Applied Hydraulic Engineering: A Course Material On

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A Course Material on
Applied Hydraulic Engineering
By
Mr. K.ChandraBose
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material
Subject Code : CE6403
Scubject : APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
Class : II Year Civil Engineering
being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university

curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name: K.ChandraBose
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.K.ChandraBose is of

adequate quality. He has referred more than five books amont them minimum one is from
aborad author.
Signature of HD
Name: N.SathishKumar
SEAL
CE6403 APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING LTPC

31 04
OBJECTIVES:
To introduce the students to various hydraulic engineering problems like open channel flows
and hydraulic machines. At the completion of the course, the student should be able to
relate the theory and practice of problems in hydraulic engineering.
UNIT I UNIFORM FLOW 9
Definition and differences between pipe flow and open channel flow - Types of Flow - Properties of
open channel - Fundamental equations - Velocity distribution in open channel - Steady uniform
flow: Chezy equation, Manning equation - Best hydraulic sections for uniform flow -
Computation in Uniform Flow - Specific energy and specific force - Critical depth and velocity.
UNIT II GRADUALLY V ARIED FLOW 9
Dynamic equations of gradually varied and spatially varied flows - Water surface flow profile
classifications: Hydraulic Slope, Hydraulic Curve - Profile determination by Numerical method:
Direct step method and Standard step method, Graphical method - Applications.
UNIT III RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW 9
Application of the energy equation for RVF - Critical depth and velocity - Critical, Sub-critical and
Super-critical flow - Application of the momentum equation for RVF - Hydraulic jumps - Types -
Energy dissipation - Surges and surge through channel transitions.
UNIT IV TURBINES 9
Impact of Jet on vanes - Turbines - Classification - Reaction turbines - Francis turbine, Radial flow
turbines, draft tube and cavitation - Propeller and Kaplan turbines - Impulse turbine - Performance
of turbine - Specific speed - Runaway speed - Similarity laws.
UNIT V PUMPS 9
Centrifugal pumps - Minimum speed to start the pump - NPSH - Cavitations in pumps - Operating
characteristics - Multistage pumps - Reciprocating pumps - Negative slip - Flow separation
conditions - Air vessels, indicator diagrams and its variations - Savings in work done - Rotary
pumps: Gear pump.
TOTAL (L:45+T:15): 60 PERIODS

OUTCOMES:
 The students will be able to apply their knowledge of fluid mechanics
in addressing problems in open channels.
 They will possess the skills to solve problems in uniform, gradually and
rapidly varied flows in steady state conditions.
 They will have knowledge in hydraulic machineries (pumps and turbines).
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Jain. A.K., "Fluid Mechanics", Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2010.
2. Modi P.N. and Seth S.M., "Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics", Standard Book House,
New Delhi, 2002.
3. Subramanya K., "Flow in open channels", Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi, 2000.
REFERENCES:
1. Ven Te Chow, "Open Channel Hydraulics", McGraw Hill, New York, 2009.
2. Rajesh Srivastava, "Flow through open channels", Oxford University Press, New
Delhi,2008.
3. Bansal, "Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines", Laxmi Publications, New Delhi,
2008.
4. Mays L. W., "Water Resources Engineering", John Wiley and Sons (WSE), New
York,2005.
Sl.No Contents Page No.
UNIT 1 UNIFORM FLOW
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 DifferencesbetweenPipeFlowandOpen ChannelFlow 2
1.3 Types of flow 2
1.4 Propertiesofopenchannels 3
1.5 Fundamentalequations 5
1.6 Velocitydistributionin openchannels 8
1.7 Steady Uniformflow 9
1.7.1 TheChezyequation 10
1.7.2 TheManningequation 11
1.8 BestHydraulicCross-Section 12
1.9 Computationsin UniformFlow 16
1.10 Specific Energy 20
1.11 Critical Flow and Critical Velocity 23
UNIT II GRADUALLYVARIEDFLOW
2.1 Varied Flow 24
2.2 Gradually Varied Flow in Open Channel 24
2.3 Transitions between Sub and Super Critical Flow 25
2.4 Classification of profiles 27
2.5 Profile Determination 30
2.5.1 Thedirectstepmethod 32
2.5.2 The standardstep method 32
2.5.3 Graphical Integration Method 33
UNIT 3 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
3.1 The Application of the Energy equation for Rapidly Varied Flow 37
3.1.1 The energy (Bernoulli) equation 37
3.2 Critical , Sub-critical and super critical flow 38
3.3 Application of the Momentum equation for Rapidly Varied Flow 40
3.4 Hydraulic jump 42
3.4.1 Expression for Hydraulic Jump 42
3.4.2 Loss of Energy due to HydraulicJump 42
3.4.2 Loss of Energy due to HydraulicJump 42
3.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Jumps 42
UNIT 4 TURBINES
4.1 Introduction 44
4.2 Breaking Jet 44
4.3 Classification of Turbines 44
4.4 Impulse turbines 45
4.5 Reaction turbines 45
4.6 Turbines in action 46
4.7 Kaplan turbine 46

4.7.1Applications
47
4.7.2 Variations
48
4.7.2.1 Propeller Turbines
48
4.8 Francis Turbine 49
4.9 Specific speed 52

UNIT 5 PUMPS
5.1 Centrifugal Pumps 53
5.1.1 Volute type centrifugal pump 53

5.1.2 Impeller
53
5.1.3 Classification
54
5.1.4 Single and double entry pumps
54
5.1.5 Pressure Developed By The Impeller
55
5.1.6 Manometric Head
55
5.1.7 Energy Transfer By Impeller
56
5.1.8 Slip and Slip Factor
57
5.1.9 Losses in Centrifugal Pumps
57
5.1.10 Losses in pump
58
5.1.11 Pump Characteristics
58
5.1.12 Characteristics of a centrifugal pump
59
Operation of Pumps in Series and Parallel
5.2 60
5.2.1 Pumps in parallel 60
5.2.2 Pumps in series 60
5.2.3 Minimum Speed For Starting The Centrifugal Pump 61

5.2.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)
61
5.2.5 Cavitation
61
5.2.6 Multistage Pump
62
5.3 Reciprocating Pumps 62
5.3.1 Comparison 62
5.3.2 Description And Working
62
5.3.3 Flow Rate and Power 64

5.3.4 Slip
64
5.3.5 Coefficient of discharge
65
5.3.6 Indicator Diagram
65
5.3.7 Acceleration Head 65
5.3.8 Work done by the Pump 67
5.4 Air Vessels 68
Types of positive displacement pump

5.5 68
CE6303 APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
Unit 1 UNIFORM FLOW
Prerequisite
The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe flow . The two
kinds of flow are similar in many ways but differ in one important respect.
1.1 Introduction
Open-channel flow must have a free surface , whereas pipe flow has none. A free surface
is subject to atmospheric pressure. In Pipe flow there exist no direct atmospheric flow but
hydraulic pressure only.
Figure of pipe and open channel flow
The two kinds of flow are compared in the figure above. On the left is pipe flow. Two
piezometers are placed in the pipe at sections 1 and 2. The water levels in the pipes are
maintained by the pressure in the pipe at elevations represented by the hydraulics grade line or
hydraulic gradient .
The pressure exerted by the water in each section of the pipe is shown in the tube by the
height y of a column of water above the centre line of the pipe.
The total energy of the flow of the section (with reference to a datum) is the sum of the
2
elevation z of the pipe centre line, the piezometric head y and the velocity head V /2g , where
V is the mean velocity. The energy is represented in the figure by what is known as the energy
grade line or the energy gradient .
The loss of energy that results when water flows from section 1 to section 2 is represented
by hf.
A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown to the right. This is simplified by
assuming parallel flow with a uniform velocity distribution and that the slope of the channel is
small. In this case the hydraulic gradient is the water surface as the depth of water corresponds
to the piezometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve
problems of flow in open channels than in pipes. Flow conditions in open channels are
complicated by the position of the free surface which will change with time and space. And also
by the fact that depth of flow, the discharge, and the slopes of the channel bottom and of the free
surface are all inter dependent.
SCE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING Page 1
Physical conditions in open-channels vary much more than in pipes – the cross-section of
pipes is usually round – but for open channel it can be any shape.
Treatment of roughness also poses a greater problem in open channels than in pipes. Although
there may be a great range of roughness in a pipe from polished metal to highly corroded iron, open
channels may be of polished metal to natural channels with long grass and roughness that may also
depend on depth of flow.
Open channel flows are found in large and small scale. For example the flow depth can vary
between a few cm in water treatment plants and over 10m in large rivers. The mean velocity of flow
may range from less than 0.01 m/s in tranquil waters to above 50 m/s in high-head spillways. The range
of total discharges may extend from 0.001 l/s in chemical plants to greater than 10000 m 3 /s in large
rivers or spillways.
In each case the flow situation is characterised by the fact that there is a free surface whose
position is NOT known beforehand – it is determined by applying momentum and continuity principles.
Open channel flow is driven by gravity rather than by pressure work as in pipes.
1.2 Differences between Pipe Flow and Open Channel Flow
1.3 Types of flow
The following classifications are made according to change in flow depth withrespect to
time and space.
Figure of the types of flow that may occur in open channels
Steady and Unsteady: Time is the criterion.
Flow is said to be steady if the depth of flow at a particular point does not change or can
be Considered constant for the time interval under consideration. The flow is unsteady if
depth changes with time.
Uniform Flow: Space as the criterion.
Open Channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth and velocity of flow are the same at
every section of the channel. Hence it follows that uniform flow can only occur in prismatic
channels.
For steady uniform flow, depth and velocity is constant with both time and distance. This
constitutes the fundamental type of flow in an open channel. It occurs when gravity forces are in
equilibrium with resistance forces.
Steady non-uniform flow.
Depth varies with distance but not with time. This type of flow may be either (a)
gradually varied or (b) rapidly varied. Type (a) requires the application of the energy and
frictional resistance equations while type (b) requires the energy and momentum equations.
Unsteady flow
The depth varies with both time and space. This is the most common type of flow and
requires the solution of the energy momentum and friction equations with time. In many practical
cases the flow is sufficiently close to steady flow therefore it can be analysed as gradually varied
steady flow.
1.4 Properties of open channels
Artificial channels
These are channels made by man. They include irrigation canals, navigation canals,
spillways, sewers, culverts and drainage ditches. They are usually constructed in a regular
cross-section shape throughout – and are thus prismatic channels (they don’t widen or get
narrower along the channel.
In the field they are commonly constructed of concrete, steel or earth and have the
surface roughness’ reasonably well defined (although this may change with age –
particularly grass lined channels.) Analysis of flow in such well defined channels will
give reasonably accurate results.
Natural channels
Natural channels can be very different. They are not regular nor prismatic and their
materials of construction can vary widely (although they are mainly of earth this can possess
many different properties.) The surface roughness will often change with time distance and
even elevation.
Consequently it becomes more difficult to accurately analyse and obtain satisfactory

results for natural channels than is does for man made ones. The situation may be further
complicated if the boundary is not fixed i.e. erosion and deposition of sediments.
Geometric properties necessary for analysis
For analysis various geometric properties of the channel cross-sections are required. For
artificial channels these can usually be defined using simple algebraic equations given y the depth
of flow. The commonly needed geometric properties are shown in the figure below and defined
as:
Depth(y)–the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel section to the free surface.
Stage (z) – the vertical distance from the free surface to an arbitrary datum
Area (A) – the cross-sectional area of flow, normal to the direction of flow
Wetted perimeter (P) – the length of the wetted surface measured normal to the direction of flow.
Surface width (B) – width of the channel section at the free surface
Hydraulic radius (R) – the ratio of area to wetted perimeter ( A/P )
Hydraulic mean depth (Dm) – the ratio of area to surface width ( A/B )
1.5 Fundamental equations
The equations which describe the flow of fluid are derived from three fundamental
laws of physics:
1. Conservation of matter (or mass) 2. Conservation of energy 3. Conservation of

