The Jewelry Department

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t.'(jLirtcsy of Inlernational Studio \
Comb in Gold and Horn (French Design)

DEPARTMENT STORE
MERCHANDISE MANUALS
THE JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
BY
BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A.

Editor of Series; Director of Department Store Courses,
New York University; Chairman of Committee on Merchan-
dise Courses for New York City Public Schools; Former
Educational Director pf the Department Store Education
Association.
ASSISTED BY
E. LILLIAN HUTCHINSON, B. A.
Secretary Department Store Education Association
CONSULTING EDITOR
LEE GALLOWAY, Ph.D.
Associate Professor Commerce and Industry, New York
University; Secretary of National Association of Corpora-
tion Schools; Director Educational Courses, National
Commercial Gas Association.
NEW YORK
THE RONALD PRESS COMPANY
1917
Copyright, 1917, by
The Ronald Press Company
to Mrs. Henry OUesheimer, Miss
Virginia Potter, Miss Anne Mor-
gan, and other organizers of the
Department Store Education As-
sociation, who desiring to give
greater opportunity for advance-
ment to commercial employees and
believing that all business efficiency
must rest upon a solid foundation
of training and education gave
years of enthusiastic service to the
testing of this belief.
EDITOR'S PREFACE
This series of department store manuals has been pre-
pared for the purpose of imparting definite and authen-
tic information to that growing army of salespeople who
are not satisfied to be mere counter servers — to those

who realize that their vocation is one of dignity and
opportunity, and that to give satisfactory service to the
customer they must possess a thorough knowledge of the
goods they sell, as well as a knowledge of how best to
sell them.
These manuals were planned and prepared as the result
of many months of teaching department store salespeople
in a number of large stores in New York and other
cities. Later a series of courses for teachers of depart-
ment store salesmanship was introduced into the curricu-
lum of the School of Pedagogy of New York University.
This gave additional opportunity for the study of store
conditions and needs from the point of view of the
teacher. Thus the material in these books has been tried
out with the salespeople in the store and also with those
who have proven themselves to be successful teachers.
In the preparation of these manuals we have received
the most cordial co-operation from experts in the various
lines of merchandise and from manufacturers who have
freely given their time and valuable counsel. To all of
these the authors and editors of this series wish to express
their grateful appreciation.
Beulah Elfreth Kennard.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE
This manual an introduction to the merchandise of
is
the Jewelry Department. On account of the scope of

the subject it has been necessary to treat some sections
in outline form, which, while giving the important facts,
has necessitated the omission of many details. Some
special articles such as Watches and Optical Goods will
be discussed in another manual since they require more
extended treatment than the limits of the present volume
would permit.
Acknowledgment is gratefully made to Mr. Emil A.
Kohn, Manufacturing Jeweler; Mr. S. L. Van Wezel,
Diamond Merchant Mr. August Goldsmith of Goldsmith,
;
Stein and Company, Manufacturing Jewelers; Mr. T.

Edgar Willson, Editor of the Jeweler's Circular Weekly;
Espositor, Varni Company; and especially to Mr. Julius
Wodiska, the author of " Book of Precious Stones
for co-operation in securing accurate information and
for many helpful criticisms.
For illustrations thanks are due to the International
Studio, Daniel Low and Company, and Espositor, Varni
Company.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I Introductory i
The Jewelry Department

Divisions
PART I — METALS
II Gold 3
Popularity
Color
Characteristics
Source
Extracting Gold from Sand
Extracting Gold from Lodes or Veins
Crushing the Ore
Separating the Gold from the Ore
Amalgamation
Chlorination
Cyaniding
Bullion
Alloys
Testing Gold
Assaying
Uses of Gold
III PUVTINUM ,. . 12
Rarity
Color
Characteastics
Source
Uses
vii
vni CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
IV Silver and Copper 15
Description of Silver
Characteristics of Silver
Sources of Silver
Copper
Color of Copper
Characteristics of Copper
Sources of Copper
History of Copper
V Alloys 18
Definition
Purposes
Preparation
PART II — PRECIOUS STONES

VI Grouping Stones by Color 21
First Steps in Learning the Stones
Colorless Stones
Red Stones
Green Stones
Blue Stones
Yellow Stones
Violet or Purple Stones
Pink Stones
Brown Stones
Black Stones
VII Valuation of Precious Stones ... 27

Popular Misconceptions
Essential Characteristics of Stones
Beauty
Color
Luster
Transparency or Opaqueness
Durability
Rarity
CONTENTS IX
CHAPTER PAGE
VIII Descriptions of Stones
—
...... 33
The Diamond Its Characteristics
Sources of Diamonds
Mining of Diamonds
Value of Diamonds
History of Diamonds
The Emerald
Pearls
Structure of Pearls
Color of Pearls
Luster of Pearls
Sources of Pearls
Pearl Diving
Size and Value of Pearls
History of Pearls
Culture Pearls
Setting of Pearls
Ruby
Sapphire
Amethyst
IX Descriptions of Stones (Continued) . . 46

Coral
Garnet
Opal
Topaz
Turquoise
Cat's Eye
Chrysoprase
Jade
Moonstone
Peridot
Kunzite
Tourmaline
Amber
Bloodstone
Agate
Lapis Lazuli
Amazonite
Azurite
Cairngorm
Carnelian
X CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
Labradorite
Malachite
Marcasite
Rhodonite
Smithsonite
Spinel
Zircon
X Artificial and Imitation Stones 59

