Java (programming language)

Java is a high-level, class-based, object-oriented programming

language that is designed to have as few implementation Java
dependencies as possible. It is a general-purpose programming
language intended to let application developers write once, run
anywhere (WORA),[16] meaning that compiled Java code can run
on all platforms that support Java without the need for
recompilation.[17] Java applications are typically compiled to
bytecode that can run on any Java virtual machine (JVM)
regardless of the underlying computer architecture. The syntax of
Java is similar to C and C++, but has fewer low-level facilities
than either of them. The Java runtime provides dynamic Paradigm Multi-paradigm:
capabilities (such as reflection and runtime code modification) generic, object-
that are typically not available in traditional compiled languages. oriented (class-
As of 2019, Java was one of the most popular programming based), imperative,
languages in use according to GitHub,[18][19] particularly for reflective
client-server web applications, with a reported 9 million
Designed by James Gosling
developers.[20]
Developer Oracle Corporation
Java was originally developed by James Gosling at Sun
First appeared May 23, 1995[1]
Microsystems (which has since been acquired by Oracle) and
released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java Stable release Java SE 16.0.1 /
platform. The original and reference implementation Java April 20, 2021
compilers, virtual machines, and class libraries were originally
Typing Static, strong,
released by Sun under proprietary licenses. As of May 2007, in
compliance with the specifications of the Java Community discipline safe, nominative,
Process, Sun had relicensed most of its Java technologies under manifest
the GNU General Public License. Oracle offers its own HotSpot Filename .java, .class, .jar
Java Virtual Machine, however the official reference extensions
implementation is the OpenJDK JVM which is free open source
Website oracle.com/java/ (h
software and used by most developers and is the default JVM for
almost all Linux distributions. ttp://oracle.com/jav
a/)
As of March 2021, the latest version is Java 16, with Java 11, a Influenced by
currently supported long-term support (LTS) version, released on
September 25, 2018. Oracle released the last zero-cost public CLU,[2] Simula67,[2] LISP,[2]
update for the legacy version Java 8 LTS in January 2019 for SmallTalk,[2] Ada 83, C++,[3] C#,[4]
commercial use, although it will otherwise still support Java 8 Eiffel,[5] Mesa,[6] Modula-3,[7]
with public updates for personal use indefinitely. Other vendors Oberon,[8] Objective-C,[9] UCSD
have begun to offer zero-cost builds of OpenJDK 8 and 11 that are Pascal,[10][11] Object Pascal[12]
still receiving security and other upgrades.
Influenced
Oracle (and others) highly recommend uninstalling outdated Ada 2005, BeanShell, C#,
versions of Java because of serious risks due to unresolved Chapel,[13] Clojure, ECMAScript,
security issues.[21] Since Java 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, and 15 are no Fantom, Gambas,[14] Groovy,
longer supported, Oracle advises its users to immediately Hack,[15] Haxe, J#, Kotlin, PHP,
transition to the latest version (currently Java 16) or an LTS Python, Scala, Seed7, Vala,
release.
JavaScript
Java Programming at Wikibooks
Contents
History
Principles
Versions
Editions
Execution system
Java JVM and bytecode
Performance
Non-JVM
Automatic memory management
Syntax
Hello world example
Example with methods
Special classes
Applet
Servlet
JavaServer Pages
Swing application
JavaFX application
Generics
Criticism
Class libraries
Documentation
Implementations
Use outside the Java platform
Android
Controversy
See also
Comparison of Java with other languages
References
Works cited
External links

History
James Gosling, Mike Sheridan, and Patrick Naughton initiated the Java language project in June
1991.[22] Java was originally designed for interactive television, but it was too advanced for the digital
cable television industry at the time.[23] The language was initially called Oak after an oak tree that
stood outside Gosling's office. Later the project went by the name Green and was finally renamed
Java, from Java coffee, a type of coffee from Indonesia.[24] Gosling designed Java with a C/C++-style
syntax that system and application programmers would find familiar.[25]