momentum
Although first developed for solid bodies they are equally applicable to fluids. Brief
descriptions of the concepts are given below.
Conservation of matter
This says that matter can not be created nor destroyed, but it may be converted
(e.g. by a chemical process.) In fluid mechanics we do not consider chemical activity so the law
reduces to one of conservation of mass.
Conservation of energy
This says that energy can not be created nor destroyed, but may be converted form one
type to another (e.g. potential may be converted to kinetic energy). When engineers talk about
energy "losses" they are referring to energy converted from mechanical (potential or kinetic)
to some other form such as heat. A friction loss, for example, is a conversion of mechanical
energy to heat. The basic equations can be obtained from the First Law of
Thermodynamics but a simplified derivation will be given below.
Conservation of momentum
The law of conservation of momentum says that a moving body cannot gain or lose
momentum unless acted upon by an external force. This is a statement of Newton's Second Law
of Motion: Force = rate of change of momentum
In solid mechanics these laws may be applied to an object which is has a fixed shape
and is clearly defined. In fluid mechanics the object is not clearly defined and as it may change
shape constantly. To get over this we use the idea of control volumes. These are
imaginary volumes of fluid within the body of the fluid. To derive the basic equation the above
conservation laws are applied by considering the forces applied to the edges of a control volume
within the fluid.
The Continuity Equation (conservation of mass)
For any control volume during the small time interval δt the principle of conservation
of mass implies that the mass of flow entering the control volume minus the mass of flow
leaving the control volume equals the change of mass within the control volume.If the flow is
steady and the fluid incompressible the mass entering is equal to the mass leaving, so there is
no change of mass within the control volume.
So for the time interval δt : Mass flow entering = mass flow leaving
Figure of a small length of channel as a control volume
Considering the control volume above which is a short length of open channel of arbitrary
cross- Section then, if ρ is the fluid density and Q is the volume flow rate then section then, if
mass flow rate is ρ Q and the continuity equation for steady incompressible flow can be written
As, Q, the volume flow rate is the product of the area and the mean velocity then at the
upstream face (face 1) where the mean velocity is u and the cross-sectional area is A1 then:
Similarly at the downstream face, face 2, where mean velocity is u2 and the cross-
sectional area is A2 then:
Therefore the continuity equation can be written as
The Energy equation (conservation of energy):
Consider the forms of energy available for the above control volume. If the fluid moves
from the upstream face 1, to the downstream face 2 in time d t over the length L.
The work done in moving the fluid through face 1 during this time is
Where p1 is pressure at face 1
The mass entering through face 1 is
Therefore the kinetic energy of the system is:
If z1 is the height of the centroid of face 1, then the potential energy of the fluid
entering the control volume is :
The total energy entering the control volume is the sum of the work done, the potential
and the kinetic energy:
We can write this in terms of energy per unit weight. As the weight of water entering
the control volume is ρ1 A1 L g then just divide by this to get the total energy per unit
weight:
At the exit to the control volume, face 2, similar considerations deduce
If no energy is supplied to the control volume from between the inlet and the outlet
then energy leaving = energy entering and if the fluid is incompressible
This is the Bernoulli equation.
Note:
1. In the derivation of the Bernoulli equation it was assumed that no energy is lost in the
control volume - i.e. the fluid is frictionless. To apply to non frictionless situations some
energy loss term must be included.
2. The dimensions of each term in equation 1.2 has the dimensions of length ( units of
meters). For this reason each term is often regarded as a "head" and given the names
3. Although above we derived the Bernoulli equation between two sections it should strictly
speaking be applied along a stream line as the velocity will differ from the top to the bottom
of the section. However in engineering practise it is possible to apply the Bernoulli equation
with out reference to the particular streamline
The momentum equation (momentum principle)
Again consider the control volume above during the time δt
By the continuity principle : = d Q1 = dQ 2 = dQ
And by Newton's second law Force = rate of change of momentum
It is more convenient to write the force on a control volume in each of the three,
x, y and z direction e.g. in the x-direction
Integration over a volume gives the total force in the x-direction as
As long as velocity V is uniform over the whole cross-section.
This is the momentum equation for steady flow for a region of uniform velocity.
Energy and Momentum coefficients
In deriving the above momentum and energy (Bernoulli) equations it was noted that the
velocity must be constant (equal to V) over the whole cross-section or constant along a
stream-line.
Clearly this will not occur in practice. Fortunately both these equation may still be used
even for situations of quite non-uniform velocity distribution over a section. This is
possible by the introduction of coefficients of energy and momentum, a and ß respectively.
These are defined:
where V is the mean velocity.
And the Bernoulli equation can be rewritten in terms of this mean velocity:
And the momentum equation becomes:
The values of α and ß must be derived from the velocity distributions across a cross-
section. They will always be greater than 1, but only by a small amount consequently they can
often be confidently omitted – but not always and their existence should always be remembered.
For turbulent flow in regular channel a does not usually go above 1.15 and ß will
normally be below 1.05. We will see an example below where their inclusion is necessary to
obtain accurate results.
1.6 Velocity distribution in open channels
The measured velocity in an open channel will always vary across the channel section
because of friction along the boundary. Neither is this velocity distribution usually
axisymmetric (as it is in pipe flow) due to the existence of the free surface. It might be
expected to find the maximum velocity at the free surface where the shear force is zero but this
is not the case. The maximum velocity is usually found just below the surface.
The explanation for this is the presence of secondary currents which are circulating
from the boundaries towards the section centre and resistance at the air/water interface. These
have been found in both laboratory measurements and 3d numerical simulation of turbulence.
The figure below shows some typical velocity distributions across some channel cross
sections. The number indicates percentage of maximum velocity.
Figure of velocity distributions
Determination of energy and momentum coefficients
To determine the values of a and ß the velocity distribution must have been measured
(or be known in some way). In irregular channels where the flow may be divided into distinct
regions a may exceed 2 and should be included in the Bernoulli equation.
The figure below is a typical example of this situation. The channel may be of this
shape when a river is in flood – this is known as a compound channel .
Figure of a compound channel with three regions of flow
If the channel is divided as shown into three regions and making the assumption that α =
1 for each then
where
1.7 Steady Uniform flow
When uniform flow occurs gravitational forces exactly balance the frictional resistance
forces which apply as a shear force along the boundary (channel bed and walls).
Figure of forces on a channel length in uniform flow
Considering the above diagram, the gravity force resolved in the direction of flow is
and the boundary shear force resolved in the direction of flow is
In uniform flow these balance
Considering a channel of small slope, (as channel slopes for unifor and gradually varied
flow seldom exceed about 1 in 50) then
So
1.7.1 The Chezy equation
If an estimate of τ o can be made then we can make use of Equation.
If we assume the state of rough turbulent flow then we can also make the assumption the
shear force is proportional to the flow velocity squared i.e.
Substituting this into equation gives
Or grouping the constants together as one equal to C
This is the Chezy equation and the C the “Chezy C”
Because the K is not constant the C is not constant but depends on Reynolds
number and boundary roughness (see discussion in previous section).
The relationship between C and is easily seen be substituting equation 1.9 into
the Darcy- Wiesbach equation written for open channels and is
1.7.2 The Manning equation
A very many studies have been made of the evaluation of C for different natural and
manmade channels. These have resulted in today most practising engineers use some form of this
relationship to give C:
This is known as Manning’s formula, and the n as Manning’s n . Substituting equation

1.9 in to 1.10 gives velocity of uniform flow:
Or in terms of discharge
Note:
Several other names have been associated with the derivation of this formula – or
ones similar and consequently in some countries the same equation is named after one of these
people. Some of these names are; Strickler, Gauckler, Kutter, Gauguillet and Hagen.
The Manning’s n is also numerically identical to the Kutter n .
The Manning equation has the great benefits that it is simple, accurate and now due to
it long extensive practical use, there exists a wealth of publicly available values of n for a
very wide range of channels.
Below is a table of a few typical values of Manning’s n
Conveyance
Channel conveyance, K , is a measure of the carrying capacity of a channel. The K is

really an agglomeration of several terms in the Chezy or Manning's equation:
So
Use of conveyance may be made when calculating discharge and stage in compound
channels and also calculating the energy and momentum coefficients in this situation.
1.8 Best Hydraulic Cross- Section
We often want to know the the minimum area A for a given flow Q, slope S0 and
roughness coefficient n.
This is known as the best hydraulic cross section
The quantity ARh2/3 in Mannings’ equation is called the section factor
Writing the Manning equation with Rh = A/P, we get
Rearranged we get
 ( inside ) is a constant; Channel with minimum A is also minimum P

 Minimum excavation area A also has minimum P
 Best possible is semicircular channel, but construction costs are high
Let’s find out what the best hydraulic cross section is for a rectangular channel
Example: Water flows uniformly in a rectangular channel of width b and depth y. Determine the
aspect ratio b/y for the best hydraulic cross section.
 Thus best hydraulic cross- section for a rectangular channel occurs when the depth is one-
half the width of the channel
 Note for 1 < b/y < 4; Q ˜ .96 Qmax
Must include freeboard f in design between 5 to 30% of yn
Table gives Optimum properties of Open Channel Sections
.For trapezoid, half- hexagon
.For circular section, half- circle
.For triangular section, half- square
Design of Erodible Channels
Design velocity V small enough not to cause erosion
Find maximum permissible velocity based on channel material
(Roberson, Table 4- 3)
SCE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

www.Vidyarthiplus.com Page 14
Maximum Permissible Velocities and n Values for Different Materials
Material V(ft/s) n
Fine Sand 1.50 0.020
Sandy loam 1.75 0.020
Silt loam 2.00 0.020
Firm loam 2.50 0.020
Stiff clay 3.75 0.025
Fine gravel 2.50 0.025
Coarse gravel 4.00 0.025
Assuming a trapezoidal channel, maximum side slopes depend on material (Roberson,Table 4-2)
Maximum Channel Wall Slopes for Different Materials
Material Side Slopes
Rock Almost Vertical
Stiff clay or earth with concrete 1/2 : 1 to 1:1
lining
Firm Soil 1:1
Loose sandy soil 2:1
Sandy loam soil 3:1

Once Q, V, n, S0 are determined, solve for depth y and width b.
Problem: For an unlined trapezoidal irrigation canal in firm loam soil, slope is 0.0006 and flow is
100 cfs, what dimensions?
For side slope, pick slope of 1 1/2 (h): 1 (v) (conservative)
Vmax = 2.5 ft/s, n = 0.020
To find Rh

So if
2
A = by + 1.5y and P = b + 3.61y
b = 18.1 ft and y = 1.91 ft
To construct choose b = 18 ft and y = 2.0 ft.
Critical Slope
 Holding n and Q constant, changing slope slope will change depth and velocity
 Where velocity and depth give a Froude number =1, this is defined as the critical slope Sc
and critical depth yc
1.9 Computations in Uniform Flow
We can use Manning's formula for discharge to calculate steady uniform flow. Two
calculations are usually performed to solve uniform flow problems.
1. Discharge from a given depth
2. Depth for a given discharge
In steady uniform flow the flow depth is know as normal depth.
As we have already mentioned, and by definition, uniform flow can only occur in channels
of constant cross-section (prismatic channels) so natural channel can be excluded. However we will
need to use Manning's equation for gradually varied flow in natural channels - so application to
natural/irregular channels will often be required.
Uniform flow Problem 1 - Discharge from depth in a trapezoidal channel
A concrete lined trapezoidal channel with uniform flow has a normal depth is 2m. The base
width is 5m and the side slopes are equal at 1:2
Manning's n can be taken as 0.015 and the bed slope S◦ = 0.001

What are: a) Discharge (Q) b) Mean velocity (V) c) Reynolds number (Re) Calculate the section
properties
Use equation to get the discharge
The simplest way to calculate the mean velocity is to use the continuity equation:
And the Reynolds number (R=A/P)
This is very large - i.e. well into the turbulent zone - the application of the Manning's equation
was therefore valid.
What solution would we have obtained if we had used the Colebrook-White equation?
Probably very similar as we are well into the rough-turbulent zone where both equations are truly
applicable.
To experiment an equivalent k s value can be calculated for the discharge calculated from n =
0.015 and y = 2m [ ks = 2.225mm ] (Use the Colebrook-White equation and the Darcy-
Wiesbach equation of open channels - both given earlier). Then a range of depths can be chosen
and the discharges calculated for these n and ks values. Comparing these discharge calculations
will give some idea of the relative differences - they will be very similar.
Uniform flow Problem 2 - Depth from Discharge in a trapezoidal channel
Using the same channel as above, if the discharge is know to be 30m3 /s in uniform flow, what is
the normal depth?
Again use equation

We need to calculate y from this equation.
Even for this quite simple geometry the equation we need to solve for normal depth is complex. One
simple strategy to solve this is to select some appropriate values of y and calculate the right hand
side of this equation and compare it to Q (=30) in the left. When it equals Q we have the correct
y.
Even though there will be several solutions to this equation, this strategy generally works because
we have a good idea of what the depth should be (e.g. it will always be positive and often in the
range of 0.5-10 m). In this case from the previous example we know that at Q = 45 m3 /s, y = 2m .
So at Q = 30 m3 /s then y < 2.0m.
We might also use the bisector method to solve this.
Uniform flow Problem 3 - A compound channel
If the channel in the above example were to be designed for flooding it may have a section like this:
Figure of compound section
When the flow goes over the top of the trapezoidal channel it moves to the "flood plains" so the
section allows for a lot more discharge to be carried.
If the flood channels are 10m wide and have side slopes of 1:3, and the Manning n on these
banks is0.035, what are a) the discharge for a flood level of 4m b) the enery coefficient a.

