,
pressure systems, such as thunderstorms, tropical revolving storms
the more intense the storm. Ice
and tornadoes are responsible for even more severe weather. crystals form in the anvil top. They
collide within the cloud and create
static electricity, which discharges
Thunderstorms where they occur more often over to the ground as lightning. Low rolls
A thunderstorm is created by a large land masses such as North of cloud, created by violent internal
very intense but localized area of America. At sea, thunderstorms usually air currents, form along the base of
low pressure that can produce very form along the line of a cold front. a storm, resulting in heavy rain or
strong winds and heavy rain or hail. This is also where the strongest
hail. Thunder and lightning add Thunder clouds winds and wind shifts are found.
to the drama. In tropical regions, A thunderstorm starts when a huge Behind the thunderstorm, the wind
thunderstorms are fairly common, volume of air is forced upward by and temperature drop.
often occurring at night. They are localized heating or by a wedge of
less frequent in temperate latitudes colder air at a front. The large Safety at sea
If you are at sea when a thunderstorm
Anvil-shaped top Point of anvil shows
of the cloud direction of travel
approaches, the best course of action
is to get out of its path. However,
20,000 ft
(6,600 m) if the storm is going to pass over
you, it is advisable to turn into it to
get through it as quickly as possible.
15,000 ft If you are heading in the same
(5,000 m) direction as a storm and are overtaken
by it, you will spend longer within
the storm.
10,000 ft
(3,300 m)
Revolving storms
Tropical revolving storms are known
5,000 ft
by different names in different parts
(1,700 m) of the world: in the Atlantic, they
are hurricanes; in the western Pacific,
Lightning caused by they are typhoons; and in the Indian
hailstones colliding
Ocean, they are cyclones. They are
born in low latitudes and are marked
thunderstorm
by enormous banks of clouds that
A typical thundercloud has an anvil-shaped reach to the limit of the atmosphere,
top pointing in the direction in which the Heavy rainfall Rolling clouds at indicating a very intense depression.
beneath the cloud the base of the
storm is moving. Rolling clouds along its The depression covers a much smaller
main cloud
base are caused by strong air currents. area than a frontal depression, but
 379
the pressure gradient is much steeper, tropical storms are monitored by
causing winds in excess of Force 12 forecasters using weather satellites,
and very heavy and steep seas. and sailors may receive warnings
issued by radio and Weatherfax.
Wind characteristics When sailing in tropical latitudes,
During a revolving storm, the winds a drop in barometric pressure of
spiral inward toward the center of the 5 mb or more is a warning of an
depression at all heights through approaching storm. Other signs
the storm instead of blowing along include a large ocean swell,
the isobars at higher levels, as they significant changes in wind speed
do in a normal depression. The winds and direction, and cloud building
revolve counterclockwise in the from high cirrus through altostratus
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise to heaped cumulus.
in the Southern Hemisphere. At the
center of the storm, there is an “eye” Safe refuges
waterspout
in which the wind is temporarily calm, Sailors who think they are in the path
Strong convection currents produce a
but the seas are rough and confused of a tropical storm should try to avoid funnel-shaped extension at the base of
without the controlling influence of the being caught in the most dangerous cumulonimbus clouds. The powerful
wind. The clouds may clear for a short semicircle, which is to the north of the revolving motion of the wind in this
time, but the respite will be brief as the center in the Northern Hemisphere cloud draws water off the surface of the
opposite wall of cloud approaches, and to the south of the center in the sea, creating a spinning mass of spray.
containing more violent winds. The Southern Hemisphere. A tropical storm
wind is at its strongest close to the eye is extremely dangerous to all craft but
and visibility is seriously reduced, often especially to small yachts. Safe refuges, Waterspouts
to zero, as the air fills with flying foam known as hurricane holes, can be A waterspout is a type of tornado that
and spray. found in areas vulnerable to these is found at sea. It forms under heavy
storms, but most harbors present as cumulonimbus clouds that contain
Storm origins many dangers as being at sea. strong convection currents. As a
Tropical storms usually develop waterspout forms, a funnel-shaped
on the eastern side of oceans and Tornadoes cloud extends from the base of the
mature as they travel westward A tornado is the most violent cumulonimbus cloud to the sea. Its
or northwest-ward in the Northern small-scale disturbance and is far revolving motion causes a spinning
Hemisphere or westward or more common over land than at mass of spray to rise from the sea. If the
southwestward in the Southern sea, occurring most frequently on waterspout continues to develop, the
Hemisphere. In their early stages, the central plains of North America. end of the funnel meets the spray cloud
they usually move at 10–15 knots, Forming in hot, humid, thundery and forms a spinning column between
later increasing to 25 knots or more. conditions, tornadoes are created cloud base and sea. The top and bottom
As they near the western side of by severe convection currents that of the column travel at different
the ocean, they may curve north occur in large cumulonimbus clouds. speeds, so it quickly takes up a
or northeasterly in the Northern A tornado’s diameter is usually only slanting position and eventually breaks
Hemisphere or south or southeasterly a few hundred yards, and it will up. A waterspout is a very localized
in the Southern Hemisphere. rarely travel more than a few miles. and short-term event but can present a
In that distance, however, it can serious danger to small craft in the
Forecasting storms cause more destruction than almost vicinity. It is less severe than a tornado,
Most tropical storms occur in fairly any other natural phenomenon. typically lasts less than 30 minutes,
predictable seasons, such as July to Winds at the center may reach 200 and covers an area 100 ft (30 m) in
September in the Atlantic, but they knots, and the exceptionally low diameter. Waterspouts move slowly, but
can develop at other times, too. The pressure can rip houses apart and can be erratic, and are more common
birth, growth, and development of throw cars in the air. in tropical than temperate latitudes.
 WEATHER
380

FOG
During the early hours of the
morning, it may extend several
miles out to sea, but will disperse if
the water temperature is higher than
When you sail in a small boat, your safety and enjoyment depend that of the land. In general, radiation
on your ability to see all around you and avoid any potential hazards fog poses little hazard to sailors,
apart from in rivers and estuaries,
or collisions. Fog, therefore, can be a significant problem at sea. where it may persist for some hours.
Although there are four main types of fog, all are basically cloud that Radiation fog quickly disperses when
has formed at Earth’s surface. Three types of fog are caused by air the sun rises—the land heats up,
warming the air, raising its dew point,
being cooled to the point where it can no longer hold its moisture in
and lifting the fog. However, if
vapor form, so some condenses into water droplets. The fourth type overcast conditions come in at dawn,
is caused by air that remains at the same temperature but picks up the land takes longer to heat up and
more water until it reaches saturation point, when some of the water the fog may persist.

condenses. It is helpful to know the types and causes of fog in order Advection fog
to predict its duration and extent. Also called sea fog, advection fog is
the type that is normally found at
sea. It is caused by warm, moist air
Radiation fog Radiation fog will only form when blowing over cooler water. It is most
Often called land fog, radiation fog land cools rapidly under a warm, common during winter and spring,
forms over land at night in clear moist airstream that will probably but may also occur in summer.
conditions. During the night, the land have come off the sea. This type Localized areas of sea turbulence
cools rapidly by radiating its heat of fog requires low wind speeds; that bring cold water to the surface
upward. Since there are no clouds to otherwise, vertical mixing warms the may also produce advection fog.
trap the heat, the air in contact with air at the surface. It commonly forms A warm, moist airstream moving
the land cools. When the temperature under high-pressure systems that from temperate to polar latitudes will
at Earth’s surface falls below the dew bring settled weather and clear skies. form large banks of sea fog along a
point of the adjacent air, it becomes Radiation fog forms first as mist wide front as it is gradually cooled by
saturated and water vapor condenses in low valleys, gradually thickening moving over cold water. An example
to produce fog. and deepening as more air is cooled. is the Grand Banks of Newfoundland,

Warmth is radiated Cool air sinks, forming fog in Warm, moist air flows Water in
into the atmosphere valleys and lowland areas over cool water the air
condenses
into fog

radiation fog advection fog

Radiation fog is formed at night during clear conditions, when When warm, moisture-laden air passes over cold water, it cools
rapidly cooling land cools the air above and makes water vapor down to its dew point, the water vapor in the air condenses,
condense into droplets. The fog forms first as mist in low valleys, and advection fog forms. Also known as sea fog, advection fog
and spreads and thickens as the air continues to cool. can be persistent, requiring a dry wind to disperse it.
 FOG
381
where a warm airstream that has
picked up moisture from the warm
Gulf Stream meets the cold waters
fog forming
of the Labrador Current. A bank of advection fog forms where a
Advection fog poses the greatest warm and moist airstream flows over
potential hazard to sailors. It can cold water. As the air cools, the moisture
be very thick and persistent, even it contains is condensed to form fog.
when there is a strong wind. Sea
fog will disperse only when a change
of wind brings drier air. In this
situation, it is very important to
determine the boat’s position as
accurately as possible.

Frontal fog
As its name implies, frontal fog
occurs along the warm front of
a depression. Warm air rises over
cold air (p.370) and then cools
rapidly to below its dew point to
form a long, narrow strip of fog Sea smoke point rises and the fog next to the
along the front. Frontal fog is often Sea smoke is usually found in arctic sea disperses. The warmer air then
seen as low cloud, which can fall and polar regions. Unlike other rises to be cooled again by the air
to sea level. It can also develop as forms of fog—which form when higher up, so the fog reappears.
high-level fog above otherwise clear warm, moist air cools—sea smoke This type of fog produces an effect
conditions, obscuring high land occurs when cold air absorbs that resembles the appearance of
and headlands from view. Frontal moisture as it passes over a warmer smoke, as it quickly forms, disperses,
fog is not particularly persistent, sea. The excess moisture cannot and reforms. Sea smoke is not a
but it can cause problems with be absorbed by the cold air, so it particularly serious problem for
pilotage (pp.338–341) if the immediately condenses into fog. At sailors. It lasts only a short time,
navigator wants to use landmarks the same time, however, the air is until the air is warmed by the sea
such as transits or lighthouses. being warmed by the sea, so its dew sufficiently to eliminate the effect.

Warm air rises Fog obscures Cold air flows Additional moisture
over cooler air headland over warm water is condensed as fog

frontal fog sea smoke

Frontal fog develops when warm, moist air at the front of a Cold air flowing over a warmer sea absorbs and immediately
depression rises over colder air. This causes the temperature condenses any water evaporating off the sea, forming fog. The
of the warm air to fall below its dew point. Frontal fog causes water warms the air, raising the dew point and dispersing
most problems for sailors when it obscures landmarks. the fog. Higher up, the air cools again and the fog reforms.
 WEATHER
382

FORECASTING
In addition to this basic information,
many sites provide detailed weather
charts and satellite imagery showing
forecast frontal system movement
Weather forecasting is a very complex subject. Although you over a large area. Studying these
can learn how to make general assessments of conditions and charts enables a sailor to make
informed judgments on conditions
reasonably good predictions of what to expect in the near future, likely to be experienced during a
you will also need to take advantage of any suitable published passage. Some Internet sites also
forecasts that are available to you before you sail or while on provide a more detailed analysis
of publicly available data.
passage. You can then compare these forecasts with your own
In addition to synoptic charts
observations to produce an overall picture that you can use showing barometric pressure and
when planning a sailing trip or during an offshore passage. position of frontal systems (wind speed
and direction can also be interpreted
from these charts), many weather sites
Weather information sites for weather information, but provide infrared satellite images from
The modern mariner is spoiled it is not necessary, as with a little which cloud cover can be observed
in terms of the availability of effort you will be able to find free and position of fronts confirmed.
weather data. Only a few years information. Typically, weather Other charts may be available showing
ago, the primary source of weather sites on the net provide a summary wind speed and direction over the area
information was via radio broadcasts of frontal systems, a breakdown of in which you are interested.
based on data usually supplied expected weather conditions covering Most Internet sites provide
by national meteorological system movement, wind speed and weather charts for short-range (1- to
organizations. Using these broadcasts, direction, visibility, precipitation, 3-day) and long-range (4- to 7-day)
mariners would construct weather and pressure tendency. forecast periods, but the latter have
maps on which a forecast could be
based. Today, weather information
based on advanced computer models
and satellite information is available
from a range of providers and via
every form of media, giving mariners
a level of detail that would previously
have been thought impossible.

Internet
The Internet provides an enormous
range and depth of weather
information for the mariner—in
fact, part of the skill in using it is
finding the information you need.
It is possible to subscribe to special

synoptic chart
Synoptic charts can be downloaded from
the Internet and show information such as
the movement of fronts, pressure systems,
and wind strengths and directions.
 383
a greater degree of uncertainty. Some NBDP). The system mainly operates
sites also provide upper atmosphere in the Medium Frequency radio band
(500 mb/500 hPa) charts that enable just above and below the old 500 kHz
the skilled user to evaluate how the Morse Distress frequency. System
upper atmosphere may influence range is generally 300 nautical miles
the behavior of frontal systems and or so from the transmitter. Major
hence the weather that is experienced areas of Navtex coverage include
at sea or on land. the Mediterranean Sea, the North Sea,
navtex receiver
Although interpreting weather and coastal areas around Japan and
A Navtex receiver can be programmed
charts may sound complicated, if the North American continent. to display just the information and areas
you practice by studying the forecast A Navtex receiver is normally you require. Some, as here, have built-in
weather charts for your location over, a compact unit, with an integrated printers and others use only an LCD
say, a 48- or 72-hour period, then printer, display, and keyboard, screen to display incoming information
compare your expectation with the although some units have a larger that is stored in memory until required.
weather you actually observe, you LCD display rather than a printer.
will quickly hone your skills. The user selects the areas for which
For the vast majority of mariners, they wish to receive information for download via wireless means
the Internet is only accessible close and programs in the types of such as through an HF receiver
to shore, at best, and therefore will information they want to receive. or satellite phone system.
form the backbone of predeparture Once set up, the unit can then The largest producer of GRIB
weather information. Once underway, be left unattended, as messages will be weather is the National Oceanic and
mariners must rely on other sources received automatically and printed Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
of weather information unless they on the integrated printer or stored in although other organizations also
have a satellite Internet connection. memory for later display on screen. generate GRIB files. NOAA GRIB files
Navtex broadcasts can also are best suited for marine forecasts,
Weatherfax be received on a PC with suitable but you should be aware that human
This service provides mariners software installed and connected forecasters do not review the data
with access to a range of weather to a radio capable of receiving the before it is published and therefore
information, including gale Navtex frequencies. The software some knowledge and awareness is
warnings, surface analysis, ocean solution for Weatherfax is often also required by the end user. Also, NOAA
frontal positions, forecasts up to able to receive Navtex information, uses several models to generate GRIB
96 hours from time of issue, as providing an attractive proposition files with different strengths and
well as charts of quality similar where budgets are tight. weaknesses. It is best to familiarize
to the ones available on the Internet. yourself with the GRIB files from each
This information can be received GRIB files model for the area you travel in and
while on passage, either via a Gridded Binary (GRIB) data files are compare these forecasts with other
dedicated receiver or by Weatherfax output files generated by computer reliable weather sources before
software installed on a PC linked to a weather forecasting models. They depending on them.
suitable radio receiver. Most marine provide information on wind speed GRIB forecasts can be extremely
electronics retailers should be able to and direction, ocean currents, sea accurate and, in remote parts of the
advise on a suitable solution to meet state, and sea surface temperature. world, possibly the only source of
your needs and budget. GRIB files have the big weather forecasting. You will require
advantage that they are much more a software application to view GRIB
Navtex compact than regular weather files, but many software chart-plotting
The Navtex system is used for the charts that are transmitted for programs have the ability to read
automatic broadcast of localized Weatherfax (about 10Kb in size GRIB files and use them in their
Maritime Safety Information (MSI) for large regions and about 4Kb routing facility. Some providers of
using Radio Telex (also known as for the Caribbean). Because of their navigation software make daily GRIB
Narrow Band Direct Printing, or small size, they are very well suited files available from their Internet sites.
 WEATHER
384
Radio forecasts are still only forecasts, and there
Weather information via radio is no substitute for the direct
broadcasts is available to all sailors observation and recording of
via a standard ship’s radio. Most weather information at sea to
countries with a coastline broadcast enable the sailor to determine the
marine or shipping forecasts, usually most likely short-term weather
with forecasts split into sea areas. in the locality and to evaluate the electronic barometer
Typically, these forecasts include gale accuracy of the forecast information An electronic barometer displays pressure
warnings, general synopsis of weather available. There are several key and changes over time on a graphical
systems and any expected change over characteristics of the weather display that can also show temperature,
the next 24 hours, forecast of wind that can be directly observed at humidity, time, and other information.
strength and direction, and weather sea and used by the sailor to give a
and visibility for the next 24 hours. valuable insight into forthcoming
Some countries also broadcast weather events. is less important than the direction
reports of actual weather from of change and, especially, its rate of
a series of reporting stations Barometric pressure change—rising or falling pressure and
around the coast. This usually The most useful forecasting tool the speed of change is an indicator
includes information on observed aboard a small yacht is a good- of imminent weather changes.
wind direction and force, present quality barometer. Traditionally, You must take into account the
weather, visibility, and sea level this would have been an aneroid “diurnal variation” in pressure, which
pressure tendency. This information barometer, which is a mechanical is the natural rise and fall in pressure
is invaluable, as it allows you, device with metal bellows that move around the mean barometric pressure
together with the forecast according to changes in atmospheric over a 24-hour period, and allow for
information, to create your own pressure. A variation, the barograph, it when observing changes over time.
weather chart from which a records the pressures on a paper In weather forecasts, the rate of
reasonable short-term forecast can chart on a revolving drum. change is given over a three-hour
be derived. Details of the timing The aneroid barometer and period, providing an indication of
and frequency of radio broadcasts barograph have now largely been the trend in terms of direction and
can be found in most almanacs or superseded for use aboard yachts rate of change.
in an official List of Radios Signals. by electronic barometers, most of If barometric pressure falls or
It is very worthwhile to learn the which have the ability to record rises by, say, 4 to 5 millibars over
terminology and abbreviations used hourly readings for 24 hours, and three hours, then you could expect
in these broadcasts so that you are show change to one decimal place wind speeds of between 17 knots
able to note them down. With this or more. As they have no moving to 27 knots; a change of 6 millibars
information, you can then draw parts or metal bellows, they are or more over three hours is a strong
your own weather chart. By much less susceptible to corrosion indication that gale-force winds
comparing your charts with from dampness on board. are imminent.
professional forecast weather charts However, with either type, it
and your observations of actual is very important to calibrate your Wind speed and direction
weather, you will soon develop your barometer by checking its readings Observing changes in wind speed
skills and the confidence to use them. against those from a reliable external and direction while you are afloat is
source, such as the nearest coast key to determining likely changes in
Weather observation guard station or harbormaster’s office. weather conditions in the short term.
All of the sources of weather When underway, pressure Onboard a sailing boat, the wind
information are invaluable in readings should be recorded in speed is usually recorded using an
terms of providing sailors with the ship’s log every hour and the anemometer that is fixed to the top
detailed forecast information skipper or watch leader should of the mast and linked to an output
derived largely from advanced keep a close eye on the rate of display (p.332), which provides
computer models. However, these change. The actual pressure reading details of the apparent wind speed
 FORECASTING
385
and direction. If these units are speed in knots. The descriptions tropical latitudes, you should monitor
connected to an electronic log so are just as useful now as they were the barometer and expect to see
that they receive boat speed, they can originally, allowing an observer to gradual diurnal changes. However,
also show the true wind direction. judge wind speed on land or at sea if the pressure starts to drop
If you use a handheld anemometer, without the use of instruments. significantly, while high altitude cloud
the wind-speed readings should be increases and a building ocean swell
taken from the windward side of Sea surface temperature appears, expect an approaching
the vessel, and the wind direction Taking observations of sea surface storm with the center in the direction
measured using a hand bearing temperature is of greater use to from which the swell is coming.
compass. Remember, too, that sailors in tropical regions, as it gives When in temperate latitudes,
handheld instruments only provide an indication of the likely degree of approaching depressions are signaled
apparent wind direction and strength, convection activity in relation to the by falling barometric pressure and a
so you must record boat speed and development of tropical depressions. wind direction that backs, initially,
heading to calculate the true wind In temperate latitudes, sea surface under building high cloud.
speed and direction. This information temperature also gives an indication Wherever you are in the world,
should be recorded in the ship’s log of the likely risk of fog. Most modern you can use clouds to forecast
book every hour along with the electronic logs are made with a weather. High clouds are associated
barometric pressure. temperature sensor built into the with weather systems up to six hours
Before the introduction of transducer. This allows the user to away. If they are wispy and white,
measuring instruments, wind strengths note sea temperature. fine weather is imminent. Clouds that
were expressed on the Beaufort scale In temperate latitudes, measuring are lifting and dispersing also indicate
(pp.386–387). This was devised by sea surface temperature is more that good weather is approaching.
Admiral Francis Beaufort in 1805 to useful when it is used in conjunction Lower-level clouds relate to current
describe the effects of wind. At first, with readings from a psychrometer. weather. If they are dark, heavy,
the Beaufort scale related the wind A traditional psychrometer has a and lowering, poor conditions and
strength to the amount of sail a tall dry bulb thermometer for measuring rainfall are likely to be on their way.
ship could carry. This was later temperature and a wet bulb Another way of forecasting rain
modified to include the effects of thermometer for measuring humidity. is to observe whether there is a halo
wind observed on land and at sea. It is used in conjunction with tables around the sun or moon. This haze
The Beaufort scale is still used to that enable you to predict the dew is caused by the refraction of light by
define wind strengths at sea, and the point temperature of the air. By ice crystals carried in moisture-laden
Beaufort forces are now defined as comparing dew point information clouds from which rain may fall.
and the sea temperature, you can
make a much more accurate
assessment of fog risk (pp.380–381).
handheld Modern versions utilize electronic psychrometer
anemometer sensors for measurement, then A psychrometer is
Wind speed can calculate and display the results used to measure
be obtained using on a screen. temperature and
a handheld unit, humidity to calculate
which is handy for Using observation the dew point and
small-boat sailing, If you are unable to receive useful predict fog. Small
as the unit is small handheld units are
forecasts at sea, you will be reliant
and light and available that use
on your own observations to monitor
can be kept in electronic sensors and
a pocket. Cruisers the weather. Once you become used have an easy-to-read
often have a to the normal weather for the area in LCD screen. Some
fixed instrument which you normally sail, you will be electronic barographs
giving speed able to predict the speed and severity also display humidity
and direction. of approaching fronts. If you are in and temperature.
 WEATHER
386

BEAUFORT SCALE
force mean speed description ashore dinghy sailing

Less than Calm Smoke rises vertically and Drifting conditions. Heel the boat to assist
0 1 knot flags hang limp. sail efficiency. Make gentle movements.

1–3 knots Light air Smoke drifts slightly, Gentle forward movement. Flatten sails
1 indicating wind direction. and balance boat bow down and heeled.

4–6 knots Light breeze Light flags and wind vanes Steady speed is possible. Sail upright with
2 move slightly. full sails for maximum power.

7–10 knots Gentle breeze Light flags extend outward. Hull speed possible. High-performance
3 dinghies may plane. Ideal for learners.

11–16 knots Moderate Paper lifted off the ground. Planing on most points of sailing. Crew fully
4 breeze Small branches move. extended. Beginners should head for shore.

17–21 knots Fresh breeze Small trees sway visibly and Ideal conditions for experienced crews;
5 tops of trees move. otherwise, capsizes are common.

22–27 knots Strong breeze Large trees sway and wind A dinghy sailor’s gale. Only experienced crews
6 whistles in power lines. with good safety cover should race.

28–33 knots Near gale Whole trees are in motion. Most dinghies remain on the shore. If they are
It is difficult to walk against taken afloat, they are likely to be overpowered
7 the wind. and damaged.

34–40 knots Gale Twigs are broken off trees. Dinghy sailing not possible. Dinghies should
Progress on foot very be securely tied down ashore.
8 much impeded.

41–47 knots Severe gale Chimney pots and Dinghy sailing not possible.
slates blown off roofs.
9 Fences blown down.

10 48+ knots Storm to Trees uprooted and Dinghy sailing not possible.
hurricane considerable structural
to damage likely. Extremely
12 rare inland.
 BEAUFORT SCALE
387

cruiser sailing wave height sea state in open water

Becalmed. Use engine. 0 ft (0 m) Mirrorlike water.

Very slow sailing upwind. Downwind Less than Ripples form on the water.
spinnaker hard to keep filled. 3 in (0.1 m)

Slow sailing upwind with little heel. Up to 1 ft (0.3 m) Small wavelets with smooth crests.
Spinnaker fills downwind.

Pleasant sailing. Spinnaker fills and Up to 3 ft (0.9 m) Large wavelets with crests starting to break.
sets well downwind.

Hull speed achieved by most yachts. Up to 5 ft (1.5 m) Small waves and frequent whitecaps.
Some small cruisers start to reef.

Medium-sized cruisers start to reef. Up to 8 ft (2.5 m) Moderate waves and many whitecaps.
Crew wear and clip on safety harnesses.

Most cruisers reefed. Wear and clip on Up to 12 ft (4 m) Large waves, white foamy crests. Spray likely.
harness. Seek shelter if inexperienced.

Seek shelter or sail away from land to Up to 20 ft (6 m) The sea heaps up and waves break.
ride out any forecast storms. Family Much spray.
crews may have problems coping.
Most cruisers deep-reefed.

Use a deep-reefed mainsail and small Up to 25 ft (8 m) Moderately high waves of greater length
headsail. Close and secure hatches and that frequently break.
companionways against water. Only
essential crew should be on deck.

Danger of knockdown. Some crews Up to 30 ft (10 m) High waves with breaking crests and
may continue to sail; others heave-to flying spray.
or run before. Depending on the sea
state, a trysail could be set.

Stay well away from coastlines. Survival 30–52 ft (10–16 m) Very high waves. Sea becoming heaped
conditions. Danger of 90º knockdowns up and white. Visibility affected.
and full capsizes.
PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
The level of maintenance a boat requires depends on its age, size, type, and
complexity and the amount of care an owner wishes to lavish on their pride and
joy. Whereas the owner of a general-purpose dinghy need only give their boat an
occasional wash and check over, the owner of a cruiser should be able to service
and maintain a variety of onboard systems.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
390

THE HULL
quickly to stop water from penetrating
the laminate. This is not usually a
difficult job, but it can be tricky to
match the color and blend the repair
The amount and type of maintenance that a hull requires with the existing gel coat, especially if
depends on the material used in its construction. Glass-reinforced the color of the gel coat has faded
over time, which is most likely
plastic (GRP) combines strength with relatively low maintenance. with a dark color.
It is also ideal for high-volume production and is used for almost Routine maintenance is simply a
all production-built boats. Wood in the form of plywood, veneers, matter of cleaning and polishing the
gel coat to restore the shine. Polishing
or strip planking combined with epoxy resins makes strong, light,
with abrasive cleaners gradually
molded hulls that are aesthetically pleasing, but traditionally built reduces the thickness of the gel coat,
wooden hulls require considerable maintenance. Steel or aluminum which will also age from exposure
hulls are very strong and resilient but are far less common than GRP. to ultraviolet light. Eventually, the
time will come when a coat of paint
is needed for cosmetic purposes,
If they are well cared for, boats GRP hulls although there are plenty of
have the potential for a very long Production-built GRP boats are 30-year-old yachts still looking good
life—perhaps more akin to a finished with a smooth gel coat that with their original gel coat finish.
building than to a car. Like either, protects the underlying laminate and GRP is inherently a long-lasting
they need regular maintenance produces a shiny surface. The gel coat material—there are boats that were
and, like a house, occasional is quite easily damaged by impact or made of it in the 1950s and 1960s
refurbishment or modernization abrasion, and repairs must be made that are still giving good service
during their life-span. today. The biggest, potentially serious
problem that a GRP boat may
General maintenance succumb to is osmosis—water ingress
Always check underwater surfaces leading to gel-coat blistering and, if left
every time you dry out or lift the unchecked, the eventual weakening
boat ashore, and repair any damage of the whole structure. Most modern
immediately. Check the topsides boats are now molded with isopthalic
regularly and repair even minor resins, which are resistant to osmosis,
damage as soon as possible, especially so the problem is mainly restricted to
with steel and wooden boats. All older vessels. One cause of osmosis
boats that are kept afloat should be is flaws in the molding, so once
given one or two coats of antifouling a boat reaches a certain age—over
paint at least once a year to combat 10 years or so—the likelihood of
underwater fouling from weed and its occurring is reduced, as is the
barnacles. Check with other boat speed at which it spreads.
owners to see what is recommended Minor patches of osmosis,
in the area in which you plan to sail, or isolated blisters, can be treated
because there may be a special individually by grinding out the
formulation that is designed to be
most effective against the weed and
other sources of fouling in your antifouling paint
sailing area. Applying antifouling paint is one of the
Most hull materials benefit least popular maintenance chores, but it
from being brought ashore during is essential to prevent underwater fouling,
the winter and allowed to dry out. which will slow the boat considerably.
 THE HULL
391

old grp hull expose the gel coat peel the gel coat
If the underwater areas have blisters on the Scrape off a patch of antifouling to reveal If osmosis is diagnosed, a good solution is
surface, it may be a sign of osmosis, or it the gel coat (here, a clear type) to check to remove the gel coat using a handheld
could be confined to the antifouling layer. if the blisters are in the laminate. peeling machine to dry out the laminate.

affected area, drying the laminate down, allowing moisture and air For low maintenance, it makes sense
thoroughly, and rebuilding with to attack the steel. This may require to leave an aluminum hull bare, as its
epoxy resin. Many boat owners sandblasting to remove the old paint surface will form an oxidized layer
have found that after doing this, and surface rust. Modern paints make that turns matte gray. If painted, the
they experience few, if any, further it much easier to obtain a lasting surface must be carefully prepared
blisters. However, if osmosis is finish on steel, but it is vital that the according to the paint supplier’s
extensive, the gel coat must be surface is thoroughly prepared and instructions and a hard, two-pack
peeled off the entire underwater area that the paint supplier’s instructions polyurethane should be used.
of the hull, which must be allowed to are closely followed. Two-pack
dry fully (often with infrared lamps). polyurethane paints are much Ferro-cement hulls
The hull is then filled and faired harder and longer-lasting A number of yachts were built,
(smoothed) before applying several than the single-pack types but mostly in the 1970s and 1980s,
coats of epoxy resin as a waterproof require more work if small areas using concrete plastered over a
barrier to replace the original gel coat. need to be touched up. They are not, steel and wire mesh frame. Many
This work is costly, but a five-year however, suitable for traditionally were home-built, with the standard
warranty is usually included. constructed wooden hulls, which of construction varying considerably,
need the greater flexibility of single- although a few were professionally
Steel and wooden hulls pack types. A quality two-pack built to a high standard. Problems
Both steel and wooden hulls are polyurethane paint that is applied with ferro-cement hulls, such as
protected by a paint layer. Minor properly should last about five years, rusting of the steel framework, can
collisions usually result in nothing with an annual polish; a single-pack be difficult to detect, so they are an
more than damage to the paint. polyurethane may need renewing unpopular secondhand buy. For this
This is easily rectified, but the repair every year or two. reason, they can be very cheap, but
should be done as quickly as possible, such a boat may not be the bargain
before water penetrates the wood or Aluminum hulls it appears. If you are tempted by
surrounding paint system. If a steel Aluminum is strong and lighter than a ferro-cement boat, a thorough
hull weeps rust, this is an indication steel, and hulls made of this material survey by a specialist in the
that the paint system has broken need paint only for cosmetic reasons. material is absolutely essential.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
392
Repairing minor damage Fill deep scratches with an epoxy logs and depth sounders should be
If you sail a GRP boat, always carry filler before painting. Hard, two-pack checked for damage each time the
some epoxy filler and polyester gel paints can be polished like gel coat. boat is hauled ashore or dried out. If
coat of the appropriate color aboard Minor dents to aluminum and steel you are planning to build a new boat,
to repair minor chips and grazes. hulls can also be filled and painted, minimize the number of through-hull
Clean out the damaged area, degrease but more serious damage will fittings by using standpipes to which
it, and dry it thoroughly. If the probably require expert skills. all inlets and outlets are connected.
damage is quite deep, fill with epoxy
filler to just below the surface, allow Through-hull fittings Keel construction
it to cure, then apply gel coat, leaving Many modern yachts have a large The construction of the keel varies
the surface slightly raised. For shallow number of through-hull fittings for depending on the design of the boat.
grazes, use only gel coat, which should engine-cooling water, toilet intake Many older GRP production cruisers
be mixed with 1–2 percent wax to and discharge, galley and shower have their keels encased in the GRP
ensure that it hardens fully when in sump pumps, and so on. All of these molding, using lead or iron in the
contact with air. Otherwise, cover the holes in the hull are potential causes keel cavity to provide the necessary
repair with plastic film taped in place of water intake, so the fittings must weight. Other craft have a fin or
and wait for the gel coat to cure. be checked regularly. bilge keels, made of iron or lead,
Once hard, it can be rubbed back Damage to metal through-hull bolted onto the hull structure, and
using fine wet-and-dry paper and a fittings is often caused by a process their fastenings occasionally need
rubbing paste to finish the job and called galvanic corrosion (opposite). to be checked for corrosion.
polish the surface. More serious Check metal through-hull fittings by If your cruiser has an external
damage can be repaired by a skilled withdrawing a fastener. Consider keel that is bolted onto the hull,
owner using a glass cloth or mat, removing and checking the entire withdraw one or two bolts every few
but it is usually better to employ fitting if there is any sign of corrosion years to check for corrosion. If leaks
professional help. on the fastener. Grease all seacocks at occur at the junction of keel and hull,
If your boat has a painted hull, least once a season, and open and close the keel should be removed and
carry some topside paint on board them regularly to ensure that they rebedded on new sealant. A skilled
to touch up minor damage before do not seize. Similarly, the plastic amateur with the right tools can do
water can penetrate the paint system. transducers for speed and distance this job; otherwise, get expert help.