Sun Microsystems released the first public implementation as Java 1.0 in 1996.[26] It promised
Write Once, Run Anywhere (WORA) functionality, providing no-cost run-times on popular
platforms. Fairly secure and featuring configurable security, it allowed network- and file-access
restrictions. Major web browsers soon incorporated the ability to run Java
applets within web pages, and Java quickly became popular. The Java 1.0
compiler was re-written in Java by Arthur van Hoff to comply strictly with the
Java 1.0 language specification.[27] With the advent of Java 2 (released initially
as J2SE 1.2 in December 1998 – 1999), new versions had multiple configurations
built for different types of platforms. J2EE included technologies and APIs for
enterprise applications typically run in server environments, while J2ME
featured APIs optimized for mobile applications. The desktop version was
renamed J2SE. In 2006, for marketing purposes, Sun renamed new J2 versions
as Java EE, Java ME, and Java SE, respectively.

In 1997, Sun Microsystems approached the ISO/IEC JTC 1 standards body and Duke, the Java
later the Ecma International to formalize Java, but it soon withdrew from the mascot
process.[28][29][30] Java remains a de facto standard, controlled through the Java
Community Process.[31] At one time, Sun made most of its Java
implementations available without charge, despite their
proprietary software status. Sun generated revenue from Java
through the selling of licenses for specialized products such as
the Java Enterprise System.

On November 13, 2006, Sun released much of its Java virtual

machine (JVM) as free and open-source software (FOSS), under
the terms of the GNU General Public License (GPL). On May 8,
2007, Sun finished the process, making all of its JVM's core code
available under free software/open-source distribution terms,
aside from a small portion of code to which Sun did not hold the
copyright.[32]
James Gosling, the creator of Java,
Sun's vice-president Rich Green said that Sun's ideal role with in 2008
regard to Java was as an evangelist.[33] Following Oracle
Corporation's acquisition of Sun Microsystems in 2009–10,
Oracle has described itself as the steward of Java technology with
a relentless commitment to fostering a community of
participation and transparency.[34] This did not prevent Oracle
from filing a lawsuit against Google shortly after that for using
Java inside the Android SDK (see the Android section).

On April 2, 2010, James Gosling resigned from Oracle.[35] The TIOBE programming language
popularity index graph from 2002 to
In January 2016, Oracle announced that Java run-time 2018. Java was steadily on the top
environments based on JDK 9 will discontinue the browser from mid-2015 to early 2020.
plugin.[36]

Java software runs on everything from laptops to data centers, game consoles to scientific
supercomputers.[37]

Principles

There were five primary goals in the creation of the Java language:[17]

1. It must be simple, object-oriented, and familiar.

2. It must be robust and secure.
3. It must be architecture-neutral and portable.
 4. It must execute with high performance.
5. It must be interpreted, threaded, and dynamic.

Versions

As of September 2020, Java 8 and 11 are supported as Long Term Support (LTS) versions, and one
later non-LTS version is supported.[38] Major release versions of Java, along with their release dates:

Version Date
JDK Beta 1995

JDK1.0 January 23, 1996[39]

JDK 1.1 February 19, 1997
J2SE 1.2 December 8, 1998
J2SE 1.3 May 8, 2000
J2SE 1.4 February 6, 2002
J2SE 5.0 September 30, 2004
Java SE 6 December 11, 2006
Java SE 7 July 28, 2011
Java SE 8 March 18, 2014
Java SE 9 September 21, 2017
Java SE 10 March 20, 2018

Java SE 11 September 25, 2018[40]

Java SE 12 March 19, 2019
Java SE 13 September 17, 2019
Java SE 14 March 17, 2020

Java SE 15 September 15, 2020[41]

Java SE 16 March 16, 2021

Editions
Sun has defined and supports four editions of Java targeting different application environments and
segmented many of its APIs so that they belong to one of the platforms. The platforms are:

Java Card for smart-cards.[42]

Java Platform, Micro Edition (Java ME) – targeting environments with limited resources.[43]
Java Platform, Standard Edition (Java SE) – targeting workstation environments.[44]
Java Platform, Enterprise Edition (Java EE) – targeting large distributed enterprise or Internet
environments.[45]

The classes in the Java APIs are organized into separate groups called packages. Each package
contains a set of related interfaces, classes, subpackages and exceptions.