First split the section as shown in to three regions (this is arbitrary - left to the engineers
judgement). Then apply Manning's formula for each section to give three discharge values and
the total discharge will be Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q 3 .
Calculate the properties of each region:
The conveyance for each region may be calculated from equation.
And from Equations the discharges
The velocities can be obtained from the continuity equation:
And the energy coefficient may be obtained from Equation

This is a very high value of a and a clear case of where a velocity coefficient should be used.
Not that this method doe not give completely accurate relationship between stage and discharge
because some of the assumptions are not accurate. E.g. the arbitrarily splitting in to regions of
fixed Manning n is probably not what is occurring in the actual channel. However it will give an
acceptable estimate as long as care is taken in choosing these regions.
1.10 Specific Energy
It is defined as energy per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of the channel. The
extra information needed to solve the above problem can be provided by the specific energy
equation. Specific energy, Es, is defined as the energy of the flow with reference to the
channel bed as the datum:
Total Energy on open channel flow
Considering the channel bed as datum line , z=0

2
Specific Energy
From Specific Energy curve , Corresponding to the Minimum specific energy E(min) ,there is only
one depth of floe that is called Critical depth.


For steady flow this can be written in terms of discharge Q
For a rectangular channel of width b, Q/A = q/y
This is a cubic in y. It has three solutions but only two will be positive (so discard the other).

1.11 Critical Flow and Critical Velocity

Critical Flow
Depth of flow of water at which the specific energy. E is minimum is called as critical depth (yc).
For rectangular channel, critical depth,
Critical Velocity
Velocity of flow at the critical depth is called critical velocity Vc

UNIT 2 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
2.1 Varied Flow
Flow properties, such as depth of flow area of cross section and velocity of flow vary
with respect to distance is called Non-uniform flow.
It is, otherwise, called as varied flow. The varied flow is broadly classified into two
types:
1) Rapidly varied flow (R.V.F)
2) Gradually varied flow (G.V.F)
If the depth of flow changes quickly over a small length of the channel, the flow is said
to be gradually varied flow (GVF). Example: Back water in a dam.
The following assumptions are made for analyzing the gradually varied flow:
1. The flow is steady
2. The pressure distribution over the channel section is hydrostatic, i.e., streamlines are
practically straight and parallel.
3. The head loss is same as for uniform flow.
4. The channel slope is small, so that the depth measured vertically is the same as depth
measured normal to the channel bottom.
5. A channel is prismatic.
6. Kinetic energy correction factor is very close to unity.
7. Roughness coefficient is constant along the channel length
8. The formulae, such as Chezy’s formula, Manning’s formula which are applicable, to the
uniform flow are also applicable for the gradually varied flow for determining slope of
energy line.
2.2 Gradually varied flow
In the previous section of rapidly varied flow little mention was made of losses due to
friction or the influence of the bed slope. It was assumed that frictional losses were
insignificant – this is reasonable because rapidly varied flow occurs over a very short
distance. However when it comes to long distances they become very important, and as
gradually varied flow occurs over long distances we will consider friction losses here.
In the section on specific energy it was noted that there are two depth possible in
steady flow for a given discharge at any point in the channel. (One is super-critical the other
depth sub-critical.) The solution of the Manning equation results in only one depth – the
normal depth.
It is the inclusion of the channel slope and friction that allow us to decide which
of the two depths is correct. i.e. the channel slope and friction determine whether the
uniform flow in the channel is sub or super-critical.
The procedure is
i. Calculate the normal depth from Manning’s equation
ii. Calculate the critical depth from equation
The normal depth may be greater, less than or equal to the critical depth.
For a given channel and roughness there is only one slope that will give the normal
depth equal to the critical depth. This slope is known as the critical slope ( Sc ).
If the slope is less than Sc the normal depth will be greater than critical depth
and the flow will be sub-critical flow. The slope is termed mild .
If the slope is greater than Sc the normal depth will be less than critical depth and the
flow will be super-critical flow. The slope is termed steep .
Problem of critical slope calculation
We have Equation that gives normal depth and equation that given critical depth
Rearranging these in terms of Q and equating gives
For the simple case of a wide rectangular channel, width B = b, A = by and P b. And
the above equation becomes
2.3 Transitions between sub and super critical flow
If sub critical flow exists in a channel of a mild slope and this channel meets with a
steep channel in which the normal depth is super-critical there must be some change of
surface level between the two. In this situation the surface changes gradually between the
two. The flow in the joining region is known as gradually varied flow.
This situation can be clearly seen in the figure on the left below. Note how at the point
of joining of the two channels the depth passes through the critical depth.
Figure of transition from sup to super-critical flow
If the situation is reversed and the upstream slope is steep, super critical flow, and the
down stream mild, sub-critical, then there must occur a hydraulic jump to join the two.
There may occur a short length of gradually varied flow between the channel junction and
the jump. The figure above right shows this situation:
Analysis of gradually varied flow can identify the type of profile for the transition as
well as the position hydraulic jumps. The equations of gradually varied flow. The basic
assumption in the derivation of this equation is that the change in energy with distance is equal
to the friction loses.
The Bernoulli equation is:
Differentiating and equating to the friction slope
where S o is the bed slope. We saw earlier how specific energy change with depth
Combining this with equation gives
This is the basic equation of gradually varied flow. It describes how the depth, y ,
changes with distance x , in terms of the bed slope S o , friction S f and the discharge,
Q , and channels shape (encompassed in Fr and S f ).
Equations 1.25 and 1.26 are differential equations equating relating depth to distance.
There is no explicit solution (except for a few special cases in prismatic channels).
Numerical integration is the only practical method of solution. This is normally done on
computers, however it is not too cumbersome to be done by hand.
2.4 Profile Classifications
Before attempting to solve the gradually varied flow equation a great deal of insight
into the type of solutions and profiles possible can be gained by taking some time to examine
the equation.
Time spent over this is almost compulsory if you are to understand steady flow in open
channels. For a given discharge, S f and Fr2 are functions of depth.
A quick examination of these two expressions shows that they both increase with A, i.e.
increase with y .We also know that when we have uniform flow
From these inequalities we can see how the sign of dy/dx i.e. the surface slope
changes for different slopes and Froude numbers.
Taking the example of a mild slope, shown in the figure below:
Figure of zones / regions
The normal and critical depths are shown (as it is mild normal depth is greater
than critical depth). Treating the flow as to be in three zones:
i. zone 1, above the normal depth
ii. zone 2, between normal and critical depth iii. zone 3, below critical depth
The direction of the surface inclination may thus be determined.
The condition at the boundary of the gradually varied flow may also be determined in
a similar manner:
zone 1
As y Q then S f and Fr 0 and dy/dx S o
Hence the water surface is asymptotic to a horizontal line for it maximum
As y y n then S f S o and dy/dx 0
Hence the water surface is asymptotic to the line y = y n i.e. uniform flow.
zone 2
As for zone 1 as y approached the normal depth: As y y n then S f S o and

dy/dx 0
Hence the water surface is asymptotic to the line y = y n
But a problem occurs when y approaches the critical depth: As y y c then Fr 1

and dy/dx 8
This is physically impossible but may be explained by the pointing out that in this
region the gradually varied flow equation is not applicable because at this point the fluid is in
the rapidly varied flow regime.
In reality a very steep surface will occur.
zone 3
As for zone 2 a problem occurs when y approaches the critical depth: As yy c then
Fr 1 and dy/dx 8
Again we have the same physical impossibility with the same explanation. And again
in reality a very steep surface will occur.
As y 0 then dy/dx S o the slope of bed of the channel !
The gradually varied flow equation is not valid here but it is clear what occurs.
In general, normal depth is approached asymptotically and critical depth at right angles
to the channel bed.
The possible surface profiles within each zone can be drawn from the above
considerations. These are shown for the mild sloped channel below.
Figure of gradually varied flow surface profiles in a mild sloped channel
The surface profile in zone 1 of a mild slope is called an M1 curve, in zone 2 an M2

curve and in zone 3 an M3 curve.
All the possible surface profiles for all possible slopes of channel (there are 15
possibilities) are shown in the figure.
Figure of the possible gradually varied flow profiles
2.5 Surface Profiles Determination
Before one of the profiles discussed above can be decided upon two things must be
determined for the channel and flow:
a) Whether the slope is mild, critical or steep. The normal and critical depths must be
calculated for the design discharge
b) The positions of any control points must be established. Control points are points
of known depth or relationship between depth and discharge. Example are weirs, flumes,
gates or points where it is known critical flow occurs like at free outfalls, or that the flow
is normal depth at some far distance down stream.
Once these control points and depth position has been established the surface profiles
can be drawn to join the control points with the insertion of hydraulic jumps where it is
necessary to join sub and super critical flows that don’t meet at a critical depth.
Below are two examples.
Figure of example surface profile due to a broad crested weir
This shows the control point just upstream of a broad crested weir in a channel of mild
slope. The resulting curve is an M1.
Figure of example surface profile through a bridge when in flow
This shows how a bridge may act as a control – particularly under flood conditions.
Upstream there is an M1 curve then flow through the bridge is rapidly varied and the depth
drops below critical depth so on exit is super critical so a short M3 curve occurs before a
hydraulic jump takes the depth back to a sub-critical level. Method of solution of the gradually
varied flow equation.
There are three forms of the gradually varied flow equation:
In the past direct and graphical solution methods have been used to solve these,
however these method have been superseded by numerical methods which are now be the only
method used.
Profile Determination by Numerical method
All (15) of the gradually varied flow profiles shown above may be quickly solved
by simple numerical techniques. One computer program can be written to solve most
situations.
There are two basic numerical methods that can be used
i. Direct step – distance from depth
ii. Standard step method – depth from distance
2.5.1 The direct step method – distance from depth
This method will calculate (by integrating the gradually varied flow equation) a
distance for a given change in surface height.
The equation used is 1.28, which written in finite difference form is
The steps in solution are:
1. Determine the control depth as the starting point
2. Decide on the expected curve and depth change if possible
3. Choose a suitable depth step ∆y
4. Calculate the term in brackets at the “mean” depth (y initial + ∆y/2)
5. Calculate ∆ x
6. Repeat 4 and 5 until the appropriate distance / depth changed reached
2.5.2 The standard step method – depth from distance
This method will calculate (by integrating the gradually varied flow equation) a depth
at a given distance up or downstream.
The equation used is 1.27, which written in finite difference form is
The steps in solution are similar to the direct step method shown above but for each
x there is the following iterative step:
1. Assume a value of depth y (the control depth or the last solution depth)
2. Calculate the specific energy EsG
3. Calculate S f
4. Calculate ∆ Es using equation 1.30
5. Calculate E s(x+ ∆x ) s = E + ∆ E
6. Repeat until ∆E s (x+ ∆x) = E sG
The Standard step method – alternative form
This method will again calculate a depth at a given distance up or downstream but this
time the equation used is 1.26, which written in finite difference form is
Where H is given by equation
The strategy is the same as the first standard step method, with the same necessity to iterate
for each step.
2.5.3 Graphical Integration Method
This is a simple and straight forward method and is applicable to both prismatic and
non prismatic channels of any shape and slope.
Consider two channel sections at distances x1 and x2 from a chosen reference O as