REPAIRING GEL COAT DAMAGE

Gel coat repairs are within the abilities of a reasonably practical boat owner.
Clean and degrease the surface and allow to dry thoroughly before starting the
repair, and make sure the temperature is moderately warm to help the new gel
coat mix to cure fairly quickly.

1 Mix the gel coat and hardener in 2 Use a piece of acetate 3 Peel back the acetate to 4 When the repair has
a suitable container and apply to the film to keep air off the gel test the hardness of the new cured, remove the film, and
scratches using a disposable wooden coat while it cures. Cut the gel coat with a fingernail. If wet sand the repair with
spatula. Use disposable gloves to protect film oversize, smooth over not yet cured, recover with fine wet-and-dry paper.
your hands. Do not expect to achieve a the repair to eliminate air, the acetate and leave until it Finish off with a rubbing
smooth surface at this stage. and fix with masking tape. has hardened. paste to polish the surface.
 THE HULL
393
If your boat has an encapsulated
keel, check that any grounding PREVENTING GALVANIC CORROSION
damage has not worn away the Galvanic corrosion occurs because different metals, when in close
gel coat (or even the GRP laminate) proximity and immersed in seawater, tend to form an electric cell.
at the bottom of the keel. Check A current flows, and one of the two metals is eaten away. Metals
also that there is no way in which are ranked by their position in the galvanic series.
water could penetrate the GRP
and reach the ballast. Sacrificial anodes Galvanic series
The higher in the galvanic series
a metal is (right), the more prone CORRODED END
Rudder and bearings (ANODIC—LEAST NOBLE)
it is to galvanic corrosion; and the
Rudder bearings should be checked farther apart two metals are in the
annually. This is done by grasping the series, the faster the rate of corrosion.
bottom of the rudder and trying to Protection against galvanic corrosion
move it fore and aft and from side is doubly important for metal hulls
to side. Movement indicates that there and for traditionally constructed Magnesium
is wear in the bearings. Worn bearings wooden boats, as the boat itself (or Zinc
the fastenings in a wooden boat) may Galvanized steel
should be replaced as soon as possible.
be slowly corroded by galvanic action. Aluminum alloys
A transom hung rudder is easier Many boats have fittings made Cadmium
to check than one situated under the of several different metals on the Mild steel
boat and its fittings are accessible for underwater part of the hull—a bronze Wrought iron
inspection. They are usually hung propeller on a stainless-steel shaft, for Cast iron
using variations on the dinghy system instance. To protect these from galvanic 304 Stainless steel (active)
of pintles and gudgeons (p.86), which corrosion, you should fit one or more
316 Stainless steel (active)
sacrificial anodes. These are made from
are bolted through the transom. There Aluminum bronze
zinc or aluminum, which are attacked
should be a strong backing pad and before any of the other metals used in
Naval brass
the fastenings should be checked Yellow brass
boat building, and will therefore protect
regularly, as they take high loads. Red brass
them from corrosion. Anodes must not
Rudders on GRP boats are be painted and should be replaced when Tin
half their bulk has been eaten away. Copper
usually molded GRP with a foam
Admiralty brass
core. These can absorb water if they
Aluminum brass
sustain damage, and the foam core Manganese bronze
can become sodden. Check yours Strap for bolting
Silicon bronze
anode to the hull
carefully for signs of delamination Bronze G
or for water leaking out of the Bronze M
seam that joins the two halves. 401 Stainless steel
Pear-shaped Lead
Propeller, shaft, and bearings anode for fitting
to hull with
Nickel 200
Check the propeller-shaft bearings by 304 Stainless steel
minimum
vigorously pushing the propeller from resistance to (passive)
water flow 316 Stainless steel
side to side. If there is any significant
(passive)
movement, the bearings or the shaft
Titanium
may need to be replaced. Check the sacrificial anode Platinum
propeller itself for any corrosion or These are fittings
impact damage. If a propeller blade is made of zinc or
damaged, replace or repair it as soon aluminum. They are
fastened near skin fittings,
as possible. An unbalanced propeller the rudder, and the propeller
can cause increased vibration, which shaft to protect these important PROTECTED END
may lead to premature failure of the fittings from corrosion. (CATHODIC—MOST NOBLE)
shaft bearings.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
394

THE DECK
yachts. Steel decks must be protected
with a good paint system, preferably
with epoxy base layers. A nonslip
finish is provided with a top coat
In most cases, the deck of a yacht is made of the same material as of gritted paint, nonslip sheeting
the hull, although a few have a wooden deck with, for instance, a applied in the working areas with
glue, or a laid teak deck.
GRP or steel hull. On larger or more expensive yachts, a GRP or metal
deck may be overlaid with teak for its appearance and good nonslip Aluminum decks
properties. All equipment attached to the decks should be securely Although they do not need covering
for protection against corrosion,
fastened with through-bolts and should have substantial backing
aluminum decks are rarely left bare,
plates underneath the decks to spread the load through the structure. as some kind of nonslip coating is
needed for the safety of the crew.
Most boats have paint or nonslip
GRP decks structure. More major repairs, sheeting, as with steel boats, although
On all but the very smallest cruisers, therefore, may require the removal a laid teak deck is popular.
most decks are made of sandwich of a section of the core and drying One advantage of aluminum decks
construction with two layers of GRP of the whole area before replacing is that many fittings can be welded
separated by a core material, usually the core material and then making to the deck or fastened with machine
closed-cell foam or end-grain balsa good the GRP skin, first with screws in blind tapped holes so that
wood. This creates a rigid but light fiberglass cloth, then with gel coat. there are no through-deck holes,
structure. GRP decks require little Where new deck fittings are bolted thus removing a major cause of leaks
maintenance, apart from the occasional through a sandwich deck, a section in other deck materials.
clean and polish of the “shiny” areas; of the core material must be replaced
do not polish the nonslip areas. with stronger material so that the Wooden decks
Surface damage—often consisting compression created when the nuts It’s vitally important to keep the paint
of star-crazing around highly stressed are tightened does not crush the core or epoxy system of wooden decks in
areas such as stanchion bases—is and weaken the deck. This is usually good condition, as ingress of fresh
repaired in the same way as for a GRP done from underneath to preserve (rain) water will result in rot or
hull (p.392). However, if the deck has the appearance of the deck. The area delamination setting in more quickly
a nonslip pattern molded into the gel removed can be replaced with marine than if salt water—which is a mild
coat, it will require professional help plywood, and the exposed edges of the preservative—gets into the timbers.
to reproduce the pattern. core material sealed with epoxy filler. Traditionally planked decks
Deeper damage may let water need to have a flexible paint coating
into the foam or balsa core. If this is Steel decks (unless they are teak, in which case
allowed to happen, the core may start Steel decks are strong but heavy and they can be oiled or left bare) to
to delaminate from the GRP skins add weight high up in the vessel, accommodate movement in the
and slowly reduce the strength of the so they are mostly found on larger timbers. The caulking between

sandwich decks
Core replaced Foam or All deck fittings should be through-bolted
Top GRP skin with wood pad honeycomb core with a substantial backing pad. In sandwich
construction decks, the core must be
reinforced or replaced to prevent it being
crushed when the bolts are tightened.
Sometimes, the lower skin and core are
removed, the core is replaced with a
plywood pad, and the lower skin replaced.
 THE DECK
395
planks should be maintained in good
condition to prevent fresh water from CARING FOR WOOD
leaking through the decks and rotting Woodwork requires a good
the timber. In hot climates, planked deal of care, especially if it is
decks will dry out and shrink under above deck, where it is exposed
the heat of the sun. Thoroughly to the elements. The best way
wetting the decks with seawater to reduce your workload is to get
early morning and late evening rid of all woodwork on deck,
will slow this effect and reduce the but for many sailors, its aesthetic
amount of damage sustained. attraction justifies the long hours
Plywood decks are best coated of maintenance it needs.
with a hard two-pack polyurethane
paint system, which should be Varnishing wood
maintained in good, watertight
deck hatches Varnishing is necessary at least
Some modern cruisers have several deck annually in temperate climes and
condition. Any damage should be
hatches. All must be well fitted and the as often as every few weeks in the
made good as quickly as possible, seals should be checked periodically. tropics. Single-pack polyurethane
bearing in mind the need to dry varnishes are appropriate for
the wood before painting so that traditional wooden construction,
moisture is not sealed in. appearance. Windows and hatches but a harder, two-pack varnish is
are a potential source of deck leaks better on stable, molded wood
Laid teak decks and should be checked periodically surfaces or plywood.
To get an excellent finish, the
Teak decks have the image of luxury to ensure they are watertight. Also
wood must be dry and sanded to a
and are often fitted over GRP or metal check the condition of hinges and very smooth finish with progressively
decks for cosmetic reasons. Teak was catches, as well as the rubber sealing finer grades of sandpaper. At least
originally used for traditionally laid gasket of opening ports. 10 coats of varnish must be applied,
decks because it is stable and long- starting with one or two thinned
lasting and can be left bare or oiled. Sealing deck fittings coats. The surface must be sanded
A modern teak deck, on the other All deck fittings are potential sources with very fine sand- or emery paper
between each coat for maximum
hand, is usually installed only for of leaks, which may let water into the
adhesion and gloss. Only apply
its appearance. However, it adds balsa or foam core of a GRP deck varnish in warm, dry, and calm
significant weight, creates the risk of or into the timbers of a wooden weather conditions.
leaks if fasteners are used, is expensive, deck. The weak point is often where
and gets hot underfoot in tropical the gear is attached to the deck. Coating wood
conditions. Furthermore, since thin Aluminum and steel craft can have An alternative to varnish is to use a
wood oil or polymer coating, which
strips of teak are used when being laid much of their gear welded directly to
can seal the wood very effectively
on a subdeck, the teak can wear out the deck; on other types of boat, it is and give an acceptable finish while
pretty quickly in high-traffic areas. through-bolted and bedded down requiring little maintenance.
on a marine adhesive sealant to
Windows and hatches eliminate leaks. Over time, fittings
Most boat windows and hatches may loosen and sealant will harden
are made of polycarbonate, which and crack. Check deck fittings for
slowly degrades and crazes in UV movement and tighten fastenings if
light, so they may need replacing necessary. At the first sign of any deck
every 10–15 years. The strongest leaks, remove the fitting and rebed it
windows are the type that bolt on fresh sealant. Inspect the fitting
directly through the sides of the and its fasteners for signs of corrosion.
coachroof, although the type with If water finds its way through the deck
aluminum frames are a common and gets to the interior, it can damage BARE TEAK DECKS
alternative and have a neat fabrics and finishes.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
396

THE RIG
Whatever the size of your craft, the condition of its rig and
related fittings is critical for handling efficiency and safety. Most
of the equipment should require little in the way of maintenance,
but it must be checked regularly for wear and the appearance of inspecting the rig
small cracks that indicate stress damage. This will involve at least If the yacht is not kept ashore each winter
with its rig removed, it is essential to do
an annual trip to the masthead unless you unstep the mast when a thorough check of every component
you lay up the boat for the winter. of the rig at least once every season.

Rig components irregularities. If they begin to mounted turning blocks called

The rig comprises the mast (or rust, they can be buffed up to deck organizers. These should also
masts in a ketch, yawl, or schooner), remove the surface damage at be checked occasionally to make sure
boom, standing rigging, running the source of the corrosion. the sheaves are running smoothly and
rigging, and the sails. In addition, their fasteners are secure, as these
other hardware—including winches, Rope clutches fittings often take considerable load.
cleats, and jammers—is fitted to Clutches are commonly used to
the mast, boom, and deck to help secure halyards, reefing lines, and Wire running rigging
control or secure halyards, sheets, other control lines. They are often Halyards are often made of
and control lines. Every component mounted ahead of a winch so that wire with a rope tail, so stretch is
must be of a suitable size for the once the clutch has been engaged to eliminated in the part under load.
loads involved and must be lock the rope, it can then be removed Alternatively, low-stretch ropes, such
maintained properly. Most good- from the winch. Clutches require as Spectra and Dyneema, can be
quality marine gear will give many little maintenance—just an occasional used. They are more expensive but
years of reliable service as long as check that the springs are intact and are lighter and easier to handle. Wire
it is the correct size for the functioning properly. Lines are often halyards can be made of flexible
loads involved. led aft from the mast through deck- galvanized or stainless steel.

Stainless-steel fittings
Many fittings and fasteners are made
SERVICING A WINCH
of stainless steel, which is resistant to Winches are long-lasting items replaced; most winches that
rust because of a protective layer that but should be serviced annually stick or gum up have been too
forms on its surface in the presence to keep them working efficiently. heavily greased.
of oxygen. However, if a stainless- Remove the drum, having first
released the circlip or removed
steel fastener is sealed from the air,
the Allen screws at the top. A dust
corrosion can occur in small crevices.
sheet hung on the guardrail will
Salt water speeds up the corrosion
stop small items such as pawl
process, so if a stainless-steel fastener
springs from rolling overboard.
is sealed from air within timber that is
Remove all components, clean
allowed to become wet with salt them thoroughly in kerosene,
water, it is to be expected that the dismantling a winch
and inspect for wear. Each item Learn how your winches come apart and
fastener will corrode. High-quality should be lightly coated with service them at least once a season. A dust
marine fittings are polished after winch grease before being sheet will stop parts from falling overboard.
welding to remove surface
 THE RIG
397
Stainless wire is more common find any, replace the wire because air. Wash them off and finish the
since it is less prone to rust, but, unlike any weakness compromises the surface with a wax polish. Spars
galvanized wire, any damage can be strength of the entire rig. should be checked annually for
hard to spot and the wire may fail Occasionally wiping down corrosion around fittings (especially
suddenly and unexpectedly. Damage the rigging will also remove dirt if stainless fasteners have been used)
in wire halyards usually occurs where and salt crystals that can accelerate and for any hairline cracks. Pay
they pass over sheaves (pulley wheels) crevice corrosion, especially where special attention to the mast-step
in the mast that are too small in wire enters the end terminals. Similarly, area, spreader roots, and rigging
diameter. Watch out for broken wire check that guardwires and jackstays attachment points. Spreader ends
strands, which indicate likely failure, are in good condition with no broken should be checked to be sure they
and check the rope-to-wire splices. strands of wire and that their are smooth and will not damage
attachment to the boat is secure. genoas that sweep across them
Rope running rigging All rigging screws should when tacking, and that they have
Rope halyards, sheets, and control have toggles fitted between them not damaged the shroud passing
lines should be checked regularly for and the chainplates so that they are through them.
chafe. Most damage occurs when free to move in any direction without At the masthead, check that
a highly loaded rope rubs slightly bending. Inspect them carefully for the halyard sheaves run smoothly
against another rope, shroud, or any signs of hairline cracks, which and lubricate them with silicon
lifeline. Make sure that all sheets and indicate stress damage. Check also spray. Check also the condition of the
halyards have a fair lead and cannot the condition of split pins and clevis gooseneck fitting and the vang and
rub on anything when under load. pins, as well as the security of locking mainsheet attachment points.
If damage occurs at or near the nuts. Do not use split rings to secure Wooden masts require varnishing,
end of a rope, it can be cut off and clevis pins used on standing rigging; oiling, or painting at least annually
the rope shortened; if it occurs in the they are not as secure as split pins. and possibly even more frequently
middle, the best you can hope for is If your standing rigging is over in the tropics. Check for splits in
two much shorter ropes. Periodically 10 years old (less for a racing boat), the wood and signs of rot.
end-for-ending (reversing) a rope, replace it, even if there are no Carbon masts on large cruisers
especially sheets, can lengthen its life. obvious signs of defects. and high-performance race boats
Make sure rope ends are sealed or are usually painted with a hard two-
whipped to prevent fraying (p.226). Spars pack polyurethane and should be
Wash all your ropes in warm, Most boats today have aluminum checked and cleaned like aluminum.
soapy water from time to time to spars, although wooden masts and
remove the dirt and salt that makes booms are still used, and the use of
them stiff and accelerates wear. carbon fiber is increasing. Aluminum rope clutches
spars have anodized surfaces that A bank of clutches is often found in front
Standing rigging are eventually roughened by salt of coachroof-mounted winches to allow
Shrouds, forestays, and backstays crystals and contaminants in the one winch to handle several lines.
are usually made of stainless-steel
wire (or galvanized wire on some
older traditional craft). Solid
stainless-steel rod rigging is also
used on larger cruisers and racing
boats, and some racing boats use
high-performance, low-stretch rope
for standing rigging because it is
much lighter than wire.
Wire standing rigging needs
little maintenance other than periodic
checks for broken strands. If you
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
398

THE SAILS
of damage can be repaired temporarily
using adhesive tape and hand
stitching but should be dealt with
by a sailmaker as soon as possible.
The sails are the driving force of a sailing boat, and they are Sails should be washed thoroughly
expensive to replace, but they are often ignored in terms of regular in fresh water as often as is practical
to remove salt crystals and dirt, as
inspection and maintenance. The old cliches—“a stitch in time these abrade the cloth. Always cover
saves nine” and “prevention is better than cure”—are nowhere sails when they are not in use—long
more applicable than in sail care. Make it a habit to scan your exposure to sunlight will quickly
weaken and destroy the cloth,
sails every time you hoist, lower, and trim them to try to pick up
especially in Mediterranean and
minor damage before it develops into a major failure. Protect tropical climates. Roller reefing
your sails and they will have a long life. headsails should have a sacrificial
strip of cloth along the leech and
foot to protect the sail itself from
The stitching is where most damage doing it by hand. Small areas of ultraviolet (UV) degradation. If this
occurs, so check along seams, batten damaged stitching are easily dealt strip degrades, it can be replaced
pockets, and around high-load areas with by hand sewing using the original relatively cheaply.
such as corners and the leech. Scan needle holes. Damage to stitching is
these areas every time you hoist or usually caused by chafe, often against Stretching and flogging
lower a sail. the shrouds and spreaders. If the All sails, whether they are
When you are sailing, walk around source of the chafe cannot be moved traditionally constructed of woven
the deck to check which areas of the or the sail retrimmed to avoid it, fit Dacron or high-tech laminates of film
sails can rub on any part of the mast, self-adhesive anti-chafe patches at and low-stretch fibers, will suffer if
standing rigging, or guardrails. If the strategic points to protect the sail. allowed to flap or flog excessively, as
genoa snags on the stanchions when A small rip in the middle of a panel this causes the material to gradually
tacking, then fit small rollers to the can quickly develop into a large tear weaken and break down. For this
lifelines on each side of the stanchion in a sudden gust. Early action with a reason, sail handling operations should
to help the sail “skirt” itself over the needle and thread can prevent damage be carried out efficiently; reefing or
rail. This saves a crew member from from spreading rapidly. Larger areas changing the headsail should be done
in good time so wind does not need
to be spilled from the sail to prevent
the boat from being overpowered.
When motor-sailing to windward
for long periods, lower the mainsail
or steer a few degrees off the wind to
keep the sail full rather than flogging.
Rough handling when stowing the
sail will also cause damage. Handle
the sail as gently as possible and do

sail loads
When a boat is fully powered up and
well heeled, the loads on a sail become
very high, especially at the head, clew,
and tack, where extra reinforcement is
essential. Check the stitching regularly
in these areas.
 399
not jerk the sail to pull out creases, on a sharp part of the boat or
as this is harmful to the finish of a rigging. To protect all sails, check
Dacron sail, as well as to the integrity that all split pins and other sharp
of a laminate sail. items on the rigging and lifelines
Dacron sails will stretch with are adequately taped over. If small
use, especially if the boat is not reefed nicks or tears are found in the
sufficiently in strong winds. As a sail spinnaker, a temporary patch can
ages and the cloth weakens, this be made with spinnaker repair tape,
stretch may reach a point where the after any salt has been washed away
sail will no longer drive the boat with fresh water and the sail
efficiently to windward. Laminate allowed to dry thoroughly. A
sails have negligible stretch, even near permanent stitched repair should
the end of their useful life, but are always be made as soon as possible. ripped spinnaker
even more susceptible to damage More serious damage will need to A small rip in a spinnaker can grow
caused by flogging and rough be repaired by a sailmaker. very rapidly, especially when the sail
abruptly fills with wind after collapsing.
handling, which cause the material
The shock load can turn a small tear
to break down and delaminate. Valeting into a destroyed spinnaker in seconds.
When these sails fail, it tends Most sailmakers offer a service where
to be sudden and dramatic. they will examine a sail for damage
to the cloth or stitching, make any serious and costly damage is done to
Downwind sails minor repairs necessary, and launder the sail, and will keep the sail looking
Spinnakers, asymmetrics, and cruising the sail. An annual valet may seem good for as long as possible.
chutes are made from lightweight expensive, but it will help deal with
nylon that is easily ripped if it snags potential problems early, before more Sail damage at sea
If a sail rips when it is in use, you
must get it down as soon as possible;
PATCHING A SAIL otherwise, the damage will quickly get
You should be able to undertake minor sail repairs at sea. This worse and the sail will be destroyed.
usually involves either replacing seam stitching or patching rips If the damaged sail is a headsail,
in a sail panel. High-tech laminate sails made of low-stretch replace it with another and stow the
fibers cannot be stitched—repairs can only be made by damaged sail until you reach port. If
gluing patches to the sail.
it is the mainsail, lower it completely,
unless it is possible to reef the sail so
seWinG kiT 1 Cut a patch to that the damaged area is not exposed.
A sailmaker’s palm (p.224), needles, cover the tear. Trim If the sail cannot be used, replace
waxed thread, sailcloth, and glue or the corners, and
it with the trysail if you have one.
sticky-backed sail repair material. turn the edges under.
If you are on a long passage and if
conditions allow, take the mainsail
off the mast and boom and repair
it down below. A repair at sea need
only be good enough to allow you
to reach port. Once ashore, however,
the damage should be assessed by
a sailmaker as soon as possible
and professionally repaired. If long-
2 Glue the 3 Oversew neatly 4 Turn the sail 5 To finish the
distance cruising, especially on a
patch centrally so around the turned- over, then trim the repair, oversew
that it covers the under edges of torn area to make around the edges boat with a roller reefing headsail,
tear on all sides. the patch. a rectangle. of the rectangle. it makes sense to carry an old suit
of sails as spares.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
400

THE INTERIOR
finished with tung oil or single-pack
polyurethane varnishes. These require
annual revarnishing to stay in
good condition.
Many different materials are used in the interior of a yacht. If the quality of the wood or
These range from the wood and soft furnishings that make a existing varnish is not perfect, consider
using a matte or eggshell varnish; this
cabin into a comfortable living area, to the electrical and will hide far more flaws than a high-
mechanical gear used for operating the boat. These items are fitted gloss finish, which exaggerates defects.
into an environment that is often poorly ventilated and exposed
Varnish care
to a wide range of temperatures and humidity conditions. They need
Revarnishing is best done during the
to be looked after carefully and checked regularly or they will spring or fall, when conditions are
quickly deteriorate, especially when a boat is not used frequently. warm and dry but not too hot. Cold,
humid conditions produce a much
poorer finish. During the sailing
Wooden surfaces been fashioned by an expert season, wipe down varnished surfaces
Wood is the traditional material for shipwright. However, varnish must occasionally and touch up any small
boat interiors. It is popular because it be well applied in a sufficient number scratches when they occur to prevent
is easy to work with and looks warm of coats to produce a deep gloss. moisture from getting under the
and natural; even boats with GRP or On stable wooden surfaces, such as varnish and penetrating the wood.
metal hulls often have a considerable plywood or laminates made up with
amount of wood down below. veneers, a two-pack polyurethane Painted and GRP surfaces
It is also traditional for most varnish gives the hardest and most Although painted surfaces are
interior wood to be varnished. A durable finish, which should last for easier to maintain than varnished
varnished finish looks very attractive at least five years. Wood in older ones, they are not as common
if the wood is good-quality and has boats will probably have been aboard yachts. As with varnishes,
conventional and single-pack
polyurethane paints need more
regular repainting than two-pack
finishes and are softer and more
vulnerable to scratching. However,
they are cheaper and easier to use,
especially when you need to touch
up an area of minor damage.
Some GRP craft have a molded
interior, designed to give smooth
surfaces that are easy to clean and
do not require painting. Interior
moldings are practical in the heads
where wet oilskins are often hung
to dry, and a shower is usually fitted.

the galley
A U- or L-shape (pictured) is a practical
galley arrangement. The stove has a grab
bar in front, which is an important safety
feature. The sinks are supplied with both
pressure hot and cold water.
 THE INTERIOR
401
chart table
A navigation area with chart table
and seat is often located between the
saloon and the companionway ladder.
This location is handy for quick access to
the cockpit and for easy communication
between the navigator and the helmsman.