Difference
Synthetic Stones
Reconstructed Stones
" Faked " Real Stones
Imitation Stones
Coloring of Imitation Stones
Test for Imitation Stones
Imitation Pearls
Imitation Coral
Imitation Amber
Imitation Cameos
History of Imitation Stones
PART III — MANUFACTURE OF JEWELRY

XI Metal Working 65
The Goldsmith an Artist
Making of Jewelry
Grains and Grain Clusters
Wire Drawing
Annealing
Wire Jewelry
Beaded Wire
Repousse Work
Casting
Methods of Ornamenting
Modern Methods of Manufacture
Craftsman Jewelry
Commercial Jewelry
Cheap Jewelry
CONTENTS XI
CHAPTER PAGE
Gold-Filled Jewelry
Rolled Gold
Electroplating
Tinting
XII Cutting of Precious Stones .,..80

Importance
Styles
Facet Cutting
BrilliantCut
Rose Cut
Step Cut
Curved Surface Cutting — Cabochon
Difficulties in Cutting Valuable Stones
Slitting
Faceting
Polishing
Loss of Size During Cutting
Center of Diamond-Cutting Industry
Diamond Cleaving
Diamond Sawing
Cutting and Polishing Diamonds
Cabochon Cutting
Special Cuts
Cameos
Materials Used in Cameos
Stone Cameos
Shell Cameos
History of Cameos
Imitation Cameos
Intaglios
Scarab
History of Cutting
XIII Setting of Stones 94

Characteristics of Good Settings
Tools
Styles
Claw Setting
Cut Down Setting
:ii CONTENTS
HAPTER PAGE
Flush Setting
Roman Setting
Band Setting
Thread Setting
Settings for Special Stones
XIV Enamel in Jewelry 99

Enamel
Characteristics of
Enameling
Qoisonne
Champleve
Repousse
Baisse Taille
Plique a Jour
Encrusted Enamel
Painted Enamel
Enamel Colors
Transparent Colors
Opaque Colors
History
XV Design in Jewelry 106

Importance of Design in Jewelry
Relation of Design to Material and Purpose
Use of Gems in Design
Form and Line in Design
Curves
The Foundation of Grood Design
Types of Decoration
Elements of a Design
Design in Diflferent Countries
PART IV — ARTICLES OF JEWELRY

XVI Standard Articles 117
Rings
Pins
Chains
Necklaces
Pendants
CONTENTS Xlll
CHAPTER PAGE
Bracelets
Earrings
Collar Buttons
Cuff-Links
Studs and Vest Buttons
Evening Sets for Men
Other Articles
XVII Fans 127
Types of Fans
Materials
Manufacture
History
XVIII Combs and Hair Ornaments 131
T3T>es
Tortoise Shell
Amber
Jet
Horn
Celluloid
Manufacture of Combs
History
XIX History of Jewelry 138
Jewelry Among Savage Tribes

In Ancient History
Centers of Modern Industry
History of American Jewelry
History of Various Articles
XX BiRTHSTONES . . I44
Origin
The Original List
The New List
xiv CONTENTS
PART V — SUGGESTIONS TO
SALESPEOPLE
CHAPTER PAGE
XXI Selling Suggestions 147
Arrangement, Display, and Care of Stock
Materials
Manufacture
History
Suitability
Care
XXII Classification of Stock of a Typical

Jewelry Department 155
Appendix (Books for Reference) . . .163
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Comb in Gold and Horn (French Design) . . Frontispiece
FIGURE FACING PAGE
1. Garnets in Matrix 46
2. Examples of Gold Mounts for Precious Stones ... 72
3. Platinum Jewelry Mounted with Stones from Pieces in

Figure 2 76
4. Styles of Cutting Precious Stones .... (on page) 83
5. Jeweled Brooches 102
6. Necklace and Earrings of Brilliants (Austrian Design) 114
7. Design for Lace Fan 130
8. Primitive Wooden Combs (on page) 136
9. Ancient Pins (on page) 139

JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
Chapter I
INTRODUCTORY
The Jewelry Department
The jewelry section of a department store is one of
the most interesting and attractive parts of the store,
and the well-informed salesperson in this department
possesses unique opportunities for service both to em-
ployer and customer. Sales are often made because of
the artistic or sentimental appeal to the customer rather
than any immediate need for the article.
Precious stones, for instance, are so fascinating that

almost all customers welcome information concerning
them. Again a tactful remark regarding the suit-
ability of a certain jewel for the customer's purpose

willwin not only a sale but also gratitude. As in all
departments, customers like to be waited on by " one
who knows."
Divisions
Jewelry may be divided, according to purpose, into

2 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
Jewelry for Women
Rings Watches (Wrist, Pendant)
Brooches Mesh Bags
Bar Pins Lorgnettes
Collars Novelties
Pearl Necklaces Fans
Pendants Combs and Hair Orna-"
Earrings ments
Jewelry for Men:

Rings (Jeweled, Seal) Pencils
Scarf-Pins Knives
Watch Chains Cigar Cutters
Cufif-Links Cigarette Cases
Studs Match Boxes
Dress Sets
The jewelry stock may also be divided into:
1. Gold and platinum jewelry, set with real gems.