shown in figure above. The depths of flow are y1 and y2 respectively; Let, L= x2-x1, we
have
The above equation can be graphically integrated for a given channel and its
discharge by plotting the value of dx/dy on x -axis for various values of y plotted on x-axis.
By measuring the area formed by the curve, (the x-axis and the ordinates of dx/dy at
y=y1 and y=y2 ) L can be determined. The area can also be determined by computing
theordinates dx/dy for different values of y and then, calculating the area between the
adjacent ordinates. Summing these areas, one can obtain the desired length L.
Problem: A river 100 m wide and 3m deep has an average bed slope of 0.0005. Estimate
the length of the GVF profile produced by a low weir which raises the water surface just
upstream of it by 1.5 m. Assume N = 0.035. Use direct step method with three steps. To
estimate the length of the GVF profile
Problem: In a rectangular channel of bed width 0.5 m, a hydraulic jump occurs at a

point where depth of flow is 0.15 m and Froude’s number is 2.5. Determine (1) The specific
energy (2) The critical depth (3) The subsequent depths (4) Loss of head (5) Energy
dissipated.
Given Data
b = 0.5 m3/sec
y = 0.15 m
F = 2.5
Solution:
Step-1: To Determine the Specific Energy:
From Equation 1, we can Get
Step-2: To Determine the Critical Depth:
UNIT 3 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW
3.1 The Application of the Energy equation for Rapidly Varied Flow
Rapid changes in stage and velocity occur whenever there is a sudden change in
cross-section, a very steep bed-slope or some obstruction in the channel. This type of flow is
termed rapidly varied flow .
Typical example are flow over sharp-crested weirs and flow through regions of
greatly changing cross-section (Venturi flumes and broad-crested weirs). Rapid change can
also occur when there is a change from super-critical to sub-critical flow (see later) in a
channel reach at a hydraulic jump.
In these regions the surface is highly curved and the assumptions of hydro
static pressure distribution and parallel streamlines do not apply. However it is possibly to get
good approximate solutions to these situations yet still use the energy and momentum
concepts outlined earlier. The solutions will usually be sufficiently accurate for engineering
purposes.
3.1.1 The energy (Bernoulli) quation
The figure below shows a length of channel inclined at a slope of and flowing with
uniform flow.
Figure of channel in uniform flow
Recalling the Bernoulli equation
And assuming a hydrostatic pressure distribution we can write the pressure at a point
on a streamline, A say, in terms of the depth d (the depth measured from the water surface
in a direction normal to the bed) and the channel slope.

In terms of the vertical distance
So the pressure term in the above Bernoulli equation becomes
As channel slope in open channel are very small (1:100 = 0.57 and = 0.9999) so unless
the channel is unusually steep cos 2
And the Bernoulli equation becomes
3.2 Critical , Sub-critical and super critical flow
The specific energy change with depth was plotted above for a constant discharge Q,
it is also possible to plot a graph with the specific energy fixed and see how Q changes with
depth. These two forms are plotted side by side below.
Figure of variation of Specific Energy and Discharge with depth

From these graphs we can identify several important features of rapidly varied flow.
For a fixed discharge:
1. The specific energy is a minimum, E sc , at depth y c , This depth is known as

critical depth .
2. For all other values of E s there are two possible depths. These are called
alternate depths. For
subcritical flow y > yc
supercritical flow y < yc
For a fixed Specific energy
1. The discharge is a maximum at critical depth, yc
2. For all other discharges there are two possible depths of flow for a particular Es
i.e. There is a sub-critical depth and a super-critical depth with the same Es
An equation for critical depth can be obtained by setting the differential of E to zero:
For a rectangular channel Q = qb, B = b and A = by , and taking a = 1 this equation becomes
Substituting this in to the specific energy equation

Figure of sub and super critical flow and transmission of disturbances
3.3 Application of the Momentum equation for Rapidly Varied Flow
The hydraulic jump is an important feature in open channel flow and is an example of
rapidly varied flow. A hydraulic jump occurs when a super-critical flow and a sub-critical
flow meet. The jump is the mechanism for the to surface to join. They join in an extremely
turbulent manner which causes large energy losses.
Because of the large energy losses the energy or specific energy equation cannot
be use in analysis, the momentum equation is used instead.
Figure of forces applied to the control volume containing the hydraulic jump

Resultant force in x- direction = F1 - F2
Momentum change = M2 – M1
Or for a constant discharge
For a rectangular channel this may be evaluated using
Substituting for these and rearranging gives
So knowing the discharge and either one of the depths on the upstream or downstream
side of the jump the other – or conjugate depth – may be easily computed.
More manipulation with Equation and the specific energy give the energy loss in the jump as
These are useful results and which can be used in gradually varied flow calculations to
determine water surface profiles.
In summary, a hydraulic jump will only occur if the upstream flow is super-critical.
The higher the upstream Froude number the higher the jump and the greater the loss of energy
in the jump.

3.4 Hydraulic jump
A hydraulic jump is a phenomenon in the science of hydraulics which is frequently

observed in open channel flow such as rivers and spillways. When liquid at high velocity
discharges into a zone of lower velocity, a rather abrupt rise occurs in the liquid surface. The
rapidly flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and increases in height, converting some of the
flow's initial kinetic energy into an increase in potential energy, with some energy
irreversibly lost through turbulence to heat. In an open channel flow, this manifests as the fast
flow rapidly slowing and piling up on top of itself similar to how a shockwave forms.
3.4.1 Expression for Hydraulic Jump
Where Y1 = depth of flow at section 1-1

Y2 = depth of flow at section 2-2
F1 = Froude number at section 1-1
3.4.2 Loss of Energy due to HydraulicJump
Where Y1 = depth of flow at section 1-1

Y2 = depth of flow at section 2-2
3.4.3 Uses of Hydraulic Jump
The kinetic energy of flow after the hydraulic jump is greatly reduced, which may
prevent erosion of the channel boundaries of downstream side.
3.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Jumps
Based on Froude number (F), hydraulic jump can be classified into 5 types.
a. Undulation jump: The Froude number F ranges from 1 to1.7 and the liquid surface does
not rise shortly but having undulations of radically decreasing size.
b. Weak jump: The Froude number F ranges from1.7 to 2.5 and the liquid surface remains
smooth.
c. Oscillating jump: The Froude number F ranges from 2.5 to 4.5 and there is an oscillating
jet which enters the jump bottom and oscillating to the surface.
d. Steady jump: The Froude number F ranges from 4.5 to9 and energy loss due to steady
jump in between 45 and 70%.
e. Strong jump: The Froude number greater than 9 and the downstream water surface is
rough. Energy loss due to strong jump may be up to 85%.


UNIT 4 TURBINES
4.1 Introduction
Most of the electrical generators are powered by turbines. Turbines are the primemovers of
civilisation. Steam and Gas turbines share in the electrical power generation is about 75%. About 20% of
power is generated by hydraulic turbines and hence thier importance. Rest of 5% only is by other means of
generation.
Hydraulic power depends on renewable source and hence is ever lasting. It is also non polluting in
terms of non generation of carbon dioxide.
4.2 Breaking Jet
When the nozzle is completely closed, the amount of water striking the runner reduces to
zero but the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time to stop the runner in a short time a
small nozzle is provided which direct the jet of water on the back of vanes .This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
4.3 Classification of Turbines
The main classification depends upon the type of action of the water on the turbine. These are
(i) Impulse turbine (ii) Reaction Turbine.
(i) In the case of impulse turbine all the potential energy is converted to kinetic energy in
the nozzles. The impulse provided by the jets is used to turn the turbine wheel. The pressure inside the
turbine is atmospheric.
This type is found suitable when the available potential energy is high and the flow available
is comparatively low. Some people call this type as tangential flow units. Later discussion will show
under what conditions this type is chosen for operation.
(ii) In reaction turbines the available potential energy is progressively converted in the turbines
rotors and the reaction of the accelerating water causes the turning of the wheel.
These are again divided into radial flow, mixed flow and axial flow machines. Radial flow
machines are found suitable for moderate levels of potential energy and medium quantities of flow. The
axial machines are suitable for low levels of potential energy and large flow rates. The potential
energy available is generally denoted as “head available”. With this terminology plants are designated as
“high head”, “medium head” and “low head” plants.
Impulse and reaction turbines
Turbines work in two different ways described as impulse and reaction terms that are often very
confusingly described (and sometimes completely muddled up) when people try to explain them. So what's
the difference?
4.4 Impulse turbines
In an impulse turbine, a fast-moving fluid is fired through a narrow nozzle at the turbine blades to
make them spin around. The blades of an impulse turbine are usually buck et-shaped so they catch the fluid
and direct it off at an angle or sometimes even back the way it came (because that gives the most efficient
transfer of energy from the fluid to the turbine). In an impulse turbine, the fluid is forced to hit the turbine at
high speed. Imagine trying to make a wheel like this turn around by kicking soccer balls into its paddles.
You'd need the balls to hit hard and bounce back well to get the wheel spinning—and those constant energy
impulses are the key to how it works.
impulse turbine
4.5 Reaction turbines

In a reaction turbine, the blades sit in a much larger volume of fluid and turn around as the fluid flows
past them. A reaction turbine doesn't change the direction of the fluid flow as drastically as an impulse
turbine: it simply spins as the fluid pushes through and past its blades
If an impulse turbine is a bit like kicking soccer balls, a reaction turbine is more like swimming—in
reverse. Let me explain! Think of how you do freestyle (front crawl) by hauling your arms through the water,
starting with each hand as far in front as you can reach and ending with a "follow through" that throws your
arm well behind you.
What you're trying to achieve is to keep your hand and forearm pushing against the water for as long
as possible, so you transfer as much energy as you can in each stroke. A reaction turbine is using the same
idea in reverse: imagine fast-flowing water moving past you so it makes your arms and legs move and
supplies energy to your body! With a reaction turbine, you want the water to touch the blades smoothly, for as
long as it can, so it gives up as much energy as possible. The water isn't hitting the blades and bouncing off, as
it does in an impulse turbine: instead, the blades are movin g more smoothly, "going with the flow".
reaction turbine
4.6 Turbines in action
Broadly speaking, we divide turbines into four kinds according to the type of fluid that drives them:
water, wind, steam, and gas. Although all four types work in essentially the same way— spinning around as
the fluid moves against them—they are subtly different and have to be engineered in very different ways.
Steam turbines, for example, turn incredibly quickly because steam is produced under high-pressure.
Wind turbines that make electricity turn relatively slowly (mainly for safety reasons), so they need to be
huge to capture decent amounts of energy. Gas turbines need to be made from specially resilient alloys
because they work at such high temperatures. Water turbines are often very big because they have to extract
energy from an entire river, dammed and diverted to flow past them.
4.7 Kaplan turbine
The Kaplan turbine is a propeller-type water turbine which has adjustable blades. It was developed
in 1913 by the Austrian professor Viktor Kaplan, who combined automatically - adjusted propeller
blades with automatically-adjusted wicket gates to achieve efficiency over a wide range of flow and water
level.
The Kaplan turbine was an evolution of the Francis turbine. Its invention allowed efficient power
production in low- head applications that was not possible with Francis turbines.
Kaplan turbines are now widely used throughout the world in high-flow, low-head power production.
The Kaplan turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes pressure
as it moves through the turbine and gives up its energy. The design combines radial and axial features.
The inlet is a scroll-shaped tube that wraps around the turbine's wicket gate. Water is directed
tangentially through the wicket gate and spirals on to a propeller shaped runner, causing it to The outlet is a
specially shaped draft tube that helps decelerate the water and recover kinetic energy.
The turbine does not need to be at the lowest point of water flow as long as the draft tube remains full
of water. A higher turbine location, however, increases the suction that is imparted on the turbine blades by
the draft tube. The resulting pressure drop may lead to cavitation.
Variable geometry of the wicket gate and turbine blades allow efficient operation for a range of flow
conditions. Kaplan turbine efficiencies are typically over 90%, but may be lower in very low head
applications.
Current areas of research include CFD driven efficiency improvements and new designs
that raise survival rates of fish passing through.
4.7.1Applications
Kaplan turbines are widely used throughout the world for electrical power production. They cover
the lowest head hydro sites and are especially suited for high flow conditions. Inexpensive micro turbines are
manufactured for individual power production with as little as two feet of head.Kaplan turbine is low head
turbine. Large Kaplan turbines are individually designed for each site to operate at the highest possible
efficiency, typically over 90%. They are very expensive to design, manufacture and install, but operate for
decades.
Problem: A Kaplan turbine works under a head of 26.5 m, the flow rate of water being 170 m3/s. The overall
efficiency is 90%. Determine the power and specific speed. The turbine speed is 150 rpm.
Solution:
Power developed = 0.9 × 170 × 103 × 9.81 × 26.5