Deckheads and hull sides

Many deckheads and hull
sides are lined with plywood
panels covered in foam-backed
vinyl or fabric to provide extra
insulation and hide constructional
Soft furnishings content so that it does not absorb features. Because they usually need
Bunk cushions on boats are usually moisture. If bunk cushions do get wet, to be removable to allow access to
a compromise because most bunks both the foam and the cover will fasteners, wiring, or plumbing, the
have to double as seating during need to be cleaned thoroughly to panels are often held in place with
the day. Bunk cushions that are remove the salt; otherwise, the cushion small amounts of Velcro, although
comfortable to sleep on are often will never dry out completely and will self-tapping screws may be used
too soft for good seating, and good be unpleasant to sit or sleep on. for larger headlining panels.
seats are usually too narrow to be Many owners brighten up their After a few years, the panels
used as bunks. Many production yacht’s interior with curtains, carpets, may sag or become completely
cruisers are built within a stringent and scatter cushions. Take these off detached, or the foam backing may
budget, and savings are sometimes the boat when laying up for winter; break down with age. Such panels
made in soft furnishings. When the otherwise, they will get damp and can be replaced quite easily, or
time comes to upgrade or refit an may develop mold. Carpets can be recovered and refastened with
older boat, improvements can often pleasant in port but should be taken more substantial strips of Velcro
be made in this area. up at sea if there is any likelihood that or positive push fasteners.
Open-cell foam is generally water will get below, remembering
used for bunk cushions, while closed- that wet foul-weather gear can carry
cell foam (which does not absorb quite a quantity of water below.
moisture but is much harder) is more Waterproof carpet is highly effective
common for cockpit cushions that and, although it is expensive, only a
may get wet. little is needed to cover the cabin sole
A wide range of fabrics can be of a small yacht.
used for covering cushions. Vinyl is Have somewhere dry and out
sometimes used, as it is water-resistant, of the way to stow loose furnishings
but it is uncomfortable to sit on, when you go to sea, or they will end
especially in hot weather. In small up in a soggy mess on the cabin sole.
yachts, where there is a greater risk If possible, stow anything vulnerable
of water finding its way below, vinyl to moisture in waterproof bags.
can be used on the underside of
cushions with fabric on the top. Turn
sleeping cabins
the cushions over if there is a danger Many yachts have a forecabin with a
of their getting splashed, but use double V-berth or two-single berths.
them the right way up at other times. They are not practical for sleeping at sea
In any case, upholstery fabric should but are useful in port. Stowage space is
have a high percentage of synthetic often available underneath the berths.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
402
Refrigeration If you have refrigeration in a similar alternative, but one that does
Installing refrigeration on board temperate area and you intend to sail not require so much space for large-
cruising boats is increasingly popular, to a hot climate, make sure the unit diameter ducting, is a diesel-fired
despite the system’s being the largest has sufficient cooling capacity and hot-water system that feeds small
single power drain found on most insulation to cope with the increased radiators, which may be fan-assisted,
yachts. For the system to function demands that will be placed on it. through small-bore piping.
efficiently, the refrigerator must be At the other end of the spectrum,
well insulated—4 in (10 cm) of good- Heating a charcoal heater mounted on the
quality insulation all around is ideal Installing cabin heating of some saloon bulkhead can be installed in
for a refrigerator, with more being kind will extend your comfortable a couple of hours and will provide
needed if a freezer is required. sailing season if you sail in temperate ample heat to the main parts of the
The best modern marine fridge latitudes; in fact, it will even allow boat in all but the coldest weather.
and freezer systems use evaporator you to use the boat all year should The disadvantage is that charcoal is
plates driven by a 12v or 24v you choose to do so. Combined with potentially messy and bulky to stow
compressor, which allow a constant good ventilation, a heater will also in large quantities, but these heaters
temperature to be maintained. help keep the interior dry and are ideal for occasional use.
Compressors can be air-cooled or free of mildew. Kerosene and drip-feed diesel
water-cooled, with the latter being The most popular and effective are other popular types of traditional-
much more efficient and better suited heaters are the ducted warm-air style heaters. The fuel is easy to carry,
to tropical conditions. Evaporator central-heating type, usually fueled and, if it is a diesel heater, it uses the
plates can be of various shapes and by diesel, but occasionally by gas. same fuel as most yacht engines. Also,
sizes to suit any fridge box and can Advantages of this type of system these traditional-style heaters are
run a separate or combined freezer. are that heat can be ducted to outlets reliable, virtually maintenance-free,
An alternative is a similarly well- in each cabin, warm-up time is very last almost indefinitely, and create
insulated box into which block ice is short, temperature control is easy, a cozy ambience in the cabin.
put at the beginning of a passage. Place and operation is simple and mess-
a frozen, 5-liter water container in free—you just flip a switch. The Improving stowage
the ice box and surround it with items forced passage of warm air through Many production boats have relatively
that have already been chilled. This the boat is also very effective at little stowage volume, and what is
system is common in the tropics but drying out a wet interior. Drawbacks provided may be poorly organized. An
less so in temperate areas. An ice box are a significant electrical drain, high owner with basic woodworking skills
will work surprisingly well for up to initial cost, space consumption, and can add fiddles or shelves, convert
four or five days, even in hot weather. a fairly complicated installation. A wasted space into useful lockers,
and provide custom stowage for items
that need to be accessed easily. Long-
distance cruisers often store fruit and
vegetables in netting above bunks.
This allows good ventilation, so
the food stays fresh for longer.

galley counter
This yacht has a galley that runs fore
and aft along one side of the saloon.
The counter contains a top-loading
refrigerator, a gimbaled stove with
removable cover, and twin sinks with
pressurized hot and cold water. Lockers
are installed under the sinks and above
the counter, under the sidedecks.
 THE INTERIOR
403
VENTILATION
Adequate ventilation is essential for comfort with access to domestic electricity over the winter,
aboard a boat in all conditions. It can be provided it is often worth investing in a dehumidifier, which
through hatches, opening ports, or dedicated will keep the interior of a yacht completely dry at
ventilators. Boats without enough ventilation will a very modest cost. Whether or not you are using a
stay damp inside, accelerating deterioration and dehumidifier, cabin doors and locker doors should be
encouraging mold. If your boat is kept somewhere left open wherever possible to allow air to circulate.

Hatches Ventilators When under way, the cowl can

Deck hatches can bring a welcome flow The best ventilators are of the Dorade be pointed into the wind to funnel
of air in hot conditions, but in most type, which allow air in but divert any maximum airflow, but in rough
cases, they need to be closed at sea. In water back to the deck. These can be conditions, the cowls should be pointed
hot climates, a wind scoop—effectively left open most of the time but should downwind, or blanked off, to prevent
a large fabric funnel set over the hatch— be closed off in very severe conditions. spray from getting below. Ideally,
is a useful addition to increase the flow Mushroom ventilators are very popular cowl ventilators should be used in
of air on light wind days. and work with any wind angle but need conjunction with a Dorade box to
to be closed off if water is coming over allow water to escape back on deck.
Opening ports the decks. Louvers in doors and cutouts in
Ports that can be opened are useful, The type that incorporates a solar- furniture can be used to encourage
especially if they open from a stern powered fan is particularly effective air to circulate around lockers. A
cabin into the cockpit where they will at forcing a flow of air into the boat. louver fitted in the washboards will
be protected in all but heavy weather. Simple cowl ventilators work well on allow air channeled into the cabin by
Those fitted in the hull or cabin sides boats kept on swing moorings, as they ventilators farther forward to escape,
should be shut when under way. will be head-to-wind much of the time. helping promote a through draft.

Cowl vent

AIR
Dorade box

Drain for
OPENING PORT MUSHROOM VENTILATOR Air directed Air flow water
into cabin

how a dorade vent works

A Dorade vent, so called because
the first example was fitted on a yacht
called Dorade, provides the best chance
of achieving good ventilation in a yacht
while keeping water out of the interior. Air
and water can both enter the cowl vent, but
the water drops to the floor of the box and
runs out of the drain holes, while air can
flow up to the top of the high inlet tube
and into the yacht’s interior.

LOUVERED WASHBOARD COWL VENTILATOR

 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
404

ELECTRICS
Most cruising yachts rely heavily on their electrical system.
Electricity is used to run navigation and communications equipment,
lighting, entertainment systems, and refrigeration. Consequently,
there is a need to generate and store sufficient power to operate the
gear. Although modern boats tend to be reasonably dry down below
in most conditions, electrical equipment must be of good marine
quality and should be well installed and maintained; otherwise, it
battery types
can deteriorate very quickly. If you sail a small boat, you should not Proper traction batteries—here, 2-volt
rely totally on its electrical supply. There should always be a backup cells that are wired in series to produce
a 12-volt bank—are most suitable for
system that will allow the boat to be sailed and navigated and the
domestic power needs and will last much
crew to be kept comfortable in the event of a total power failure. longer than an automotive-style battery.

DC systems when the engine is running. A good battery fluid that evaporates when
Small- and medium-sized yachts marine battery will be able to handle the battery is charged. They give off
typically use 12- or 24-volt direct many hundreds of charge-discharge hydrogen gas, which is lighter than
current (DC) systems, with the power cycles, which would quickly destroy air, when they are being charged, so
supplied by a bank of batteries. These an automotive battery. It is good the top of the battery compartment
are often stored in or near the bilges practice to have one battery for should be well ventilated.
to keep their considerable weight as engine-starting and another for the Gel batteries, in which the
low as possible. Batteries are designed domestic loads, so the engine battery electrolyte is a gel rather than
for specific purposes; the automotive is never discharged by running the a liquid, require no maintenance
type, often seen aboard small boats, boat’s systems. If your batteries are and cannot spill battery fluid. They
is not designed for marine use. An stowed low in the bilge, consider are totally sealed and do not give
automotive battery delivers a short having a smaller one higher up to run off hydrogen gas. They are more
burst of high current to a car’s starter the radio equipment in an emergency, expensive than conventional batteries
motor. Once the engine is running, such as if the main batteries were but have obvious advantages for use
an alternator meets the needs of the flooded by an ingress of seawater. on boats. Some types can withstand
car’s electrical system. On a boat, more charge-discharge cycles than
batteries start the engine, but they Battery care conventional deep-discharge batteries.
are also needed to power electrical Unless they are of the sealed type, All batteries should be fastened
gear for many hours when the batteries require occasional topping down securely so they cannot come
engine is not running. off with distilled water to replace loose in the event of a knockdown,
and conventional batteries should
Batteries SELECTING EQUIPMENT be mounted in a drip-tray to catch
The best batteries for marine use are any spills of electrolyte. The state of
It is extremely important to use
deep-discharge or traction batteries. charge of a conventional battery can
the best-quality electrical gear
Both these heavy-duty types are that has been designed specifically be checked with a hydrometer, which
designed to be “deep-cycled.” This for use in boats. No other measures the specific gravity of the
means that they can be discharged equipment will be as reliable electrolyte. If you are leaving the boat
to a relatively low percentage of their or as safe in marine conditions. unattended for some time, be sure
capacity and subsequently recharged that the batteries are fully charged,
 ELECTRICS
405
as they will slowly discharge over
time. Do not leave them heavily CURRENT DRAW OF POPULAR ITEMS
discharged for long, as this will It is easy to add new equipment that requires electricity and to forget
shorten their life. The voltage across the extra load that it will put on your battery capacity. If your domestic
a battery also gives an indication of battery bank and charging ability is not sufficient, you will end up having
its state of charge. In theory, a 12V to run your engine for long periods just to replace the electrical energy
battery will deliver 13.2V when fully the equipment consumes.
charged, although in practice 12.9V
is the highest figure you are likely to How big a battery bank? item typical
obtain. At 12.5V, there is around 75 To calculate the size of battery current
bank needed for your boat, start draw
percent of the charge remaining, and
by working out the total daily
at 12.2V, 50 percent charge is left.
power usage (multiply current in Anchor light 1 amp
Once the voltage falls to 11.8V, the amps by the length of time for which
battery has only 25 percent of Tricolor light 2 amp
you expect to use each item), using
its charge remaining. However, the table (right) as a guide. Assuming Interior lights (each) 1 amp
discharging to this level will shorten you charge batteries once a day and
do not want to discharge them beyond Log/depth sounder 0.5 amp
the life of even deep-discharge
50 percent of total capacity, your GPS <0.5 amp
batteries—ideally, they should be
battery bank should be at least twice
charged before the voltage drops VHF <0.5 amp
the size of your estimate daily power
below 12.2V. usage. It is rarely worth skimping when CD player 1–5 amp
specifying the size of battery banks and
Charging systems charging systems. Well-cared-for Autopilot 4–10 amp
The most common charging system batteries will last many seasons, but
Warm-air heater fan 1–2 amp
aboard small boats uses an alternator those that are regularly run nearly flat
because they are too small for the task Refrigerator 4 amp
mounted on the engine and driven by
may fail in the first year or two.
a belt from the flywheel. Whenever the
engine is run, the alternator supplies
power to the batteries, with the bath. Untinned copper wire in a energy lost as heat in the wiring system.
amount of power delivered being marine environment quickly develops If you are considering buying a boat
controlled by a regulator. a green coating that extends inside that is more than five years old, look
So-called “smart” regulators the insulation, increasing the wire’s carefully at the electrical system. If the
are far more efficient than the simple resistance to the flow of electricity best materials were not used initially,
type built into most alternators. These and making it more brittle. All wiring they may need replacing. It is also
sense the condition of the battery, its should be well secured and is best run likely that extra electrical equipment
temperature, state of charge, and the in plastic conduit and hidden behind has been added to the original system,
voltage delivered by the alternator, and headliners or hull paneling. which could cause problems in the
they automatically adjust the output A yacht’s wiring must be able to future if the system was not designed,
from the generator to deliver the best handle the maximum current drawn and did not have spare capacity, for
charge to the batteries. Using a smart by the equipment with as small a additional items to be added.
regulator significantly improves the voltage drop as possible between Many older boats have each wiring
performance of your batteries and the battery and the equipment. Wires circuit protected by a fuse on the switch
reduces recharging times. that carry high loads, such as those panel. These are fine until a fuse blows,
between the batteries and the starter when a new one of the correct rating
Wiring motor, or that lead to an electric has to be found. This may be simple
Only marine wiring should be used windlass or other high-power in daylight, but it could be a different
aboard a boat. The best type of wiring equipment, should be of an adequate matter at night in a heavy sea. It is,
has good-quality insulation surrounding size and as short as possible to therefore, worth installing a switch
multiple strands that have been tinned minimize voltage drop. If in doubt, panel with circuit breakers, since these
by drawing them through a solder use oversized wire, as this will reduce can be reset after they have tripped.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
406
Extending the system a fuse or, preferably, circuit breaker for possible. Ways to minimize electrical
Unless you have a thorough each item. Wiring runs should be well consumption include replacing light
understanding of your boat’s electrical secured and preferably run through bulbs with LED bulbs that require
system, you should consult an expert a conduit. Make sure that the size of a fraction of the power and last far
before making modifications or adding the wiring is sufficient to cope with the longer. Turn off equipment when not
new gear. Most problems with electrics current needed by the equipment and required, open the refrigerator as
on boats arise because the system was the distance over which the current little as possible, and only run your
badly installed, poor-quality materials must be delivered. instruments and radar when needed
were used, or additional equipment High current and long distances on passage. Also, on passage, turn
was installed without considering the require a larger cross-section wire to off a pressurized water system to
extra loads placed on the system. avoid significant voltage drop between save both power and water.
Some new boats are built with the panel and the item of equipment.
an electrical system that can be Using wire that is too small will AC systems
extended without difficulty, but in reduce the power available to the Larger yachts often run an alternating
others, the system can be hard to access item and will cause the wiring to heat current (AC) generator to power
and expand. Ideally, a boat’s electrical up, possibly leading to the insulation onboard domestic electrical systems.
system should have spare contact melting and causing a fire hazard. An AC generator can also be used to
breakers on the switch panel to Maintenance, replacement, charge the DC battery bank, which
accommodate new equipment, and the and the addition of new electrical
battery and charging system should be equipment will be made much easier
capable of handling more equipment. if you have a wiring diagram of your
A good sign that a new boat’s boat’s 12-volt and 240-volt systems.
electrical system is capable of being If one was not supplied, consider
expanded is the presence of spare having an electrician draw one for
contact breakers on the panel and you and always update it to include
“mousing” lines in the electrical new equipment when it is installed.
conduit to pull through additional
wires. These simple items allow Power-usage monitors
additional equipment to be easily If your yacht has a lot of electrical
installed, whereas the lack of them equipment, or if you use it for serious
can make the same job much more cruising, it is helpful to add a monitor
difficult and expensive. of the type that measures the total
charge delivered to the batteries and
Installation the total power used by the boat’s
Always turn off the batteries at their systems. These monitors give a precise
isolating switches before starting work indication of how much charge is left
on the electrical system. If you are in the batteries and when they will
installing new gear that draws a high next need charging.
current, consider whether you need to
increase the capacity of your battery Controlling usage
bank or your charging system. Also, Unless you spend a lot of time distribution panel
you must ensure that wiring and living aboard, it is very easy to forget An electrical distribution panel, usually
mounted at the chart table (top), provides
terminals of a suitable size for the to conserve electrical power, with
control of the 12-volt and 240s electrical
current load are used and that there the result that you have to run the
systems and allows you to monitor
are appropriately sized circuit breakers engine for many hours to replenish consumption and the state of the
or fuses in the new circuit. the batteries. Your time spent cruising batteries. It is best if the panel hinges open
All equipment should be connected will be less noisy, cheaper, and (above) to give access to the rear so that
to the positive and negative bus bars simpler if you restrict your use wiring can be organized neatly and new
at the boat’s distribution panel with of electrical equipment as much as equipment can be added more easily.
 ELECTRICS
407
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY
Control
panel with
Some cruising boats, particularly those used for long-distance sailing,
on/off switch make use of alternative forms of energy production. Wind generators,
solar panels, and water generators are all popular means of delivering
Small size charge to the batteries without running the engine. All have their benefits
allows easy
mounting and shortcomings, and their use depends on where you sail and how you
use your boat. An additional benefit of these generators is that charging
Connections
for 12-volt
is often continuous over several hours, so the batteries’ discharge cycle is
input and shorter than if the engine is used to charge just one or two hours a day.
240-volt
output
Wind and water power additional electrical power on
Many cruisers use a wind generator cruising yachts—in particular, for
inverter to help keep batteries fully charged those sailing in tropical areas with
A small inverter can provide AC power without needing to run the engine. Wind long hours of sunshine.
by converting the DC power supplied generators vary in size and efficiency. As with small wind generators,
by the batteries. Modern inverters are Small ones put out little power in a small solar panel will have a low
efficient and are useful when there is most wind strengths but are useful for output, even in direct sunshine, and
a need to run equipment that needs AC maintaining batteries when the boat is can do little more than maintain the
power without installing an AC generator. unattended. In windy regions, large wind batteries in good condition when
generators can comfortably supply a the boat is left unattended.
boat’s entire power requirements. Water Larger panels, however, can
avoids reliance on the main engine
generators are towed behind the yacht produce enough charge to, for
for charging. However, the vast when it is under way. They tend to be instance, power a refrigerator in a
majority of small- and medium-sized very powerful, but their drag can slow Mediterranean climate. Long-distance
cruisers have little need for an AC the boat a little. Latest developments cruisers sometimes mount panels on
generator, which is expensive and can include hybrid engines that charge the brackets so that they can be angled to
also be noisy unless it is well installed. batteries by allowing the propeller to face the sun for maximum power.
The most common and simplest freewheel when under sail.
AC system plugs into a shore-based wind and solar power
Solar power
supply when the boat is in a marina. Solar panels are an increasingly A wind generator and solar panels are
This is often used when alongside to popular choice as an environmentally mounted on an aft gantry where they
run a battery charger and to provide friendly means of providing are out of the way and unobstructed.
power to run domestic equipment.
An AC system must be kept
totally separate from the onboard
DC system and must be installed
and maintained properly to avoid
potentially fatal electric shocks. If
AC power is needed to run small
appliances when the boat is not
plugged into shore power, an
inverter can be installed to convert
the DC supply to AC. On a small
boat, these are most suitable for
powering low-current devices such
as laptop computers; high-current
items such as hair dryers and
microwaves will draw so much
power that they will rapidly
discharge all but the largest battery.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
408

PLUMBING
will prevent water from overflowing
when the tank is full. It is worth
installing a charcoal filter in the
drinking-water supply to the galley.
On boats, plumbing can be quite complex and must
be constructed with gear designed for marine use. It must be Hoses and manual pumps
Various types of plumbing hose
properly installed and regularly serviced. Freshwater systems are available. Avoid clear plastic, as
store and deliver water for sinks in the galley and heads and for algae will grow inside the pipe where
showers. They often include a hot-water supply. Separate systems light penetrates. Rigid plastic piping
is ideal and offers a range of easy-
are used for bilge pumping, engine cooling, flushing the heads,
connect valves, couplings, and
and draining the shower sump. You should understand how each junctions to make the plumbing
system works and the maintenance it requires and carry spare system easy to install and maintain.
parts on board since pumps are susceptible to failure. If hot water is used in the system,
make sure that the piping you select
can handle the heat. You should also
Freshwater systems boats, tanks can be welded in, thereby choose the correct piping for each
Water tanks may be made from creating a double bottom and using purpose—for example, food quality
GRP, stainless steel, rigid polyethylene, space efficiently. If space cannot be for the plumbing to the galley and
or flexible plastic. They should be found for rigid tanks, flexible ones can sanitation piping for the sea toilet
mounted to keep their weight as low be used in small or inaccessible spaces and holding tank. When installing the
as possible and, where possible, away but must be protected from chafe. All piping, secure it at frequent intervals,
from the bow or stern sections of the tanks and piping must be properly with securing points near all junctions
hull for efficient weight distribution. supported and secured against and fittings, to prevent vibration or
Many boats have tanks under movement of any kind. Tanks should movement from weakening the
the saloon bunks, which is ideal for have inspection covers for access and joints and causing leaks.
weight distribution, although the two cleaning. They must also have vents The simplest freshwater system
tanks need isolation valves so that to allow air to escape as they are uses a manual pump at the galley and
when heeled the water from the filled. If possible, take the vent up heads sinks. Manual pumps require
windward tank does not flow into under the deck in a high loop before no power, are very reliable, and
the downwind one. In metal-hulled leading the end into the bilge. This discourage high water consumption.

Tap Filler cap Filler pipe Tank vent pipe Tap Foot pump

Forward
seacock

Aft seacock

Engine inlet main water systems

Sink Holding Modern cruisers often have several water
outlet tank
systems, including one to pipe fresh water
Sink outlet Foot pump to the galley, one to deal with waste from
Freshwater tank the sea toilet, and one to cool the engine.
 PLUMBING
409
Float Removable
Sump body switch lid
Outlet
above the Pump
waterline

Pump and handle located Float switch

where it is easy to operate
Multiple
Pickup hose led to deepest part inlets
Pump strainer
Outlet hose
of bilge and fitted with a strainer
attachment Outlet

manual bilge pump electric bilge pump shower sump pump

The bilge pump can be vital in a flooding Electric pumps often incorporate a Shower water collects in the sump and is
emergency, so it must be well maintained strainer in their body and use an external, pumped overboard or into a holding tank.
and the hose fitted with a strainer to keep as here, or internal float switch to control Waste water from the wash basin or other
it from becoming blocked by debris. automatic operation. sources can also be piped into the sump.

If sited properly, they are easy to unusually long time before it separate watertight compartments
maintain and repair. A high-capacity transfers all your fresh water from must have their own pumps or be
foot pump is easy to operate and the tank to the bilge. A manual plumbed to the main one.
leaves both hands free. freshwater pump should always be Electric bilge pumps can be
fitted in the galley in case the used to supplement the manual unit
Pressure pumps pressure system or electrics fail and and can be fitted with float switches
Increasingly, even quite small yachts to use on passage when you wish to that automatically activate the pump
have a pressurized hot- and cold-water conserve water and electricity. when the bilge water rises. When
system. Although convenient, these choosing an electric pump, specify the
increase water and electricity Bilge pumps largest that will fit the available space.
consumption, as well as running A yacht should have at least two An 800-gallon-per-hour pump may
costs and maintenance. For reliability, bilge pumps, one of which must be sound as if it will move an impressive
choose a good-quality pump that is manually operated and should be amount of water, but this rating does
suitable for the job, and include an situated in the cockpit within reach not allow for pumping the water up
accumulator tank in the system. of the helm. If your boat is holed to a higher level or for the friction
Pressure pumps work by sensing below the waterline, your pumps can encountered in a long run of narrow
the pressure drop when a tap is gain you vital seconds while you make diameter pipe. On a large boat, these
opened. If an accumulator tank emergency repairs. Most of the time, effects can reduce an 800-gph flow
is fitted in the system, its pressure however, they are used to remove to a mere trickle. For this reason,
reservoir smooths the operation of water that accumulates in the bilge. offshore cruisers often fit a very
the system and frees the pump from The pickup hose should lead to high-capacity damage-control pump,
having to repeatedly switch on and the deepest part of the bilge and which can remove large amounts of
off to maintain pressure. This extends should have a strainer fitted to water in the event of a holing.
the pump’s life and makes the system prevent debris from blocking the Shower sumps are normally kept
quieter. Most pumps are quite noisy, pump; an item as small as a separate from the main bilge and are
however, but rather than using sound matchstick can hold the valve of generally cleared with an electric
insulation to eliminate the noise, it is a pump open, rendering it useless. submersible pump. An efficient filter
useful to be able to hear when the Shallow bilges may require two must be used to prevent hair from
pump is operating. Then, if a leak pickup hoses—one to port and one clogging the pump. An alternative
occurs, you have a chance of noticing to starboard—so that the pump can is to use a manual sump pump.
that the pump is operating for an operate with the boat heeled. Any This will save electrical power.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
410
Sea toilets Pumpout pipe Pump handle
Diverter for flushing
Make sure that every member of valve to
the crew understands how the sea Breather pipe holding tank
toilet works and impress on them
Holding tank
that they should never put anything for storing
Toilet bowl
and base
into it, apart from toilet paper, that is waste Inlet seacock
not human waste. Allowing anything
else to be put into the system is a
sure way of causing a blockage—an holding tank system
event that will require the pump to A holding tank stores waste when in
be dismantled and cleared by hand. coastal waters. A diverter valve allows
Having to clear a blocked toilet the heads to be flushed into the tank or
pump at sea, and in the confined directly over the side when well offshore.
space of a yacht’s heads compartment,
is an experience that no one will both of which must be fitted with and an additional service kit carried
wish to repeat, so it is an effective seacocks. If the hose is not reinforced, on board in case of emergency. When
punishment for the person responsible there is a danger that it may collapse servicing the pump, smear the rubber
for causing the blockage. on the suction side or burst on the O-rings and seals with a little Teflon-
Most sea toilets are operated pressure side if there is a blockage. based grease to prolong their life. Do
by hand, with a pump drawing in Use toilet-grade hose and avoid clear not use household bleaches or toilet
seawater to flush the bowl and pump or translucent hose, which encourages cleaners, as these will attack the rubber
out waste. Larger yachts may fit microbe growth and leads to bad components in the pump—only
electrical toilets, but a manual pump odors in the heads compartment. products specifically designed for use
should always be available in case of Some countries prohibit the with marine toilets should be used.
failure. Always use reinforced flexible discharge of sewage from yachts Heads compartments are usually
hose for the pump’s inlet and outlet, within a certain distance of the shore,
usually several miles. In this case, you Vented loop
on inlet hose
will require a holding tank into Vented
which all waste is pumped. When the loop on
outlet hose
holding tank is full, it can be emptied
at a marina pump-out station or by
Sea toilet
the toilet’s own pump (or a dedicated below waterline
pump) when you are well offshore.
Chemical treatments are available to Inlet
Pump
seacock
put into the tank to help keep the
system odor-free and to assist in
the breakdown of waste.
Outlet seacock
The flexible hoses that run placed aft of inlet
between the seacocks and the heads,
on both the inlet and outlet sides of
the pump, should be led in a loop preventing flooding
to the level of the underside of the If the sea toilet is near or even below
the waterline, which it is on most small
deck and should be fitted with anti-
cruising yachts, the inlet and outlet hoses
siphon valves. This will prevent
cannot be led directly to their seacocks
heads compartment
seawater from siphoning back into or the bowl will fill with water and could
Most production cruisers use interior the toilet bowl and flooding the flood the boat. Lead the hoses up as high
moldings for the heads compartment, yacht, especially when the yacht heels as possible under the decks and fit an
as they are easy to clean and are not under sail. The pump for the heads anti-siphon fitting—a vented loop—at
damaged by water from the shower. should be serviced at least annually, the highest point.
 PLUMBING
411
Handle to open and
close ball valve GAS SYSTEMS
Two hose clips on pipe
Bottled gas is the most popular
fuel for on-board stoves and is
Two hose sometimes used for heaters. The
clips on hose
Lever handle gas system must be made from
Ball valve threaded the best-quality materials and be
onto through-hull
Outer flange Outer flange Integral seacock with checked and serviced regularly.
on through- Nut with large bolted through- movable valve
hull fitting flange secures hull to inner
When not in use, the bottle must
through-hull flange be turned off to prevent leakages.
All marine gas installations should
through-hull fitting traditional seacock be fitted and maintained by
A through-hull fitting should be made of a A traditional seacock incorporates a valve a qualified installer.
corrosion-resistant metal, such as bronze, operated with a lever handle. The fitting
or a plastic approved for underwater marine is usually bolted through the hull rather Gas safety precautions
use. A separate ball valve is usually screwed than using a threaded tube as with the As bottled gas is heavier than air,
on to the threaded shank of the fitting. standard through-hull fitting (left). any gas that leaks from the system
will seep into the bilges, where it will
form an explosive mixture with air.
Always store gas bottles in a sealed
small and can become unpleasant possible to see at a glance whether locker, preferably above deck, that
if bad odors are allowed to develop. the valve is open or closed, and just drains overboard so any leaks
Clean the compartment frequently; a small amount of debris stuck within cannot accumulate in the bilge.
insist that everyone uses the toilet the body of the valve can prevent it Use good-quality marine gas piping
sitting down; and try to ensure from being fully closed. with flexible hose used for the final
connection to a gimbaled stove.
adequate ventilation via a small All types of valves should be
Make sure there is no risk of chafe
hatch, opening porthole, or effective opened and closed regularly to stop
on the flexible hose and that there is
ventilator. When leaving the boat them from seizing in position. They some slack in the hose to allow the
unattended, prop the heads door should also be cleaned and greased stove to swing freely.
open to encourage a through-flow of on a regular basis. Consider fitting a remote-
air, make sure that the compartment All hoses attached to through-hull controlled solenoid valve near the
is thoroughly clean, and remember inlets or outlets below the waterline bottle, with the control switch by
the stove, so that the gas can be
to close the seacocks. should be fitted with two stainless-
easily turned off at the bottle when
steel hose clips for safety. If one
not in use. Check all the joints for
Through-hulls and seacocks should fail, the other remains in leaks using soapy water. A gas
Although it is best to have as few place. Make certain that the hose detector is an important precaution.
holes through the hull as possible, clips are made from marine-grade It should be fitted with its sensor in
some are unavoidable, and they must stainless steel, or they will rust and the bilge, fitted above the level at
be fitted with traditional seacocks or eventually disintegrate. which bilge water accumulates.
good-quality through-hull fittings It is also good practice to carry
fitted with ball valves. a set of soft wooden plugs of varying
Seacocks, or the valves fitted to sizes. A plug of the appropriate size
through-hulls, should be of the type should be tied to every seacock or
with a tapered plug valve or a ball through-hull fitting so that in the
valve. Sometimes gate valves are unlikely, but potentially disastrous,
fitted, but these are unsuitable for event that a fitting fails, the plug can
marine use. Many gate-valves be hammered into the hole to stop
are made of brass, which is very or reduce the leak. Once wet, the
susceptible to corrosion in the softwood plug will swell and will SELF-DRAINING GAS LOCKER
marine environment. It is not create a surprisingly good seal.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
412

ENGINES
warm up for 10 seconds or so
before starting. Diesel engines are
more expensive to purchase than
gasoline engines, but they are cheaper
The majority of cruisers are fitted with an auxiliary engine to run, more reliable, and do not rely
that provides a charging facility for the boat’s electrical system in on an explosive fuel.

addition to motoring capability. Today’s marine engines are light Diesel-electric hybrid engine
and comparatively reliable. As well as using them for motoring, or A new approach that is likely to
motor-sailing when the wind is not fair, many sailors exclusively prove popular on long-distance
cruisers is the hybrid diesel-electric
use engines in preference to sails for entering harbor and
engine. A standard diesel engine
berthing. The drawback with this approach is that some sailors fail drives the shaft, which also drives
to become adept at handling a boat in close quarters under sail an electric motor/generator. A large
and then are likely to get into trouble when the engine fails. battery bank is also installed. The
boat can be powered by the diesel
Sailors who rely on their engine for boat handling and for running or the electric motor and the batteries
a complex electrical system must fully understand their engine can be charged by the diesel engine,
installation, be able to maintain it in good condition, and carry wind, water, or solar power sources.

a comprehensive set of spares to carry out repairs at sea.