2. Plated and novelty jewelry, of rolled gold, silver,
copper, or less costly metals, set with imitation stones.
There is almost infinite variety in the forms and dec-
orations of the various articles. They may be elab-
orately designed and set with precious stones or plainly
chased and simple. But the one requirement of all
jewelry is that it should be beautiful.

Part I— Metals
Chapter II
GOLD
Popularity
Gold is the most beautiful of all metals. It is soft

and easily worked, and combines artistically with any
color found in precious stones. Silver and platinum
are also used for jewelry, and copper and bronze are
seen in " craftsman's " work, but gold is used more
than all the others combined.
Color
Pure gold is pale yellow with a bright luster, but by
combination with other metals in the form of alloys
it may be given a darker yellow tone or a green, gray,
or red hue. Gold can also be made to resemble plati-
num in color. This variety is called " white gold."
Characteristics
Gold is
Malleable — may be beaten into thin sheets.

3
Ductile — may be drawn into fine wire.
Unalterable — does not corrode, as iron and cop-
per,on exposure the to air.
Dense — the are very

particles close together.
Soft — wears away and must be hardened
easily
by the addition of copper, silver, etc.
Gold may be beaten into a sheet 1/250,000 of an

inch in thickness. In this form it is known as gold
leaf, and is used for gilding.
Source
Gold is found in small quantities all over the world.
The rocks and soil of nearly all countries, and even
the waters of the ocean, contain small particles of gold
scattered through them. The Australian and Cali-
fornian deposits are remarkably pure.

Gold is found in " ore " or in " barren rock."
These differ only in the proportion of gold which they
contain. Ore is "paying rock," that is, rock which
has enough gold in it to make its extraction and re-
fining profitable. With the improvements in methods
of gold mining, barren rock may become paying rock
and the poorer fields must be worked as the richer
ones give out. Gold, like iron, is a part of the earth's
crust, but is unevenly distributed. At present, the
rich ores are very rare, because it has been prized by
man in every part of the world, and as a result the
GOLD S
ore which could be secured by such simple methods as

washing river sands has disappeared, except in out-of-
the-way places. Gold is found under three conditions
1. As a deposit in the sands of rivers.
2. As lodes or veins.
3. As sedimentary deposits.
Extracting Gold from Sand
The gold which is found in river sand is most
easily secured. It is separatedfrom the sand by
various methods of washing.
1. The sand may be washed in a wooden tub, or
iron basin which shaken to and fro by hand until
is
the gold (being heavier than sand) falls to the bottom.

2. The gold may be separated by a flowing stream
of water which removes the sand, the gold being

caught on some obstruction. There are two variations
of this method.
For large operations the sand or gravel may be put
in a long trough called a " sluice " through which a
stream of water runs. The gold falls to the bottom
and is caught on cross strips of wood called " riffles,"
while the sand is carriedby the water. For
off
smaller operations the gravel thrown into a current
is
of water in a " Long Tom," which is a box about four

yards long and seven inches broad. The gold is
caught on riffles or on sheep's fleece.
These methods of collecting gold are slow and
wasteful, but are profitable so long as a rich deposit
lasts.
3. The Hydraulic Method. The hills in certain

parts of California were found to contain a large
amount of and in
gold, 1852 a new method of reduc-
ing these hills was introduced. Instead of slowly-
digging up the soil, the mining companies erected a
high steel framework or " giant " supporting a hose
pipe through which water was driven at very high
pressure against the sides of the hills. This stream
of water was extremely powerful. It sent a torrent
of mud down into the valley below, where the mud
flowed through sluices, and the gold was caught in the
same way as from the river sand.
The hydraulic method had two great objections:
first, the mud dammed up the valleys and destroyed
land which was good for farming or fruit raising and ;
second, the debris was left on the land.

In 1884 a law was passed prohibiting hydraulic
mining in California, but it is still practiced in some
other states.
In the frozen regions of Siberia and the Klondike
the ground is too hard to be broken up by the pick
and therefore fires are built or steam pipes are inserted

in order to melt the ice before the actual mining can
begin.
:
GOLD 7
Extracting Gold from Lodes or Veins
Gold which is found in lodes or veins has been
carried up from a lower part of the earth's crust by
hot volcanic vapors. The metal, which had dissolved
in the hot water, crystallized and was deposited in
veins.
These lodes may be vertical, slanting, or horizontal.
They are mined in the same way as other metals, by
sinking shafts with connecting galleries. In a gold
mine, however, no part of the paying rock is left for
supports or chamber walls as in coal mines. As the
various sections are removed the space is filled with a
wooden framework containing crushed rock until the
ore has been entirely replaced.
Crushing the Ore

Gold is seldom found in the pure state. It may be
combined with iron, silver, tourmaline, copper, galena,
sulphur, or other substances. In order to separate it
from the rock, the ore must first be crushed into pow-
der. If the gold is " free " or unmixed with quartz,
it is not necessary to reduce the rock to such fineness.
There are several kinds of machines used for crush-
ing the ore
I. The jaw breaker, which has two steel jaws with

toothed edges. One of these jaws is sta-
tionary and the other moves backward and
forward over it.
2. Vertical stamps in batteries, which are raised

by a cam shaft and fall with a deafening din
upon the ore which is contained in an iron
mortar.
3. The tube mill is a large cylinder containing
crushing materials which grind the ore still
finer.
Separating the Gold from the Ore