Sun also provided an edition called Personal Java that has been superseded by later, standards-based
Java ME configuration-profile pairings.
Execution system

Java JVM and bytecode

One design goal of Java is portability, which means that programs written for the Java platform must
run similarly on any combination of hardware and operating system with adequate run time support.
This is achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation called Java
bytecode, instead of directly to architecture-specific machine code. Java bytecode instructions are
analogous to machine code, but they are intended to be executed by a virtual machine (VM) written
specifically for the host hardware. End users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE)
installed on their machine for standalone Java applications, or in a web browser for Java applets.

Standard libraries provide a generic way to access host-specific features such as graphics, threading,
and networking.

The use of universal bytecode makes porting simple. However, the overhead of interpreting bytecode
into machine instructions made interpreted programs almost always run more slowly than native
executables. Just-in-time (JIT) compilers that compile byte-codes to machine code during runtime
were introduced from an early stage. Java itself is platform-independent and is adapted to the
particular platform it is to run on by a Java virtual machine (JVM) for it, which translates the Java
bytecode into the platform's machine language.[46]

Performance

Programs written in Java have a reputation for being slower and requiring more memory than those
written in C++ .[47][48] However, Java programs' execution speed improved significantly with the
introduction of just-in-time compilation in 1997/1998 for Java 1.1,[49] the addition of language
features supporting better code analysis (such as inner classes, the StringBuilder class, optional
assertions, etc.), and optimizations in the Java virtual machine, such as HotSpot becoming Sun's
default JVM in 2000. With Java 1.5, the performance was improved with the addition of the
java.util.concurrent package, including lock free implementations of the ConcurrentMaps and other
multi-core collections, and it was improved further with Java 1.6.

Non-JVM

Some platforms offer direct hardware support for Java; there are micro controllers that can run Java
bytecode in hardware instead of a software Java virtual machine,[50] and some ARM-based
processors could have hardware support for executing Java bytecode through their Jazelle option,
though support has mostly been dropped in current implementations of ARM.

Automatic memory management

Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The programmer
determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for recovering the memory
once objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain, the unreachable memory
becomes eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector. Something similar to a memory
leak may still occur if a programmer's code holds a reference to an object that is no longer needed,
typically when objects that are no longer needed are stored in containers that are still in use. If
methods for a non-existent object are called, a null pointer exception is thrown.[51][52]
One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers can be
spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages, memory
for the creation of objects is implicitly allocated on the stack or explicitly allocated and deallocated
from the heap. In the latter case, the responsibility of managing memory resides with the
programmer. If the program does not deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs. If the program
attempts to access or deallocate memory that has already been deallocated, the result is undefined
and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become unstable or crash. This can be partially
remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and complexity. Note that garbage
collection does not prevent logical memory leaks, i.e. those where the memory is still referenced but
never used.

Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is
guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object;
this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in Java.

Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses can be arithmetically
manipulated (e.g. by adding or subtracting an offset). This allows the garbage collector to relocate
referenced objects and ensures type safety and security.

As in C++ and some other object-oriented languages, variables of Java's primitive data types are
either stored directly in fields (for objects) or on the stack (for methods) rather than on the heap, as is
commonly true for non-primitive data types (but see escape analysis). This was a conscious decision
by Java's designers for performance reasons.

Java contains multiple types of garbage collectors. Since Java 9, HotSpot uses the Garbage First
Garbage Collector (G1GC) as the default.[53] However, there are also several other garbage collectors
that can be used to manage the heap. For most applications in Java, G1GC is sufficient. Previously,
the Parallel Garbage Collector (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/vm/gctuni
ng/parallel.html) was used in Java 8.

Having solved the memory management problem does not relieve the programmer of the burden of
handling properly other kinds of resources, like network or database connections, file handles, etc.,
especially in the presence of exceptions.