Gasoline engines
Marine gasoline engines are similar
to car engines and are common on
Diesel engines and were much heavier than later high-speed power boats. They need
The most common type of engines. Modern diesel engines are an electrical circuit to provide a spark
marine engine is an inboard diesel still heavier than a gasoline engine of to ignite the fuel, which can be a
that drives the boat via a gearbox equivalent power, but their performance problem because electric ignition
and propeller shaft. Diesels ignite has become much more similar. For systems are vulnerable to damp.
their fuel using the heat created starting from cold, many diesel Gasoline engines operate at lower
when air is compressed in the cylinder. engines have electric preheating coils compression ratios and are lighter
An injector pump and fuel injectors in the inlet manifold that need to than diesel engines. Unlike diesel,
spray precisely measured amounts of
diesel into the combustion chamber
at high pressure and at exactly the
right point in the compression stroke.
Very high compression ratios are
required to achieve the temperature
needed to ignite the fuel, so a diesel
engine has to be tougher than a
gasoline engine (and therefore heavier).
Older designs of diesel engines typically
ran at lower revs than modern units

inboard diesel engine

Most small yachts have an inboard diesel
engine, which is often located under the
companionway steps. The steps are
removable to allow access to the engine.
 ENGINES
413
Always run the fan for five minutes
STARTING PROBLEMS before the engine is started and all LAYING UP AN ENGINE
If a diesel engine will not start, the time it is running. If you lay up your boat ashore
make sure clean fuel is reaching for the winter, you should take
the injectors and there is no air Outboards measures to protect the engine
in the system. Learn to bleed the Most older outboards are gasoline from deterioration while it is
injectors to remove trapped air two-stroke units, but four-strokes are not being used.
from the fuel supply. Also check now widely available. Four-stroke
that the battery is sufficiently units tend to be more reliable, fuel Winterizing an engine
charged to turn the starter motor efficient, and smoother than two- • Change the engine and gearbox
fast enough to fire the engine. strokes, but heavier and less portable. oil. (Run the engine for a few
minutes beforehand to heat and
Outboards are sometimes used on
thin the old oil; this makes it
very small cruisers as the primary easier to pump out.)
gasoline is an explosive fuel. means of propulsion, but they are • Change the oil filters.
However, as long as the engine is most likely to be carried for use on • Clean out the fuel line’s water-
properly installed and operated, the the tender. They are ideal for this role, separation filter.
risk of explosion should be low. as they are relatively light, portable, • Top off the fuel tanks to reduce
and self-contained and can be easily the chance of condensation forming
in the tank.
Operating gasoline engines tilted up when in shallow water. Their
• Remove diesel injectors (if you
If a gasoline engine is fitted, the fuel main disadvantages are that they can have a diesel engine) or spark plugs
tank must have a shutoff valve that is be expensive to run and are vulnerable (if you have a gasoline engine) and
closed when the engine is not in use. to theft. When buying an outboard, inject oil in the bores while turning
A nonsparking extractor fan, ducted pick one that is the size recommended the engine over by hand.
to the lowest part of the engine by the tender supplier. An outboard • Thoroughly clean the outside
compartment, is needed to extract that is too large will be heavy, consume surfaces of the engine, starter
motor, and alternator.
gasoline fumes. It should be linked to more fuel, and may overload the boat;
• Grease all moving parts lightly
the ignition so that the engine cannot one that is too small will not have or spray them with a water repellent
be run without the fan operating. the power to push the tender at a such as WD40.
reasonable speed when fully loaded. • Drain the cooling water system
and flush through with an
Caring for outboards antifreeze mixture.
Although they are often clamped • Remove the impeller from the
water pump, place it in a plastic
to a block on the pushpit when not
bag, and tie it to the pump so
in use, outboards are better stored that you do not lose it.
away from the elements, preferably • Disconnect the battery and
in a cockpit locker that is sealed from grease the terminals.
the interior. Two-stroke outboard • Store the battery somewhere
motors need an oil-and-gasoline warm and dry, charging it
mix. It is important that the correct occasionally during the winter.
• Tie a note to the engine to remind
oil is used and mixed in the ratio
yourself what needs to be done
specified in the manual. Always before the engine can be started
use fresh fuel and discard old fuel in the spring.
at approved points in harbors or • During the winter, turn the
marinas. Most outboards are water- engine over by hand occasionally
outboard engine
cooled, pumping seawater through and oil the bores.
An outboard engine is commonly used
their leg and around the engine head. • After winterizing your outboard,
on a cruising yacht to power the tender. store it in a warm, dry place to
When not in use, it is stored in a deep You should check that the cooling
protect it until you next use it.
locker or, frequently, mounted on a water is flowing freely; otherwise,
pad secured to the pushpit. the engine will overheat.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
414
FUEL, COOLING, AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
Diesel engines are inherently reliable in an accessible location, so The injector pump is a delicate
if well cared for, but a thoroughly the supply can be shut off in the precision instrument and the most
clean fuel supply is crucial to their event of a fire. complex component in the fuel
well-being. Water, dirt particles, or A combined primary fuel filter system. It has three functions—
bacteria (which feed on condensation and water separator should be fitted metering exactly the right amount
in fuel tanks) will, at best, clog filters. to isolate larger particles of dirt and of fuel to send to the injectors (often
At worst, they will wreck the injector water. Any water in the fuel will less than one-hundredth of a milliliter
pump—the most expensive single appear at the bottom of the glass at a time), timing the precise moment
component of a diesel engine. bowl as an opaque layer and can it is delivered, and increasing the
The fuel system should be be drained out by loosening the pressure of the fuel to several hundred
designed to provide as clean a supply drain plug. The primary filter and pounds per square inch (psi).
of fuel as possible, although on many water separator is not supplied Always take care when working
boats the system falls short of ideal. with the engine and is often missing on the high-pressure side of the fuel
Keep the tank topped up as much in marine fuel systems. The water system—diesel at this pressure can
as possible to reduce condensation, separator bowl should be checked penetrate the skin. Fuel is delivered
clean and change the filters regularly, daily and after every five hours to the combustion chamber through
and use antibacterial and water- of engine use. injectors that convert the pressurized
absorbing additives to keep the fuel The next component is the fuel into a very fine spray, which
clean. For maximum reliability and lift pump, a low-pressure pump burns cleanly. A fuel return pipe
longevity, make sure the manufacturer’s that sucks fuel out of the tank and returns unused fuel to the fuel tank.
service recommendations are carried delivers it to the injector pump. Lift
out at the specified intervals, and pumps usually incorporate a lever Cooling system
carry out daily engine checks. to allow manual pumping of fuel Most inboard engines (gasoline or
when bleeding air out of the system. diesel) are cooled by water. In the
Diesel fuel system The secondary fuel filter, mounted simplest systems, raw salt water is
Fuel tanks should have an inspection on the engine, is designed to remove pumped around the engine and used
hatch to allow for periodic draining microscopic particles of dirt—as to cool and silence the exhaust system.
and cleaning. The fuel takeoff pipe small as 0.00039 in (0.01 mm) across.
should enter at the top of the tank This measurement gives an indication
and run down inside to just above of exactly how important clean fuel parts of the fuel system
the bottom of the tank to avoid is. The top of the filter housing Clean fuel is essential for the reliable
sucking up dirt and sediment. A should have a bleed screw that service of a diesel engine. Always include
fuel shutoff valve should be fitted is used to remove air. a separate primary filter in the system.

Filler pipe Fuel line Excess fuel return line Secondary filter
Inspection hatch
Breather pipe Injector
Fuel return

Primary filter
Injection pump

Low point in tank

Tank catches sediment Drain tap Fuel pump
 ENGINES: FUEL , COOLING, AND EXHAUST SYSTEMS
415
This has two disadvantages—the systems, a centrifugal pump is often Stern shaft encasing Air vent Propeller
propeller shaft shaft
engine must be run at a lower than used for the fresh water. If a
Water feed
optimum temperature (approximately blockage occurs in the seawater Emergency seal
145ºF/63ºC), leading to more wear, system, the water flow is reduced Fixed seal
Rotating seal
and pumping hot seawater around the or stopped and the engine will
engine increases corrosion in the overheat. The impeller pump is
water channels. A filter ensures debris also likely to be damaged. Make
is not drawn into the cooling system sure there is a good flow of water
from the sea. Sacrificial zinc anodes in through the cooling system by
the cooling system protect the engine cleaning the seacock’s weed trap
from the potentially devastating effects on a regular basis. Carry a spare
of corrosion caused by pumping hot impeller and learn how to change it. Stainless-
steel hose clip
salt water through the system.
A better system is a car-type, Exhaust system stern gland
closed cooling system, with a mix of The simplest exhaust system is a A stern gland seals the gap where the
fresh water and antifreeze circulating funnel, but yachts normally route their propeller shaft runs into the stern tube
around the engine. In place of a car’s exhaust system to expel the exhaust that passes it through the hull. Modern
radiator, there is a heat exchanger gases at the stern. Because the gases glands are virtually maintenance free.
that uses pumped seawater to cool are very hot, most systems inject the
the fresh water and antifreeze mixture. engine’s cooling water into the exhaust
The seawater is then discharged immediately behind the engine. The Stern glands
through the exhaust system. water helps cool and quiet the gases. A stern gland is the seal that prevents
A fresh-water-cooled system After the water injection, the gas water from entering the boat around
allows the engine to run at its optimum and water mixture is usually led the propeller shaft. Traditionally,
temperature of about 185°F (85ºC). through a silencer, then routed to a stuffing box with turns of lightly
You should check the level of coolant the stern, where it exits the boat greased packing is used. If the stuffing
in the expansion tank daily. Seawater through a seacock in the transom is well maintained and the propshaft
is pumped around both types of or counter. A siphon-break should is perfectly aligned, this system can
cooling system by an engine-mounted be fitted before the seacock to reduce work well. Modern alternatives to
impeller pump. In fresh-water-cooled the risk of the engine being flooded the traditional stuffing box offer the
by seawater. benefit of being virtually maintenance
Some systems incorporate a free. Some rely on water lubrication,
cooling and exhaust system water separator to expel the water so when the boat is launched, air may
Most modern diesels have a fresh-water out below the waterline with the need to be purged from the seal by
cooling system in which the fresh water is cooled gases exiting through squeezing it tightly with both hands
cooled by seawater in a heat exchanger. the topside or transom. until water starts to flow.

Anti-syphon Water separator Hot Thermostat Header tank

swan-neck fitting seawater
Heat exchanger Fresh-water pump
Cooled
exhaust Water injection
fumes out Water and fumes in

Water Exhaust hose

out
Water strainer
Hose Exhaust
Exhaust
Through- hose hose
hull fitting

Raw
Water trap
water
and silencer
Through- pump
hull fitting Through-hull fitting
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
416
BASIC ENGINE MAINTENANCE
Outlet
Pump pipe
body
Impeller

The best way to ensure a trouble-free seacock, and unscrew the top of the
engine system is to learn how to cylinder. Withdraw the filter mesh,
carry out basic maintenance and clear any debris, and replace. Make
Inlet pipe
repair tasks. Most can be carried out sure you remember to open the
Adjustment
at sea, or alongside, with only a small seacock before starting the engine. slot
toolkit and handful of spare parts The second type of filter is
and will enable you to deal with the contained in a plastic bowl that is Plate mounts on
majority of common engine failures. usually fitted partway between the engine and allows
Plate’s pivot adjustment of belt
Learn to handle the basic tasks on seacock and the water pump. Access bolt hole that drives the pump
your engine by attending an engine to the filter is obtained by removing impeller pump
maintenance course run by your the lid of the bowl. Most types have A belt-driven impeller pump is mounted
engine supplier or a sailing school. transparent lids, which makes it easy on the engine. A rubber impeller rotates
Alternatively, employ a mechanic to check the water flow and to see within the pump chamber and forces
to show you how to do the jobs on if the filter is blocked. When replacing water from the “in” to the “out” pipe.
your own engine and to help you put the lid, make sure it seats properly on
together a toolkit and set of spares. its rubber seal. If your engine is
cooled by fresh water, always check If the flow of water through the raw
Raw water filter the fresh water header tank when you water side of the system reduces or
A filter must be fitted on the seawater check the filter on the raw water side stops, or if the engine overheats, check
inlet for the engine cooling system of the system. Be careful if the engine the raw water filter first to see if it is
(p.415). Its job is to prevent seaweed has been running, as the water in the blocked, then check the pump impeller.
and other floating material from system will be hot. If the water level To replace the impeller, turn off the
finding its way into the engine is low, top off with fresh water mixed water inlet seacock, remove the
cooling system. There are two types with antifreeze as recommended by faceplate from the water pump, and
of filter that are commonly fitted. the engine manufacturer. gently pry out the old impeller.
The first is a tubular mesh filter that Remove all traces of the old gasket
fits within a long cylinder that is part Replacing an impeller from the faceplate and pump housing
of the seacock. To check and unblock The impeller is the part of the and fit a new gasket. Press the new
this type, stop the engine, close the water pump that actually moves impeller in place, refit the faceplate,
the seawater around the raw open the seacock, and check for leaks.
water side of the cooling system.
The impeller rotates on a drive Bleeding the fuel system
shaft within the pump housing It becomes necessary to bleed the
and forces the water through fuel system if air gets into it, possibly
the pump. Impellers are made of during filter replacement, or if the
rubber or neoprene and rely on engine runs out of fuel. Most modern
the flow of water for lubrication. diesel engines are self-bleeding, which
They should be replaced at intervals means they should only need to be
recommended by the engine bled on the low-pressure side of the
manufacturer, but they occasionally system, although if the engine stopped
fail in service. If the engine is run because it ran out of fuel, it may be
dry—because the inlet seacock is necessary to bleed the high-pressure
remote water filter left shut or debris blocks the inlet or side as well.
This type of water filter can be positioned filter—for longer than a minute The principle of bleeding a diesel
remotely from the water inlet and makes or so, some damage to the impeller is pretty straightforward. The aim is
it easy to check that water is flowing. on the seawater pump is likely. to remove air by opening each bleed
 ENGINES: BASIC ENGINE MAINTENANCE
417
screw in turn, starting at the one Replacing fuel filters
closest to the tank and working All engines come with an engine-
toward the injector pump. If all the mounted fuel filter—usually called
bleed screws are below the level of the secondary or fine filter—but all
the fuel in the tank, the job is simple, systems should also have another
since gravity will cause the fuel to filter mounted between the tank and
flow through the piping. Undo the the engine to remove the majority
bleed screw on the primary filter a of the dirt and water that accumulates
couple of turns and watch the fuel in the fuel in the tank. This first filter is
and air bubbles seep out. When clean usually called the primary or prefilter.
fuel without air bubbles flows from Most primary filters contain a
the screw, tighten it again. Move filter cartridge and have a lower bowl, primary fuel filter
on to the next bleed screw, usually on usually transparent, in which water The top part of the unit contains a
the secondary filter, and repeat the and dirt collects. The primary filter cartridge filter, while water and sediment
process. Then do the same at should be checked every few hours of collects in the lower, transparent bowl,
the bleed screw on the injector pump. engine running. Drain water and dirt from where it can be drained.
If the bleed points are above from it by loosening the drain screw
the level of fuel in the tank, you at the bottom of the bowl until clean
will need to use the manual handle diesel runs out, then tighten the screw checked regularly to be sure they
on the fuel pump to pump fuel again. If the primary filter contains a are in good condition and adequately
through the system as you bleed each replaceable filter cartridge, replace it tight—if you press your thumb on
screw in turn. Sometimes the primary at least once a season. the center of the longest run, the belt
filter contains a lift pump that can be Most secondary filters have a should deflect by about 0.5 in
used instead of the engine fuel pump. disposable filter element that should (10–15 mm). Do not overtighten belts
Get used to bleeding your engine be changed at least once a season. since this will damage the alternator
so that you can do it quickly. Mark Some also have a water trap that or pump bearings. A shiny surface on
each bleed screw with a dab of bright should be drained in the same way the sides of the belt indicates it has
paint so it can be found easily in a as the primary filter. Before changing been slipping and should be replaced.
dark engine compartment, and fasten the filter, turn the fuel off and clean
the right-sized wrench or screwdriver around the filter to keep dirt from Checking lubrication
close to each bleed screw point. getting in while it is dismantled. Always check the oil level before
Unscrew the body of the filter if it using the engine, and every three to
is the spin-on type, or unscrew the four hours while it is running. The
central bolt of a cartridge type. engine manual will tell you which
Replace the new filter, seals, and type of oil to use and how often to
O-rings. Before fitting the new seals change it. If you do not use the
or O-rings, smear a little diesel on engine much, change the oil more
their surfaces—this will help make a regularly than is recommended and
good seal. Put the new filter in place consider installing oversized oil filters
and tighten the securing bolt, making to keep the oil clean. This helps
sure the seals seat properly. Open prolong the life of diesel engines,
the fuel tap, bleed the air out of the which suffer from short periods of
system, and check for leaks when use at low loads followed by long
the engine is running. periods of idleness—a typical pattern
of use for most yacht engines.
fuel pump Drive belts The gearbox requires a special oil
The fuel pump mounted on the engine The alternator and, on some engines, that will be specified in the manual.
usually has a manual lever that is used seawater impeller pump are powered Include the gearbox oil level in your
when bleeding the system. by drive belts. These should be prestart engine checks.
 PRACTICAL BOAT CARE
418

RUNNING REPAIRS
They should also know which items
are useful but could be dispensed
with if necessary.

Every cruising yacht should have sufficient tools and spare Tools
parts on board to allow basic repairs to be carried out at sea You should carry a selection of tools
to repair all essential equipment,
so that the boat can get back to harbor. The selection of spare together with the instruction manuals
parts you need to carry depends on the type of boat you own where available. Go through your
and the distances you sail. It is all too common for an emergency boat and examine every piece of
equipment and how it is secured.
to develop from a small initial failure, so it is imperative that the
If you might need to remove it at
skipper is capable of carrying out running repairs as and when some stage, check the size and type
they are required. of fasteners and make sure you have
the right screwdriver, wrench, or
socket for the job. Check the engine
Spare parts the engine to be a vital piece of manufacturer’s recommendations for
You will not require many spares equipment, whereas someone who is the engine toolkit and, again, ensure
if you tend to day-sail close to your very confident in their own skills and that you are carrying all the necessary
home port. However, if you are long- the boat’s performance under sail will wrenches, sockets, and Allen keys to
distance cruising, you should carry be less concerned about loss of engine work on the engine. Also, make sure
sufficient spares to keep all essential power. This is especially true if the that you have wrenches to service
systems operable. Some items are not boat has an alternative system for seacocks, and check that there is
possible to repair at sea, such as an charging the batteries or if there are enough room around each seacock
electronic autopilot. If the failure of oil lamps and other simple facilities in which to use them.
such an item would have a significant that will allow the cruise to continue
impact on the voyage, it is advisable without the need for electrical power. Storing tools
to carry full replacement units. Every skipper should make The best way to store tools is to use
sure they know exactly what items purpose-designed plastic toolboxes.
Essential spares of equipment are essential for the These have compartments of various
Opinions as to what spare parts safety of their crew and their boat, sizes to keep everything neat, and are
are essential will vary according to and they should be able to identify easy to secure. A comprehensive
the experience of the skipper and the items that will significantly affect toolkit could be split among several
crew. A novice skipper may consider its ability to complete a passage. boxes, according to the type of tool

CONTENTS OF A BASIC TOOLKIT

Tools for use aboard your boat should be of the They should be kept lightly oiled and stored securely.
best possible quality; otherwise, they will quickly The following list is an example of the contents of a
deteriorate in the damp conditions prevalent at sea. toolkit that would be useful for making basic repairs.

• Screwdrivers—all head types and sizes, • Wire cutter • Pliers and electrical pliers
including electric screwdrivers • Hacksaw and spare blades • Hammers and a mallet
• Wrenches—an assortment, including • Wood saw • Set of chisels
an adjustable wrench • Power drill (12V), drill bits, and • Files
• Socket set screwdriver bits • Flashlight
• Mole wrench • Hand drill and bits • Mirror (to see into confined spaces)
• Electrical wire terminal crimper • Brace and bits • Bolt cutters
 RUNNING REPAIRS
419
and how frequently it is required. case, the job will be much easier
This will make it quicker to find if you have somewhere to work MAINTENANCE
the tool that you need and makes where you can spread out your tools PLANNING
arranging storage easier. It is a good and hold the item you are working
Use a notebook to record all
idea to obtain boxes that have on securely. Some long-distance
items and equipment that need
individual compartments for small cruising boats incorporate a small repairs or regular maintenance.
items. These can be useful for workbench. This is an ideal solution, This makes it quick and easy to
frequently used spares such as tape but most yachts do not have the identify the most important work
or split rings, shackles, or fasteners. space. A useful alternative is to have and to plan time and materials
a strong piece of wood that is cut for the job.
Repairs at sea to fit across the cockpit, between
Repairs are much simpler to carry the seats, and to which you can Scheduling repairs
out in harbor, but it is sometimes fasten a small portable vise to hold Maintenance jobs are much easier
necessary to do them at sea. In this the work securely. and more pleasant to carry out when
the weather is good. Try to schedule
regular maintenance sessions and

USEFUL SPARES
keep your list of repairs as short as
possible during the sailing season.

Some of the vital and most useful spares and kits are listed below. Making a list
You should also consider carrying replacement units for items that Make time to take the occasional
are essential to the running of your boat but are not repairable. tour through your boat, checking
all possible sources of problems and
making a list of repairs as you go.
engine spares electrical spares
Once you have checked structural
• Spark plugs and coil (gasoline engine) • Fuses—all types used on board fixtures above deck, work your
• Injectors (diesel engine) • Bulbs—including navigation lights way through the interior. Run all
electrical and mechanical systems
• Repair kits for fuel and water pumps • Terminal fittings
to be sure they work and have not
with seals and impellers • Connecting blocks
been affected by moisture.
• Set of hoses • Soldering iron and solder
• Oil filters • Wire—assorted sizes What to look for
• Fuel filters • Tape—insulating and • Check structural items to make
• Sets of gaskets, seals, and O-rings self-amalgamating sure that their fastenings have not
• Fuel • Batteries (for flashlights and so on) loosened. Sailing to windward in
• Oil and grease • Distilled water (for topping large waves can put a considerable
• Fuel antibacterial additives (diesel) up batteries) load on the forward parts of the
• Spare ignition key • Hydrometer (for checking batteries) boat and the main bulkhead. Take
a look down below when the boat
is sailing hard to see if there is any
assorted spares movement of the hull or bulkheads.
• Check the chainplates and look
• Sail repair kit (p.396) • Bulldog clamps and rigging wire—a
for signs of leaks around them.
• Sticky-backed sail repair tape length equal to longest on board • Look for any leaks around fittings,
• Piston hanks • Marine sealant windows, or hatches.
• Whipping twine • Underwater epoxy • Check along the hull-to-deck joint
• Mainsail slider • Waterproof grease for signs of water leakage.
• Rope—spare lengths of • Petroleum jelly • If water regularly appears in the
various sizes • Paint and varnish (minor repairs) bilge of a GRP or metal boat, try to
• Shackles—assorted • Epoxy glue and fillers track its source and seal the leak.
• Bottlescrew • Fiberglass tape and cloth • In GRP boats, check the decks for
• Clevis pins • Nails, screws, and bolts—assorted signs of star-shaped crazing around
• Split pins and rings • Wood—assorted pieces fittings that is caused by stress.
STAYING SAFE
Sailing is generally safe despite the potentially hostile environment in which
it takes place. If safety is to be maintained, however, it is crucial that participants
understand the risks, accept responsibility for their own well‑being, and sail
within the bounds of their experience. Staying safe depends as much on
attitude, seamanship, and common sense as on equipment.
 STAYING SAFE
422

EMERGENCY REPAIRS
A cruising yacht’s crew must be prepared to deal with all with a brace, such as the fender board
eventualities once they cast off and head out to sea. Although or other suitable length of wood. You
can purchase an umbrellalike piece of
most passages will be enjoyable and uneventful, the crew will equipment that is pushed through the
occasionally be presented with an unwelcome challenge, such as hole and opened on the outside. Water
a hole in the boat, dismasting, loss of steering, a fouled propeller pressure then seals it against the hull
and stops the leak. Whatever material
(which renders the engine useless), or even a fire. All skippers
you use, you need to be innovative and
must plan for such contingencies, carry the right spares and act quickly to block the hole before
equipment, and drill the crew in emergency procedures. the inrush of water overwhelms your
pumps. Once the hole is blocked from
the inside, you may be able to lower a
Holing and leaks to block the hole. If the inrush of sail over the hole on the outside using
If the boat is holed above the water is from a hole in the hull skin, lines led under the hull to secure it.
waterline, perhaps in a collision, you it should be easy to locate unless it Fasten the lines at suitable strong
have some time to assess the situation is behind paneling, in which case points on deck, such as handrails.
and take action. If the damage you may have to pry interior furniture The size of the hole and how deep
is below the waterline, however, away to expose the source of the leak. it is below the waterline determine
immediate action is required to Your objective is to block the hole the amount of water coming in.
prevent the boat from sinking. Your as effectively as possible by whatever Water pressure increases rapidly with
priorities must be to eliminate or means available. Bunk cushions, sail depth, so a hole low down will create
minimize the inrush of water and to bags, or any other soft material can be a high-pressure jet of water that will
start pumping to keep the boat afloat. pushed into the hole and held in place be difficult to stop.
First, turn on all electric bilge
pumps, and the damage control pump
if installed, and have a crew member blocking a hole
work the manual pump. If you have It is important to block the hole,
spare crew members and the water is particularly below the water line, as Fender
already over the cabin sole, instruct quickly as possible and by whatever board acts
as brace Folded
them to use buckets in order to scoop means you can. Push soft furnishings
cushion
(folded as many times as possible) into over hole
water through the companionway
the hole and hold in position with a brace
into the cockpit. You may be able
such as the boathook or fender board.
to add to the pumping capacity by USING A BUNK CUSHION
removing the engine-cooling water
inlet hose from its skin fitting and
putting the end in the bilge.
Sometimes the source of the water
is not obvious—in which case, suspect
a broken engine-cooling water hose
or toilet hose or a failed seacock
or through-hull fitting. If the leak is
from a hose, turn off the seacock. All Sail as bandage
Snug fit
Only fit the sail
seacocks should have a wooden plug once the hole is Pull the sail tightly
tied to them so that if a seacock fails, blocked from inside around the hull to
cover the hole
you can quickly use the tapered plug USING A SAIL
 EMERGENCY REPAIRS
423
If the hole is near the waterline, you
may be able to heel the boat to raise
the hole out of the water or at least
dismasted yacht
reduce the pressure. If you cannot The priority is to get the broken pieces
stem the inflow, and if your boat does on board or cut away so that they cannot
not have watertight compartments, damage the hull. The boat’s motion will
your best hope lies in the ability of be jerky without the mast, so there is an
your pumps to keep up with the increased risk of falling overboard.
flooding. Assess the situation quickly,
and if it is clear that you will not be
able to keep the yacht afloat, you
must commence the procedure for
abandoning ship (pp.430–431). If
your boat is near shallow water and
the tide is falling, another option may
be to deliberately ground the vessel.
This will allow you to patch the
damage before the tide rises again.

Dismasting
The loss of a mast usually occurs
when a piece of rigging or a terminal
fitting gives way. This usually
happens in rough conditions but can disconnecting the standing rigging hangings or bearings rarely fail—if
occur in calm weather if the fitting at the chainplates—is difficult in a problem does occur, it is generally
has been weakened earlier and rough conditions. in the rudder-control system. An
suddenly gives way. The mast will Assess the situation once you emergency tiller must be available in
fall roughly downwind as the sails have cut away or recovered the gear. a wheel-steered boat, and you should
pull it over the side. As soon as this You may be able to reach port under practice using one before it is needed.
happens, the motion of the boat will power if you have sufficient fuel, but Deck layout may necessitate the use
change dramatically as it loses the do not start the engine until you have of relieving tackles to control the
inertia of the rig high above the checked and rechecked that there are makeshift tiller. Undertake a practice
hull. The motion will be quick and no ropes in the water that may foul run to try these out to make sure
jerky and it will become difficult the propeller. If motoring is not an you know how to rig and use such
to stand and work on deck. The option, then attempt to improvise a a system if necessary.
immediate priority is to prevent the jury rig—perhaps using the spinnaker If the rudder or its fittings fail,
broken pieces of mast—still attached pole and a storm jib—that will allow you will have to find another way
to the boat by rigging, halyards, and you to sail downwind, albeit slowly. of steering. An emergency sweep can
control lines—from damaging the hull sometimes be constructed by bolting
or decks. Ideally, try to recover as Steering failure the spinnaker pole to a floorboard
much of the broken mast as possible Loss of steering occurs most and lashing it to the pushpit or stern
for use in constructing a jury rig (a frequently aboard wheel-steered rail. Alternatively, you may be able
makeshift rig to get you to safety). boats as a result of a steering-cable to tow two small drogues off each
Recovery is often impossible in rough failure, which can often be prevented quarter and adjust these to steer
weather; you will usually have to cut by regular checks and maintenance. the boat. How the boat balances
away the rig to prevent it from holing Tiller-steered boats have simpler under sail will determine whether
the hull. You will need a hacksaw systems with less to go wrong, but you can steer in this way, but you
or a large pair of bolt cutters to cut it is wise to carry a spare tiller for will have to reduce sail to keep the
standing rigging; the alternative— use in case of a breakage. Rudder boat under control.
 STAYING SAFE
424
Fouled propeller If, despite all your precautions, a rope Firefighting
Fouled propellers are quite a common does foul the propeller, you are likely Fire on board is most typically
occurrence, especially in busy sailing to have a difficult task freeing it. If the result of a cooking accident,
areas with many moorings, fishing the engine was turning at low speed an electrical fault, or an explosion
nets, and lobster-pot lines to snag and you can still reach an end of the in the gas or fuel supply. There is
the unwary. Propellers are usually rope, you may be able to free it by little to be done in the event of an
fouled by a rope caught and wrapped turning the engine slowly, by hand explosion, as it is likely to destroy
around the propeller shaft. Synthetic if possible, in the opposite direction the boat. Prevent such an eventuality
materials often melt and fuse because to that in which the propeller was by fitting and maintaining the gas
of the heat generated by friction. turning, while pulling on the rope. and fuel supply properly, and install
This creates a solid mass around the It is more likely, however, that the a gas detector with a loud warning
propeller and shaft, which stops only remedy is to cut the tangled or bell. Avoid bringing naked flames
the engine. fused material away. This may require near gas appliances, and do not
Prevention is far better than cure. someone to go over the side with a run the engine or other machinery
Be alert to ropes in the water, and sharp knife, something that is both when refueling or when working
make sure your own ropes do not difficult and hazardous to do at sea. on the engine.
fall over the side—there is little worse This should be attempted only in calm Fire must be combated as soon
than being immobilized by your weather by someone wearing a wetsuit as it starts if it is to be brought
own warp. and with a safety line tied around under control with the minimum
Another effective preventative them. In harbor, you may be able of damage. It is essential to ensure
measure is to fit a shaft cutter. These to dry out alongside or heel the boat that there are fire extinguishers of
are mounted ahead of the propeller. or trim it down by the bow sufficiently appropriate types in all the key areas
They have a serrated edge with sharp to reach the prop from the dinghy. of the boat. Test them regularly to
teeth that catch and cut any rope or Always be sure the engine is stopped if be certain that they work and make
plastic that comes near the propeller. anyone is working near the propeller. sure the crew understands their use.