There are three methods of separating the gold from
this crushed ore. These are
Amalgamation
Chlorination
Cyaniding
Amalgamation
The amalgamation process depends upon the ease
with which mercury and gold combine.
The crushed ore or " pulp "
is mixed with water
and run over copper plates coated with mercury to

which the gold adheres. The combined gold and mer-
cury —called amalgam —
is scraped off and the gold
separated from the mercury by distillation.
Chlorination
In the chlorination process the crushed rock is
GOLD 9
roasted, mixed with water, and exposed to the action
of chlorine gas, which is obtained from common salt
by an electrical process. The chlorine and gold unite,

and the gold is precipitated from this solution.
Cyaniding
Cyaniding is the most economical method and has
almost entirely superseded the others. The crushed
ore is dissolved in a very dilute solution of potassium
cyanide. The gold is precipitated from this solution
either by electricity or by zinc.
Bullion
These processes complete the work which is done

at the mine or gold field. The metal, which is now
called bullion, is then sent to some center in Europe or
America to be further refined.
Alloys
Manufacturing jewelers buy their gold in bars by the
ounce and alloy ^ it themselves.
As stated earlier in the chapter, when gold is com-
bined with other metals to form an alloy, its color is
affected. Silver makes it lighter in color and copper

gives it a reddish hue. Alloys of gold, in addition to
being different in color, are naturally cheaper than pure
gold, and they are also harder.
X For a further discussion of alloys, see Chapter V.
lO JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
Pure or " fine " gold is described as " 24 karats fine."
The karat is a standard of weight for the precious
metals and gems, but it has a special significance with
respect to gold. Twenty-four karats fine means that
gold has no alloy whatever; but such gold is too soft
for use. Twenty-two karat gold has 2 parts alloy and
22 parts gold. Old jewelry was usually of 22 karat
gold. Eighteen and 14 karat gold are now much used,
and the gold used in cheaper jewelry is only 10 karat
gold, that is, more than half its weight is some other
metal. As these cheaper alloys contain a larger
amount of copper than the finer forms, they are easily
afifected by acids and have a less brilliant luster.
Testing Gold
Jewelers have a simple method of testing the fineness
of gold by the use of a hard black stone called a
" touchstone." The piece to be tested is rubbed on the
stone. It leaves a little streak of metal behind, the
color of which is compared with that of a streak made
by gold of known quality. The touchstone method is

easy but is not absolutely accurate. Gold is also tested
with nitric acid.
Assaying
The scientific testing of the quality of gold is done by
a process of analytical chemistry called assaying. First,
GOLD II
a very small portion of the gold is weighed in a delicate

balance. Then it is wrapped in pure sheet lead and
heated. The lead unites with all baser metals as it
melts and this combination runs away, leaving only a
lump of pure gold and silver. This lump
is weighed
again to see how much had contained,

base metal it
after which the silver is removed with nitric acid and

only the pure gold is left. The difference between
the weight of this remainder and the lump containing
silver determines the weight of the gold. It can be
calculated to a thousandth part of a karat.
Uses of Gold
In spite of the new gold fields which have been dis-
covered from time to time, the world has never had
enough gold. The insistent demand keeps its price
steady and helps to make it the standard for other
values.
Gold is used in dentistry, in chemical works and
photography, as well as in gilding and making all kinds
of lacquers. Nearly one-half of the output is used
for money. Several years ago itwas estimated that
in theUnited States 24 per cent was used' for jewelry,
10 per cent for watch cases, 44 per cent for coinage,
and about 22 per cent for export and for other pur-
poses.
Chapter III
PLATINUM
Rarity
The most costly of all useful metals is platinum,
which in normal times is about two and one-half times
as valuable as gold. Platinum was at one time con-
sidered impure silver — only fifty years ago Russian
peasants wore buttons of platinum on their clothes —
but when its peculiar properties became known it began
to be greatly prized because of its rarity.
Color
The a glistening blue white. It
color of platinum is
isnow in greater favor than gold for setting diamonds

and other jewels, as it seems to increase their bril-
liancy.
Characteristics
Platinum is:
Malleable and ductile to a high degree.

Less affected by acids than gold.
Dense.
Soft as silver.
PLATINUM 13
Platinum does not oxidize at any temperature, and

melts only at a very high temperature.
Source
Platinum is found Ural Mountains in
chiefly in the
Russia, but in small quantities
it appears also in Canada,
New South Wales, Colombia, Borneo, and Sumatra,

and in the United States. In 1909 the world's produc-
tion of platinum was over 198,000 ounces troy and of
this about 190,000 ounces came from Russia, or about
twenty-three times as much as the other countries pro-
duced. The United States supplies only about 700
ounces a year.
Platinum is found in veins or nuggets like gold, only
in very much smaller quantities. It is mined in a
similar way.
Uses
One of the physical properties of platinum, its inde-
structibility, makes most useful in chemical labora-
it
tories where crucibles and dishes are made of platinum