Syntax
The syntax of Java is largely influenced by C++ and C. Unlike C++,
which combines the syntax for structured, generic, and object-
oriented programming, Java was built almost exclusively as an
object-oriented language.[17] All code is written inside classes, and
every data item is an object, with the exception of the primitive data
types, (i.e. integers, floating-point numbers, boolean values, and
characters), which are not objects for performance reasons. Java
reuses some popular aspects of C++ (such as the printf method).

Unlike C++, Java does not support operator overloading[54] or

multiple inheritance for classes, though multiple inheritance is
supported for interfaces.[55] Dependency graph of the Java
Core classes (created with jdeps
Java uses comments similar to those of C++. There are three and Gephi)
different styles of comments: a single line style marked with two
slashes (//), a multiple line style opened with /* and closed with
*/, and the Javadoc commenting style opened with /** and closed with */. The Javadoc style of
commenting allows the user to run the Javadoc executable to create documentation for the program
and can be read by some integrated development environments (IDEs) such as Eclipse to allow
developers to access documentation within the IDE.

Hello world example

The traditional Hello world program can be written in Java as:[56]

1 public class HelloWorldApp {

2 public static void main(String[] args) {
3 System.out.println("Hello World!"); // Prints the string to the console.
4 }
5 }

All source files must be named after the public class they contain, appending the suffix .java, for
example, HelloWorldApp.java. It must first be compiled into bytecode, using a Java compiler,
producing a file with the .class suffix (HelloWorldApp.class, in this case). Only then can it be
executed or launched. The Java source file may only contain one public class, but it can contain
multiple classes with a non-public access modifier and any number of public inner classes. When the
source file contains multiple classes, it is necessary to make one class (introduced by the class
keyword) public (preceded by the public keyword) and name the source file with that public class
name.

A class that is not declared public may be stored in any .java file. The compiler will generate a class
file for each class defined in the source file. The name of the class file is the name of the class, with
.class appended. For class file generation, anonymous classes are treated as if their name were the
concatenation of the name of their enclosing class, a $, and an integer.

The keyword public denotes that a method can be called from code in other classes, or that a class
may be used by classes outside the class hierarchy. The class hierarchy is related to the name of the
directory in which the .java file is located. This is called an access level modifier. Other access level
modifiers include the keywords private (a method that can only be accessed in the same class) and
protected (which allows code from the same package to access). If a piece of code attempts to
access private methods or protected methods, the JVM will throw a SecurityException

The keyword static[18] in front of a method indicates a static method, which is associated only with
the class and not with any specific instance of that class. Only static methods can be invoked without
a reference to an object. Static methods cannot access any class members that are not also static.
Methods that are not designated static are instance methods and require a specific instance of a class
to operate.

The keyword void indicates that the main method does not return any value to the caller. If a Java
program is to exit with an error code, it must call System.exit() explicitly.

The method name main is not a keyword in the Java language. It is simply the name of the method
the Java launcher calls to pass control to the program. Java classes that run in managed
environments such as applets and Enterprise JavaBeans do not use or need a main() method. A
Java program may contain multiple classes that have main methods, which means that the VM needs
to be explicitly told which class to launch from.

The main method must accept an array of String (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/d

ocs/api/java/lang/String.html) objects. By convention, it is referenced as args although
any other legal identifier name can be used. Since Java 5, the main method can also use variable
arguments, in the form of public static void main(String... args), allowing the main
method to be invoked with an arbitrary number of String arguments. The effect of this alternate
declaration is semantically identical (to the args parameter which is still an array of String
objects), but it allows an alternative syntax for creating and passing the array.

The Java launcher launches Java by loading a given class (specified on the command line or as an
attribute in a JAR) and starting its public static void main(String[]) method. Stand-alone
programs must declare this method explicitly. The String[] args parameter is an array of
String objects containing any arguments passed to the class. The parameters to main are often
passed by means of a command line.