Shaft cutter with

WHICH FIRE EXTINGUISHER?
serrated teeth Mount foam or dry powder extinguishers close to the galley and engine
compartment and fit others in the forecabin and a cockpit locker. Equip
enclosed engine compartments with a remote fire extinguisher, either
manually or automatically operated. Pressure-test all extinguishers regularly
and invert dry powder extinguishers monthly to prevent the powder inside
from compacting in the bottom. Know how and when to use each of the
different extinguishers, and brief the crew thoroughly in their use.

type of fire method of extinguishing fire

Combustible materials Foam or dry powder extinguisher.

Aim extinguisher at the base of the fire.

Engine fire CO2, foam, or dry powder extinguisher.

Propeller Turn off fuel supply at tank.
blade

Electrical fault CO2 or dry powder extinguisher. Turn off

battery system at isolating switch.
shaft cutter
Fitting a shaft cutter to the propeller Cooking fire Foam or dry powder extinguisher, or fire
shaft ahead of the propeller is a good blanket. Use the blanket to smother flames.
way to minimize the risk of a fouling.
 EMERGENCY REPAIRS
425
BEING TOWED
If your boat has been disabled and you have been able taking a tow may make you liable for a salvage claim
to summon assistance, you may have to accept a tow by the towing vessel. Try to negotiate and agree to a fee
from another vessel. Towing at sea is difficult and must before accepting a tow, and supply your own tow rope.
be handled correctly if the tow is to be successful and If possible, agree on a destination and speed of tow with
not result in further damage to your boat. Be aware that the other vessel’s skipper.

Towing a sailing dinghy Towing a cruiser in rough seas, or if you have to

Sailing dinghies sometimes take a Towing a cruiser places high loads on be towed for some distance, rig
tow in light winds or before or after both the towed and towing vessels, but a towing bridle made up of one
a race. When you are being towed, the towed yacht is especially vulnerable or more heavy warps, attached to
lower the mainsail and pull the if it is being towed by a much larger the strongest parts of the yacht
centerboard almost fully up. Leave vessel. Ships often cannot travel at a to distribute the loads throughout
the rudder in place and steer to slow speed without losing steerage way, the structure. Use a long, springy
follow the wake of the towing boat. and their minimum speed will often nylon warp or the anchor chain
A dinghy can be towed alongside impose very high strains on the yacht to form the tow rope. Make sure it
or astern. Several dinghies can be being towed. Avoid taking a tow from is long enough to reduce snatching
towed together in line astern or a much larger vessel unless there is no loads on the warp; otherwise, it
herringbone fashion. alternative. If the tow is to take place may break.

Line led Painter

Fenders through
fairlead

Main tow
line

towing a dinghy alongside towing herringbone fashion

If a single dinghy is being towed in calm conditions, If several dinghies are being towed, they will be arranged either one behind
it can be towed alongside as above. Otherwise, tow the other or in a herringbone tow, as shown. In the latter, each boat uses its
astern to avoid damage—tie a painter around the rudder to steer, and the painter is led directly from the mast to the main tow
mast and lead it through a fairlead at the bow. line, not through the bow fitting, and fastened with a rolling hitch (p.225).

Stern cleats Mast Bridle attached at

stern quarters
Long tow line

Towing bridle
Cockpit winch

towing bridle towing a cruiser

Rig your mooring warps to form a towing loop at the A long tow rope in a rough sea will reduce shock loading and reduce the
bow with the warps leading from the bow cleats back danger of the towed yacht’s overrunning the warp if it surfs down waves.
to the cockpit winches, stern cleats, and mast. Attach If this is still a danger, the yacht under tow should trail a warp astern to help
the towing warp or chain to the towing loop and use stop it from surfing on waves. Steer the yacht in the wake of the towing boat
plenty of chafe protection on the warp at the fairlead. to stop it from sheering to one side, which dramatically increases towing loads.
 STAYING SAFE
426

DISTRESS SIGNALS
automatic means of sending (and
receiving) distress alerts or urgency,
safety, and routine communications.
DSC communication is faster and
If an emergency on board has developed beyond the ability of more reliable than a manually
the crew to deal with it, the time has come to ask for help. Distress operated radio and provides the
receiving station with the identification
signals are only ever used when a boat or crew member is in grave of the vessel in distress and the
and imminent danger and immediate assistance is required. If you position of the vessel. As well
see or hear a distress signal, you are legally required to render as communicating distress alerts
by radio, GMDSS also provides for
speedily all possible assistance. The small-boat and cruising sailor
alerts and locating signals to be sent
is most likely to use radio, emergency position indicating radio using emergency position indicating
beacon (EPIRB), or flares to signal for help. radio beacons (EPIRBs) and search
and rescue radar transponders
(SARTs) (p.428).
Calling for assistance may still save your life—make sure
You should not hesitate to use a you know them all. Refer to Annex Radio
recognized distress signal to call for IV of the International Regulations Most yachts carry a very high
assistance if you find yourself in a for Preventing Collisions at Sea. frequency (VHF) radio; some also
situation where you, your boat, or use a medium frequency (MF) radio
your crew are in grave and immediate GMDSS and a few long-distance cruising
danger. However, you should know The GMDSS has been developed
that distress signals are not intended by the International Maritime
to be used in situations that are simply Organization (IMO) to create an
inconvenient—such as being becalmed integrated, worldwide distress and
when on a tight schedule. If the safety communications system for Search and
situation is urgent but does not warrant commercial and recreational vessels. rescue helicopter

a distress signal and the full-scale GMDSS regulations are compulsory

rescue operation that it will set in force, for commercial vessels over 300 Merchant
ship
you can use your radio to broadcast an gross tons and for some classes of
urgency signal to inform other vessels passenger and fishing vessels but
Yacht alerts
and the coast guard of your situation. are voluntary for pleasure craft. rescue
Many common situations, such as an GMDSS is designed primarily to authorities
engine failure or running out of fuel, be a ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship and shipping
by VHF DSC
can be dealt with by a call to the distress alerting system while also or EPIRB
coast guard to request a referral to a delivering urgency, safety, and routine
commercial tow or repair service. communications, including weather Lifeboat
When you do need to attract forecasts, navigational warnings, and
attention and call for assistance, search and rescue messages. Ashore, Rescue
there are a number of methods to distress messages are routed to rescue Life raft signals coordination
location by SART center
choose from, ranging from the most coordination centers that coordinate
sophisticated Global Maritime the rescue response and communicate
gmdss integration
Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) with Search and Rescue services and
Among many other things, GMDSS
equipment to flares, sound signals, other vessels and organizations provides an automatic means of sending
shapes, flags, and even arm-waving. involved in the rescue. and receiving distress alerts by using
Recognized distress signals have GMDSS makes use of Digital conventional radio or digital signals that
developed over the centuries, but Selective Calling (DSC) (p.335) via can tell the rescue authorities both who
most of the old ones remain valid and conventional radio to provide an you are and where you are.
 DISTRESS SIGNALS
427
epirb and indicates that a vessel important safety, navigational,
Units have a unique is in grave and immediate or weather warning is about
serial number that you danger. Use of the distress to be transmitted.
must register with your signal imposes general
national authority. They radio silence, which must EPIRB
can be operated manually
be maintained until the Another piece of radio equipment
or automatically—with a
emergency is over and the that is common aboard yachts
float-free bracket to release
if the vessel sinks. authority controlling the that sail offshore is an emergency
emergency response transmits position indicating radio beacon
SEELONCE FEENEE. (EPIRB). This transmits a distress
yachts use a high signal to satellites that are part
frequency (HF) radio. VHF Sending a distress signal of the GMDSS, locating the
radio is limited to line-of- To send a distress signal EPIRB’s position and relaying the
sight operation between the (without using DSC), make sure the information to a rescue coordination
transmitting and receiving aerials. VHF (or MF) set is turned on and center. When an EPIRB is purchased,
In practice, this means reception has power. Switch to high power to it is registered with the details of
of about 40 miles (65 km) from a transmit. The form the message takes the vessel, along with an emergency
coastal radio station with a high is vital (right). Once transmitted, contact, so that rescue services
aerial or 10 miles (15 km) between listen for a reply, which in coastal already have this information if
two yachts at sea. An MF set has waters should come almost at once. the EPIRB is activated.
a longer range of about 200 miles If no reply is heard, check the set and
(320 km) but is more expensive and try again. Once you establish contact
requires more power. A ship’s license with the rescue center, calmly provide MAYDAY
is required to install a VHF, MF, or them all the information they require. Mayday is the internationally
HF radio, and the user needs an recognized radiotelephony
operator’s license. Urgency signals distress word. It is essential that all
These are used to send an urgent crew members know exactly how
Distress alert via DSC message concerning the safety of
to transmit a Mayday should the
need ever arise. It is comprised of
Sending an alert by DSC is often the boat or a crew member but
two parts. The call:
the most practical way of seeking when you are not yet in grave and
“MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY
help when in distress. If you have a imminent danger. It may be that a THIS IS ….” [name of yacht, repeated
modern DSC VHF set that conforms crew member has been injured and three times, plus MMSI if available]
to GMDSS, it will have a dedicated requires medical assistance or that
distress button, usually colored red your boat has been rendered helpless And the message:
and protected by a cover to prevent and is drifting but not in danger “MAYDAY”
accidental triggering. A shore station of sinking. In such cases, the “MY NAME” [name of yacht
receiving a DSC distress signal also radiotelephony words PAN PAN are spoken once and spelled phonetically]
“MY POSITION IS …..” [give
receives the unique Maritime Mobile used. As with distress signals, urgency
position in latitude and longitude,
Service Identity (MMSI) number messages are broadcast initially on or bearing, and distance from a
that identifies the vessel, the vessel’s Channel 16 or 2182 kHz; you should known point]
position, and the time of said position. consider switching to a working “I AM ….” [give the nature of the
Following transmission of a channel once contact has been made. emergency]
distress alert on VHF Channel 70 PAN PAN takes priority over all “I HAVE ….” [give the number of
(or 2187.5 kHz on a MF transmitter), but MAYDAY communication. people on board, whether they are
taking to the liferaft, firing flares, or
you should transmit your Mayday
any other useful information]
call and message on VHF Channel 16 Safety signals “I REQUIRE IMMEDIATE
(or 2182 kHz on an MF transmitter). These use the procedure word ASSISTANCE”
The recognized radiotelephony SÉCURITÉ spoken three times “OVER”
distress signal is the word MAYDAY in succession, indicating that an
 STAYING SAFE
428
SART distinctive series of 12 blips on the closer to within about 1 nm, the
A search and rescue transponder radar screen of the ship or aircraft blips change to arcs of a circle, and
(SART) is a small, battery-powered whose radar signal triggered the when the target is very close, the arcs
receiver and transmitter that operates SART’s response. At sea level, as change to complete circles. A SART
on the 9GHz frequency, which is in a life raft, a SART will produce should have sufficient battery life for
the frequency of X-band radar sets. a contact when a ship is within about 96 hours of standby operation
This system is designed to provide about 5 miles (8 km). and 8 hours’ transmission. When
a locating signal and is primarily An aircraft’s radar display will using a SART, it is best not to deploy
intended to be used from a life see the contact at up to about 30 a radar reflector at the same time, as
raft, although it could also prove miles, depending on its altitude. The this can mask the SARTs signal. If
invaluable on board the yacht if 12-blip echo produced by a SART a SART is switched on by accident,
it is disabled but still afloat. on a radar screen shows as a line inform the coast guard immediately
When a SART is switched on of blips running outward from the in case the signal has been picked
and is in range of an X-band radar, SART’s position along its line of up by a nearby ship which has then
the SART responds by producing a bearing. As the rescue craft gets initiated a search.

TYPES OF FLARES
All boats that sail on the sea, or large inland waters, carry a couple of handheld red flares, whereas a cruiser
should carry flares. The type and number depend sailing offshore will need a larger selection. Keep them
on the distance you sail from shore. A dinghy may dry and replace them before their renewal date.

parachute flare buoyant smoke mini-flares

red flare orange smoke flare mini-flares

Fires a bright Once ignited, is Meant for
red flare up to dropped into personal use
1,000 ft (300 m) water to leeward and kept in
that burns for of boat and emits jacket pocket.
about 40 seconds. dense orange smoke Ideal for small
Use when some for about three boats such as
distance from help. minutes. Highly dinghies.
In low cloud, fire visible from air and Fires eight red flare cartridges,
downwind under indicates wind speed for day or night use, visible for
the cloud. and direction. 5–10 miles (8–16 km).

handheld flares

white flare red flare orange smoke flare

Not a distress Burns with a Handheld flare
signal but a way bright red light for emits bright, dense
of warning other about 60 seconds orange smoke and
vessels of your with a range of about burns for about 60
presence. Burns for 3 miles (5 km). Use seconds. It is intended
about 40 seconds. to indicate your exact for use in daylight and
Always stow one within position when within good visibility and is
easy reach of the helm. sight of assistance. best in light winds.
 DISTRESS SIGNALS
429
OTHER SIGNALS
Although the GMDSS system components—DSC radio and satellite
communication, EPIRBs and SARTs—together with non-DSC radio and
the use of flares are the main ways of signaling distress or urgent
situations, there are older systems that should not be forgotten and could
be life-savers if the electrical system fails and renders the sophisticated
equipment useless. Flags, shapes, sound signals, and physical waving can
firing a flare all be used to indicate distress when in sight of another vessel or the shore.
Handheld flares emit burning embers,
Flags and shapes code flags, it is worth carrying the
so always hold them downwind at arm’s
Flags are one of the oldest means ones needed for use in a distress or
length and tilted away from your body.
of human communication, and the urgency situation. If you do carry
Avert your eyes in order to avoid being
system of international code flags flags, make sure that they are large
temporarily blinded by the bright light. includes signals for indicating distress enough to be seen from a distance.
and requesting assistance. Even in
today’s technological world, signals Sound and visual signals
Using flares by flags and shapes are still used. Sound signals can be made using
Flares are used to attract attention, Even if you do not carry a full set of a horn powered by mouth, electricity,
or compressed air. The classic sound
raise the alarm to a distress situation,
code flags distress signal is SOS, but the
and pinpoint your boat’s position.
n  over c rapid sounding of a horn is also
Make sure that you carry sufficient a recognized distress signal.
Code flag N hoisted
flares of the various types (opposite) over code flag C If you are in a small boat—a
and make sure that they are within indicates “I am in dinghy, perhaps—in sight of help
their expiration date. Old flares can distress and require and have no other signals available,
be kept aboard for, say, a year after assistance.” Flags the easiest international distress
are made of cloth, signal to use is to slowly raise and
their expiry date as extras, but always
but painted boards lower your outstretched arms.
have enough fresh flares on board. can be used.
Old flares are likely to burn less
brightly and generally become less
reliable. Store flares where they can
code flag v
be kept dry but are instantly available.
This code
It is a good idea to clip a few flares flag signals “I
(including a couple of white flares) require assistance.”
near the companionway for immediate
use with the others stored in a
waterproof flare canister. Read the code flag w
instructions so you and your crew Hoisting this flag simple distress signal
know how to use the flares and, if signals “I require Stand facing in the direction of
medical assistance.” potential assistance and slowly raise
possible, attend a course on flare use. and lower your outstretched arms
When firing a parachute flare, from down by your sides to above
stand with your back to the wind and the shoulders. Keep repeating the signal
black
fire the flare downwind at an angle of until you receive an acknowledgment.
square over You can combine this signal with others,
about 15 degrees to the vertical. The black ball such as sounding SOS on a foghorn,
flare will turn into the wind as it These shapes to attract attention.
rises. However, if there is low cloud, indicate “I
fire the flare at about 45 degrees to require assistance.”
keep it under the cloud base where it SOS SIGNAL
can be seen. Never fire a parachute
flare if there is a helicopter nearby.
 STAYING SAFE
430

ABANDONING SHIP
If an emergency situation develops to the point where you Once everything is prepared, do
may have to abandon ship, the decision to do so must be carefully not rush to launch the raft, but
do everything possible to save
considered. Unless the yacht is in imminent danger of sinking, you will the yacht.
be safer staying aboard than taking to a life raft. Whether to accept an
offer of rescue from a helicopter or another vessel and abandon ship is The life raft
The term “life raft” suggests that it is
a decision that the skipper will have to make based on their confidence
a guaranteed life-saver. In reality, rafts
in the yacht, its crew, and their own ability to get the yacht to port. often do not fulfill these expectations.
A life raft should be of a style
approved by your national authority
Abandon ship preparation and collect cans of food and a can for the type of sailing you intend
Speed is vital if you have to abandon opener in case you are in the raft to do and should be large enough to
a sinking yacht and your life raft is for a long time. A chart, compass, hold every member of the crew. Try
the only option open to you. First, and plotting tools will also be to take a short course in using the
prepare the life raft for launching useful, as will a handheld GPS, raft to familiarize yourself with the
and ensure that the crew dresses in a portable VHF radio, extra red inflation mechanism, the difficulty
their warmest clothing, with full flares, a signaling flashlight, and of boarding from the water, and how
oilskins, harnesses, and life jackets. a knife. An offshore yacht should to right the raft if it inverts. Life rafts
If time allows, the crew should have a panic bag containing these are packed in a solid container or
gather together items that may be items ready for just such an in a flexible case and should contain
useful in the life raft. Fill sealable emergency. This bag should be emergency equipment to help you
containers with extra drinking water kept close to the companionway. survive in the raft. However, this
equipment is the minimum required;
check what yours contains and
LAUNCHING THE LIFE RAFT prepare your panic bag accordingly.
When you are ready to launch the raft, cut or untie its lashings but If possible, supplement with
leave its painter tied to a strong point on the vessel, as this is needed equipment salvaged from the yacht
to inflate the raft. before you abandon ship.

Be careful not Board carefully to

to lose your avoid getting wet
footing Raft inflates
rapidly

Help any crew in the

water into the raft

1 Launch the raft by 2 The raft will take about 3 As soon as the raft is 4 Once all the crew are
throwing its container over 30 seconds to inflate. If the inflated, the first crew member aboard, release or cut both
the leeward side. A sharp tug raft inflates upside down, you boards. Rig an additional painters. Bail out water and
on the painter will inflate it. must right it before boarding. mooring line in rough seas. shut canopy openings.
 431
If you are forced to use a life raft,
always stream the drogue—a mini-
underwater parachute—as soon
as you have boarded. Trailing this
beneath the raft will slow down its
drift and help prevent a capsize.
It is important that life rafts are
helicopter rescue
serviced regularly in accordance with Using the Hi-Line technique, the helicopter
the manufacturer’s instructions. first lowers a nylon line across the yacht
before moving to hover to one side. The
Helicopter rescue line is used to pull in the winchman.
When the boat is within flying
range of the coast, helicopters
are frequently used for search-and-
rescue operations. The helicopter’s
crew decides how to rescue the If no dinghy is available or the line is fed out. Keep hold of the end
yacht’s crew and, if possible, conditions are too rough, you if further casualties are to be lifted
will communicate directly using may have to be picked up from and the procedure repeated.
marine VHF. Always follow their the water. In this case, each crew
orders exactly and help them member in turn is tied to a long Ship rescue
complete the rescue as quickly warp and enters the water to drift If a ship or lifeboat comes to
as possible; the time they are able astern of the yacht from where they your assistance, you should follow
to spend hovering at the scene will are retrieved by the helicopter. its skipper’s instructions as to
be limited. Where possible, position Alternatively, the helicopter may how they intend to recover your
the boat head-to-wind (or nearly use a Hi-Line method. A long nylon crew. In rough seas, it is extremely
so), with all its sails lowered, and line, carrying a weight on the lower hazardous to come alongside
make sure all crew are wearing end with its the upper end attached another vessel, especially if your
life jackets. If you can, motor to the helicopter’s recovery hook, is rescuer is a large ship. A lifeboat
slowly into the wind or, if you lowered across the yacht so that the will normally come directly
are drifting, slow the rate of drift crew can grab it. Once the yacht’s alongside, and your crew should
by streaming a drogue from the crew has the line, the helicopter moves be ready to board it quickly under
bow or lowering the anchor off to one side of the yacht. The line instruction from the lifeboat crew.
and chain. must not be made fast on board but A large ship may lower a boat
The helicopter will not hover should be pulled in as the helicopter if the size of the seas permits, but in
directly over the yacht because lowers the winchman or lifting strop. very rough seas, it will probably stop
of the danger of becoming entangled The line is attached to the lifting hook to windward of the yacht to create
in the rig. Depending on the by a weak link designed to break if a smoother area in the ship’s lee.
circumstances, the rescue may take the line snags. Pull in the line until the This is hazardous, as the ship will
place in one of the following three winchman or lifting strop is within drift downwind rapidly and the
ways: from a dinghy towed behind reach, and flake it down so that it yacht and its crew will be vulnerable
the yacht, from the water, or by cannot snag and is free to run. Be to a hard collision. The ship’s crew
using a Hi-Line technique. If it is careful not to touch the winch wire will lower a ladder or scrambling
to be a dinghy rescue, connect it until its end has been earthed by net over the side, which the yacht’s
to the yacht with a long warp of the sea or winchman, because static crew must climb. If you have to
about 100 ft (30 m) and put only electricity can give an unpleasant jump for a ladder or net, wait until
one person in it at a time. The shock. Once the winchman is on the yacht is on the top of a wave to
helicopter will lower a lifting strop board, follow their instructions. When lessen the danger of being crushed
or send a winchman down to assist the winchman and the first crew are between ship and yacht, and climb
the crew. being lifted off the yacht, the nylon up as quickly as possible.
 GLOSSARY
432
GLOSSARY
A BACKWIND When a mainsail is let out beyond
its best trim, or if the jib is sheeted in too tight,
the mainsail flutters in its front portion.
BOLTROPE A reinforcing rope along a sail’s edge.
BOOM A horizontal spar or pole, used to extend
the foot of a sail and to help control the sail’s
BAILER Device to remove water from a boat. angle in relation to the wind.
ABAFT Behind, at, or toward the stern of a boat. BALANCE A boat is balanced when it is upright, BOOM VANG (or kicking strap) A tackle that
ABEAM At right angles to the fore-and-aft line. both fore-and-aft and athwartships. prevents the boom from rising under the
BALANCED HELM When a boat has a balanced pressure of wind in the mainsail.
AFT Toward, at, or near the stern.
helm, it will have little tendency to turn. If you BOTTLESCREW A fitting to adjust the tension
AHEAD In a forward direction. let go of the tiller, it will continue on a straight in the standing rigging.
AIRFLOW Movement of air across the sails. course. See weather helm and lee helm.
BOW The forward end of a boat; opposite of stern.
ALTOSTRATUS Midlevel cloud in the form of a BAROGRAPH A recording barometer, which
creates a continuous reading of air pressure BOW-FITTING Fitting to which the forestay
sheet or layer totally or partly covering the sky. and jib tack are attached.
on a paper graph.
AMIDSHIPS At, near, or toward the center
BAROMETER Instrument that registers BOW LINE Also known as the head rope, the
of a vessel.
atmospheric pressure. bow line is a mooring warp that runs from
ANCHOR A eavy device attached to a boat by a the bow to a point ashore ahead of the boat;
rope (anchor warp) or chain cable and lowered BATTEN A light wooden, fiberglass, or plastic opposite of stern line.
overboard to secure a boat to the bottom. strip that slots into a pocket sewn into the aft
edge (leech) of a sail to support the roach. BOW SPRING Rope running from the bow of
ANCHOR CABLE The chain or rope used to the boat aft to another boat or pontoon when
attach an anchor to the boat. See warp. BEAM REACH Sailing with the wind blowing
berthed to prevent the boat from moving ahead.
directly over the side of the boat.
ANCHOR WINDLASS A manual or motor-driven BOW WAVE The wave that the bow of a vessel
mechanism used on some cruisers to raise the BEARING The direction of an object from your
creates as it travels through the water.
anchor by winding the rope or chain around boat or between two objects. Both are measured
a drum or barrel. in degrees relative to north. See heading. BOWER ANCHOR The main anchor on a boat.

ANCHORAGE An area with good holding ground BEARING AWAY Turning the boat away from BOWLINE (pronounced “bow-lynn”) Knot used
where it is sheltered and safe to drop anchor. the wind; opposite of luffing (or luffing up). to make a loop in the end of a rope or to tie to
BEATING Tailing to windward close-hauled and a ring or post.
ANEMOMETER An instrument that measures
wind speed. zigzagging to reach an objective to windward. BOWSPRIT A spar projecting from the bow of
BEAUFORT SCALE A descriptive scale used for some boats, allowing sails to be secured farther
ANGLE OF VANISHING STABILITY ( AVS) The forward, thus extending the sail plan.
angle of heel at which a boat’s righting moment measuring wind strengths.
reaches zero. BENDING ON The traditional term used to BREAST ROPE A mooring rope running at
describe fitting the sails onto the boat. right angles to the boat, from bow or stern,
ANODES Sacrificial zinc shapes that are fastened sometimes used in addition to the four main
near underwater metal fittings, such as the BERMUDAN SLOOP A rig with a triangular warps to hold the boat alongside.
propeller shaft, to protect them from corrosion mainsail and a single headsail.
through electrolysis. The anodes corrode first. BRIDGE DECK A raised area that separates
BERTH A place to park alongside a dock or the cockpit from the cabin.
ANTICYCLONE Area of relatively heavy, sinking pontoon or in a marina.
air which results in high pressure. BRIDLE Wire span for attaching forestay to hulls
BERTHING The process of parking a boat in on catamarans, or a rope span sometimes used
ANTIFOULING PAINT Special paint applied to the its berth. to secure lower mainsheet block on dinghies
hull to prevent underwater fouling from weeds
BIGHT (1) Bend in the shore making cove, bay, that do not use a mainsheet traveler.
and barnacles, which would slow the boat.
or inlet. (2) Bend in a rope.
BROACH When a boat turns inadvertently
APPARENT WIND The combination of true wind
BILGE (1) The rounded parts of the hull where broadside to the waves. This may occur when a
(that which we feel when stationary) plus the
the sides curve inward to form the bottom. boat is sailing in strong winds and the sails are
wind produced by motion.
(2) The area where water collects inside not properly balanced or the boat heels a lot.
ASTERN Backward. Outside, and abaft the stern. the boat.
BROAD REACH Sailing with the wind coming
ASYMMETRIC SPINNAKER Downwind sail that BILGE KEEL A twin keel, used on boats over the port or starboard quarter of the boat.
does not use a pole but requires a bowsprit. designed to be able to dry out sitting upright.
Sometimes used in conjunction with a shallow BRUCE (anchor) A type of burying anchor.
ATHWARTSHIPS Across a boat, from side to side.
central keel. BULKHEAD Below-deck partition separating one
AUTOPILOT Mechanical helm that steers the boat part of a boat’s interior from another.
BILGE PUMP Manual or electric pump to
relative to a compass course or a wind angle.
remove water that accumulates in the bilge. BUNG A plug used to close a drain hole.
BIMINI A removable sun screen over the cockpit. BUOY A floating marker used for navigation.
B BINNACLE A pedestal in which a compass is
installed, often with magnets to compensate for
BUOYAGE A system of navigation marks used
to identify hazards and safe channels.
magnetic deviation, and on which the wheel
is usually mounted. BUOYANCY BAGS (tanks) Removable and
BACKING THE JIB To sheet the jib to windward; inflatable bags (or sealed compartments) that
BLADE The flat part of an oar or propeller. provide buoyancy so that the boat will float if
used when sailing away from a head-to-wind
position and sometimes when tacking. BLOCK A pulley through which a rope is passed. capsized or swamped.
BACKSTAY Wire leading from the masthead BOAT HOOK Pole with hook used to pick BURGEE A small triangular flag flown from
to the stern. It prevents the mast from falling up mooring buoy or ring when mooring the top of a mast, serving as an indicator of
forward and is used to tension the forestay. or berthing. apparent wind.
 GLOSSARY
433
C CONTROL LINE A rope or line that adjusts a sail
or part of the rig—such as the cunningham.
CONVECTION CURRENTS Air currents formed
DISPLACEMENT The weight of the water
displaced by a floating hull.
DISTANCE Measured in nautical miles.
due to the land’s heating up and cooling down.
DIURNAL Variation in weather during the day.
CABIN The living quarters below deck. COURSE MADE GOOD The course achieved after
DODGERS Weather cloths that can be laced
CAM CLEAT A device with two moving and allowing for leeway and tidal set and drift.
along the lifelines for added protection in
spring-loaded cams that secures a rope. COURSE STEERED The course actually steered by the cockpit.
CANTING KEEL A keel that can be pivoted from the helm and read off from the compass.
DORADE A type of ventilator that feeds air
side to side. In use is pivoted to windward to CREW Either everyone on board, or everyone to the interior while keeping water out.
increase the righting moment of the keel. else except the helm. To “crew” means both to
work as a member of the crew (including DOWNHAUL A rope for hauling down sails
CAP SHROUDS The outer shrouds. See shrouds. or for controlling a spar such as the spinnaker
the helm) and, in a small boat, to work
CAPSIZE When a boat tips over to 90° or 180°. alongside a helm with your own tasks. pole; opposite of uphaul.
CARDINAL MARKS Forms of buoyage, used to CRINGLE A metal or plastic eye sewn into a sail. DOWNWIND (or offwind) All courses that are
indicate large or individual hazards in the water. farther away from the wind than a beam reach
CROSSING TURN Term used when one part of are known as downwind, or offwind, courses;
CATAMARAN A twin-hulled boat consisting of a rope crosses another; start of knot sequence. opposite of upwind.
two narrow hulls connected by two beams and
a trampoline or rigid deck. CRUISING CHUTE See gennaker. DR Dead reckoning position. It is plotted on
CRUTCH( ES) See oarlocks. a chart by drawing the course steered from
CENTER OF EFFORT The point on a sail at which the last known position and measuring off the
all the forces acting on the sail’s surface can be CUDDY A small shelter; access to a covered distance sailed according to the log. See also EP.
thought of as being concentrated. area in a small boat usually used for stowage.
DRIFT The strength of a tidal stream; the
CENTERBOARD A plate that pivots around a CUNNINGHAM A control line for adjusting distance the stream will move a floating object
pin inside a centerboard case and is lowered tension in the luff of a mainsail or jib. in an hour.
below the hull of a sailing boat to resist leeway.
See daggerboard. CUTTER A single-masted yacht with two DROGUE An object towed, usually over the
headsails, a staysail (inner headsail), and stern of a boat, as a way of reducing its speed
CHAIN PLATES Metal fittings on each side a jib (outer headsail). in heavy weather.
of the boat, and at the bow and stern, to which
the bottlescrews on the shrouds, forestay, and
backstay are attached.
CHART A nautical map. D E, F
CHART DATUM The level from which soundings
(depths) and drying heights are measured.
DACRON Woven cloth often used for sails. EBB TIDE When the tide is going out, between
CLAM CLEAT A cleat that secures a rope in a
DAGGERBOARD A plate that is raised and high and low water; opposite of flood tide.
grooved, V-shaped body.
lowered vertically inside its case and is used EDDIES Circular current, the area of reversed
CLEARING LINE Used in navigation to keep the to resist leeway. See centerboard.
boat clear of potential hazards by defining current which forms behind a rock or headland
the boundaries of a safe zone. See safe track. DANBUOY A loating marker pole with flag that in a current or tidal stream.
is attached to a lifebuoy to improve visibility. EP Estimated position. A DR (dead reckoning)
CLEAT A wooden or metal fitting that is used to
secure ropes. See cam, clam, and horn cleat. DANFORTH (anchor) Type of burying anchor. position plus tidal set and drift. EPs are plotted
at regular intervals on a chart and compared
CLEW The lower aft corner of a fore-and-aft sail. DAVIT A cranelike device equipped with a tackle with a fix to identify any errors in plotting.
for suspending or lowering a tender.
CLEW OUTHAUL The rope or wire that adjusts EPIRB Emergency position indicating radio
the position of the clew and the tension in the DEAD RUN See running. beacon that transmits distress signals to satellites
foot of the mainsail. DEPRESSION Area of low pressure. that are part of the GMDSS.
CLOSE- HAULED Sailing as close to the wind DEPTH Distance from the seabed to the surface. FAIRLEAD A bolt, ring, or loop that guides
as possible, with the sails pulled in tight. a rope.
DEPTH SOUNDER Device to measure distance
CLOSE REACH The point of sailing between from the sea bed to the instrument’s transducer. FAIRWAY A channel; unobstructed water.
close-hauled and a beam reach.
DEVIATION The difference between FATHOM An old unit of length for measuring
CLOVE HITCH A knot used for short-term magnetic and compass north due to the effect water depth. One fathom is 6 feet.
mooring to a ring or post or for hitching of local magnetic fields acting on the boat’s
fenders to a rail. FEATHER (oars) To turn oar blades parallel
compass. Deviation varies with the boat’s to the water’s surface in between strokes to
COACHROOF The raised cabin trunk in the course and is measured in degrees east or prevent the blades from catching in the waves.
middle of the boat. west of magnetic north.
FENDER A protector hung over the side between
COAMING A vertical piece around the edge of DINGHY A small boat powered by sail, oars, or the boat and a pontoon or another vessel.
a cockpit, hatch, and so on to prevent water on an outboard motor; usually designed to be used
deck from running below. by one or two people. FERRO-CEMENT Concrete boat-building material.
COCKPIT The working area, usually toward the DIP- POLE JIBE Method of jibing a spinnaker FIDDLES Used below deck, fiddles are the raised
stern of a boat, from which the boat is steered. on larger cruisers and cruiser-racers. lips on horizontal surfaces such as tables to stop
objects from falling off them when the boat heels.
COIL Method of securing ropes for stowage. DIRECTION Measured clockwise as an angle
relative to north. See heading and bearing. FIGURE- EIGHT A stopper knot, used to prevent
COMPANIONWAY A ladder or steps leading a rope end from running out through a block
down from the cockpit to the cabin. DIRTY AIR Term used to describe airflow when
or fairlead.
sailing in the wind shadow of another boat.
COMPASS NORTH The direction in which a
FIN KEEL A single, central, fixed, ballasted keel.
compass points. If there is no local magnetic DISMASTING When the mast breaks, usually
interference (see deviation), it will point to because a piece of rigging or a terminal fitting FISHERMAN’ S ANCHOR Traditional
magnetic north. has given way. See jury rig. hooking anchor.
 GLOSSARY
434
FLOOD TIDE Tide that is coming in.
FLUKE The barb or hook of an anchor.
GROUND TRACK The course followed relative
to the sea bed. See water track.
GRP Glass-reinforced plastic (fiberglass), from
I-K
FOILS A collective term for the keel,
which many boat hulls are made.
centerboard (or daggerboard), and rudder.
GUARDRAILS Safety rails or wires fitted around IALA International Association of Lighthouse
FOOT The bottom edge of a sail. Authorities, which organizes buoyage.
the deck edge, supported by stanchions.
FORE At, near, or toward the bow. IN- IRONS Stuck head-to-wind with sails luffing
GUNWALE (pronounced “gunnel”) The top edge
FORE AND AFT In line from bow to stern; of the side of the hull. and no steerage.
also on, or parallel to, the centerline. INJECTOR Part of an engine that delivers fuel
GUY A rope that controls the spinnaker on the
FOREDECK The deck nearest the bow. windward side. It runs through the end of under pressure into the combustion chamber.
FOREGUY On large boats, the downhaul for the spinnaker pole. INVERSION (1) Weather—when warm air lays
the spinnaker pole pulls the outer end of the GYPSY The drum of a windlass. on top of cold air. (2) Boat—capsizing so mast
pole forward, as well as down. points vertically down.