in spite of its cost. It is also used in munitions and
the European War has greatly increased its price.
Articles made of platinum are all marked individu-
ally, and the mark is recorded, together with the
weight, so that they may be traced when stolen ; there-
fore, as a thief is not likely to have the knowledge or
the materials with which he can melt or decompose
the metal, it is almost impossible to dispose of it.
Two ways of meeting the scarcity of platinum have

been proposed; one, to alloy it with two very rare
metals similar to platinum called " palladium " and
" iridium." This would not cheapen the metal but
would make it go farther. The other is to substitute
" white gold," which is gold alloyed with silver and
nickel. This is much cheaper than platinum but far
less durable. It is only superficially like platinum but
produces somewhat the same color effect as a setting for
stones.
For melting platinum, an oxygen torch, which pro-
duces very intense heat, is required.
Chapter IV
SILVER AND COPPER
Description of Silver
Silver is a brilliant white metal which sometimes oc-
curs in nature in the form of twisted wire-like deposits
in the upper levels of silver-bearing minerals. It is
usually associated with gold, sulphur, or lead, and

these silver ores are more important than native silver
deposits. It is the most common of the precious metals
and is easily separated from its alloys.
Characteristics of Silver
Silver is:
Harder than gold, but too soft to use without being

alloyed with copper or some other metal.
Malleable and ductile.
The best conductor of heat among all of the
metals.
Tarnished by sulphur compounds, but unaffected
by pure air.
Sources of Silver
Mexico and Peru furnish a large part of the world's
15
silver, but it is also found abundantly in Cornwall,
England, Saxony, Chili, and the United States.
Sterling silver has the same proportion of alloy as
United States coins ; that is, 92 >^ per cent pure silver
and 7>4 per cent of alloy.

Silver is also used with copper, nickel, and other
metals as an alloy for gold.
Copper
Native copper, that is, pure copper, may be found in
crystals or thin plates but the surface is dull and tar-
nished, because it is so easily affected by the atmos-

phere. Besides appearing as pure copper, it also oc-
curs as copper pyrites associated with iron, gold, silver,
and other compounds. There are nearly two hundred

distinct copper ores.
Color of Copper
The color of pure copper is chocolate brown or
green. It is so much affected by the air that it becomes
dull and tarnished very quickly.
Characteristics of Copper
Copper is malleable and ductile, but tougher and
harder than gold or silver. It is particularly useful in
alloys.
Sources of Copper
Copper has been found in Cornwall, England, and
SILVER AND COPPER 17
other parts of Europe, but the richest mines are on the

shores of Lake Michigan and Lake Superior, and in
Montana and Arizona. One mass taken from the lake
mines weighed 420 tons.
History of Copper
Copper has been known and used since the time of
Tubal Cain, the first metal worker mentioned in the
Bible. Bronze made of copper and tin or zinc was used
before iron for weapons and implements. Copper
"
was called " chalkos " by the Greeks, and " cyprum
or " cuprum " by the Romans, its name coming from
the island of Cyprus, where it was found in ancient
times.
Roman money was made of bronze. Church bells
and clock bells have always contained a large amount of
copper, and it is a component part of nearly all alloys
of gold, silver, and imitations of precious metals.
Chapter V
ALLOYS
Definition
An alloy a combination of two or more metals
is
produced by fusion. An alloy of gold, platinum, or

silver means a combination of gold, platinum, or silver
with any of the baser metals.
The metals chiefly used in alloying the precious
metals are
With gold —
silver, copper, or nickel.
With silver —
tin, zinc, lead, or copper.
With platinum —
palladium, iridium, or silver.
Purposes
When metals are alloyed, their good qualities seem
to combine. When copper, silver, or nickel are added
to gold, they increase its strength and toughness with-
out destroying its beauty or metallic luster, unless an
excess of metal is used. Gold and silver possess all
the qualities, except hardness, necessary for making

beautiful jewelry. Pure gold is so soft that it is prac-
tically unusable.
i8
ALLOYS 19
Pure gold cannot be affected by any gases or impuri-

ties in the air or water silver is only affected by sul-
;
phur; but copper will corrode under ordinary atmos-

pheric conditions. Gold which contains a large amount
of copper will in hot weather leave a green mark on the
skin. Platinum is unalterable by the air or even by
"
acids under ordinary conditions but the " white gold
imitation of platinum contains silver and nickel which
are attacked by sulphur or acids.
Metals are also alloyed to modify their color and to
cause them to melt more easily. A solder must have a
lower melting point than that of the metal to be
soldered. Gold and silver solders are made by adding
copper and silver to the first and copper to the second.
An alloy may have a melting point even lower than
that of either of the metals of which it is composed as
in the case of tin and lead which are combined to make
" soft solder."
One obvious reason for alloying the precious metals
is to reduce the cost of material.
Preparation
The metals used are selected and carefully weighed

so that the proportions of the alloy may be exactly
right.
The metal having the highest melting point is melted
first in a crucible made of porcelain, plumbago, or
fire-clay according to the nature of the metal. The
metals more easily melted are then added and the
mixture stirred until it is thoroughly melted and mixed
together. Sometimes a " flux " is added to remove the
impurities of the metals. Fluxesmay be of charcoal,
borax, carbonate of soda, common salt, sulphur, or
powdered glass. The mixture
is then poured into a
mold to be cooled. The ingot or bar of alloy should
have the same weight when cooled as that of all the
metals composing it.
Part II —Precious Stones
Chapter VI
GROUPING STONES BY COLOR