W = 39.77 × 106 W or 39.77 MW
Dimensionless specific speed
Dimensional specific speed
Problem : A Kaplan turbine plant develops 3000 kW under a head of 10 m. While running at 62.5 rpm. The
discharge is 350 m3/s. The tip diameter of the runner is 7.5 m and the hub to tip ratio is 0.43. Calculate the
specific speed, turbine efficiency, the speed ratio and flow ratio.
Speed ratio is based on tip speed. Hub diameter = 0.43 × 7.5 = 3.225 m Turbine efficiency = P / ρ Q H g
4.7.2 Variations
The Kaplan turbine is the most widely used of the propeller-type turbines, but several other variations
exist:
4.7.2.1 Propeller Turbines
Propeller Turbines have non-adjustable propeller vanes. They are used in where the range ofhead is
not large. Commercial products exist for producing several hundred watts from only a few feet of head.
Larger propeller turbines produce more than 100 MW.
4.7.2.2 Bulb or Tubular turbines
Bulb or Tubular turbines are designed into the water delivery tube. A large bulb is centered inthe
water pipe which holds the generator, wicket gate and runner. Tubular turbines are a fully axial design,
whereas Kaplan turbines have a radial wicket gate.
4.7.2.3 Pit turbines
Pit turbines are bulb turbines with a gear box. This allows for a smaller generator and bulb. Straflo
turbines are axial turbines with the generator outside of the water channel, con nected tothe periphery of the
runner.
4.7.2.4 S- turbines
S- turbines eliminate the need for a bulb housing by placing the generator outside of the
waterchannel. This is accomplished with a jog in the water channel and a shaft connecting the runner and
generator.
4.7.2.5 Tyson turbines

Tyson turbines are a fixed propeller turbine designed to be immersed in a fast flowing
river,either permanently anchored in the river bed, or attached to a boat or barge.
4.8 Francis Turbine
The Francis turbine is a type of water turbine that was developed by James B.
Francis in Lowell, MA. It is an inward-flow reaction turbine that combines radial and axial
flow concepts.
Francis turbines are the most common water turbine in use today. They operate in a head
range of ten meters to several hundred meters and are primarily used for electrical power
production.
. The inlet is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the turbine
wheel, known as a runner. This radial flow acts on the runner's vanes, causing the runner to
spi n. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to allow efficient turbine operation
for a range of water flow conditions.
As the water moves through the runner, its spinning radius decreases, further acting on
the runner. For an analogy, imagine swinging a ball on a string around in a circle; if the string
is pulled short, the ball spins faster due to the conservation of angular momentum. This
property, in addition to the water's pressure, helps Francis and other inward-flow turbines
harness water energy efficiently. Water wheels have been used historically to power mills of all
types, but they are inefficient.
Nineteenth-century efficiency improvements of water turbines allowed them to

compete with steam engines (wherever water was available).
In 1826 Benoit Fourneyron developed a high efficiency (80%) outward-flow

water turbine. Water was directed tangentially through the turbine runner, causing it to
spin. Jean - Victor Poncelet designed an inward-flow turbine in about 1820 that used the same
principles. S. In 1848 James B. Francis, while working as head engineer of the Locks and
Canals company in the water-powered factory city of Lowell, Massachusetts, improved
on these designs to create a turbine with 90% efficiency. He applied scientific principles and
testing methods to produce a very efficient turbine design. More importantly, his mathematical
and graphical calculation methods improved turbine design and engineering. His analytical
methods allowed confident design of high efficiency turbines to exactly match a site's flow
conditions.
The Francis turbine is a reaction turbine, which means that the working fluid changes
pressure as it moves through the turbine, giving up its energy. A casement is needed to contain
the water flow. The turbine is located between the high-pressure water source and the low-
pressure water exit, usually at the base of a dam.
The inlet is spiral shaped. Guide vanes direct the water tangentially to the turbine
wheel, known as a runner. This radial flow acts on the runner's vanes, causing the runner to
spin. The guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to allow efficient turbine operation
for a range of water flow conditions.
As the water moves through the runner, its spinning radius decreases, further acting on
the runner. For an analogy, imagine swinging a ball on a string around in a circle; if the string
is pulled short, the ball spins faster due to the conservation of angular momentum. This
property, in addition to the water's pressure, helps Francis and other inward-flow turbines
harness water energy efficiently.
Problem:The outer diameter of a Francis runner is 1.4 m. The flow velocity at inlet is 9.5
m/s. The absolute velocity at the exit is 7 m/s. The speed of operation is 430 rpm. The power
developed is 12.25 MW, with a flow rate of 12 m3/s. Total head is 115 m. For shockless entry
determine the angle of the inlet guide vane. Also find the absolute velocity at entrance, the
runner blade angle at inlet and the loss of head in the unit. Assume zero whirl at exit. Also
fluid the specific speed.
Problem: A Francis turbine developing 16120 kW under an a head of 260 m runs at 600 rpm.
The runner outside diameter is 1500 mm and the width is 135 mm. The flow rate is 7 m 3/s.
The exit velocity at the draft tube outlet is 16 m/s. assuming zero whirl velocity at exit and
neglecting blade thickness determine the overall and hydraulic efficiency and rotor blade
angle at inlet. Also find the guide vane outlet angle:
The shape of the velocity triangle is as given. β is the angle taken with the direction of blade
velocity.
4.9 Specific speed
The specific speed ns of a turbine dictates the turbine's shape in a way that is not related to
its size. This allows a new turbine design to be scaled from an existing design of known
performance. The specific speed is also the main criterion for matching a specific hydro -electric
site with the correct turbine type.
The formula suggests that the Pelton turbine is most suitable for applications with
relatively high hydraulic head, due to the 5/4 exponent being greater than unity, and given the
characteristically low specific speed of the Pelton.
UNIT 5 PUMPS
5.1 Centrifugal Pumps
These are so called because energy is imparted to the fluid by centrifugal action of
moving blades from the inner radius to the outer radius. The main components of
centrifugal pumps are (1) the impeller, (2) the casing and (3) the drive shaft with gland and
packing.
Additionally suction pipe with one way valve (foot valve) and delivery pipe with
delivery valve completes the system.
The liquid enters the eye of the impeller axially due to the suction created by the
impeller motion. The impeller blades guide the fluid and impart momentum to the fluid,
which increases the total head (or pressure) of the fluid, causing the fluid to flow out.
The fluid comes out at a high velocity which is not directly usable. The casing can
be of simple volute type or a diffuser can be used as desired. The volute is a spiral casing
of gradually increasing cross section. A part of the kinetic energy in the fluid is converted
to pressure in the casing.
Figure shows a sectional view of the centrifugal pump.
5.1.1 Volute type centrifugal pump.

Gland and packing or so called stuffing box is used to reduce leakage along the
drive shaft. By the use of the volute only a small fraction of the kinetic head can be
recovered as useful static head.
A diffuser can diffuse the flow more efficiently and recover kinetic head as useful
static head. A view of such arrangement is shown in figure Diffuser pump are also called
as turbine pumps as these resembles Francis turbine with flow direction reversed.
Diffuser pump.
5.1.2 Impeller
The impeller consists of a disc with blades mounted perpendicularly on its surface.
The blades may of three different orientations.
These are (i) Radial, (ii) Backward curved, and (iii) Forward curved.
Backward and forward refers to the direction of motion of the disc periphery. Of
these the most popular one is the backward curved type, due to its desirable
characteristics, which reference to the static head developed and power variation
with flow rate.
A simple disc with blades mounted perpendicularly on it is called open
impeller. If another disc is used to cover the blades, this type is called shrouded
impeller. This is more popular with water pumps. Open impellers are well adopted for
use with dirty or water containing solids. The third type is just the blades spreading out
from the shaft.
These are used to pump slurries. Impellers may be of cast iron or bronzes or steel
or special alloys as required by the application. In order to maintain constant radial
velocity, the width of the impeller will be wider at entrance and narrower at the exit. The
blades are generally cast integral with the disc. Recently even plastic material is used for
the impeller. To start delivery of the fluid the casing and impeller should be filled with
the fluid without any air pockets. This is called priming.
If air is present the there will be only compression and no delivery of fluid. In
order to release any air entrained an air valve is generally provided
The one way foot value keeps the suction line and the pump casing filled with water.
5.1.3 Classification
As already mentioned, centrifugal pumps may be classified in several ways.
On the basis of speed as low speed, medium speed and high speed pumps.
On the basis of direction of flow of fluid, the classification is radial flow, mixed
flow and radial flow. On the basis of head pumps may be classified as low head (10 m
and below), medium head (10-50 m) and high head pumps.
Single entry type and double entry type is another classification. Double entry
pumps have blades on both sides of the impeller disc. This leads to reduction in
axial thrust and increase in flow for the same speed and diameter.
When the head required is high and which cannot be developed by a single
impeller, multi staging is used. In deep well submersible pumps the diameter is
limited by the diameter of the bore well casing. In this case multi stage pump becomes a
must. In multi stage pumps several impellers are mounted on the same shaft and the
outlet flow of one impeller is led to the inlet of the next impeller and so on. The total
head developed equals the sum of heads developed by all the stages.
5.1.4 Single and double entry pumps

Pumps may also be operated in parallel to obtain large volumes of flow. The
characteristics under series and parallel operations are discussed later in the chapter. The
classification may also be based on the specific speed of the pump. In chapter 9 the
dimensionless parameters have been derived in the case of hydraulic machines. The same
is also repeated in example.
The expression for the dimensionless specific speed is given in equation
More often dimensional specific speed is used in practice. In this case
5.1.5 Pressure Developed By The Impeller

The general arrangement of a centrifugal pump system is shown in Figure
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between the water level and pump suction,
Similarly applying Bernoulli’s theorem between the pump delivery and the
delivery at the tank
where Pd is the pressure at the pump delivery
where He is the effective head

5.1.6 Manometric Head
The official code defines the head on the pump as the difference in total energy
heads at the suction and delivery flanges. This head is defined as manometric head.
The total energy at suction inlet (expressed as head of fluid)
where Zs is the height of suction gauge from datum. The total energy at the
delivery of the pump
Z2 is the height of delivery gauge from datum. The difference in total energy is
defined as Hm
5.1.7 Energy Transfer By Impeller

The energy transfer is given by Euler Turbine equation applied to work absorbing
machines,
This can be expressed as ideal head imparted as
The velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet of a backward curved vaned impeller is
shown in figure The inlet whirl is generally zero. There are no guide vanes at inlet to
impart whirl. So the inlet triangle is right angled.
Velocity triangles for backward curved bladed pump.
Manometric efficiency is defined as the ratio of manometric head and ideal head.
There are always some leakages of fluid after being imparted energy by the
impeller.
By algebraic manipulation, this can be obtained as
5.1.8 Slip and Slip Factor

In the analysis it is assumed that all the fluid between two blade passages
have the same velocity (both magnitude of direction). Actually at the leading edge the
pressure is higher and velocity is lower. On the trailing edge the pressure is lower and
the velocity is higher. This leads to a circulation over the blades. Causing a non uniform
velocity distribution.
The average angle at which the fluid leaves the blade is less than the blades
angle. The result is a reduction in the exit whirl velocity Vu2. This is illustrated in the
following figure. The solid lines represent the velocity diagram without slip. The angle
β2 is the blade angle. The dotted lines represent the velocity diagram after slip. The
angle β2′ < β2. It may be seen that Vu2′ < Vu2. The ratio Vu2′/Vu2 is known as slip
factor. The result of the slip is that the energy transfer to the fluid is less than the
theoretical value.
Velocity triangle with slip
5.1.9 Losses in Centrifugal Pumps

