8.

Motor Controls

Anibal T. De Almeida

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 Discussed Topics
• Starting methods
• Variable speed drives
• VSD control options
• Efficiency of motor and VSD combinations
• Motor bearings

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 Motor Controls - Starting
Energy-Consumption for an Acceleration Period: (a) Standard Motor;
(b) Pole Changeable Motor; (c) Variable Speed Drive (VSD).

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Star / Delta Start

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 Soft Starter
• A soft starter has different characteristics to the other starting
methods. It has thyristors in the main circuit, and the motor
voltage is regulated with a printed circuit board. The softstarter
makes use of the fact that when the motor voltage is low
during start, the starting current and starting torque is also low.

• During the first part of the start the voltage to the motor is so
low that it is only able to adjust the play between the gear
wheels or stretching driving belts or chains etc. In other words,
eliminating unnecessary jerks during the start.

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 Soft Starter
• Gradually, the voltage and the torque increase so that the machinery
starts to accelerate. One of the benefits with this starting method is the
possibility to adjust the torque to the exact need, whether the
application is loaded or not. In principle the full starting torque is
available, but with the big difference that the starting procedure is much
more forgiving to the driven machinery, with lower maintenance costs as
a result.

• Another feature of the softstarter is the softstop function, which is very

useful when stopping pumps where the problem is water hammering in
the pipe system at direct stop as for star-delta starter and direct-on-line
starter. The softstop function can also be used when stopping conveyor
belts to prevent material from damage when the belts stop too quickly.

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Soft Starter

Circuit to control the voltage

In each phase

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 Soft - Starter
Torque
Quadratic load

Speed
U - Voltage

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Variable Speed Drives – VSDs

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 PWM Inverter

PWM – Pulse Width Modulation

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 Cycloconverters
Frequency=10Hz
Three-phase
u(t)
secondary
transformer

iRef(t) i(t)

u1 Frequency=20Hz
u(t)

Current
sensor
i1

M
iRef(t) i(t)
i1 Ref

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 Variable Speed Drives – VSDs
Motor torque and power limitations in totally-enclosed fan-cooled induction
motors fed by a VSI-PWM VSD, assuming motor constant nominal operation
temperature (switching frequency > 5 kHz, field weakening point at nominal
frequency). Torque-speed curves for different types of loads.

VSI – Voltage Source Inverter

PWM – Pulse Width-Modulation
VSD – Variable Speed Drive

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 Variable Speed Drives – VSDs
Torque (Nm)

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VSD Control Methodologies

VSD Control

Vector Scalar

Field Oriented
V/f Control
Control

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 Open-Loop Control
Open Loop Systems (Manual Control)
• In an open loop control system the controlling
parameters are fixed or set by an operator and
the system finds its own equilibrium state.

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 Closed – Loop Control Systems
(Automatic Control)
• Also called feedback control systems, or negative feedback systems, they
allow the user to set a desired operating state as a target or reference and
the control system will automatically move the system to the desired
operating point and maintain it at that point thereafter.

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 V/f Control
• The voltage amplitude is specified as a function
of the actual motor frequency.
• The V/f characteristic can be adjusted. The
most usual characteristic types are those with a
constant torque or a square-law characteristic
for pumps and fans.

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 Voltage Variation with Frequency

Vn

Voltage
offset

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 V/f Control
The following measures improve the properties of V/f control:
• Slip compensation maintains the speed constant during load changes using a load
current-dependent frequency boost. The slip compensation becomes effective from
approx. 10 % of the rated motor speed. This therefore allows a speed holding
accuracy of approx. (0.2 x rated slip) to be achieved. The rated slip is, e.g. for motors
from 30 kW and above, approx. =1.5 %.
• FCC control (Flux Current Control, extended I*R compensation) also improves the
speed holding accuracy during load changes. FCC adapts the voltage - and therefore
the rotor flux - to the load.
• The voltage increase at low frequencies ("boost") optimizes the starting behavior.
• The current limiting control is used as stall protection.

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 Vector Control
Vector control (Also called Field-oriented control -
FOC) is a control technique for polyphase motors
(induction and synchronous motors), which allows
a three-phase motor to be operated with the same
dynamic performance as a DC motor.

The behaviour of a DC motor is emulated in an

induction motor by orienting the stator current
with respect to the rotor flux so as to attain
independently controlled flux and torque.

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 Vector Control
• The reference system of the machine equations is not orientated to the
stationary stator, but to a rotating magnetic field.
• The field appears to be stationary in this rotating reference system. The
voltages - and especially the currents - in the motor can now be referred to
this system
• The current in the motor is split up into a field-generating component
(magnetizing current id, in the direction of the field) and a torque generating
component (active current iq, perpendicular to the field [quadrature axis]);
both of these can be controlled independently of one another.
• Using a matrix operations, the quantities between the rotating d-q axis
reference frame are transformed in the stationary i1, i2, i3 reference frame,
and vice-versa.

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 Vector Control
• Knowing the alignment of the magnetic field in the motor is a precondition
for field-orientated control. This is determined from measured data
(currents, voltages, speed or position of the rotor) in a motor model or flux
model.