First Steps in Learning the Stones
To the salesperson confronted with the glittering

array of gems and precious stones of all colors and
varieties, the task of becoming acquainted with the
stones is a most bewildering one. Customers have in
recent years become very discriminating in buying gems
and jewelry, and expect the salesperson to be informed
upon the stock. Misinformation and errors regarding
stock can never be excused upon the ground of igno-
rance, and, almost more than in any other department,
the jewelry salesperson can oflfer real service to a cus-
tomer.
The most direct way to study and become acquainted
with precious stones is, first of to group them men-
all,
tally by colors, noticing the leading or typical stone of

each group, and comparing similar stones with it.
This method of grouping will also help in making ar-

21
rangements of definite color schemes, especially the
harmonizing of jewelry with costumes which is a cus-
tom now in vogue. Women who can afford it, use
jewels for every gown, and ornaments for afternoon
as well as evening wear.
In each of the following color groups it will be
noticed that there are opaque as well as transparent
stones.
Colorless Stones
The diamond is the representative stone of this
group, although it is found in a wide range of colors

— yellow, green, pink, less often red and blue. Its
surpassing quality is its property of dividing light into
colored rays. This wonderful brilliancy is termed

"fire." Its fire and hardness (it is the hardest of all
known substances) are the two characteristics which

distinguish the diamond from other colorless stones.
The zircon, also called jargoon, approaches the dia-
mond more nearly than any other stone in brilliancy.
The white sapphire is very hard, ranking next to the
diamond in this respect; but its luster is much softer
than that of the diamond.

The white topaz takes a very high polish and thus
resembles the diamond in the daytime.
Bristol diamonds, and Lake George diamonds are
forms of rock crystal, used for imitating diamonds.
GROUPING STONES BY COLOR 23
Tourmaline, phenacite, spinel, and beryl are other

colorless stones less often seen.
The moonstone is an opalescent, opaque, white stone
easily distinguished by its soft bluish light.
The white opal is also easily distinguished by its play
of lights.
White coral and white jade are clear, opaque white

stones.
Red Stones
The ruby is the most beautiful and the most costly
of the transparent red stones, being more expensive
than the diamond, especially in the pigeon's blood hue.
The ruby is very hard.
The red garnet, red spinel, red tourmaline and red
quarts are so like the ruby as often to be mistaken for
it. These stones are softer than the ruby.
The fire opal may be called a red stone, as red is its
predominating tint. This cannot be confused with any

of the other red stones because of the play of light in it.
The cornelian, which is the color of raw flesh, is an

opaque stone often seen in signet rings.
Jasper is a bright red, opaque stone.
Coral is found in all shades of red, from very light,
almost pink, to deep red. It is opaque.
Green Stones
The emerald has been so universally accepted as the
green stone that the word emerald is now a general
trade designation for various transparent precious and
semiprecious green stones, and is not simply the name
of any one specific stone. The true emerald, however,
isa form of the mineral beryl, and is a very valuable
gem, even more expensive than the diamond or ruby.
The green garnet (called olivine), peridot, chryso-
beryl, and tourmaline, are emerald-green stones very
often seen.
The aquamarine is distinctly different from these
others in its sea-green color.
The opaque green stones include
Malachite, a bright green stone with a silky luster.
Chrysoprase, leek or apple-green.
Bloodstone, distinguishable by its bright blood-red
spots.
Serpentine, varying from rich olive to pistachio.
Variscite, rich green usually cut with the matrix, the
rock in which it is embedded.
Jade, a very hard Chinese stone.
Blue Stones
The sapphire of the cornflower-blue shade is the
most valuable and beautiful transparent blue stone. It
is much harder than any other stone of this color.

Blue topaz and blue touramline (indicolite) are simi-
lar in color but less frequently seen.
GROUPING STONES BY COLOR 25
Lapis lazuli and asurite are beautiful deep blue

opaque stones.
The turquoise is distinguished by its robin's egg or
greenish-blue color.
Yellow Stones
The topaz is instantly thought of as the typical trans-
parent yellow stone, though the topaz may be of any
shade. It has a brilliant luster.
The yellow sapphire is very like the topaz, but much

harder.
The yellow spinel is a transparent stone less often
seen.
Amber is a rich yellow and may be either transparent
or translucent.
Chrysoberyl appears in different shades of yellow.
Citrine (yellow quartz) resembles the topaz, but is
much softer.
Hyacinth, or jacinth, are forms of zircon of a deep
yellow tint.
Violet or Purple Stones
The amethyst is practically the only purple stone in

general use. This is seen in all shades of purple.
The purple sapphire is almost identical in color with
the amethyst but is very rare.
A violet spinel is sometimes seen.
Pink Stones
Pink stones are rather rare.
Kunzite is a beautiful, lilac-colored transparent stone.
The ruby, beryl, tourmaline, spinel are sometimes
seen in a pink shade.
The topaz becomes pink when heated.
Coral, in a large variety of shades, and rhodonite,
often containing black markings, are opaque pink
stones.
Brown Stones
Brown stones are not very popular.
The hyacinth is a yellowish-brown transparent stone.
The garnet and tourmaline are also found in brown.
Cairngorm or smoky quartz is a rich yellow-brown.
Black Stones
Jet, either in its dull or highly polished form, is a
familiar substance in the Jewelry Department.