Mainly there are three specific losses which can be separately calculated. These
are
5.1.10 Losses in pump

(i) Mechanical friction losses between the fixed and rotating parts in the bearings
and gland and packing.
(ii) Disc friction loss between the impeller surfaces and the fluid.
(iii) Leakage and recirculation losses. The recirculation is along the clearance
between the impeller and the casing due to the pressure difference between the hub and tip
of the impeller. The various losses are indicated in figure.
5.1.11 Pump Characteristics
For a given pump, D, A, β2 and N are fixed . So at constant speed we can write
Hence at constant speed this leads to a drooping linear characteristics for backward
curved blading. This is shown by curve 1 in Figure 15.4.1. The slip causes drop in
the head, which can be written as σ Vu2 u2/g. As flow increases this loss also
increases.
Curve 2 shown the head after slip. The flow will enter without shock only at the design
flow rate. At other flow rates, the water will enter with shock causing losses.
This lose can be expressed as hshock = k3 (Qth – Q)2
The reduced head after shock losses is shown in curve 5. The shock losses with
flow rate is shown by curve 3. The mechanical losses can be represented by hf = k4 Q2.
The variation is shown by curve 4. With variation of speed the head characteristic is
shifted near paralley with the curve 5 shown in Figure.
5.1.12 Characteristics of a centrifugal pump

The characteristic of a centrifugal pump at constant speed is shown in Figure. It
may be noted that the power increases and decreases after the rated capacity. In this way
the pump is self limiting in power and the choice of the motor is made easy. The distance
between the brake power and water power curves gives the losses.
Centrifugal pump characteristics at constant speed

The pump characteristics at various speeds including efficiency contours in shown
in Figure. Such a plot helps in the development of a pump, particularly in specifying the
head and flow rates.
Characteristics at various speeds
5.2 Operation of Pumps in Series and Parallel
Pumps are chosen for particular requirement. The requirements are not constant as per
example the pressure required for flow through a piping system. As flow increases, the
pressure required increases. In the case of the pump as flow increases, the head decreases. The
operating condition will be the meeting point of the two curves representing the variation of
head required by the system and the variation of head of the pump. This is shown in Figure.
The operating condition decides about the capacity of the pump or selection of the
pump. If in a certain setup, there is a need for increased load; either a completely new
pump may be chosen. This may be costlier as well as complete revamping of the setup. An
additional pump can be the alternate choice. If the head requirement increases the old pump
and the new pump can operate in series.
In case more flow is required the old pump and the new pump will operate in parallel.
There are also additional advantages in two pump operation. When the Pump-load
characteristics load is low one of the pump can operate with a higher efficiency when the load
increases then the second pump can be switched on thus improving part load efficiency. The
characteristics of parallel operation is depicted in Figure
5.2.1 Pumps in parallel
The original requirement was Q1 at H1. Pump 1 could satisfy the same and operating
point is at when the flow requirement and the system characteristic is changed such that Q2
is required at head H1, then two pumps of similar characteristics can satisfy the requirement.
Providing a flow volume of Q2 as head H1. It is not necessary that similar pumps
should be used. Suitable control system for switching on the second pump should be used
in such a case. When the head requirement is changed with flow volume being the same,
then the pumps should work in series. The characteristics are shown in Figure.
5.2.2 Pumps in series
The flow requirement is Q. Originally head requirement was H1 met by the first
pump alone. The new requirement is flow rate Q and head H2. This can be met by adding in
series the pump2, which meets this requirement. It is also possible to meet changes in both
head and flow requirements by the use of two pumps. Suitable control system should be
installed for such purposes.
Problem 1:The following details refer to a centrifugal pump. Outer diameter : 30 cm. Eye
diameter : 15 cm. Blade angle at inlet : 30°. Blade angle at outlet : 25°. Speed 1450 rpm. The
flow velocity remains constant. The whirl at inlet is zero. Determine the work done per kg. If
the manometric efficiency is 82%, determine the working head. If width at outlet is 2cm,
determine the power o = 76%.
5.2.3 Minimum Speed For Starting The Centrifugal Pump

N=(120 ηmanVw2 D)/(π(D22-D1 2)
Where ηman – manometric efficiency
V -Whirl at out let of the turbine
D2 - diameter of impeller at out let
5.2.4 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

The pump manufacturer's specified margin of suction pressure above the
boiling point of the liquid being pumped, is required to prevent cavitation. This
pressure is called the 'Net Positive Suction Head' pressure (NPSH).
In order to ensure that a NPSH pressure is maintained, the Available NPSH
should be higher than that required. The NPSH depends on the height and density of
the liquid and the pressure above it.
5.2.5 Cavitation
Cavitations is a problem condition which may develop while a centrifugal

pump is operating. This occurs when a liquid boils inside the pump due to insufficient
suction head pressure. Low suction head causes a pressure below that of vaporization
of the liquid, at the eye of the impeller. The resultant gas which forms causes the
formation and collapse of 'bubbles' within the liquid. This, because gases cannot be
pumped together with the liquid, causes violent fluctuations of pressure within the
pump casing and is seen on the discharge gauge.
These sudden changes in pressure cause vibrations which can result in serious
damage to the pump and, of course, cause pumping inefficiency.

To overcome cavitations:
1. Increase suction pressure if possible.
2. Decrease liquid temperature if possible.
3. Throttle back on the discharge valve to decrease flow-rate.
4. Vent gases off the pump casing.
5.2.6 Multistage Pump
If centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers the pump is called Multistage
pump. To produce a high head impellers are connected in series .To produce high discharge
impellers are connected in parallel.
5.3 Reciprocating Pumps
Introduction
There are two main types of pumps namely the dynamic and positive displacement
pumps. Dynamic pumps consist of centrifugal, axial and mixed flow pumps. In these cases
pressure is developed by the dynamic action of the impeller on the fluid.
Momentum is imparted to the fluid by dynamic action. This type was discussed in the
previous chapter. Positive displacement pumps consist of reciprocating and rotary types.
These types of pumps are discussed in this chapter. In these types a certain volume of fluid
is taken in an enclosed volume and then it is forced out against pressure to the required
application.
5.3.1 Comparison
Dynamic pumps
1. Simple in construction.
2. Can operate at high speed and hence compact.
3. Suitable for large volumes of discharge at moderate pressures in a single stage.
4. Lower maintenance requirements.
5. Delivery is smooth and continuous.
Positive displacement pumps
1. More complex, consists of several moving parts.
2. Speed is limited by the higher inertia of the moving parts and the fluid.
3. Suitable for fairly low volumes of flow at high pressures.
4. Higher maintenance cost.
5. Fluctuating flow.
5.3.2 Description And Working
The main components are:

1. Cylinder with suitable valves at inlet and delivery.
2. Plunger or piston with piston rings.
3. Connecting rod and crank mechanism.
4. Suction pipe with one way valve.
5. Delivery pipe.
6. Supporting frame.
7. Air vessels to reduce flow fluctuation and reduction of acceleration head and friction
head.
A diagrammatic sketch is shown in Fig
Diagrammatic view of single acting reciprocating pump

The action is similar to that of reciprocating engines. As the crank moves outwards,
the piston moves out creating suction in the cylinder. Due to the suction water/fluid is
drawn into the cylinder through the inlet valve. The delivery valve will be closed during
this outward stroke.
During the return stroke as the fluid is incompressible pressure will developed
immediately which opens the delivery valve and closes the inlet valve. During the return
stroke fluid will be pushed out of the cylinder against the delivery side pressure. The
functions of the air vessels will be discussed in a later section. The volume delivered per
stroke will be the product of the piston area and the stroke length.
In a single acting type of pump there will be only one delivery stroke per revolution.
Suction takes place during half revolution and delivery takes place during the other half. As
the piston speed is not uniform (crank speed is uniform) the discharge will vary with the
position of the crank. The discharge variation is shown in figure.
In a single acting pump the flow will be fluctuating because of this operation.
Flow variation during crank movement of single acting pump

Fluctuation can be reduced to some extent by double acting pump or multicylinder
pump. The diagrammatic sketch of a double acting pump is shown in figure In this case the
piston cannot be connected directly with the connecting rod.
A gland and packing and piston rod and cross- head and guide are additional
components. There will be nearly double the discharge per revolution as compared to single
acting pump.When one side of the piston is under suction the other side will be delivering the
fluid under pressure. As can be noted, the construction is more complex.
Diagrammatic view of a double action pump
5.3.3 Flow Rate and Power
Theoretical flow rate per second for single acting pump is given by,
Compared to the piston area, the piston rod area is very small and neglecting this will
lead to an error less than 1%.
5.3.4 Slip
There can be leakage along the valves, piston rings, gland and packing which will
reduce the discharge to some extent. This is accounted for by the term slip.
Where Qth is the theoretical discharge given by equation and Qac is the measured discharge.
If actual discharge is greater than theoretical discharge negative value is found
this negative value is called negative slip.
5.3.5 Coefficient of discharge
It has been found in some cases that Qac > Qth, due to operating conditions. In this
case the slip is called negative slip. When the delivery pipe is short or the delivery head is
small and the accelerating head in the suction side is high, the delivery valve is found to open
before the end of suction stroke and the water passes directly into the delivery pipe. Such a
situation leads to negative slip.
Theoretical power = mg(hs + hd ) W
where m is given by Q × δ.
Problem.1 A single acting reciprocating pump has a bore of 200 mm and a stroke of 350 mm
and runs at 45 rpm. The suction head is 8 m and the delivery head is 20 m. Determine the
theoretical discharge of water and power required. If slip is 10%, what is the actual flow rate ?
5.3.6 Indicator Diagram

The pressure variation in the cylinder during a cycle consisting of one revolution of the
crank. When represented in a diagram is termed as indicator diagram. The same is shown in
figure.
Indicator diagram for a crank revolution

Figure represents an ideal diagram, assuming no other effects are involved except
the suction and delivery pressures. Modifications due to other effects will be discussed later
in the section. Point 1 represents the condition as the piston has just started moving during
the suction stroke.
1-2 represents the suction stroke and the pressure in the cylinder is the suction
pressure below the atmospheric pressure. The point 3 represents the condition just as the
piston has started moving when the pressure increases to the delivery pressure. Along
3-4 representing the delivery stroke the pressure remains constant. The area enclosed
represents the work done during a crank revolution to some scale.
5.3.7 Acceleration Head
The piston in the reciprocating pump has to move from rest when it starts the suction
stroke. Hence it has to accelerate. The water in the suction pipe which is also not flowing at
this point has to be accelerated. Such acceleration results in a force which when divided by
area results as pressure.
When the piston passes the mid point, the velocity gets reduced and so there is
retardation of the piston together with the water in the cylinder and the pipe. This again results
in a pressure. These pressures are called acceleration pressure and is denoted as head of fluid
(h = P/ρg) for convenience.
Referring to the figure shown below the following equations are written.
Piston Crank Configuration
This is the acceleration in the cylinder of area A. The acceleration in the pipe of area a
is=A/a w2rcosot.This head is imposed on the piston in addition to the static head at that
condition.This results in the modification of the indicator diagram as shown in figure.
This head is imposed on the piston in addition to the static head at that condition. This results
in the modification of the indicator diagram as shown in figure.
Modified indicator diagram due to acceleration head
The effect of acceleration head are:
No change in the work done. pressure at 1′is around 2.5 m of head of water
(absolute). Which is directly related to speed, the speed of operation of reciprocating pumps
is limited. Later it will be shown than the installation of an air vessel alleviates this
problem to some extent.
5.3.8 Work done by the Pump