• So-called sensorless closed-loop controls, do not require a position and

speed encoder, also calculate these quantities through sophisticated
algorithms

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Schematic representation of field-orientated
control of an induction motor

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Vector Control Block Diagram of PMSM

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 Advantages of the VSDs
• Energy savings associated to the speed control;
• Improvement of the dynamic performance of induction
motors;
• High efficiency of the VSDs (96-98%) and high reliability;
• High power factor (if active front end is used);
• Small size and location flexibility;
• Soft starting (savings!) And controlled/regenerative braking;
• Motor protection features;
• Lower acoustic noise and improvement of the process
control;
• Less wear maintenance needs of the mechanical
components.
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 Possible Disadvantages of VSDs

• Inject harmonic distortion in the network

• Voltage spikes leading to failure of insulation
in windings of old motors
• Bearing current leading to premature failure

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 Types of VSDs – Pros and Cons
VSD Type Advantages Disadvantages
Pulse- Good power factor throughout speed range. No regeneration capability.
Width Low distortion of motor current. Limited to VSDs bellow 1000 kW *.
Modulation Wide speed range (100:1). Slightly (about 1%) less efficient than
(PWM) Multi motor capability. VSI or CSI
Six-step Good efficiency. Poor power factor at low speeds (unless a
Voltage-Source Simple circuit configuration. rectifier/chopper AC/DC converter is used).
Inverter Wide speed range (10-200%). No regeneration capability.
(VSI) Multi-motor capability. Operation below 10% of rated speed can produce
cogging.
Force Simple and robust circuit design. Bulky.
Commutated Regenerative capability. Poor power factor at low speed/load.
Current-Source Built-in short circuit protection. Possible cogging below
Inverter Wide speed range (10-150%). 10% of rated speed.
(CSI)

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 Types of VSDs – Pros and Cons
VSD Type Advantages Disadvantages

Load- Simple and inexpensive circuit design. Poor power factor at low speed.
Commutated Regeneration capability. Can only be used with synchronous motors.
Inverter (LCI) Built-in short-circuit protection.
Static VSD power is less than motor power. Can only be used with W.R.I.M.
Kramer Can be retrofitted to wound rotor induction Poor power factor at low speeds.
Drive motor (W.R.I.M.) with external resistor. Subsynchronous speed (50-100%)only.
Static VSD power is less than motor power. More complex and costly than Kramer drive.
Scherbius Wider speed range (70-130%). Can only be used with W.R.I.M.
Drive Can be retrofitted to W.R.I.M. with
external resistor if overspeed is possible.
Cyclo- Can operate down to zero speed. Cannot be used above 33%
Converters High torque capability with of input frequency.
field-oriented control. Complex circuit design.
Can be used with induction and Poor power factor at low speed.
synchronous motors.

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Common Types of VSD and Applications

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THD and Harmonics at the Input and Output of a VSD with
VSI-PWM and Diode Rectifier

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 Motor Efficiency Reduction of VSD fed Induction
Motor
Operation of a.c. machines on a non-sinusoidal supply inevitably results in additional
losses in the machine. These losses fall into three main categories.

• Stator copper loss. This is proportional to the square of the rms current. Additional
losses due to skin effect must also be considered.
• Rotor copper loss. The rotor resistance is different for each harmonic current
present in the rotor. This is due to the skin effect and is particularly pronounced in
deep bar rotors. Because the rotor resistance is a function of frequency, the rotor
copper loss must be calculated independently for each harmonic. Although these
additional losses used to be significant in the early days of PWM inverters, in
modern drives with switching frequencies above 3 kHz the additional losses are
minimal.
• Iron loss. This is increased by the harmonic components in the supply voltage.

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Typical losses of energy-efficient motors, converters and
electromechanical brakes

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Efficiency and losses of motor versus load, direct-
on-line and fed by a VSD

DOL

with VSD

DOL

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Motor Efficiency (37 kW)

Source: LTE Canada 2009

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VSD Efficiency (37 kW)

Source: LTE Canada 2009

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Motor + VSD Efficiency (37 kW)

Source: LTE Canada 2009

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 Relative prices of Motor and VSDs
Relative Price of Electric Motors and VFDs (2009 Switzerland)
400%
IE1 = 100%
IE2
Relative Price (€/kW in % of IE1)

350%
IE3
IE2+VFD
300%
IE3+VFD

250%

200%

150%

100%
0,75
1,1
1,5
2,2
3
4
5,5
7,5
11
15
18,5
22
30
37
45
55
75
90
110
132
160
200
220
250
315
335
355
Motor Nominal Mechanical Output (kW)
Source: A+B International

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Voltage transients at the inverter-fed motor terminals
lcable

VSD Motor

(!) PARTIAL DISCHARGE

 LIFETIME
GOOD
SOLUTION!

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Bearing current in inverter-fed motor

Circulating currents

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Bearing current in inverter-fed motor

Common mode currents

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 Bearing current in inverter-fed motor
To mitigate the bearing currents in inverter-fed motors several
techniques can be adopted:
- proper switching frequency selection;
- cables with of proper type and size (e.g. shielded);
- well designed ground system;
- filters between the motor and inverter;
- insulated bearings;
- shaft-ground connection (e.g. using a contact brush);
- etc.
the users should ask manufacturers about these issues.

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