Black tourmaline, garnets, and quartz are sometimes
seen.
Black onyx is used in mourning jewelry.
Chapter VII
VALUATION OF PRECIOUS STONES

Popular Misconceptions
After one has learned to know the stones of the
various color groups, he should next become familiar
with the values of the stones. Popular information on
this subject is very inaccurate. For example, most
people suppose that the diamond is the most valuable
stone on the market, while in reality there are two
stones ranking above it in value — the ruby and the
emerald.
Again, it popularly supposed that gems may be
is
divided by a hard and fast line into " gems," " precious
stones," and " semiprecious stones," but this again is
an error, for scarcely two authorities will agree upon
a classification. Some classify them according to
mineral composition, others according to rarity, others
according to transparency or lack of transparency,
others by hardness, others by the popular demand and
fashion.
Essential Characteristics of Stones

All agree, however, that there are three character-
istics which precious stones should possess, viz., beauty,
durabihty, and rarity, and unless they do possess these

essentials they cannot be satisfactory as precious stones.
For instance, there are many very beautiful minerals
which are too soft to be suitable for mounting and use
as a personal ornament, although for sheer beauty they
would be desirable. Other substances possess great
durability, as the common black corundum, but lack
beauty or rarity and so are not valuable.
Beauty
The beauty of a stone depends upon its color, luster,
and transparency or opaqueness.
Color
Color due to the property of reflecting light. A
is
ray of white light is composed of six pure colors red, —

orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet. The sparkling
diamond reflects all the light and therefore appears
white, while jet absorbs all the light and appears black.
The blue sapphire reflects only the blue rays, absorb-
ing the red, orange, yellow, green, and violet. The
emerald reflects the green, absorbing the others and so
on.
These differences in regard to the reflection of light
are caused by differences in the chemical composition
of stones. The presence of cobalt produces blue, cop-
VALUATION OF PRECIOUS STONES 29
per green, iron brown, manganese purple, etc. The

glass maker uses the same method in manufacturing
colored glass ware, putting these chemicals into " the
batch " from which glass is made.
When comes to identifying stones it is unsafe to
it
place too much reliance on the color, for not only are
there many stones of very similar colors, but one min-
eral may appear in many colors. An expert can usu-
ally distinguish the differences, but for most people
color is not a reliable test.
Luster
Beauty in a stone is also dependent on its luster or
brilliancy, that is, its manner of reflecting the light.
The kinds of luster are described as
Adamantine, as in the diamond.

Vitreous, or glassy, as in the amethyst.
Greasy, or waxy, as in the turquoise.
Resinous, as in amber or garnets.
Silky, as in crocidolite.
Pearly, as in the pearl and sometimes the opal.
Metallic, or the luster of metals.
The degree of luster is described as
Splendent, as in the diamond.

Shining.
Glistening.
Glimmering.
The diamond possesses the highest and rarest luster
which a gem may possess, the adamantine luster in
the splendent degree. At the present time stones with
a high luster are the most popular. Vitreous luster is
a little more subdued than the adamantine. The finest

rubies have the adamantine luster, but more often they
have the vitreous. The luster is brought out by the
manner of cutting and polishing as well as by the set-
ting or mounting of the stone.
Transparency or Opaqueness
Another property upon which beauty depends is the
transparency or opaqueness of a stone. Scientifically
this is known as " diaphaneity," the degree to which a
gem transmits light. A gem js known as transparent,
like the diamond, when objects can be seen through it
subtransparent, when they are seen a little less dis-
tinctly ; translucent, as the opal, when objects cannot be

seen through it but when the light passes through ; sub-
translucent, when this is true to a greater degree; and
opaque, as the turquoise, when no light is transmitted.
Durability
The upon its ability
durability of a stone depends
to endurewear and friction. A scale, known as the
Mohs Table, was devised by a man named Mohs to
indicate the relative degrees of hardness of the various
gems. It is as follows
VALUATION OF PRECIOUS STONES 31
10. Diamond
9. Corundum (ruby and sapphire)
8. Topaz
7. Quartz
6. Feldspar
5. Apatite
4. Fluorite
3. Calcite
2. Gypsum
I. Talc
The gems which do not appear on this list range

between the others for example, the emerald and aqua-
;
marine 7.7s, turquoise 6, opal 5.5, etc. There is con-

siderable variation in each degree, however, as stones
from different localities often vary greatly in hardness.
Stones below the number 5 are generally considered
too soft for jewelry.
Rarity
All precious stones are rare. This is the reason they
are so valuable. If diamonds were as common as coal
they would be as cheap. But some stones are rarer
than others. A stone may be rare in color, as the red
diamond; or rare in size, as large emeralds.
This quality of a stone is the only one of the three
essentials which is relative, as it varies with new dis-
coveries of gem deposits. The crocidolite (tiger's

eye) is an example of this. Years agoit was used in
fine jewelry and sold by the carat. Today it is so

plentiful that it is used only for cameos and intaglios.
The other two essentials, beauty and durability, are