Printing is part of a Java standard library: The System (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/1

0/docs/api/java/lang/System.html) class defines a public static field called out (http
s://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/java/lang/System.html#out). The out
object is an instance of the PrintStream (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/ap
i/java/io/PrintStream.html) class and provides many methods for printing data to standard
out, including println(String) (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/10/docs/api/jav
a/io/PrintStream.html#println(java.lang.String)) which also appends a new line to
the passed string.

The string "Hello World!" is automatically converted to a String object by the compiler.

Example with methods

// This is an example of a single line comment using two slashes

/*
* This is an example of a multiple line comment using the slash and asterisk.
* This type of comment can be used to hold a lot of information or deactivate
* code, but it is very important to remember to close the comment.
*/

package fibsandlies;

import java.util.Map;
import java.util.HashMap;

/**
* This is an example of a Javadoc comment; Javadoc can compile documentation
* from this text. Javadoc comments must immediately precede the class, method,
* or field being documented.
* @author Wikipedia Volunteers
*/
public class FibCalculator extends Fibonacci implements Calculator {
private static Map<Integer, Integer> memoized = new HashMap<>();

/*
* The main method written as follows is used by the JVM as a starting point
* for the program.
*/
public static void main(String[] args) {
memoized.put(1, 1);
memoized.put(2, 1);
System.out.println(fibonacci(12)); // Get the 12th Fibonacci number and print to console
}

/**
* An example of a method written in Java, wrapped in a class.
* Given a non-negative number FIBINDEX, returns
* the Nth Fibonacci number, where N equals FIBINDEX.
*
* @param fibIndex The index of the Fibonacci number
* @return the Fibonacci number
*/
public static int fibonacci(int fibIndex) {
if (memoized.containsKey(fibIndex)) return memoized.get(fibIndex);
else {
int answer = fibonacci(fibIndex - 1) + fibonacci(fibIndex - 2);
memoized.put(fibIndex, answer);
 return answer;
}
}
}

Special classes

Applet

Java applets were programs that were embedded in other applications, typically in a Web page
displayed in a web browser. The Java applet API is now deprecated since Java 9 in 2017.[57][58]

Servlet

Java servlet technology provides Web developers with a simple, consistent mechanism for extending
the functionality of a Web server and for accessing existing business systems. Servlets are server-side
Java EE components that generate responses to requests from clients. Most of the time, this means
generating HTML pages in response to HTTP requests, although there are a number of other
standard servlet classes available, for example for WebSocket communication.

The Java servlet API has to some extent been superseded (but still used under the hood) by two
standard Java technologies for web services:

the Java API for RESTful Web Services (JAX-RS 2.0) useful for AJAX, JSON and REST
services, and
the Java API for XML Web Services (JAX-WS) useful for SOAP Web Services.

Typical implementations of these APIs on Application Servers or Servlet Containers use a standard
servlet for handling all interactions with the HTTP requests and responses that delegate to the web
service methods for the actual business logic.

JavaServer Pages

JavaServer Pages (JSP) are server-side Java EE components that generate responses, typically HTML
pages, to HTTP requests from clients. JSPs embed Java code in an HTML page by using the special
delimiters <% and %>. A JSP is compiled to a Java servlet, a Java application in its own right, the first
time it is accessed. After that, the generated servlet creates the response.[59]

Swing application

Swing is a graphical user interface library for the Java SE platform. It is possible to specify a different
look and feel through the pluggable look and feel system of Swing. Clones of Windows, GTK+, and
Motif are supplied by Sun. Apple also provides an Aqua look and feel for macOS. Where prior
implementations of these looks and feels may have been considered lacking, Swing in Java SE 6
addresses this problem by using more native GUI widget drawing routines of the underlying
platforms.[60]

JavaFX application
JavaFX is a software platform for creating and delivering desktop applications, as well as rich web
applications that can run across a wide variety of devices. JavaFX is intended to replace Swing as the
standard GUI library for Java SE, but since JDK 11 JavaFX has not been in the core JDK and instead
in a separate module.[61] JavaFX has support for desktop computers and web browsers on Microsoft
Windows, Linux, and macOS. JavaFX does not have support for native OS look and feels.[62]

Generics

In 2004, generics were added to the Java language, as part of J2SE 5.0. Prior to the introduction of
generics, each variable declaration had to be of a specific type. For container classes, for example, this
is a problem because there is no easy way to create a container that accepts only specific types of
objects. Either the container operates on all subtypes of a class or interface, usually Object, or a
different container class has to be created for each contained class. Generics allow compile-time type
checking without having to create many container classes, each containing almost identical code. In
addition to enabling more efficient code, certain runtime exceptions are prevented from occurring, by
issuing compile-time errors. If Java prevented all runtime type errors (ClassCastExceptions)
from occurring, it would be type safe.