H
FOREMAST Forward mast in all vessels with ISAF International Sailing Federation—the
more than one mast, except yawls and ketches. international governing body of sailing.
FORESTAY A stay that leads from the mast to ISOBARS Lines shown on weather maps to
the bow fitting. A foresail may be attached to it. indicate pressure. They join areas of equal
FORTRESS (anchor) A type of anchor made
pressure in a way similar to contour lines
HALYARD A rope or wire that is used to hoist
from aluminum, with fluke angles that can be on a chart.
a sail (or to hoist a flag or other signal).
adjusted to suit sand or mud bottoms. JACKSTAYS Lengths of webbing or wire that
HAND BEARING COMPASS A portable compass
FOUL TIDE A tidal stream from an run the length of both sidedecks, to which the
for taking bearings on objects.
adverse direction. crew attaches their lifelines when working
HANK A metal or plastic hook that is used on deck.
FRACTIONAL SLOOP A sloop in which the to secure a sail to a stay, such as a jib’s luff to
forestay joins the mast at a point some distance JIB A triangular headsail (a sail set in front
the forestay.
below the masthead. See masthead sloop. of the foreward mast).
HATCHES A cover over an opening on deck.
FREEBOARD A boat’s freeboard is the height JIB SHEETS Ropes used to trim or “sheet”
of the topsides out of the water. HEAD The top corner of a triangular sail or the jib.
the top edge of a four-sided sail.
FREER (lift) A wind shift; when the wind moves JIBING Turning the stern of the boat through
aft, you are freed; opposite of a header. HEAD-TO-WIND The point at which the boat the wind; opposite of tacking.
is heading straight into the wind with the sails
FRONT (weather) Meteorological term used JURY RIG A makeshift rig that you construct
luffing; when you pass through head-to-wind,
to describe the boundary between warm and to get you to safety following a dismasting.
you are tacking. See tacking.
cold air masses. KATABATIC WINDS Sinking currents of cold air
HEADBOARD The reinforced top corner of
running down mountain slopes.
a Bermudan mainsail, to which the halyard

G is attached.
HEADER A wind shift; when the wind moves
forward, you are “headed”; opposite of a freer.
KEDGE ANCHOR A lighter anchor than the main
(or bower) anchor.
KEDGING- OFF Pulling a boat out of shallow
water with an anchor when it has run aground.
HEADFOIL An aluminum grooved tube that
GAFF RIG A rig with a four-sided mainsail. slides over the forestay and holds the luff KEEL The lowest part of a sailing boat, and used
GALLEY A boat’s kitchen. of the headsails. to resist sideways drift (leeway).
GENNAKER A sail that is a cross between a HEADING The direction in which you are KETCH A two-masted yacht with the aft
genoa and a spinnaker. Sometimes called a steering the boat measured by a compass. mast (mizzen mast) smaller than the main
cruising chute. See bearing. mast and stepped ahead of the rudder post.
See yawl.
GENOA A large headsail that overlaps the mast HEADS Often used to mean only the sea toilet,
and usually sweeps the deck with its foot. See jib. but can also mean the compartment containing KICKING STRAP See boom vang.
the toilet, washbasin, and shower.
GIMBALS Fittings that allow an object (such as KNOT The unit of speed at sea, defined as
a galley stove) to swing so as to remain upright HEADSAIL A sail set on the headstay; a jib. 1 nautical mile per hour.
when the boat heels. HEAVING- TO Bringing a boat to a halt, usually

L
GMDSS (Global maritime distress and safety by sheeting the headsail to windward. After the
system) A set of standards to which modern event, a boat is described as “hove-to.”
radio sets, satellite communication systems, HEEL (1) When a boat tilts over to one side, it
and EPIRBs conform. heels. (2) The heel of the mast is its bottom end.
GOOSENECK The universal-joint fitting fixed HELM The person who steers the boat. LAID A method of rope construction where
to a mast, which attaches the boom to the mast. three strands are twisted together to make the
HOIST To raise a sail or flag.
GOOSEWINGING Sailing directly downwind rope.
(running) with the mainsail set on one side HORN A sound-signaling device.
LATITUDE The angular distance north or south
and the foresail (for example, the jib or genoa) HORN CLEAT A metal, wooden, or plastic of the equator. The lines of latitude are the grid
set on the other. cleat with two horns around which the rope lines on a map or chart running east to west and
GPS A global positioning system receiver that is wrapped to create sufficient friction to hold parallel to the equator. See longitude.
uses information from a network of satellites the rope fast.
LAZY GUY A leeward guy left slack (not in use)
to determine a boat’s position accurately.
HOUNDS The position at which the shrouds when using a spinnaker on a larger boat.
GRAPNEL A light anchor for small boats. and forestay are attached to the mast if not
LAZYJACKS Restraining lines rigged from the
at the masthead.
GRIB Gridded binary data files; small files of mast to the boom to retain the mainsail when
weather data easily transmitted over the internet. HULL The main body of a boat. it is lowered and stowed on the boom.
 GLOSSARY
435
LEAD LINE A line with a weight attached used
to measure the depth of water.
LEE HELM If a boat turns to leeward when
MAST STEP A recessed wooden block or metal
frame, which receives the heel of the mast.
MASTHEAD The top of a mast.
P, Q
you let go of the tiller, it has lee helm. See
MASTHEAD SLOOP A sloop in which the
weather helm and balanced helm. PAINTER A rope attached to the bow of
forestay joins the mast at the masthead.
LEE- OH Call made by the helm when a dinghy or small boat that is used to moor
MAYDAY The internationally recognized radio the boat.
executing a tack. distress signal for use when you are in grave and
LEE SHORE A shore onto which the wind is imminent danger. It takes priority over any other PAN PAN An internationally recognized distress
blowing; opposite of weather shore. kind of message. See PAN PAN. signal that takes priority over all except a
MAYDAY message.
LEEBOARDS ( LEE-CLOTHS) Wooden boards MEAN DIRECTION The term used to describe
(or canvas cloths) fitted along the inboard the average wind direction. PARALLEL RULER A rolling or sliding device for
edge of a sea berth to prevent the occupant plotting a course or bearing on a chart.
MERCATOR PROJECTION The most common
from being thrown out of the berth in projection of the globe used when making charts. PARTNERS The hole where the mast passes
rough conditions. through the deck of a cruiser or cruiser-racer.
MERIDIAN A line of longitude that runs from
LEECH The aft edge of a sail. Called mast gate on dinghies and small boats.
north to south poles.
LEEWARD Away from the wind; opposite PASSAGE A journey between two ports.
MIDSHIPS In the middle of the boat, fore and
of windward. aft and athwartships. PASSAGE PLAN The plan constructed to
LIFELINE (1) A term sometimes used instead MIZZEN MAST A smaller aft mast on a ketch
help a crew navigate safely from one port to
of guardrails. (2) The tether of a safety or yawl. See ketch and yawl. another.
harness that is attached to strong points, PILE MOORINGS Large wooden or metal stakes
such as jackstays. MOORING A permanent arrangement of anchors
and cables to which a boat can be secured. (piles) driven into the seabed, with fittings to
LIFT A wind shift; when the wind moves aft, which mooring warps are tied.
you are “lifted.” Also called a freer. See header. MULTIHULL A boat with more than one hull;
a catamaran or a trimaran. PILOTAGE Navigation by eye, compass, and
LOCKER A storage or stowage compartment. chart, when in sight of land.
MYLAR A film material often used in high-
LONGITUDE The angular distance west or performance sail manufacture. PINCHING Sailing too close to the wind inside
east of the Greenwich meridian. The lines the no-sail zone.
of longitude are the grid lines on a map or PISTON HANKS A form of hank. See hank.
chart running north to south. See latitude.
LUFF (1) The forward edge of a triangular
sail. (2) A sail luffs, or is luffing, when its
N, O PITCHPOLING Capsizing stern over bow.
PLANING The motion of a boat when it lifts
luff shakes due to the sail not being pulled partly out of the water and increases speed by
in sufficiently. (3) To turn toward the wind. NAUTICAL ALMANAC A reference book giving reducing its drag.
LUFFING (1) When a sailing boat is turned annual information, such as tidal data, for a PLOTTER A device for plotting a course on a
toward the wind (also luff and luff up). wide area. paper chart, used in conjunction with the grid
(2) When the luff of a sail shakes or flaps. NAUTICAL MILE The unit of distance at sea, of latitude and longitude lines marked on a chart.
LYING A- HULL Drifting with all sail stowed, defined as one minute (1') of latitude. It is POINTS OF SAILING The direction in which a
usually in heavy weather. standardized to 6,076 ft (1,852 m), slightly boat is being sailed, described in relation to its
longer than a statute mile. angle to the wind. Collectively, these angles are
NAVIGATION LIGHTS Lights shown by a known as the points of sailing.

M boat that indicate relative course; position;

and status such as sailing, fishing, or towing.
POLING OUT Method of holding the headsail
out to windward to increase downwind speed.
NEAP TIDES These tides have the smallest PONTOON A floating platform to which boats
range between high and low water; opposite can be moored.
MAGNETIC NORTH The direction to which a of spring tides.
magnetic compass points. Magnetic north PORT The left-hand side of a boat, when
differs from true north and moves over time. NO-SAIL ZONE Boats cannot sail directly into looking forward.
the wind; there is a no-sail zone on either side of
MAGNETIC VARIATION The angular the direction of true wind. The closest most boats PORT TACK A boat is on port tack when the
difference between magnetic north and true can achieve is an angle of 45° on either side. wind is blowing over the port side and the main
north, which alters year by year as the magnetic boom is out to starboard. See starboard tack.
poles move. OARLOCKS U-shaped fittings used to support
the oars and act as a pivot when rowing. Fitted POSITION LINE A straight or curved line on a
MAINSAIL (pronounced mains’l) The principal into sockets in each gunwale. chart drawn with the aid of a compass bearing
fore-and-aft sail on a boat. or the distance off a charted object.
OCCLUDED When a cold front overtakes
MAINSHEET The rope attached to the boom a warm front, the front becomes occluded. PRAM BOW A cut-off, square bow in small boats.
and used to trim (or adjust) the mainsail.
OCTAHEDRAL REFLECTOR A simple type of PREBEND The amount of fore-and-aft bend set
MAINSHEET TACKLE A system of blocks through radar reflector. in a mast before sailing.
which the mainsheet is run to make it easier for
OFFSHORE WIND A wind that blows off the land. PRESSURE GRADIENT The difference between
the helm to hold and adjust the sheet.
high and low pressure that causes wind to blow.
MARLINSPIKE A pointed tool used to loosen OFFWIND See downwind.
PROP WALK The paddlewheel effect of a turning
knots and assist in splicing rope. ONSHORE WIND A wind blowing onto the land. propeller. Prop walk pushes the stern of the boat
MAST A vertical pole to which sails are attached. OUTBOARD ENGINE An engine mounted sideways in the same direction in which the
externally, usually used on small boats. propeller rotates.
MAST GATE The point where the mast passes
through the deck of a dinghy or small keelboat. OUTHAUL A rope, such as the mainsail clew PULPIT An elevated and rigid metal rail around
Called partners on larger boats. outhaul, which adjusts the tension in the foot. the bow of a boat.
MAST SPANNER A device on catamarans, used OVERFALLS Rough water caused by the tide PUSHPIT An elevated and rigid metal rail
to control the angle of a rotating mast. pouring over a rough or precipitous bottom. around the stern of a boat.
 GLOSSARY
436
R S SLIP LINE A doubled line with both ends made
fast on the boat so that it can be released and
pulled from on board.
SLIPWAY A launching ramp.
RAKE The amount that a mast leans aft SAFE TRACK The course you follow through SLOOP A single-masted boat with only one
from vertical. constricted water. See clearing lines. headsail set at any one time.
RAM’ S HORNS Inverted hooks onto which a SAILMAKER’ S PALM Used for pushing needles SLOT The gap between the luff of the main
mainsail’s luff cringles are fixed when reefing. through rope or sail cloth. and the leech of the jib.
RATCHET BLOCK A type of pulley, containing a SAMSON POST A strong vertical post usually at SOCK (spinnaker) A light nylon tube used to
ratchet, to reduce the load the crew has to hold. the bow of a boat and used for mooring warps. stow, hoist, and lower some spinnakers and
SCHOONER A sailing vessel with two or more cruising chutes.
REACHER A lightweight sail designed to be used
on reaching courses. masts with the tallest mast stepped aft. SPADE RUDDER A rudder supported only by
SCULLING A method of propelling a dinghy its stock (rudder tube) and not by a skeg.
REACHING Sailing with the wind approximately
abeam. See beam reach and broad reach. by manipulating a single oar over the stern in SPAR A general term for masts, booms, yards,
a figure-eight pattern. gaffs, and so on.
REACHING HOOK On a dinghy, a hook fitted
SEACOCK A valve that can be shut to close SPINNAKER A large, light, downwind sail set
just aft of the shrouds to hold the guy down.
a through-hull fitting. from a spinnaker pole.
READY ABOUT Term used to warn the crew that SÉCURITÉ An internationally recognized safety SPINNAKER POLE A pole used to extend the
the helm is about to tack. signal to indicate that an important safety, spinnaker tack away from the boat.
REEF To reduce sail area when the wind navigational, or weather warning is about
to be sent. SPLICE The joining of two lines, or the forming
becomes too strong to sail comfortably under of a loop in one, by interweaving their strands.
full sail. SEELONCE FEENEE An internationally
recognized radiotelephony signal to indicate SPREADERS Small poles extending outward
REEF KNOT A knot that is used for tying the from one or more places on the mast. Shrouds
ends of rope of equal diameter, such as a sail’s that a distress situation has been concluded
and the channel may now be used normally. run through the outer ends to provide additional
reef points when putting in a reef. support to the mast.
REEF POINTS Light lines sewn to the sail to tie SEIZING Binding two lines together, or a rope
to a spar, or a loop in a rope, using a light line. SPRING TIDES Tides that have the largest range
up the loose fold in a sail when it is reefed. between high and low tides.
SETTING SAILS The process of bending-on and
RIG The arrangement of the sails, spars, and SPRINGS Mooring warps to help prevent the
hoisting sails ready for sea.
masts on a boat. To rig the boat is to step the boat from moving ahead or astern when moored.
mast and bend on the sails. See rigging. SHACKLE A U-shaped link with a screw pin,
used to connect ropes and fittings. STANCHION An upright post used to support
RIGGING The system of wires and ropes used the guardrails.
to keep the mast in place and work the sails. SHEET Rope attached to the clew of a sail, or to
a boom, which can be tightened or eased to trim STANDING PART The part of a rope that is not
RIGGING LINK An item of equipment that (adjust) the sail. being used to tie a knot.
is used to attach the shrouds and stays to STANDING RIGGING The shrouds and stays that
the chainplates. SHEET BEND A knot used to join two ropes.
support the mast(s).
RISER CHAIN The chain that attaches the SHEAVES The pulley wheels in blocks.
STARBOARD The right-hand side of a boat,
mooring buoy to a ground chain. SHOALING (1) The water is said to be shoaling when looking forward.
ROACH The curved area on the leech of a sail, as the boat sails into shallow water. (2) Shifting
STARBOARD TACK The course of a boat when
sand, silt, or sediment causing shallow areas; a
outside a straight line from head to clew. the wind is blowing over a boat’s starboard side
problem in some channels.
and the main boom is out to port. See port tack.
ROLL TACKING A fast way of tacking in
SHOCK CORD An elastic “rope” useful in limited
which crew weight is used to roll the boat STAY A wire running fore or aft (forestay
stowage situations.
during a tack. or backstay) to support the mast.
SHOCK LOADS Sudden loads on sails,
ROLLER FURLING A mechanical system to roll STAYSAIL A triangular sail flown from an inner
sheets, and rigging caused by gusts of wind
up a headsail or mainsail. forestay or loose-luffed (not attached to a stay)
or a sudden slowing caused by burying the
from the middle of the foredeck.
ROLLER REEFING A mechanical system to reef bow into a wave.
a headsail or mainsail. STEERAGE WAY Having enough speed through
SHORELINE Where the land meets the water.
the water so that the rudder can be used to steer.
ROUND TURN A complete turn of a rope or line SHROUDS The wire ropes on either side of the
around an object. STEM The main upright or sloping structure at
mast, which support it sideways.
the bow.
RUDDER A movable underwater blade that SIDE DECK The deck at the side of a boat.
STEMHEAD FITTING The metal fitting at the
is used to steer the boat, controlled by a tiller
SINGLE UP Taking in all ropes not required bow of the boat to which the forestay is usually
or wheel.
so that only a minimum number of ropes will attached. Cruisers usually have an anchor
RULES OF THE ROAD See Col Regs. require casting off when leaving a berth or buoy. roller incorporated into the fitting.
RUN/ RUNNING Sailing directly downwind SKEG A projecting part of the hull that supports STERN The rear or after part of a vessel;
(that is, with the wind right behind you, or the rudder. opposite of bow.
nearly so) on either a port or starboard tack. SKEG- HUNG RUDDER A rudder supported by a STERN LINE A mooring warp that is run from
A dead, or true, run is slightly different from part of the hull called a skeg. See spade rudder. the stern of the boat to a point on shore
a training run. astern of the boat. See bow line.
SLAB REEFING Reduces the area of the mainsail
RUNNING MOOR To moor up to a pile mooring by partially lowering the sail and tying up the STERN QUARTERS The aft corners of a boat.
or fore-and-aft buoys under sail. loose fold (slab) of sail created.
STERN SPRING The mooring line that leads from
RUNNING RIGGING All of the moving SLEEVED SAIL A sail with a sleeve at the the stern forward to another boat or pontoon
lines, such as sheets and halyards, used in luff that encloses the mast. Usually found on when berthed to prevent the boat from moving
the setting and trimming of sails. small dinghies. astern. See bow spring.
 GLOSSARY
437
STORM JIB A small, strong headsail used in very
strong winds.
STOW To place equipment in its storage place.
TILLER BAR A rod that connects the two
tillers on a boat with twin rudders, such as
a catamaran.
U-Z
TILLER EXTENSION A light pole attached to
SWELL Succession of long and unbroken waves
the tiller with an universal joint to allow the UNIVERSAL JOINT A hinge that allows
generally due to wind some distance away.
helm to steer from either side of the boat. articulation in all directions.
TOESTRAPS Straps of webbing under which a

T
UNSTAYED MAST A mast without
dinghy crew hooks their feet when sitting out. standing rigging.
TOPSAIL A triangular sail set above the gaff
UPHAUL A rope for adjusting the height of
on a gaff-rigged boat.
the spinnaker pole; opposite of downhaul.
TOPPING LIFT A rope running from the
TACK (1) The forward lower corner of a UPWIND All courses that are closer to the
masthead to the boom end used to support
fore-and-aft sail. (2) Under sail, a boat is either wind (heading more directly into it) than a
the boom when the mainsail is not hoisted.
on starboard tack or port tack. See tacking. beam reach are called upwind courses; opposite
TOPSIDES The sides of the hull between the of offwind or downwind.
TACKING Turning the bow of the boat through
water line and the deck edge.
the wind so that the boat turns from one tack VARIATION See magnetic variation.
to the other. See jibing. TRAINING RUN Sailing downwind, 5–10° off
a true run. VECTOR A line drawn to indicate both the
TACKLE An arrangement of a line led through direction and magnitude of a force, such as
two or more blocks to create mechanical TRAMPOLINE A strong nylon mesh that a tidal stream.
advantage, in order to move heavy objects stretches between the hulls of a catamaran
or handle large loads. or trimaran. VHF (Very high frequency radio) A common
radio system used on boats, but its range is
TAIL To pull on the free end (the tail) of a sheet TRANSIT Also called a range. Two prominent limited to line-of-sight.
or halyard when winching. marks separated in distance so that they can
be aligned to determine that a boat lies on VICTUALING Provisioning a boat for a passage.
TELLTALES Light strips of fabric or wool sewn a certain line.
or glued to sails to show the wind flow and WAKE Waves generated astern by a moving vessel.
the best sail trim. TRANSOM Flat vertical surface at the stern WARP Any rope used to secure or move a boat.
of a boat.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION An increase in WASHBOARDS Wooden or plastic shutters that
temperature with height above the Earth’s TRANSOM FLAPS Flaps in the transom through close off the companionway.
surface, a reversal of the normal pattern. which unwanted water can escape.
WATCH (1) A division of crew into shifts.
TENDER A small boat used to ferry people and TRAPEZE A wire used in high-performance (2) The time each watch has duty.
provisions to and from a larger boat. dinghies to enable the crew to place their
weight farther outside the boat than they WATER TRACK The course to steer through the
THROAT The forward upper corner of a four- would if just sitting out. water to achieve a ground track after allowing
cornered, gaff mainsail. for the effects of any tidal stream.
TRAVELER A slide that travels along a track,
THWART A seat fixed across a small boat. used for altering sheet angles. WAYPOINTS Positions in latitude and longitude
TIDAL ATLAS Small charts showing tidal stream of turning or other important points along your
TRI-RADIAL SAIL A sail construction technique
directions and rate of flow. route. Usually programmed into a GPS set or
where radial panels emanate from all three
chart plotter.
TIDAL CYCLE The period of tidal flow from one corners of the sail.
high water to the next. WEATHER HELM If the boat, under sail, turns
TRIM To let out or pull in a sheet to adjust
to windward when you let go of the tiller, it has
TIDAL DIAMOND Symbol shown on a chart a sail.
weather helm. See lee helm and balanced helm.
which relates to information, in a panel on TRIMARAN A vessel with three hulls.
the chart, giving the speed and direction WEATHER SHORE When the wind blows off the
of the tidal stream, at that point, through TRIP To release a rope, such as releasing the land, the shore is called a weather shore;
the tidal cycle. spinnaker pole from the guy or the guy from opposite of lee shore. See offshore wind.
the spinnaker.
TIDAL DRIFT The strength of a tidal stream. WHIPPING To bind the ends of a rope with thin
TRIPPING LINE A line attached to the end of cord (whipping twine) to keep it from unraveling.
TIDAL RACE An area of disturbed water and an anchor to help free it from the ground when
increased tidal stream due to a constriction that weighing anchor. WHISKER POLE Pole for holding out the jib
accelerates or diverts the tidal stream. when goosewinging.
TROT A line of mooring bouys.
TIDAL RANGE The difference between a tide’s WINCH Device to provide mechanical advantage
high and low water levels. TRUE BEARING A bearing measured relative for pulling in sheets and halyards.
to true north.
TIDAL SET The direction of a tidal stream. WINDAGE The drag caused by the parts of the
TRUE NORTH The direction of the true boat and crew exposed to the wind.
TIDAL STREAM A horizontal flow of water North Pole. See also magnetic north and
caused by the rise and fall of the tide. compass north. WINDLASS A mechanical device used to pull in
a cable or chain, such as an anchor rode.
TIDE The regular rise and fall of the sea’s surface TRUE WIND The speed and direction of the
caused mainly by the moon’s gravitational pull wind you feel when stationary. The motion of WINDWARD Toward the wind; opposite
(and to a lesser degree the sun’s). a boat will cause the wind to appear to be in a of leeward.
TIDE RIP Term for a tidal stream when it different direction and speed, which is known WORKING END The part of a rope used for
is running fast around rocks, shallows, as apparent wind. tying a knot.
or headlands, causing a disturbance at TRYSAIL A small, strong replacement for YAWL A two-masted yacht with the mizzen mast
the surface. a cruiser’s mainsail used in severe weather. stepped aft of the rudderpost. A ketch is similar,
TIDE TABLES A record of the times and heights TWINNING LINE A small block with a light line but its mizzen mast is forward of the rudderpost.
of high and low water for every day of attached to it, used instead of reaching hooks ZEPHYR Gentle winds on a still day, often on
the year. when flying a spinnaker. the edge of lakes or other inland waters, caused
TILLER Rod by which the rudder is controlled, TWIST The difference in angle to the wind when air over land is warmed and rises, pulling
for steering. between the top and bottom of a sail. in cooler air from over the water.
 INDEX
438
INDEX
1 flag (one minute rule) 191 weighing 286, 287 battens double 48
18-foot Skiff dinghy class 125, 126, well 211 catamarans 168–169 fiddle 48
127, 140–141, 189 windlass 286–287, 299 cruising mainsails 206 single 48
29er dinghy class 65 anchoring 58 dinghies 26–27, 74, 158–159 through-deck 48
49er dinghy class 141, 189 arriving and leaving 285 single-handed dinghies triple 48
420 dinghy class 65 choosing an anchorage 158–159 block-and-tackle 28
284–285 batteries 404–405, 406–407 boat handling, cruisers