For single acting
W= ρgALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
For Double acting
W=2ρgALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
Where hfs, hfd =loss of head due to acceleration in the suction and delivery Pipe.
5.4 Air Vessels
Air vessel is a strong closed vessel as shown in figure. The top half contains
compressed air and the lower portion contains water or the fluid being pumped. Air and
water are separated by a flexible diaphragm which can move up or down depending on
the difference in pressure between the fluids. The air charged at near total delivery
pressure/suction pressure from the top and sealed. The air vessel is connected to the pipe
lines very near the pump, at nearly the pump level. On the delivery side, when at the
beginning and up to the middle of the delivery stroke the head equals hs + hf + ha , higher
than the static and friction heads. At this time part of the water from pump will flow into the
air vessel and the remaining will flow through the delivery pipe. This will increase the
compressed air pressure. At the middle stroke position the head will be sufficient to just
cause flow. The whole of the flow from pump will flow to the delivery pipe. At the second
half of the stroke the head will be equal to hs + hf – ha. At the position the head will be not
sufficient to cause flow. The compressed air pressure will act on the water and water charged
earlier into the air vessel will now flow out. Similar situation prevails on the suction side.
At the start and up to the middle of the suction stroke the head at the pump is higher than
static suction head by the amount of acceleration head. The flow will be more and part will
flow into the air vessel. The second half of the stroke water will flow out of the air vessel.
In this process the velocity of water in the delivery pipe beyond the air vessel is
uniform, and lower than the maximum velocity if air vessel is not fitted. Similar
situation prevails in the suction side also. The effect is not only to give uniform flow but
reduce the friction head to a considerable extent saving work. Without air vessel the
friction head increases, reaches a maximum value at the mid stroke and then decreases to
zero. With air vessel the friction head is lower and is constant throughout the stroke. This is
due to the constant velocity in the pipe.
The advantages of installing air vessels are:

(i) The flow fluctuation is reduced and a uniform flow is obtained.
(ii) The friction work is reduced.
(iii) The acceleration head is reduced considerably.
(iv) Enables the use of higher speeds.
5.5 Types of positive displacement pump
 Rotary pumps
 Reciprocating (piston) pumps
 Gear pum
5.1.1.Rotary Pumps
In Rotary pumps, movement of liquid is achieved by mechanical displacement of
liquid produced by rotation of a sealed arrangement of intermeshing rotating parts within
the pump casing.
5.1.2.The gear pump
Construction and Operation:
In this pump, intermeshing gears or rotors rotate in opposite directions, just like
the gears in a vehicle or a watch mechanism. The pump rotors are housed in the casing or
stator with a very small clearance between them and the casing. (The fluid being pumped
will lubricate this s mall clearance and help prevent friction and therefore wear of the
rotors and casing).
In this type of pump, only one of the rotors is driven. The intermeshing gears
rotate the other rotor. As the rotors rotate, the liquid or gas, (this type of machine can also
be used as a compressor), enters from the suction line and fills the spaces between the
teeth of the gears and becomes trapped forming small 'Slugs' of fluid between the teeth.
The slugs are then carried round by the rotation of the teeth to the discharge side
of the pump.
At this point, the gears mesh together and, as they do so, the fluid is displaced
from each cavity by the intermeshing teeth.
Since the fluid cannot pass the points of near contact of the intermeshed teeth nor
between the teeth and casing, it can only pass into the discharge line.
As the rotation continues, the teeth at the suction end are opened up again and the
same amount of fluid will fill the spaces and the process repeated. The liquid at the
discharge end is constantly being displaced (moved forward).
Thus gear pumps compel or force a fixed volume of fluid to be displaced for
each revolution of the rotors giving the 'Positive Displacement' action of the pump.
Gear pumps are generally operated at high speed and thus give a fairly
pulse-free discharge flow and pressure. Where these pumps are operated at slower speeds,
as in pumping viscous liquids, the output tends to pulsate due to the meshing of the tee th.
Any gas or air drawn into the pump with the liquid, will be carried through with the liquid
and will not cause cavitation. This action of the pump means that it's a 'Self Priming'
pump. The discharge pressure may however, fluctuate.
The output from this type of pump is directly proportional to the speed of ope
ration. If the speed is doubled, the output will be doubled and the pressure will have very
little effect. (At higher pressures, due to the fine clearances between the teeth and
between the casing and the rotors, a small leakage back to the suction side will occur
resulting in a very small drop in actual flow rate. The higher the discharge pressure, the
more likely that internal leakage will occur).
Rotary pumps are widely used for viscous liquids and are self -lubricating by the
fluid being pumped. This means that an external source of lubrication cannot be used as it
would contaminate the fluid being pumped. However, if a rotary pump is used for dirty
liquids or slurries, solid particles can get between the small clearances and cause wear of
the teeth and casing. This will result in loss of efficiency and expensive repair or
replacement of the pump.
TWO MARKS QUESTION AND ANSWERS

1.What do you mean by turbine?
The hydraulic machine which convert the hydraulic energy in to mechanical
energy is called turbine
2.Define pump :
It is defined as the hydraulic machine which convert mechanical
energy in to hydraulic energy
3.Define sub critical flow:
If the froude number is less than one then the flow is said to be sub critical flow
4.Define critical flow:
If the froude number is less equal to one it is called as critical flow.
5.Define supercritical flow:
If the froude number is greater than one it is called as super critical
flow
6. What are the possible types of flow in open channel with respect to space and time?
A,steady and unsteady flow
B,uniform and nonuniform flow
7.what do you know about uniform and non uniform flow?
Uniform flow: If the given length of the channel ,depth ,velocity ,the rate of flow, cross
section are constant.
Non Uniform flow: If the given length of the channel ,depth ,velocity ,the rate of flow,
cross section are not constant.
8.Define specific energy:
It is defined as energy per unit weight of the liquid with respect to the bottom of the
channel.
9.What is meant by wetted perimeter?
The wetted perimeter (p) is the length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with the cross section plan normal to the direction of flow.
10.Define critical depth:

It is defined as the depth of flow of water at which the specific energy is minimum.
11.Define critical velocity:
The velocity of flow at the critical depth is known as critical velocity.

12.Define the term most economical section of the channel:
A section of the channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction
of the channel is minimum. But the cost of construction depend up on the excavation and
lining to keep the cost minimum The wetted perimeter for a given discharge should be
minimum.
13.Define gradually varying flow
If the change in depth in a varying flow is gradual so that the curvature of the
streaming line is not excessive such flow is called gradually varying flow.
14.Define Rapidly varying flow
If the curvature in a varied flow is large and depth changes appreciably over
short length it is called rapidly varying flow.
15.Define affux
The maximum increase in water level due to obstruction in the path of flow is
known as affux.
15.Define length of backwater curve
The distance along the bed of the channel between the section where water starts raising to
the section where water is having maximum height is known as the length of the back water curve
16.Define back water
The profile of the raising water on the upstream side of the dam is called as back water
curve.
17.Define hydraulic jump

The raise of water level which takes place due to the transformation of the
unstable shooting flow ( super critical flow ) to the stable Streaming flow (
sub critical flow ) is called hydraulic jump.
18.Define cavitations
cavitations is defined as phenomenon of formation of vapour bubbles in a region of a
flowing liquid where the pressure in the liquid is falls below than vapour pressure and sudden
collapsing of these vapour bubbles in a region of higher pressure.
19.What is known by governing of a turbine?
Governing of a turbine is defined as the operation by which the speed of the turbine is
kept constant under all conditions of working . It is done by oilpressure generator.
20.Explain gross head
The difference between head race level and tail race level when no water is flowing is
know as gross head

21.Explain net head
It is defined as the head available at the inlet of turbine .If Hf is the loss due to friction
between water and penstock then net head
H=Hg-Hf
22.Define Hydraulic Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the runner to the power supplied at
the inlet.
23.Define mechanical efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of power at the shaft of the turbine to the power delivered by
the water to runner.
24.Define volumetric efficiency
It is defined as the ratio of volume of water actually striking the runner to the Volume
of water supplied to the runner.
25.Define over all efficiency

It is defined as the ratio of shaft power by water power
26.Explain impulse turbine

If at the inlet of the turbine the energy available is only kinetic energy the turbine
is known as impulse turbine.
27.Explain Reaction turbine
if at the inlet of the turbine the water possesses kinetic energy as well as pressure
energy the turbine is known as reaction turbine.
28.Explian tangential flow turbine
If the water flows along the tangent of the runner, the turbine is known as the
tangential flow turbine.
29.Expain radial flow turbine

If the water flows in the radial direction through the runner the turbine I called
radial flow turbine.
30.Explain inward flow radial turbine
If the water flows from outwards to inwards radially the turbine is called iward radial
flow turbine.
31.Explain outward flow radial turbine

If the water flows radially from inwards to outwards the turbine is known sa outward
radial flow turbine.
32.Define axial flow turbine
If the water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation
of the runner the turbine is called axial flow turbine.
33.what is Pelton wheel:
Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the
bucket along the tangent of the runner . The energy available at the inlet of the Turbine is only
kinetic energy.This turbine is used for high heads.
34.What is breaking jet?
When the nozzle is completely closed ,the amount of water striking the runner reduces to
zero but the runner due to inertia goes on revolving
for a long time to stop the runner in a short time a small nozzle is
provided which direct the jet of water on the back of vanes .This jet of water is called
breaking jet.
35.What is jet ratio?

It is the ratio of pitch diameter (D) to the diameter of jet (d).
36.What is Draft tube?
A tube or pipe of gradually increasing area is used for discharging water from the exit
of the tubine to the tail race is called draft tube.
37.Define Degree of Reaction (R)
It is defined as the ratio of change of pressure energy inside the runner to the change
of total energy out side the runner.
38.what is radial discharge?

This means the angle made by absolute velocity with the tangent on the wheel is 90
and the component of whirl velocity is zero.
39.Define Francis turbine:
Inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as francis
turbine
40.Define propeller turbine:

This is an example of axial flow reaction turbine . Here the vanes are fixed to the hub
and are not adjustable.
41.Define Kaplan turbine:

This is an example of axial flow reaction turbine. Here the vanes are not fixed to the
hub and are adjustable.
42.What are the use of draft tube?

1.the net head on the turbine increases.
2.due to increase in net head the power and efficiency of the turbine also
increases.
3.the large amount of rejected kinetic energy is converted in to usefull pressure energy
43.What are types of draft tube?

1.conical draft tube
2.simple elbow tube
3.moody spreading tube
3.draft tube with circular inlet and rectangular outlet.
44.What are the types of characteristic curves
1.Main characteristic curves
2.Operating characteristic curve
3.Muschel characteristic curves
45.What is specific speed of the turbine?

It is defined as the speed of a turbine which will develop unit power under unit
head.
46.Define unit quantities;
Unit quantities are the quantities which are obtained when the head on the turbine are
unity.
47.Explain about characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine

Characteristic curves of a hydraulic turbine are the curves with the help of which the
exact behaviour and performance of the turbine under
different working conditions can be known.
48.What is meant by conveyance of the channel?
The conveyance of the channel is denoted by k and is given by k=AC√(m).
49.Define the term most economical section:

A section of the channel is said to be most economical when the cost of construction
of the channel is minimum. But the cost of construction mainly depend up on the excavation
and lining to keep the cost minimum ,the wetted perimeter for a given discharge should be
minimum.
50.What are the conditions of rectangular channel of best section?
The two conditions are breadth is equal to two times the depth
(b=2d) and hydraulic mean depth is equal to half the depth (m=d/2)
51.Write down the conditions for the most economical trapezoidal channel?
2
1.Half the top width is equal to one of sloping side (b+2 nd)/2=d√(1+n )
2.Hydraulic mean depth is equal to half the depth.
52.Write down the conditions of most economical circular channel with maximum velocity?
θ=128°45’
d=0.81D
m=0.3D
53.What do you mean by open channel flow?
1.Open channel flow has a free surface which is subjected to atmospheric pressure.
2.In open channel flow the cross section is irregular.
54.What do you mean by pipe flow?