In 2016, the type system of Java was proven unsound.[63]

Criticism
Criticisms directed at Java include the implementation of generics,[64] speed,[65] the handling of
unsigned numbers,[66] the implementation of floating-point arithmetic,[67] and a history of security
vulnerabilities in the primary Java VM implementation HotSpot.[68]

Class libraries
The Java Class Library is the standard library, developed to support application development in Java.
It is controlled by Oracle in cooperation with others through the Java Community Process
program.[69] Companies or individuals participating in this process can influence the design and
development of the APIs. This process has been a subject of controversy during the 2010s.[70] The
class library contains features such as:

The core libraries, which include:

IO/NIO (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/java/nio/package-summary.html)
Networking (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/technotes/guides/net/index.html) (NOTE:
new HTTP Client (https://docs.oracle.com/en/java/javase/11/docs/api/java.net.http/java/net/htt
p/HttpClient.html) since Java 11)
Reflection
Concurrency
Generics
Scripting/Compiler
Functional programming (Lambda, Streaming)
Collection libraries that implement data structures such as lists, dictionaries, trees, sets,
queues and double-ended queue, or stacks[71]
XML Processing (Parsing, Transforming, Validating) libraries
Security[72]
Internationalization and localization libraries[73]
 The integration libraries, which allow the application writer to communicate with external systems.
These libraries include:
The Java Database Connectivity (JDBC) API for database access
Java Naming and Directory Interface (JNDI) for lookup and discovery
RMI and CORBA for distributed application development
JMX for managing and monitoring applications
User interface libraries, which include:
The (heavyweight, or native) Abstract Window Toolkit (AWT), which provides GUI
components, the means for laying out those components and the means for handling events
from those components
The (lightweight) Swing libraries, which are built on AWT but provide (non-native)
implementations of the AWT widgetry
APIs for audio capture, processing, and playback
JavaFX
A platform dependent implementation of the Java virtual machine that is the means by which the
bytecodes of the Java libraries and third party applications are executed
Plugins, which enable applets to be run in web browsers
Java Web Start, which allows Java applications to be efficiently distributed to end users across
the Internet
Licensing and documentation

Documentation
Javadoc is a comprehensive documentation system, created by Sun Microsystems. It provides
developers with an organized system for documenting their code. Javadoc comments have an extra
asterisk at the beginning, i.e. the delimiters are /** and */, whereas the normal multi-line
comments in Java are set off with the delimiters /* and */, and single-line comments start off the
line with //.[74]

Implementations
Oracle Corporation is the current owner of the official implementation of the Java SE platform,
following their acquisition of Sun Microsystems on January 27, 2010. This implementation is based
on the original implementation of Java by Sun. The Oracle implementation is available for Microsoft
Windows (still works for XP, while only later versions are currently officially supported), macOS,
Linux, and Solaris. Because Java lacks any formal standardization recognized by Ecma International,
ISO/IEC, ANSI, or other third-party standards organizations, the Oracle implementation is the de
facto standard.

The Oracle implementation is packaged into two different distributions: The Java Runtime
Environment (JRE) which contains the parts of the Java SE platform required to run Java programs
and is intended for end users, and the Java Development Kit (JDK), which is intended for software
developers and includes development tools such as the Java compiler, Javadoc, Jar, and a debugger.
Oracle has also released GraalVM, a high performance Java dynamic compiler and interpreter.