A dinghies and small keel boats

110–111
equipment 282–283
beach
arrival 107, 109
departure 105, 106, 108
starting to cruise 196–197
under power 240–241
under sail 242–243
abandon ship 309, 430 laying anchor 286, 287 launching from 86–87, 105 boat hook 279
above deck 210–211 tripping lines 287 beacons, shore 340 boat trim 81
AC (alternating current) generator using the tender 287 beam, waves on 81 bollard 229
406–407 anemometer 333, 384–385 beam reach boom vang 26, 27, 206–207
accidental jibe 98 aneroid barometer 384–385 boat speed 89 mainsail adjustments 182–183
advection fog 308–309, 365, Angle of Vanishing Stability (AVS) catamaran 168–169 rigging the mainsail 74–75
380–381 204–205 points of sailing 40–41 rolling sail around 76
aft 29 anticyclones 370, 376–377 sailing a course 100–101 single-handed dinghies 158
aft-mainsheet systems antifouling paint 390 tacking 92–93 boots 23, 69, 219
jibing 99 apparent wind 33, 90, 124–125 bear away bottled gas 216–217, 222–223,
tacking 94 aramid changing course 90–91 293, 411
techniques for sheeting 91 fibers 208–209 cruisers 249 bottlescrews 206–207
see also mainsheet rope 42 points of sailing 40–41 bow 25, 81, 88
ahead 29 astern 29 sailing a course 100–101 berthing 274–275
air asymmetric spinnakers using the tiller 36–37 fitting 29
flow 34 cruisers 154–157, 254–255 bearings line 228–229
masses 368 equipment 256–257 compass 321, 326–327, 341, roller 282–283
streams 369 high-performance boats 357, 359 spring 229
AIS (Automatic Identification 124–125, 126–127 rudder and 393 support 167
System) 324, 335 hoisting and lowering beating to windward 94 tank 25
all-around white light 306–307 154–155 Beaufort Scale 385, 386–387 bower anchor 282, 284–285
almanac, nautical 331, 342–343, jibing 156–157, 187, 260 bell, sound signal 311 bowl compass 327
344–345 preparing 258–259 below 214–215 bowline (knot) 47, 279
alternative energy 407 see also spinnakers bend, mast 180–181 bowsprit 154–155, 254–255,
altostratus clouds 372 atlas, tidal 331, 346–347, 349 “bending on” sails 230–231 258–259
aluminum atmospheric pressure 368–369, Bermudan sloop 203, 254, 255 bracket, mast 258
anodes 393 373, 376 berths and berthing braided rope 43
decks 394–395 avoidance waypoint 364 amidships spring, use of 267 breast rope 229
hulls 391 arrival 266–267 Breton plotter 331
spars 397
windows and hatches 395
America’s Cup 18–19
B berthing cruisers 262
bow- or stern-to 274–275
choosing 262–263
bridle 168–169
broaching 184–185, 261
broad reach
amidships spring, and berthing B14 dinghy class 126 departure 264–265 boat speed 89
267 “backing the jib” 95 difficult 269 points of sailing 40–41
anchor backstay 162, 165, 167, 183 drying out alongside 263 sailing a course 100–101
bearings 285 backward sailing 134–135 marina 268–269 sailing downwind 102–103
bower 282, 284–285 bailers 30 pile and pontoon 275 Bruce anchor 283
cable 284 balaclava 68–69, 218–219 in tide 262–263, 266, 267 buoy raft 273
dropping 285 balance see also moorings buoyage 338
fouled 287 basic techniques 88–89 bight (knot) 45 on charts 323
kedge 282, 284–285, 299 dinghies 80–81 bilge at night 340–341
light dinghy 31 helm 129 keels 200–201 buoyancy 24–25
parts of 282–283 hull 81 pumps 409 aids 23, 69
retrieving 286, 287 jibing 96–97 binnacle 327 bags 31
scope 284 maintaining 80, 131 binoculars 336 in dinghies 30–31
sea 315 barograph 383, 384–385 bleed screw 414–415 and stability 204–205
storm 282–283 barometric pressure 372, 382–383, bleeding the fuel system 416–417 tanks 25, 31
turning with 269 384–385 blind sailing 137 and weight 204–205
types 283 basic skills 88–89, 230–231 blocks buoyant smoke 428–429
 INDEX
439
buoys 110, 278, 272–273, centerboard 24–25, 201 drysuits 68–69 courses 40, 90, 348
340–341 case 25 footwear 23, 68–69, 219 downwind in rough weather 185
burgee halyard 333 and how boats sail 32–33 gloves 23, 68–69, 218–219 racing 191, 192–193
buying a small boat 64–65 position 89 hats 23, 68–69, 218–219 sailing 100–101
sailing without 135 life jackets 23, 218–219, 221, 309 square, old Olympic, and

C turning forces 80–81

use of 39, 83
chain cable 284–285
protective 66–67
rash vests 67
safety harness 213, 221,
windward leeward courses
190–191
CQR anchor 283
cabin 292–293, 401 changing course 39, 90–91 300–301, 313 cradle, wheeled 167
calibrating instruments 333 Channel 16 427 thermals 219 craning 167
calling for assistance 426–427 channels 54 and warmth 22–23 crash stop 302–303
cam cleat 44 and traffic separation zones waterproofs 23, 66, “Crash Zone” 125
Canadian Arctic 328 296–297 218–219 crew 78–79, 81, 288, 292
canoe stern 200–201 charcoal heater 402 wetsuits 67 weight, using 38–39, 178–179
cap shrouds 206–207 chartering cruisers 198–199 cloths, weather 212 cross track error (XTE) ladder
capsize recovery charts 31, 322–323 clouds 368–369, 372, 373, 374– 350, 358, 359
catamarans 174–175 datums 318, 319 375, 378–379, 385 crossing turn (knot) 45
dinghies 112–115, 117 electronic 324–325, 350–353 clove hitch (knot) 47 cruisers 14
carbon fiber spars 397 projection on 322 coach roof 210–211 asymmetric spinnakers 154–157,
cardinal marks 338 radar overlay 359 coastguard 290, 428–429 254–255
cart, launching 105 symbols 323, 348 cocked hat 357 attributes 202–203
cascade control systems 49 table 214, 217, 330, 401 cockpit Bermudan sloop 203, 254
catamarans and tidal streams 346–347 cruisers 210–211, 212–213 berthing 262–263
assembling 170–171 waypoint web 358–359 small keelboat 25 bilge keels 200–201
battens 168–169 see also navigation; plotting code flags 222–223, 429 boat handling see boat
beam reach 168–169 children, boats for 65 coiling handling, cruisers
capsize recovery 174–175 Chinese lugsail 12 halyards 231 canoe stern 200–201
cruisers 202 chutes, spinnaker 148–149, 151 rope 43 canting keel 200–201
dinghies 125 cirrostratus clouds 372 Col Regs (International Regulations catamarans 202
downwind sailing 174–175 cirrus clouds 372 for Preventing Collisions at Sea) centerboard 200–201
hull design 169 clam cleat 44 294–295, 306–307, 311, 426 chartering 198–199
jibing 175 class association 188–189 cold fronts 371, 373, 378 choosing 198–199
launching 170–171 cleats 44 collisions, avoiding 54–55, 294–295, clothing 218–219
mainsail 168–169 control line 28 297, 306–307, 310–311 cockpit 210–211, 212–213
moving 170–171 using warps 228–229 common whipping 226–227 counter stern 200–201
rigging 170–171, 203 clew communication systems see radio cutter rig 203
righting capsized 174 headsail 206 companionway 217 design 200–201
rigs 168–169 mainsail 27 compass downwind sails 254–255,
sailing 172–173 outhaul 182 bearings 321, 326–337, 341, 256–257, 261
securing 170–171 spinnaker 146–147 357, 359 drifting characteristics 242
speed comparisons with Clipper Round the World Race 18 degrees 321 equipment 239
monohull dinghies 125 clippers 12 deviation 329 flat transomed stern 200–201
tacking 173 clock-notation system 295 electronic 133, 327 foredeck 210–211
trampoline 168, 170–171 close reach fluxgate 327, 335 gaff schooner 203
una rig 170–171 boat speed 89 hand bearing 327, 340–341, handling under power 240–241
upwind sailing 174–175 points of sailing 40–41 356 handling under sail 242–243
wingsail 19 sailing a course 100–101 north 320–321 headsail 242–243
catamarans, classes close-hauled rose 323 heaving-to 249, 314–315
Dart 16 and Dart 18 169 boat speed 89 steering 327 hull shape 200–201
Hobie 169 points of sailing 40–41 swinging 328–329 increasing sail area 254–255
Flying Phantom 177 and rough weather 185 use of 132–133 interior 214–215, 400–401
Nacra 17 169 sailing 131 variation 328 jibing 246–247, 260–261
Whisper 177 sailing a course 100–101 concrete sinkers 110–111 junk schooner 200–201
center sailing to windward 94–95 control line cleats 28–29 lessons 196–197
of effort (CoE) 35 sideways force 33, 35 control systems, cascade 49 long keel 200–201
of gravity 204–205 tacking 92–93 controls 36–37 long-distance 199
center-mainsheet clothing convection currents 374, 377 lowering downwind sails 261
jibing with 96–97 balaclava 68–69, 218–219 cooking 293 mainsail 203, 208–209, 230,
reefing 77 boots 23, 68–69, 219 cooling systems 414–415 242–243
sheeting techniques 91 buoyancy aids 23, 69 corrosion, preventing galvanic maintenance 418–419
small keelboat 162–163 choosing 22–23 393 modern production 199
systems 72–73 cruiser 218–219 counter stern 200–201 multihulls 16, 199, 202
tacking with 92–93 deck shoes 68–69 course made good 89 ocean 19
 INDEX
440
passage making 196–197, 288– degrees, compass 321 420 65 electric bilge pumps 422
289 dehumidifier 403 Feva 65 electrical switch panel 217
passage planning 290–291, depressions, weather 370–371, Flying Phantom 177 electrics 404–407
362–363 372–373, 376, 378 Laser Pico 65 electronic
racing 198–199, 200–201 depth Laser Radial 65 aids 356–357, 364–365
raked bow 200–201 sounder 311, 332–333, 356 Olympic 49er 126 barometer 384–385
reefing 208–209, 250–251 soundings 321, 323, 360–361, 365 Optimist 65 charts 324–325, 350–353
rigging 202–203, 206–207 derigging 120–121 RS 800 126, 189 clearing bearing 365
ropework 224–225 design Topper 65 compass 133, 327
rudder 206–207 cruiser 200–201 Wayfarer 65 instruments 352–353
scooped stern 200–201 dinghy 124–125 see also high-performance log 332, 384–385
sidedecks 210–211 high-performance boats 124–125 dinghy classes; single-handed tidal calculator 344
sloop rig 203, 254, 255 spinnaker 147 dinghy classes engines 412–413
spinnakers 254–255 yacht 205 direction maintenance 416–417
starting to cruise 196–197 dew point 368–369 change 80–81, 131 EPIRB (emergency position
tacking 244–245 DGPS (Differential Global wind 56–57, 369, 371, 384–385 indicating radio beacon) 223,
tender, use of 236–237 Positioning System) 334–335 direction and distance 320–321 335, 426–429
tiller 212 dhows, Arabia 12–13 dismasting 423 epoxy resin 391, 392–393, 394–395
traditional 199 diesel engines 412 disqualification (black) flag 191 equator 318–319, 320–321
trailer-sailers 199 dinghies 14, 16, 24–26, 72–75, 126 distance off 360–361 equipment
tuning 248 anchoring 110–111 distress signals 223, 335, 426–429 cruisers 239
turning forces 249 balance 80–81 diurnal dinghies 30–31, 84–85
two-masted 203 basic techniques 88–89 changes 374–375, 376–377 estimated position (EP) 354, 356,
una rig 203 battens 26–27, 74, 158–159 tides 342 364
vertical bow 200–201 boots 68–69, 219 variation 384–385 Etchells 22 small keelboats class 163
see also yachts buoyancy 30–31 dividers 331, 349 Extreme 40 catamarans 18
cuddy 25, 162–163 buying 64–65 dodgers, weather 212 eye splice 227
cumulonimbus clouds 373, 378–379 capsize recovery 112–115, 117 dog watches 291
cumulus clouds 373, 374–375
cunningham
running rigging 27
catamarans 125
choosing 62–63
club racing 63
domestic chores 292, 293
Doppler transducer 332–333
double-axle trailers 167
F
sail controls 182–183 derigging 120–121 downhaul 146–147, 256–257 fairleads 28, 29, 229
single-handed dinghies 158 design 124 downwind sailing Fastnet Race 204
current draw 405 equipment 30–31, 84–85 catamarans 174–175 fathom 321
cutter rig 203 foredeck 31 courses in rough weather 185 fenders 263
heaving-to 88, 102–103 cruisers 254–255, 256–257, ferrocement hulls 391

D high performance 124

hoisting the sails 87
hosing down 121
260–261
dead run 102–103
hoisting downwind sails 258–259
Feva dinghy class 65
fid 224–225
fiddles 215
Dacron, sail material 27, 208–209, hull shape 62–63 jibing cruisers 260–261 figure-eight (knot) 44, 46
398–399 jib 73 lowering cruiser sail 260–261 The FINN dinghy class 159
dagger grip 36–37 launching 86–87, 104–105 mainsail control 261 fire
daggerboard 32–33 lifting 52 in rough weather 315 blanket 216–217, 222–223
sailing without 135 mainsail 26–27, 74–75, 134 small keelboats 165 extinguisher 215, 216–217, 222,
single-handed dinghies 158 moorings 110–111 draft 201 424
turning forces 80–81 moving and lifting 52 Dragon small keelboat class 163 prevention 222
use of 39, 83 racing 63, 127, 188–189 drifting characteristics 242–243 first aid
danbuoy 222–223 reefing 76–77 driving force 32, 34–35, 415 essential supplies 220
Danforth anchor 283 rigging 26, 70–71, 74–75 dropping an anchor 285 sunburn 23
Dart 16 and Dart 18 righting capsized 112–115, 117 dry powder extinguishers 222–223 fisherman’s
catamarans 169 sidedecks 24–25 dry sailing 166–167 anchor 283
dawn mist 375 single-handed 126, 158–159, drying out 263 bend (knot) 225
daylight shapes 294, 297 160–161 drysuits 68–69 fishing boats 54
DC (direct current) systems 404–407 stepping a stayed mast 71 DSC (Digital Selective Calling) fixing a position 352, 356–357, 361
dead reckoning (DR) 353 storing 121 radio 335, 426–429 flags, signal 191
dead run stowing the sails 120–121 distress signal 427 flares 221, 223, 313, 426–429
jibing from 98–99 tacking 92–93, 160 Dyneema 42, 48, 396 flashlight 221
sailing downwind 102–103 traditional 64–65 flat transomed stern 200–201
deck 394–395
cruisers 210–211
sealing fittings 395
trapezes, multiple 140–141
tuning 178–179
turning forces 80
E flooding tide 58
flukes 283
fluxgate compass 327, 335
shoes 68–69 dinghy classes Earth’s magnetic field 326–327 Flying Fifteen small keelboat class 65
deck-stepped masts 181 29er 65 ebbing tide 58 Flying Phantom catamaran 177
 INDEX
441
fog 308–311, 365, 380–381 jibing 260–261 trapeze 69, 139 Foiling Moth 16, 126
foghorn 309, 311 preparing 258–259 HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide) International 14 126, 189
foilborne sailing 14, 16 genoa 208–209, 211, 255 345 International 505 126
foiling 176–177 geographic poles 326–327 hatches 210–211, 403 International Canoe 126, 159
Foiling Moth dinghy class 16, 126 gimbals 216–217 hats 23, 68–69, 218–219 Olympic 470 126
Foiling systems giving way 54, 295 head, sails 27 RS 500 126
C-foil 176 Global Positioning System see GPS head-to-tide 262–263 RS 800 126, 189
L-foil 176 global weather patterns 369, head-to-wind see also dinghy classes
S-foil 176 376–377 points of sailing 40–41 Hobie catamaran 169
T-foil 176 gloves 23, 68–69, 218–219 using wind to stop and start hoisting
Z-foil 176 GMDSS (Global Marine Distress 88–89 asymmetric spinnakers 154–155
foils 16, 179 and Safety System) 335, header 132 dinghy sails 87
food preparation 293 426–429 headgear 23, 68–69, 218–219 downwind sails 258–259
foot gnomonic projection 322 headings and navigation 320–321 halyard 231
straps 139 gong, sound signal 311 heads 214–215, 216–217 headsail 231
wear 23, 68–69, 219 gooseneck 26, 75 headsails 209 mainsail 230–231
fore (for’ard) 29 goosewinging 101, 102 changing 252–253 spinnakers 150–151, 154–155,
-and-aft trim 80 GPS (Global Positioning System) clew 209 257, 261
cabin 215–217 and chart datums 319 cruiser 242–243 holding tank 410–411
forecasting weather 56–57, and distress signal 427 furling system 231, 234–235 holing and leaks 422
382–385, 426–427 fix by 352, 356–357 hoisting 231 horn cleat 44
foredeck Horizontal Dilution of Precision lowering and stowing 234–235 hoses and manual pumps 408–409
cruisers 210–211 (HDoP) 334 poling out 261 hosing down 121
dinghies 31 and making harbor 310–311 radial 254–255 hove-to 249, 314–315
foreguy 256–257, 258 MOB (man overboard) function reefing 252 hull 25
forestay 26, 206–207 301 sailing with one sail (cruisers) aluminum 391
Fortress anchor 283 waypoint 324, 334–335, 242–243 balance 81
forward drive sails 35 350–351, 362, 364–365 see also sails catamarans 169
fouled propeller 424–425 XTE (cross track error) 350, heat cruisers 200–201
fractional rig 207 358, 359 and land, effect of 376–377 dinghies 62–63
freeboard 214–215 gradient winds 377 loss 22–23 ferrocement 391
freer (lift) 132 gravitational pull, and tides 58 heating 402 GRP 390–391
freshwater plumbing systems Great Circle 318–319 heaving a line 224 lying a-hull 314–315
408–409 Greenwich meridian 318–319 heaving-to maintenance 390
frontal GRIB (gridded binary) data files cruisers 249, 314–315 rust 391
depressions 373, 378 383 dinghies 88, 102–103 sacrificial anodes 393
fog 381 grounding 298–299 heavy seas 312–313 support 167
systems 382–383 GRP (glass-reinforced plastic) heeling 32, 79, 81 steel 391
fuel boats 390–391, 392–393 height measurement 321 through-hull fittings
and cooling systems 414–415 decks 394–395 helicopter rescue 431 392–393, 411
filter 417 hull 390–391 helm tuning 179
pump 417 interior surfaces 400 balancing the 129 wooden 391
furling headsails 231, 234–235 gunwale 25 lee 248–249 hurricanes 378–379
guy 258 helm (person) 78–79, 81 Hurst plotter 331

G spinnaker 146–147
gyrocompass 328–329
Hi-Line technique 431
high altitude weather 375
hydrographic agencies 322

gaff schooner 203

gyroscope 328–329 high water and low water
(HW and LW) 343, 344, 363 I
galley 214–215, 216–217, 293, 402
galvanic corrosion, preventing 393
gas
H high-performance boats
choosing 127
dinghies 124
IALA (International Association of
Lighthouse Authorities) 338
alarm 222–223 hail 368–369 jibing 144–145 ice crystals 378
systems 216–217, 222–223, 293, halyards 27, 28, 182, 206–207 racing boats 62–63 IMO (International Maritime
411 hoisting 231 roll jibing 145 Organization) 426–427
gasoline engines 412–413 hand bearing compass 327, roll tacking 143 impeller
gates 340–341, 356 spinnakers 124–125, 126–127 replacement 416–417
racing mark 190–191 handheld GPS see GPS tacking 142–143 transducers 332
tidal 347 handholds 217, 220–221 trapezes 138–139 in irons 95, 161
gearbox 412–413 hanging locker 214–215 high-performance dinghy classes in-mast roller reefing 253
gelcoat 390–391, 392–393 harbor 262–263 18-foot Skiff 125, 126, inboard engines 412, 415
general recall flag 191 authorities 342–343 140–141, 189 increasing circles of uncertainty
gennaker 255 harness 49er 141, 189 355
equipment 256–257 safety 213, 221, 300–301, 313 B14 126 increasing sail area 254–255
 INDEX
442
individual recall flag 191 advanced 145 Laser dinghy class 65, 159, 189 downwind sails 260–261
injector pump 414–415 aft-mainsheet boats 99 Laser Pico dinghy class 65 headsails 234–235
inland waters 58 asymmetrics 156–157, 187, 260 Laser Radial dinghy class 65 spinnakers 151, 257, 261
inshore racing 15 catamarans 175 Laser SB3 small keelboat class 163 and stowing sails 234–235
instruction manuals 331 center-mainsheet boats 96–97 lassoing a mooring 280 lubber line 327
instruments, navigation 214, changing course 39 lateral marks 338 lubrication 417
332–333 cruisers 246–247, 260–261 latitude and longitude 318–321, 322 luff 27
integral compass 336 dead run, from 98–99 launching mainsail 230–231
integrated systems 335 downwind sails 260–261 from a beach 86–87, 105 luff up
interior, cruiser 214–215, 400 high-performance boats 144–145 cart 105 changing course 90
International 14 dinghy class 126, maintaining balance 96–97 catamarans 170–171 points of sailing 40–41
189 roll 145 dinghies 86–87, 104–105 sailing a course 100–101
International 505 dinghy class 126 short-handed 247 from a lee shore 104, 105, 171 turning effect of the rudder 36
International Association of single-handed dinghies 160, 187 from a pontoon 87, 105 LW and HW (low water and high
Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) small keelboats 165 preparation 84–85 water) 343, 344, 363
338 spinnakers 152–153, 156–157, from a slipway 86–87, 104, lying a-hull 314–315
International Canoe dinghy class 260–261 105, 166–167 lying-to 88–89
126, 159 in strong winds 187 small keelboats 166–167
International Maritime
Organization (IMO) 426–427
International Moth dinghy class 159
from a training-run 96
with a trapeze 144–145
unintentional, avoiding 247
in tides 105
from a weather shore 104, 105
laying up an engine 413
M
International Regulations for junk schooner 200–201 lazy sheet 258 Macgregor, John 14
Preventing Collisions at Sea lazy-jack system 209 magnetic
(Col Regs) 294–295, 306–307,
311, 426
see also collisions
K leading marks 340–341
leaks and holing 422
lee helm 248–249
compass 326–327
north 320–321, 326–327
variation and deviation
International Yacht Racing Rules 13 katabatic wind 377 lee shore 104 328–329
internet and weather forecasting kedge anchor 282, 284–285, 299 arrival 109 mainsail
382–383 kedging-off 282–283 departure 104, 108 adjustments 182–183
inversion 112–115, 117 keel 25, 32, 162–163, 206–207 launching from 104, 105, 171 battens 168–169, 209
inversions, weather 375 bilge 200–201 lee-cloths and leeboards 216–217 Bermudan 203
irons, getting out of 95, 161 construction 392–393 leech catamarans 168–169
ISO (International Organization for skeg 169 jib 35 clew 27
Standardization) 205 support 167 sail 27 control 261
isobars 368, 371 keel-stepped masts 181 leeward 29, 34 cruisers 203, 208–209, 230,
isophase, in light sequences 340–341 keelboats see small keelboats capsize 112 242–243
keeping clear 54 drop 151 dinghies 26–27, 74–75, 134

J kicking strap see boom vang

knife 23, 221, 224–225
knot (Kn) 321
hoist, spinnaker 150
leeway 33, 201, 349
lessons, cruising 196–197
foot 230–231
hoisting 230–231
luff 230–231
J-class yachts 13 knots life jackets 23, 218–219, 221, 309 mainsail only sailing 37
J80 small keelboat class 163 bights, loops, and lifebuoy 221–223, 300–301 reefing 208–209
jackstays 213, 220–221 crossing turns 45 lifelines 210–211 rigging 74–75
jib 26, 255 bowline 47, 279 liferaft 223, 309, 430 roach 27, 168–169, 208–209
adjustments 182–183 clove hitch 47 lifting sail force 34
“backing the jib” 95 figure-eight 44, 46 small boats 52 sailing with one sail 134,
catamarans 168–169 fisherman’s bend 225 tackle 303 242–243
dinghies 73 reef knot 46 light sequences, buoys 340–341 sheeting 91
fairlead 28 rolling hitch 225 lightning 378 stowing 234–235
halyard 182 round turn 45 lights, navigation 294, 304, trimming 80, 230–231
jib only sailing 37 round turn and two 306–307, 313, 362–363 turning effect of the mainsail
leech 35 half-hitches 47 Limit of Positive Stability 204–205 82–83
No. 1 and No. 2 208–209 sheet bend 46 loading a winch 232–233 mainsheet
sailing with one sail 134 simple turn 45 lockers 25, 212–213 aft see aft-mainsheet systems
sailing to windward 94 working end 47 log, electronic 332, 384–385 cleat 28
sheets 27 see also rope logbook 331, 352–353 cruiser rigging 206
slot 34 long-distance cruisers 199 sail controls 182
storm 208–209, 251
trim 80
turning effect of 82–83
L loop (knot) 45
loose footed sail 75
low water and high water (LW and
systems 72
tackle 27
techniques 91
working 208–209 laid teak decks 395 HW) 343, 344, 363 traveler 72, 182, 212–213
jibing 39 land, effects on wind and lowering maintenance
accidental 98 weather 376–377 asymmetric spinnakers 154–155 cruiser 418–419
 INDEX
443
harnesses 139 moorings 88 warnings 426–427 paddling 30, 31, 50–51, 88
mast 397 arrival 280–281 to windward 364–365 painted surfaces, cruiser
man overboard (MOB) buoy 110, 272–273 see also charts interiors 400
beacon 221 choice of 278–279 Navtex system 335, 383 painter 430
button 301 cleat 25, 210 NBDP (Narrow Band Direct palm, sailmaker’s 224
lifebuoys 221–223, 300–301 concrete sinkers 110 Printing) 383 PAN PAN distress signal 427
receiver 221 departure 280–281 neap tides 59, 342–343, 344, 345, parachute flare 428–429
recovery procedure (cruisers) dinghies and small keel boats 346 paraffin 216–217, 402
300–301, 302–303 110–111 needle, sailmaker’s 224–225 passage
recovery procedure (dinghies) lassoing 280 neoprene 67 making 196–197, 288–289
118–119 pick-up buoy 110 night sailing 290, 304–305, 340–341 notes 363
marinas pile see pile moorings nimbostratus clouds 372 planning 290–291, 362–363
arrival 271 ropes 228–229 No. 2 jib 208–209 safe 363
berths 268–269 securing to 279 no-sail zone 41, 88, 89, 94 skills 362–363
departure 270–271 trots 278 NOAA (National Oceanic and patching a sail 399
preparing for 268–269 warps 30, 228–229, 274–275 Atmospheric Administration) personal
reversing and turning 269 see also berths 383 buoyancy 23, 69
marine compasses 326–327 moving noise, minimizing 292 safety see safety
Maritime Safety Information (MSI) catamarans 170–171 north, magnetic 320–321, 326–327 Personal Locator Beacon (PLB)
335, 383 dinghies 52 Northern Hemisphere weather 223, 301
marlinspike 224–225 small keelboats 166–167 systems 370, 372, 379 pick-up buoy 110, 278
mast multihulls nosediving 185 pile moorings 272–273,
bend 180, 181 catamarans see catamarans nylon rope 42 276–277
bracket 258 cruisers 199, 202 fenders, using 277
deck-stepped 181
dismasting 423
Mylar, sail material 27
O under power 276
under sail 277
gate control 181
keel-stepped 181
maintenance 397
N oars and paddles 12, 30, 50–51
occluded front 373
warps, using 274–275
see also moorings
pilot books 331
rake 180 Nacra 17 catamaran 169 occulting, in light sequences 340 pilotage 336–337, 341
rigging unstayed 161 National Oceanic and Atmospheric ocean cruising 19 pipes, plumbing 408–409
rolling sail around 77 Administration (NOAA) 383 ocean racing 16–18 piston-release line 258
rotating 168–169 nautical octahedral reflector 309 pitchpoling 185
step 26 almanac 331, 342–343, 344–345 offshore racing 14–15, 16–17 pivot point 240
stepping a stayed 71 charts see charts offshore wind 56, 84, 85, 104, planing 128–129
track 209 mile 321 265 plastic
webbing strap 158 navigation offwind sailing 40 tape 226–227
see also rigs and rigging basic concepts 318–319 oilskin stowage 217 tubing 45
masthead buoyage 338 old Olympic courses 190–191 PLB (Personal Locator
backstay 162, 165, 167, 183 buoyage at night 340–341 Olympic 470 dinghy class 126 Beacon) 223, 301
instruments 206–207 charts 320–321, 322–323 Olympic 49er dinghy class 126 plotting 361
light 306–307 and compass see compass Olympic Games 16 courses 348–349
MAYDAY distress signal 301, 427 depth sounders 311, 332–333, one-off cruisers 199 EP (estimated position) 354
McMullen, Richard 356 onshore wind 57, 84, 85, 104, 267 equipment 330–331
Tyrrell 14 direction and distance, using Open 5.70 and Open 6.5 small latitude and longitude positions
medical assistance see first aid 320–321 keelboat class 163 318–319, 358–359
Melges 24 small keelboat class 163 electronic log 332, 384–385 opening ports 403 systems 325
Mercator projection 322 in fog 365 Optimist dinghy class 65 see also charts
MF (medium frequency) radio 427 instruments 214, 332–333 orange smoke flare 428–429 plow anchor 283
MHWN (Mean High Water Neaps) latitude and longitude outboard engine 236–237, 413 plumbing 408–411
345 measurement 318–321, 322 outhaul 27 plywood decks 395
MHWS (Mean High Water Springs) lights 294, 304, 306–307, 313, clew 182 points of sailing 40–41
345, 360–361 362–363 single-handed dinghies 158 polar
midship cleats 229 marks 305 trimming cruiser mainsails diagram 125
mini-flares 428–429 pilotage 336–337, 341 230–231 fronts 371
mixed tides 342 plotting see plotting overrun brakes 52–53 pole, spinnaker 146–147, 152–153,
MLWN (Mean Low Water Neaps) radar see radar overtaking boat rule 54 256–257, 260–261
345 radio see radio poling out 261
MLWS (Mean Low Water Springs)
345
MOB see man overboard (MOB)
satellite positioning 334
software programs 324–325
terms and symbols 321
P polycarbonate windows and
hatches 395
polyester rope 42
modern production cruisers 199 transits to navigate hazards packing a spinnaker 257 Polynesian proa 12
moon, effect on tides 58 336–337 paddle-wheel impeller 332–333 polypropylene rope 42
 INDEX
444
polyurethane paint 391, radiation fog 308–309, 365, 380–381 spars 397 fixing to centerline 137
400 radio spinnakers 258 sailing without 136–137
pontoon communication 214–215, 335, standing 206–207, 397 small keelboat 162
arrival 107, 109 363, 427, 431 tuning 179 turning forces 36, 80
berthing cruisers 262 distress calls 426–427 see also mast use of 36–37, 83
departure 105, 106, 108 DSC (Digital Selective Calling) righting rule of twelfths 345
launching from 87, 105 335, 426–429 catamaran 174 rules of the road see Col Regs
rafting 272–273 EPIRB (emergency position dinghy 114, 117 run
stopping alongside 88, 107 indicating radio beacon) 223, moment 204–205 boat speed 89
port 29 335, 426–429 rings, low-friction 49 downwind in rough weather 315
port and starboard tack 40 forecasts 384–385 rings, warps and 229 points of sailing 40–41
Portland plotter 331 telex 383 roach 27 sailing a course 100–101
position see navigation rafting 272–273 catamaran mainsail 168–169 running
postponement flag 191 rain, hail, and snow 368–369 cruiser mainsail 209 aground 298–299
pouches, spinnaker 149, 150–151 rake, mast 180 road trailers 52–53, 167 fix 361
power 404 raked bow, cruiser 200–201 roll rigging 27, 28, 206–207, 396–397
usage monitors 406–407 rash vests 66–67 gybing 145 rust 391
prebend, mast 180–181 raster chart 324 tacking 143
predictions, tidal 342
predictive EP (estimated position)
354
raw water filter 416
reachers 255
reaching
roller-furling headsail 231
roller reefing 209, 253
rollers 52–53
S
preparations 85, 178–179, 238 rough weather 184 rolling hitch (knot) 225 sacrificial anodes 393
preparatory (P) flag 191 sideways force 35 roof racks 52–53 safety 22, 220–221, 378
pressure, atmospheric 368–369, recovery procedure rope briefing 238
373, 376 cruisers 300–301, 302–303 aramid 42 calling for assistance 426–427
pressure pumps 409 dinghies 118–119 braided 43 capsize recovery 112–115, 117,
professional sailing 15 red flare 428–429 cable 284–285 174–175
projection on charts 322 reducing sail area see reefing cleating 44 gas safety precautions 411
prop walk 240–241 reducing sail power in strong clutches 396–397 harness 213, 221, 300–301, 313
propeller winds 183 coiling 43 signal (SÉCURITÉ) 427
effects 240–241 reef knot 46 cruiser ropework 224–225 SailGP catamarans 18
fouled 424–425 reefing mooring 228–229 sailing
shaft and bearings 393 center-mainsheet boats 77 nylon 42 away and return method
protective clothing 66–67 cruisers 208–209, 250–251 polyester 42 (man overboard) 302–303
psychrometer 385 dinghies 76–77 polypropylene 42 backward 134–135
pulpit 211 headsails 252 running rigging 397 basic skills 88–89
pumps, bilge 409 lines 230–231 sealing 45 beam reach see beam reach
mainsails 208–209, 253 splicing 224–225, 226–227 blind 137