1.Pipe flow has no free surface and subjected to hydraulic pressure
only.
2.The cross section of the flow is fixed
55.List the instrument used to measure open channel flow

1.pitot tube
2.ultrasonic flow instrument.
3.Dropper instrument
4.Gurley instrument.
56.What is the best side slope for trapezoidal channel ?
θ=60° is the best side slope for trapezoidal channel.
57.what do mean by M1 profile?
The most common of all gradually varying flow is of M1 type
which is a sub critical flow condition obstructions to flow such as wiers,
dams etc…which produce M1 profile.
58.What are the types of flow profile?
Mild slope profile
Steep slope profile Critical
slope profile Horizontal bed
profile Adverse slope profile
59.What do you mean by M2 profile?
The M2 profile occurs at a sudden drop in the bed of the channel in to the ponds or pools or
lakes.
60.What do mean by M3 profile?
The M3 profile occurs the flow yielding from a spillway or a sluice gate.
61.What is speed ratio?
U1=φ√(2gH)
Where U1 – tangential velocity of wheel at inlet
φ -speed ratio
H – Head of the turbine.
62.What do you mean by coefficient of velocity?
V1=Cv (2gH)
V1 = velocity of jet
Cv = coefficient of velocity
H = head of the turbine.
63.What are the main parts of pelton wheel turbine?

1. nozzle and flow regulating arrangement
2. runner with buckets
[Type text] Page 83
3. casing
4. breaking jet
64.What are the main mechanism of Radial flow reaction turbine?
1.casing
2.guide mechanism
3.runner
4.draft tube
65.Define Multistage pump:
If centrifugal pump consists of two or more impellers the pump is called multistage
pump. To produce a high head impellers are connected
in series .To produce high discharge impellers are connected in parallel.
66.Define Manometric head:
Manometric head is the head against which a centrifugal pump has to work.
2
Hm = Hs +hd +Hfs +Hfd + (vd /2g)
Where Hm – manometric head
Hs - suction head
Hd – delivery head
Hfs – friction head loss in suction pipe
Hfd – friction head loss in delivery pipe
67.What is Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) ?
NPSH is defined as the total head required to make liquid flow through suction pipe
to pipe impeller.
68.Define slip of a reciprocating pump and negative slip:
Slip is defined as the difference between theoretical discharge and actual discharge.
If actual discharge is greater than theoretical discharge negative value is
found this negative value is called negative slip.
69.What do you know coefficient of discharge?

It is defined as the ratio of actual discharge by theoretical discharge. It is
denoted By Cd .
70.What do you know Drop down curve?
The water surface has a convex profile upwards this curve is called drop down curve.
[Type text] Page 84
71.What is separation of reciprocating pump?

If the pressure in the cylinder is below the vapour pressure , dissolved gasses will be
liberated from the liquid and cavitations will takes place . The continuous flow of liquid will
not exit which means separation of liquid takes place. The pressure at which separation takes
place is called separation pressure and head corresponding to the separation pressure is
called separation pressure head.
72.What is an indicator diagram?

Indicator diagram is the graph between the pressure head and distance traveled by the piston from
inner dead center for one complete revolution.
73.What is Air vessel?
Air vessel is a closed chamber containing compressed air in the top portion and liquid at
the bottom of the chamber . It is used to obtain a continuous supply of water at uniform rate to
save a considerable amount of work and to run the pump at high speed with out separation.
74.What are the assumptions of gradually varying flow profile?
1.Pressure distribution at any section is assumed to be hydrostatic.
2.The velocity distribution at the channel section is fixed
3.The channel is prismatic
4.The roughness coefficient is independent of the depth of flow.
75.What the two cases where distance of the normal depth of flow does not exit?
(a)When the channel bed is horizontal
(b) When the channel bed has a adverse slope.
76.What are the methods used for finding gradually varying flow profile?
1.Direct integration method
2.Numerical method
3.Graphical representation method.
77.What are the classification of hydraulic turbine according to the type of energy at inlet ?
(a)Impulse turbine and
(b Reaction turbine
78.What are the types of turbine according to direction of flow through runner?
(a)Tangential flow turbine
(b) Radial flow turbine
(c)Axial flow turbine
(d) Mixed flow turbine
[Type text] Page 85
79.What are the types of turbine according to the head at the inlet of the turbine?
(a)high head turbine
(b) medium head turbine
(c)low head turbine
80.What are the types of turbine according to the specific speed of the turbine?
(a)Low specific speed turbine
(b) Medium specific speed turbine
(c)High specific speed turbine.
81.Write down the expression for energy loss due to hydraulic jump?
[Type text] Page 86
3
HL = (d2-d1) / (4d1d2)
Where
HL – energy loss due to hydraulic jump
D2 - depth of flow after the jump
D1 -- depth of flow before the jump
82.What do you mean by length of hydraulic jump?
This is defined as the length between the two sections where one section is taken before the
hydraulic jump and the second section is taken immediately after the jump.
83.What are the classification of flow in channels?
1.steady flow and un steady flow.
2.uniform flow and non uniform flow.
3.Laminar flow and turbulent flow and
4.sub critical , critical and super critical flow.
84.What are the types of Non uniform flow?
(i) Rapidly Varied Flow (R.V.F)
(ii) Gradually Varied Flow (G.V.F)
85.What do you know about laminar and turbulent flow?

Laminar flow: The flow in open channel is said to be laminar if the Reynolds number( Re) is less
than 500
Turbulent flow: If the Reynolds number is greater than 2000 it is called turbulent flow.
86.What do you mean by specific energy curve?
It is defined as the curve which shows the variation of specific energy with respect to
depth of flow.
87.Write the manometric efficiency of the pump?

Manometric efficiency = (gHm)/(Vw2U2)
Where
Hm –manometric head
88.Write the expression for over all efficiency ? over all efficiency
= (ϑg QHm)/(1000 x P) Where
Hm – manometric head
P - power
89.What is the minimum speed for starting the centrifugal pump?
2 2
N=(120 ηmanVw2 D)/(π(D2 -D1 ) Where
ηman – manometric efficiency
Vw2 _- Whirl at out let of the turbine
D2 - diameter of impeller at out let
.90. Write down the use of centrifugal pump?
1.Used in deep sump and basement
2.The high discharge capacity
3.It is driven by electric motors
91.Define open channel flow?
The term open channel flow denotes the gravity-driven flow of a liquid with a free
surface.
92.What do you mean by stream lining?

`Streamlining is adding a faired tail section to reduce the extent of separated flow on the
downstream portion of an object .
93.What is centrifugal pump?

The hydraulic machines which convert mechanical energy in to pressure energy by
means of centrifugal force is called centrifugal pump.It acts a reverse of inward radial flow
turbine.
94.What do you know about Hub or Boss?

It is the core part of the axial flow turbine where the vanes are attached.
95.Under what head the propeller turbine take water?
About 100 m head the propeller turbine take water.
When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable the turbine is called
propeller turbine.
96.What are the uses of Kaplan turbine?

1.To produce more out put.
2.The efficiency of the turbine is more
97.Define unit speed:
It is defined as the speed of the turbine under unit head
Where
Nu = N/√H
Nu –unit speed
N –number of rotations
H- head of the turbine
98.Define unit discharge

It is defined as the discharge passing through the turbine which is working under unit
head.
Qu = Q/ √H
Where
Qu – unit discharge
Q – Total discharge
H- head of the turbine
99.Define unit power:

It is defined as the power developed by the turbine working under unit head.
3/2
Pu = P/H
Where Pu - unit power.
P - Total power.
H- head of the turbine.
100.What are the main parts of centrifugal pump?
1.Suction pipe with foot valve and strainer
2.Impeller
3.casing
4.delivery pipe
101.What are fluid machines?
The machines which use the liquid or gas for the transfer of energy from fluid to rotor or
from rotor to fluid, are known as fluid machines.
102. What are hydraulic machines and thermal turbo machines?

If liquid is used for the transfer of energy, then machines are known as hydraulic
machines whereas if gas is used then machnes are
known as thermal turbo machines.
103.How are fluid machines classified?

Fluid machines are classified into 2 categories depending upon the direction of
transfer of energy :
1. Turbines
2. Pumps or compressors..
104.What is the purpose of an air vessel fitted in the pump?
1.To obtain a continuous supply of liquid at a uniform rate.
2.To save a considerable amount of work in overcoming the frictional resistance
in the suction and delivery pipes, and
3.To run the pump at a high speed with out separation.
105. What is the work saved by fitting a air vessel in a single acting
,double acting pump?
Work saved by fitting air vessels in a single acting pump is 84.87%,
In a double acting pump the work saved is 39.2%.
106.What is Discharge through a Reciprocating Pump in Per sec ?
For Single acting
Discharge (Q)=ALN/60
Where
2
A=Area of the Cylinder in m
L=Length of Stroke in m. N=Speed
of Crank in RPM
For Double acting
Q=2ALN/60
107. What is the Workdone by Reciprocating Pump Per sec.?

Workdone = ρgALN(hs+hd)/60 (for single acting)
For Double acting:
Work done= 2ρgALN(hs+hd)/60
Where
3
ρ=Density of Water in kg/m
2
A=Area of the Cylinder in m
L=Length of Stroke in m
N=Speed in rpm
hs,hd=Suction and Delivery head in m
108. What is the Pressure head due to acceleration in the Suction & Delivery Pipe ?
2
hf=4fl(A/a*ωr sinθ) /2gd
where
2 2
f=Co-efficient of friction. A = Area of piston in m . a = Area of pipe in m .
ω = Angular speed r = Radius of crank
109. What is the relation between Work done of a Pump and Area of Indicator Diagram ?
Work done by the pump is Proportional to the area of the Indicator diagram.
110.. What is the Work done by the Pump per sec due to acceleration and friction in the
suction and delivery Pipes ?
For single acting
W= ρgALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
For Double acting
W=2ρgALN(hs+hd+0.67hfs+0.67hfd)/60
Where hfs, hfd =loss of head due to acceleration in the suction and delivery Pipe.
111.. What is the Mean Velocity of Single acting reciprocating pump ?
v=Aω r/3.14a
Where
ω =Angular velocity in rad/sec r =Radius
of the crank in m
2
A and a =Area of cylinder and Pipe in m
mp and rotating cylinder pump.

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DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM – 638 056

This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : CE6403

Scubject : APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING

Class : II Year Civil Engineering

being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university

Signature of the Author

Designation: Assistant Professor

This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Mr.K.ChandraBose is of

CE6403 APPLIED HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING LTPC

TOTAL (L:45+T:15): 60 PERIODS

Sl.No Contents Page No.

UNIT 1 UNIFORM FLOW

1.2 DifferencesbetweenPipeFlowandOpen ChannelFlow 2

1.3 Types of flow 2

1.6 Velocitydistributionin openchannels 8

1.7 Steady Uniformflow 9

1.9 Computationsin UniformFlow 16

1.10 Specific Energy 20

1.11 Critical Flow and Critical Velocity 23

2.1 Varied Flow 24

2.2 Gradually Varied Flow in Open Channel 24

2.3 Transitions between Sub and Super Critical Flow 25

2.4 Classification of profiles 27

2.5 Profile Determination 30

2.5.2 The standardstep method 32

2.5.3 Graphical Integration Method 33

UNIT 3 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW

3.1.1 The energy (Bernoulli) equation 37

3.2 Critical , Sub-critical and super critical flow 38

3.3 Application of the Momentum equation for Rapidly Varied Flow 40

3.4 Hydraulic jump 42

3.4.1 Expression for Hydraulic Jump 42

3.4.2 Loss of Energy due to HydraulicJump 42

3.4.2 Loss of Energy due to HydraulicJump 42

3.4.4 Classification of Hydraulic Jumps 42

4.2 Breaking Jet 44

4.3 Classification of Turbines 44

4.4 Impulse turbines 45

4.5 Reaction turbines 45

4.6 Turbines in action 46

4.7 Kaplan turbine 46

4.8 Francis Turbine 49

4.9 Specific speed 52

5.1 Centrifugal Pumps 53

5.1.1 Volute type centrifugal pump 53

5.2.1 Pumps in parallel 60

5.2.2 Pumps in series 60

5.2.3 Minimum Speed For Starting The Centrifugal Pump 61

5.3 Reciprocating Pumps 62

5.3.3 Flow Rate and Power 64

5.3.7 Acceleration Head 65

5.3.8 Work done by the Pump 67

5.4 Air Vessels 68

Types of positive displacement pump

Unit 1 UNIFORM FLOW