OpenJDK is another notable Java SE implementation that is licensed under the GNU GPL. The
implementation started when Sun began releasing the Java source code under the GPL. As of Java SE
7, OpenJDK is the official Java reference implementation.
The goal of Java is to make all implementations of Java compatible. Historically, Sun's trademark
license for usage of the Java brand insists that all implementations be compatible. This resulted in a
legal dispute with Microsoft after Sun claimed that the Microsoft implementation did not support
RMI or JNI and had added platform-specific features of their own. Sun sued in 1997, and, in 2001,
won a settlement of US$20 million, as well as a court order enforcing the terms of the license from
Sun.[75] As a result, Microsoft no longer ships Java with Windows.

Platform-independent Java is essential to Java EE, and an even more rigorous validation is required
to certify an implementation. This environment enables portable server-side applications.

Use outside the Java platform

The Java programming language requires the presence of a software platform in order for compiled
programs to be executed.

Oracle supplies the Java platform for use with Java. The Android SDK is an alternative software
platform, used primarily for developing Android applications with its own GUI system.

Android

The Java language is a key pillar in Android, an open source mobile

operating system. Although Android, built on the Linux kernel, is
written largely in C, the Android SDK uses the Java language as the
basis for Android applications but does not use any of its standard GUI,
SE, ME or other established Java standards.[76] The bytecode language
supported by the Android SDK is incompatible with Java bytecode and
runs on its own virtual machine, optimized for low-memory devices such
as smartphones and tablet computers. Depending on the Android
version, the bytecode is either interpreted by the Dalvik virtual machine
or compiled into native code by the Android Runtime.

Android does not provide the full Java SE standard library, although the
Android SDK does include an independent implementation of a large
subset of it. It supports Java 6 and some Java 7 features, offering an
implementation compatible with the standard library (Apache
Harmony).
The Android operating
system makes extensive
Controversy use of Java-related
technology
The use of Java-related technology in Android led to a legal dispute
between Oracle and Google. On May 7, 2012, a San Francisco jury found
that if APIs could be copyrighted, then Google had infringed Oracle's copyrights by the use of Java in
Android devices.[77] District Judge William Alsup ruled on May 31, 2012, that APIs cannot be
copyrighted,[78] but this was reversed by the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit in
May 2014.[79] On May 26, 2016, the district court decided in favor of Google, ruling the copyright
infringement of the Java API in Android constitutes fair use.[80] In March 2018, this ruling was
overturned by the Appeals Court, which sent down the case of determining the damages to federal
court in San Francisco.[81] Google filed a petition for writ of certiorari with the Supreme Court of the
United States in January 2019 to challenge the two rulings that were made by the Appeals Court in
Oracle's favor.[82] On April 5, 2021 the Court ruled 6-2 in Google's favor, that its use of Java APIs
should be considered fair use. However, the court refused to rule on the copyrightability of APIs,
choosing instead to determine their ruling by considering Java's API copyrightable "purely for
argument’s sake."[83]
See also
C#
C++
Dalvik, used in old Android versions, replaced by non-JIT Android Runtime
Deterministic Parallel Java
List of Java virtual machines
List of Java APIs
List of JVM languages

Comparison of Java with other languages

Comparison of C# and Java
Comparison of Java and C++

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Works cited
Gosling, James; Joy, Bill; Steele, Guy; Bracha, Gilad; Buckley, Alex (2014). The Java® Language
Specification (https://docs.oracle.com/javase/specs/jls/se8/jls8.pdf) (PDF) (Java SE 8 ed.).
Gosling, James; Joy, Bill; Steele, Guy L., Jr.; Bracha, Gilad (2005). The Java Language
Specification (https://java.sun.com/docs/books/jls/index.html) (3rd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-
321-24678-0.
Lindholm, Tim; Yellin, Frank (1999). The Java Virtual Machine Specification (https://java.sun.com/
docs/books/vmspec/2nd-edition/html/VMSpecTOC.doc.html) (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-
201-43294-3.

External links
The dictionary definition of Java at Wiktionary
Media related to Java at Wikimedia Commons
Java Programming at Wikibooks
Learning materials related to Java at Wikiversity
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