Q slab 76–77, 252–253

reference books 331
refrigeration 216–217, 402
stopping springs 267
three strand (laid) 43
whipping 45, 224, 226–227
catamarans 172–173
clubs 188–189
a course 100–101
quay 272–273 releasing a sheet 233 yarns 43 and daggerboard see
repairs 392–393, 411, 418, 422 see also knots daggerboard

R sails 398
repeater unit 332–333
reversing 134–135
ropework, cruiser 224–225
rotating mast 168–169
rotator 332
downwind see downwind sailing
driving force 32
dry 166–167
racing from marinas 269 rough weather sailing 184–185, dynamics of 34–35
courses 190–191, 192–193 RIB (rigid inflatable boat) 236 312–315, 365 inland 58
cruiser 198–199, 200–201 riding turns, winch 233 jibing 246–247 jib only 37
dinghies 63, 127, 188–189 rigs and rigging 396 tacking 245 mainsail only 37
flags 191 battens 74–75 round turn (knot) 45 offwind 40
gate mark 190–191 catamarans 168–171, 203 and two half hitches 47 one sail 134, 242–243
high-performance boats 62–63 cruisers 202–203, 206–207 rowing 50 origins of 12–13
ocean 16–18 de-rigging 120–121 rowlock 51 preparation for first time 84–85
offshore 14–15, 16–17 dinghies 26, 70–71, 74–75 RS 500 dinghy class 126 in rough weather see rough
stadium 18 fittings 28–29, 396 RS 600 dinghy class 159 weather
starting procedure 191 fractional 207 RS 700 dinghy class 159 rudder, sailing without 136–137
racks 127 gooseneck 75 RS 800 dinghy class 126, 189 sea 58–59
radar 305, 325, 334–335, 356 mainsail 74–75 rubber bung 332 theory of 32–33
position fixing 359 maintenance 397 rudder 24–25 and tides see tides
reflector 308–309, 313 measuring tools 181 and bearings 393 to windward 94
use of 359 running 27, 28, 206–207, cruiser 206–207 sailmaker’s 399
X-band 428 396–397 fitting 86–87 palm and needle 224
 INDEX
445
whipping 226–227 method 114–115 cruisers 210–211 Melges 24 163
sailor’s knife 23, 221, scooped stern 200–201 dinghies and small keelboats Open 5.70 and Open 6.5 163
224–225 sculling 50–51 24–25 SB20 163
sails 27, 28, 80, 398 sea sidelights, combined, and stern 307 Sonar 63 163
adjusting 40–41 anchor 315 sideways force 32–33, 35, 80 Squib 65
airflows 34 bed 284–285 signals 191 Star 163
area, increasing 254–255 breezes 376–377 sound 297, 310–311 smoke, sea 381
balance 248–249 fog 308–309, 365, 380–381 simple whip tackle 49 snow 368–369
“bending on” 230–231 sailing 58–59 simple turn (knot) 45 sock, use of 257
caught under 113 smoke 381 single-handed sailing soft furnishings 401
clew see clew surface temperature 385 dinghies 126, 158–159, 160–161 software programs, and navigation
controls 182–183 toilets 410–411 jibing 160 324–325
cruiser see cruisers seacocks 411 jibing in strong winds 187 solar power 407
and direction change 80–81, sealing tacking 160 solenoid valve 216–217
131 deck fittings 395 toestraps 158 Sonar small keelboat class 65, 163
driving force 32, 34–35, 415 rope 45 trapezing 141 sound signals 297, 310–311
forward drive 35 seamanship 24 single-handed sailing classes Southern Hemisphere weather
gennakers see gennakers search and rescue 223, 290, 426–427 The FINN 159 systems 370, 373, 379
genoas 208–209, 211, 255 secondary ports, and tidal curves Foiling Moth 16, 126 spade anchor 283
head 27 344 International Canoe 126, 159 spare parts 419
headsails see headsails sector lights 340–341 International Moth 159 spars 397
jib see jib securing Laser 65, 159, 189 speed 89, 129, 320–321
leech 27 catamarans 170–171 RS 600 159 catamaran comparisons 125
loose-footed 75 to a mooring 279 RS 700 159 and wind 384–385
luff 27, 230–231 SÉCURITÉ (safety signal) 427 skeg 169 and working the tides 347
mainsails see mainsails SEELONCE FEENEE skiffs 16 spinnakers 208–209
patching 399 (safety signal) 427 18-foot class 125, 126, 127, anatomy of 146–147
and prebend 180–181 seizing rope 224–225, 227 140–141, 189 asymmetric see asymmetric
reachers 255 self-tailing winch 232–233 skipper role 288–289 spinnakers
repairs 398 semidiurnal tides 342 slab reefing 76–77, 252–253 bowsprit 154–155, 258–259
roach 27, 168–169, 209 separate lights 306–307 sleeve, sail 158 chutes 148–149, 151
rolling around boom 76 separation zone 296–297 sling and tackle 303 clew 146–147
rolling around mast 77 servicing a winch 396 slip lines 229 cruisers 254–255
setting 129, 164–165 sewage 410–411 slipway, launching from 86–87, design 147
setting in the dark 305 shackle 104, 105, 166–167 equipment 256–257
shape 34 bow shackle 48 Slocum, Joshua 14 handling 152–153
sideways force 32–33, 35, 80 D shackle 48 sloop rig 203, 254, 255 high-performance boats
sleeve 158 soft shackle 48 slowing the boat 315 124–125, 126–127
spinnakers see spinnakers shaft cutter 424 small keelboats 25 hoisting and lowering 150–151,
storm 251 sheet 27, 28, 29 anchoring 110–111 154–155, 257, 261
stowing 120–121, 234–235 bend (knot) 46 basic principles 162 jibing 152–153, 156–157,
topsail 255 easing 233 buying 64–65 260–261
tri-radial 254–255 lazy 258 center-mainsheet 162–163 jibing in strong winds 187
trim 89, 129 leads 147 choosing 62–63 packing 257
trysail 208, 251 releasing 233 dry sailing 166–167 pole 146–147, 152–153, 256–
turning effect of 82–83 sheeting the mainsail 91 jibing 165 157, 260–261
twist 130 shelving 215 lifting 52 pouches 149, 150–151
two sails, with 35 ship rescue 431 moorings 110–111 preparing 258–259
use of 37, 82–83 shipping lanes 54, 296–297, moving 166–167 rigging 258
valeting 399 310–311 rudder 162 small keelboats 162–163
window, single-handed shore sailing 164–165 sock, use of 257
dinghies 158 beacons 340 sidedecks 24–25 stowing 148
saloon 217 launch 104, 105, 171 spinnakers 162–163 trimming 154–155
hatch 211 sailing from and to 104–105 tacking 165 turtle (bag) 257
table 215 weather 104, 105, 106–107 towing 167 windward drop 151
SART (Search and Rescue short-handed tuning 183 splicing rope 224–225, 226–227
Radar Transponders) 223, 427 jibing 247 upwind sailing 164–165 sponge 31
satellite 371, 428–429 tacking 245 small keelboats, classes sportsboats, classes
imagery 382–383 shower facilities 217 Dragon 163 J80 163
positioning 334 shrouds 26, 180–181, 207 Etchells 22 163 Laser SB3 163
SB20 small keelboat class 163 adjusters 29 Flying Fifteen 65 Melges 24 163
scoop side benches 25 J80 163 Open 5.70 and Open 6.5 163
bailer 30 sidedecks Laser SB3 163 spray hood 211, 212–213
 INDEX
446
spreaders 26, 180–181, 206–207 strong winds ranges 59 trapezes 126
spring, warp 265 jibing 187 streams 323, 342–343, 346–347, harnesses 69, 139
spring and neap tides 59, 342–343, reducing sail power 183 349, 350 high-performance boats 138–139
344, 345, 346 tacking 186–187 tides 58–59, 346–347 jibing 144–145
square courses 190–191 stuffing box 415 berthing in 262–263, 266, 267 multiple 140–141
Squib small keelboat class 65 sunburn 23 boat speed and working the single-handed 141
stability 204–205 sunglasses 23 tides 347 tacking 142–143
leeway, and draught 201 surface temperature, sea 385 causes of 59 trim 139
stadium racing 18 Swedish fid 224 checking 85 use of 138–139
stainless-steel fittings 396–397 swinging the compass 328–329 coping with 103 traveler, mainsheet 72–73, 182,
stand-on vessel 294–295 switch panel 405 diurnal 342 212–213
standard port 344 Sydney–Hobart Race 204 flooding 58 trawling 54
Standard and Secondary Ports symbols, chart 323, 348 and gravitational pull 58 tri-radial sail 254–255
system 342 synoptic chart 370–371, 382 heights and chart datum 345 trim
standing rigging 206–207, 397 high and low, finding times of boat trim 81
Star small keelboat class 163
starboard 29
starboard tack 40–41
T 342–343
launching in 105
mixed 342
downwind sails 259
jib 80
mainsail 80, 230–231
rule 54 tacking and moon 58 maintaining balance and 80,
starting procedure, racing 191 advanced 145 sailing in 103 131
starting to cruise 196–197 aft-mainsheet boat 94 semidiurnal 342 sail trim 32–33, 89
steaming lights 306 and beam reach 92–93 spring and neap 59, 342–343, spinnakers 154–155
steel catamaran 173 344, 345, 346 telltales, using 82
decks 394–395 center-mainsheet boat 92–93 standard and secondary ports trapezes 139
hulls 391 changing course 39 system 342 tripping lines 287
steering close-hauled 92–93 tables 345 tropical revolving storms 378–379
compass 327 cruisers 244–245 tidiness 293 troposphere 374
failure 423 dinghies 92–93, 160 tiller 24 trots 278
under power 241 high-performance boats 142–143 bar 168–169 true
stem 25 roll tacking 143 and bearing away 36–37 north 320–321
stepping a stayed mast (dinghies) 71 short-handed 245 cruisers 212 wind 33, 124, 125
stern 24, 81 single-handed dinghies 160 extension 25 trysail 208, 251
berthing 274–275 small keelboats 165 toestraps 28 tuning
and combined sidelights 307 in strong winds 186–187 single-handed dinghies 158 cruisers 248
counter 200–201 with a trapeze 142–143 toilets 410–411 dinghies 178–179
flat transomed 200–201 upwind 92–93 tool hull 179
glands 415 tackles, and blocks 48–49 kit 418 small keelboats 183
line 229 simple whip 49 multipurpose 221 turning
scooped 200–201 tail (pull) 232–233 Topper dinghy class 65 with an anchor 268–269
spring 229 tanks topping lift 206–207, 234–235 and centerboard 80–81
stock anchor 283 buoyancy 25, 31 topsail 255 cruisers 249
stopping springs, rope 267 water 408–409 tornadoes 379 and daggerboard 80–81
storage lockers 211 teamwork 197, 289 towing 116, 167, 425 dinghies 80
storing dinghies 121 telex 383 traditional jib, effect of 82–83
storm telltales 82, 130 cruisers 199 mainsail, effect of 82–83
anchor 282–283 tender, use of 236–237 dinghies 64–65 in marinas 269
jib 208–209, 251 thermal clothing 219 traffic rudder, effect of 36, 80
sails 251 three strand (laid) rope 43 lanes 296–297 under power 241
storms three-point fix 356 separation schemes 296–297 with warps 228–229
thunderstorms 373, 374–375, through-hull fitting 392–393, 411 zones 363 turtle (spinnaker bag) 257
378–379 thunder clouds 378 trailer, road 52–53, 167 twist, sail 130
tornados 379 thunderstorms 373, 374–375, trailer hitch 167 two-masted boats 203
see also weather 378–379 trailer-sailers 199
stove 216–217
stowage 31, 215, 238
after sailing 120–121
thwart 25, 50
tidal
atlas 331, 346–347, 349
trailing warps 315
training run
jibing from 96
U
compartment 25 calculator, electronic 344 points of sailing 40–41 Ultra-high molecular weight
improving 402 curves 344 sailing downwind 102–103 polyethylene (UHMWPE)
oilskins 217 direction 103 trampoline 168, 170–171 fibers 42
sails 120–121, 234–235 gates 347 transducer 332 una rig 203
spinnaker 149 indicators 59 transferred position line 361 unintentional jibe, avoiding
streams, tidal 323, 342–343, information 342 transits, using 336–337 247
346–347, 349, 350 predictions 342 transom 24, 28, 30 unstayed masts 161
 INDEX
447
uphaul 146–147, 256–257, 258 barometric pressure 372, tornadoes 379 shore, catamaran launch 171
upholstery 401 382–383, 384–385 tropical revolving storms 378–379 wire running rigging 396–397
upwind sailing 40 causes of 368–369 troposphere 374 wiring 405
catamarans 174–175 cirrostratus clouds 372 warm fronts 373 wooden
course sailing 100–101 cirrus clouds 372 see also wind bung 332–333
small keelboats 164–165 clear skies 375 Weatherfax system 335, 383 decks 394–395
tacking 92–93 cloths 212–213 webbing strap 158 hulls 391
UV light 395 clouds 368–369, 372, 373, weighing anchor 286, 287 spars 397
374–375, 378–379, 385 weight and buoyancy 204–205 surfaces, cruiser interiors

V cold fronts 371, 373, 378

convection currents 374, 377
cumulonimbus clouds 373, 379
wetsuits 67
WGS 84 (World Geodetic
400–401
working (No. 1) jib 208–209
working end (knot) 47
Survey) 319
valeting sails 399 cumulus clouds 373, 374 wheeled cradle 167 World Geodetic Survey (WGS 84)
vang see boom vang dawn mist 375 whipping rope 45, 224, 226–227 319
variation and deviation, magnetic depressions 370–371, 372–373, whisker poles 103 World Sailing 12, 54
compass 328 376, 378 Whisper catamaran 177
varnish 395, 400
vector chart 324–325
Velcro 401
dew point 368
diurnal changes 374–375, 376
dodgers 212
Whitbread Round the World
Race 17
white flare 428–429
X
Vendée Globe race 17 effects on sea 57 white light 306–307 X-band radar set 428–429
ventilation 210–211, 403 fog 308–311, 365, 380–381 winches 211 XTE (cross track error) 350,
vertical bow 200–201 forecasts 56–57, 382–385, riding turns 233 358, 359
VHF (Very High Frequency) radio 426–427 servicing 396
214–215, 335, 363, 427, 431
Viking longboats 12
vinyl in interiors 401
frontal depression 373, 378
frontal fog 381
frontal systems 382–383
use of 232–233
wind
anemometer 333, 384–385
Y
VMG (Velocity Made Good) global weather patterns 369, apparent 33, 90, 124–125 yachts
350, 364–365 376–377 assessment 84 Angle of Vanishing Stability
Volvo Ocean Race 17 high-altitude 375 direction 56–57, 369, 371, (AVS) 204–205
hurricanes 378–379 384–385 berthing 262–263

W ice crystals 378

and internet 382–383
inversions 375
generator 407
gradient 377
center of gravity 204–205
classic yacht sector 19
hurricanes 378–379 design 205
warm fronts 373 isobars 368, 371 indicators 26–27, 56–57 IMOCA 60 rule 17
warps 30, 228–229, 274–275 land and 376–377 instruments 333 interior 214–215, 400
washboards 212–213 and lee helm 248–249 and isobars 368, 371 J-class 13
watch system 290–292, 304–305 lightning 378 katabatic 377 origins 14
water nimbostratus clouds 372 and land, effect of 376–377 righting moment 204–205
conservation 292–293 Northern Hemisphere 370, offshore 56, 84–85, 104, 265 stability 204–205
filter, raw 416 372, 379 onshore 57, 84–85, 104, 267 superyacht sector 19
power 407 observation 384–385 power 407 Volvo 65 class 17
tanks 408–409 occluded front 373 and pressure systems 368, weight and buoyancy
waterline shape 80 passing depression 372 370–371 204–205
waterproofs 23, 66, 218–219 polar fronts 371 shadows 376 yarns 43
waterspouts 379 pressure systems 376, 368–375, shifts, coping with 132–133 young adults, boats for 65
waves on the beam 81 373 speed and direction 384–385
Wayfarer dinghy class 65
Z
radiation fog 308–309, 365, strength 57
waypoint 362–363 380–381 strong winds see strong
avoidance 364 rain, hail, and snow 368–369 winds
clearing bearing 365 sea breezes 376–377 tornadoes 379 Z flag 191
GPS 324, 334, 350–351, sea smoke 381 true 33, 124, 125 zephyr winds 377
364–365 sea surface temperature 385 vane 333 zinc anodes, hull 393
navigation 350–351 shore 104, 105, 106–107 zephyr 377
web 358–359 signs on land and sea 57 see also weather
weather Southern Hemisphere 370, windlass 286–287, 299
advection fog 308–309, 365, 373, 379 windows and hatches 395, 403
380–381 storms 373, 374–375, 378–379 windward 29, 34, 89, 94
air masses 368 synoptic chart 370–371, 382 beating to 94
airstreams 369 temperature and humidity capsize 113
altostratus clouds 372 measurement 385 and close-hauled 94–95
anticyclones 370, 376–377 thunder clouds 378 drop, spinnaker 151
atmospheric pressure 368–369, thunderstorms 373, 374–375, hoist, spinnaker 150
373, 376 378–379 leeward courses 190–191
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
448
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LARS LIPPUNER would like to thank Dick Manager: Pankaj Sharma; DTP Manager: 189 br; Mark Lloyd/SailGP: 8; Mastervolt: 404,
Saltonstall (for input to the Navigation sections), Balwant Singh; DTP Designers: Shanker Prasad, 406 bl, 407 tl; Maxsea: 325; McMurdo: 221 cl, bl,
Johnathan Ridley (Stability) and Rhys Newnes Arjinder Singh, Anita Yadav, Tanveer Abbas Zaidi; 223 tl, 427, 428 all; Damien Moore: 26 tr, 330 br,
(GMDSS) for their help with the fifth edition. Design: Joanne Clark; Picture library: Susie Peachey; cr; Musto: 68, 69 bl, bc, br, cr, 127 b, 139 tc, 141,
Special thanks to Stephanie Farrow for making it Project Editor: Hannah Bowen; Senior Editor: 213, 219 cr, 221 bc; Ocean Images: 37 cl, 65 cr,
a smooth and enjoyable process. Thanks are also Kathryn Hennessy; Senior Art Editors: Michael 144, 180, 185 br; Richard Langdon: 65 cr, 156,
due to Chris Parker QC and crew (for great times Duffy, Helen Spencer; Managing Editor: Stephanie 163 bl; Ovington Boats: 65 br, 126 cla, bc; Para-
on the water) and Tanya Lippuner Sleight (for her Farrow; Jacket Editor: Clare Gell; Jacket Tech Engineering Co: 315; Petticrow: 163 cl, bc,
general support and love). Designer: Mark Cavanagh; Production Editors: 327 tr, br, 385 bl; PPL: Alan Taphouse 113;
David Almond, John Goldsmid; Production Alastair Black 250, 431; Barry Pickthall 70, 121,
STEVE SLEIGHT would like to thank Lars Controllers: Sophie Argyris, Mandy Inness. 423; Bob Fisher 169 tr; Gary John Norman 218,
Lippuner for assistance with the fourth edition 395 br; Gilles Martin-Raget 172; Ingrid Abery
and his future stewardship. The publisher would like to thank the following 143, 184, 185 tc; Jamie Lawson-Johnston 199 tl;
Grateful thanks for contributions to the for their kind permission to reproduce their Jon Nash 200; Jono Knight 154 tr; Nick Kirk
second edition are due to Rupert Holmes (for photographs and reference material. (Key: t=top, 178; Peter Bentley 130 tr, 155, 169 tl, 390; Phileas
help with Practical Boat Care), Andy Rice b=bottom, r=right, l=left, c=centre, a=above.) Boats: 163 br; Raymarine: 327 bl, 335 tl; Patrick
(Advanced Small Boat Sailing), Tim Robinson Alamy Images: Alistair Baird 63 tr, Keith Roach: 22, 59 br; Rohan Veal / M. Poitevineau:
(Cruiser Sailing and Navigation), Simon Hay Shuttlewood 147; Alubat & Northsea Maritime: 159 bl; RS Sailing: Riki Hooker 126 cra; Seasure:
(Forecasting), Magic Marine (for assistance with 407 br; Antal: 49 r, bl; Arun Sails: 398; Audi: 52; 139 bc, br; Secumar: 221 cr, br, 300 bl, br, 429;
images and clothing), and to Spinlock (assistance Avon: 236; Jim Baerselman: 196; Beken: 129 br, Simrad: 309 tr; Spinlock: 221 bl; Steve Sleight: 19,
with images and DeckVest). 268, 261 bc; Blue Water Supplies: 220; Broadblue 37 tr, 203 cr, 263, 308 cb, 334, 335 tl, br, 384,
Thanks are also due to Nigel Vick of the Catamarans: 199 br; C-Tech Ltd: 176 tr; Nick 383; Steiner: 336 bl, br; Sunsail/Pat Collinge/
Oxford & District Sailing Centre and the Oxford Champion: 126 br; Christal Clear: 65 ca, 84 bl, Richard Neall/Jonathan Smith: 238, 246, 289;
Sailing Club (assistance with photography), Alice 104, 131 bc, 169 tc, 179, 199 tr; Corbis: Chris TKZ photography: Gary Ombler: 28–29 bl, tl, tr,
Hellier 15, Gerry Penny/EPA 55, Randy Lincks 73 all, 75 all but br, 76 t, 77 tc, tr, cl, cr, Patrick
Kingham and Tariq Melhem (assistance with
202; Peter Danby: 103; Dehler Yachts: 199 bl, Eden: 26 l, 28 br, 33, 35, 42 tr, 65 bla, 66, 67, 69
dinghy sailing), the Laser Centre (facilities and
209, 304; Disabled Sailors Association: 12 bl, 211 tl, cb, ca, tc, 74 tr, tc, tl, 114 ct, cb, 116, 120 bl, bc,
boats for photography), Sally-Ann Johnson and
br; Julie Dunbar: 65 tc; D14 Dundee Satellite br, 134, 137 bl, tr, 148, 153 cl, bl, 163 cla, clb, c,
Chris Blackburn (help with photography), Opal
Receiving Station, University of Dundee: 371; 164, 165, 167 bl, bcl, bc, bcr, br, 170 all, 186, 219
Marine (loan of a Bavaria 38 Match), James
Dubarry: 219 bl; Dufour Yachts: 199 cl; Patrick tl, cl, tr, cr, 244, 280, 292, 338 cb, 340, 352, 392
Blackburn (help with cruiser photography),
Eden: 5 cr, 187 tl; Jeremy Evans: 14, 56, 64, 188 bl, bcl, bcr, br, 397 bl, 399, 402, 403 cr, 410, 411;
Michelle Fisher and Carl Blenkinsop (loan of their
bc, 207, 254, 400 bl, 401 tl, br; Elan Yachts: 212; Sara Coombes: 396 tr; Steve Sleight: 72 cr, 75 br,
Dart 15 and assistance with photography), the
Finnclass.org: 159 tr; Frank Lane Picture Agency: 133 tl, br, 149, 166 tr, bl, 167 tc, 171 all, 222 bl, tr,
UKSA (United Kingdom Sailing Academy) (help
374 bc, B&D Hosking 381, Brian Cosgrove 372 223 br, 255, 279, 282 bl, br, 287, 305, 309 tl, 309
with photography), Alison Burton and Eddie
bc, Chris Demetrion 375 br, Francois Merlet 372 bc, 338 bl, 391 tl, tc, tr, 395 tc, 396 bc, 403 cl, bl,
Sherwin (help with clothing photography).
br, H Hoflinger 379, Larry West 374 bl, Martin bc, 413, 416 bl, tr, 417 bl, tr; Rick Tomlinson: 5 cl,
Clothing for cruiser photography was kindly
Smith 308 tr, Maurice Nimmo 375 bl, S. 10–11, 248, 255; Sailing Energy: 60–61, Jesus
provided by Musto Ltd. Renedo 131 tl, 131 cb; Sportography.tv: 1; Tradline
McCutcheon 373 bl, bc, 374 br, R Thompson
Thanks for help with the first edition of this Rope and Fenders: 48 br; Turtle Photography: 65
372 bl; Garmin Ltd.: 326 clb, 332 bl, bc, br;
book are due to Gary Pearson, Mark Elson, Will tl, tlb, clb, tcb, cb, 78 bl, 83, 84 tl, 84 tc, 126 tl,
Geoscience Features: 375 bc; Getty Images: Jean-
Upchurch, and Ben Willows of UKSA (assistance clb, tc, c, cb, 163 ca, 188/189; UK Sailmakers: 313
Sebastien Evrard/AFP 177 tl, Abner Kingman
with dinghy-sailing photography), Rival Bowman br; UKHO: 290, 324 bl, bc, br ‘Reproduced from
312, Mike Hewitt 366–367, Lloyd Images 17 b,
Yachts Ltd (loan of a Starlight 35), and Julian Admiralty chart 2040 by permission of the
Clive Mason 18 b, 169 tr, Photodisc / Huntstock
Fawcett from Rival Bowman (sailing assistance), 25 cr, /500px/xz 20–21; Steve Gorton: 29 r, 82 tr, Controller of Her Majesty’s Stationery Office and
Martin Pass at Audi UK, Milton Keynes 82 bl, 119, 210–211 all except 211 br, 214–215, the UK Hydrographic Office (www.ukho.gov.uk)’;
(providing cars for photography). 216–217, 230, 232, 234, 242, 245, 247, 249, 252, UKSA: 290; UltimateSailing.com: Sharon Green
259, 260, 261 tc, 330 bl; Helly Hansen/Jon Nash: 16; US National Weather Service: 382; Volvo
DK would like to thank Lars Lippuner for so ably 127 t, 140; Harken: 48 cl, c, cr, clb, cb, crb, br; Ocean Race: Dan Armstrong 17 tr, Jen Edney /
taking on the mantle of Steve’s legacy and Junichi Hirai: 4–5; iStock: Getty images / E+ / Volvo AB 420–421; White Formula: 177 tr;
stepping into his hard-to-fill shoes. We are also mbbirdy 194–195; iStockphoto.com: 388–389; William Payne Photography: 406 br, 412; Paul
very grateful to the Disabled Sailors Association ITT Industries/Rule/Jabsco: 409 ct, tr; J/Boats Wyeth: 6–7 main, 13, 154 bl, bc, 163 cr.
(disabledsailing.org) for their kind help. DK UK: 255; Kos Picture Source: 205, 243, 293, 313
would like to thank the following for their work tl, 316–317; David Williams 288; F Salle 160 bl; Illustrations from the first edition by Peter Bull
on previous editions: Jacek Kwiatkowsk: 2; Lagoon Art – Robert Art Studio. Additional illustrations by Phil
Editors: Sreshtha Bhattacharya, Priyanka Hajduk: 122–123; Laser Centre: 5 c, 65 bca, 154 Gamble, David Ashby, Martin Woodward, Quo
Chatterjee, Pankaj Deo, Suneha Dutta, Neha br, 159 tl; Laser Performance: 65 cla; Peter Bentley: Kong Chen, Robert Campbell, Claire Pegrum,
Gupta, Nidhilekha Mathur, Rashmi Rajan, 5 c, 112; LDC Racing Sailboats: 36, 38, 53, 62, Steve Cluett, John Woodcock, Hugh Schermuly.
Rupa Rao, Suparna Sengupta; Designers: Aanchal 64 b, 65 bc, 79 br, cr, 126 cl, 159 cl, cr, 163 cb;
Awasthi, Diya Kapur, Pooja Pipil; Managing Mach2boats: Thierry Martinez 126 bl; Mannix: All other images © Dorling Kindersley.
Editor: Kingshuk Ghoshal; Managing Art Editors: 385 br; Magic Marine: 100, Thierry Martinez
Romi Chakraborty, Govind Mittal; Production 124, Richard de Jonge 187 br; Ingrid Abery For further information see www.dkimages.com