constant, as they depend upon the chemical and physi-
cal composition and structure of the stone.
Chapter VIII
DESCRIPTIONS OF STONES
The Diamond — Its Characteristics
The diamond is generally regarded as the prince of

gems.
In composition the diamond is the same substance as
coal, lampblack, and graphite ; that is, pure carbon but
in its crystalline form.
In color the diamond may be perfectly transparent
or in shades of yellow, brown, green, gray, red, blue,
or black. For example, the famous Florentine dia-
mond is light yellow, the Tiffany deep orange, the Hope
diamond one owned by the Czar of Russia a bril-
blue,
liant red, and a pear-shaped one in the Dresden vaults
a bright green. The blue-white diamonds having a
distinct bluish tint, are the finest, the white, colorless
diamonds are next, and those with a yellowish cast, or
" off color " stones, least valuable. Diamonds are usu-
ally transparent, though the gray or black diamonds
known as bort or carbonado (which are used for drills,
etc.) are opaque.

33
The luster ofdiamonds is much higher than that of
other minerals. Zircon comes next. All grades of
luster are found in the diamond, from the adamantine
in the splendent degree, as in the A i brilliant, to the
greasy and dull. A metallic luster is often seen in
stones worn by water.

In hardness the diamond exceeds all other known
substances. It is the most brilliant of all stones. The
wonderful brilliancy of the diamond is due mainly to
the total reflection of light from its various invisible
faces. It not only reflects light from the external
facets, but from the tiny internal ones. Its flashes
of light are due to the property of dispersing or sep-
arating light into its different colored rays.
In diamonds range from the size of a grain
size,
of wheat to a few as large as a walnut, and one as

large as a man's fist.
Sources of Diamonds
For a long time all the diamonds came from India,
from the rivers not far from the town of Golconda, and
from Borneo. In 1727 they were discovered in Brazil,
which for 140 years was the chief diamond field of the
world. They are still mined there. In 1829 they were
discovered in Europe, and in 1850 in California.
Idaho, Oregon, and Wisconsin also have some diamond
producing fields. In 1851 diamonds were discovered
DESCRIPTIONS OF STONES 35
in Australia, but these have never been very large, those

weighing 5% carats being the largest.
It was not until 1867 that the field which produces
nine-tenths of the world's supply today, South Africa,
was discovered. Thediamonds were found by
first
accident in a river bed near Hope Town

in Cape Colony.
Among the most famous and most productive South
African mines are those at Kimberley and Jagers-
fontein.
Diamonds are often discovered associated with
quartz, garnets, sapphires, topazes, tourmalines, and
whether in river beds or in mines. When the
zircon,
diamonds are in the gravel of river beds, barrowfuls
of the sand are searched much as gold is " panned."
When they are found in mines they are worked by
shafts sunk in beds of deposit, as in the Kimberley
claims. Some mines are already 2,000 feet deep.
Mining of Diamonds
The modern method of recovering rough diamonds
from the soil in which they have lain for ages is inter-
esting, and it accounts in no small measure for their
ever increasing value. The rock containing the clay
and diamonds is blasted and carried to the weather-
ing grounds, where it is spread out in the open air
to disintegrate. From six months to one year is re-
quired to pulverize the earth thoroughly and to get it
ready for the washing machines. These machines sep-
arate the diamonds and other heavy material from the
earth. This material is then sifted into sizes, and
finally it goes to the sorting tables. After sorting, it is
cleaned by boiling in acids. After this the stones are

carefully sorted according to size, color, and purity,
and made up in parcels to be sent to the syndicates'
offices, where they are sold to the cutters and exporters.
Value of Diamonds
The diamond is described by the terms
quality of a
" first water," " second water," " third water," and
" fancy stones." The term " water " is used because
when a perfect diamond is submerged in water it is
invisible.
A first water stone perfect.

is
A second water stone has some slight imperfection,

being flawless but tinged with color, or colorless with a
slight flaw.
A third water stone has marked flaws or imperfec-
tions or a noticeable color.
Fancy stones are those which have a distinct and
beautiful color.
White diamonds are wholly free from color, that is,
clear like a dewdrop.
History of Diamonds
In early times, the diamond like other gems was
considered a charm against disease and evil spirits,

and was closely connected with the art of medicine.
Later on, diamonds were worn only by kings in their
magnificence. They were worn for the first time as
personal adornments in the fifteenth century by French
women. Today they hold an important among
place
the world's commodities of beauty and luxury. The
Russian crown jewels contain some of the famous dia-
monds of the world, and the Imperial Treasury of
Austria has the Florentine diamond worth about $500,-
000. The crown worn by Queen Victoria was of velvet
with an ermine border, covered with diamonds, pearls,
sapphires, and emeralds, set in gold and silver. It
contained more than 2,000 diamonds and 277 pearls.
The origin of the use of diamonds in betrothal rings
was probably due to the fact that for many centuries
they were supposed to have a strong spiritual influence,
being symbolic of constancy and innocence.
Many people purchase diamonds as an investment.
In the past ten years the price of the highest grade of
stones has advanced 175 per cent, and during that
period prices have never decUned. For twenty years
before the outbreak of the European War the average
yearly increase for stones of fine quality is said to have
been 17 per cent.
The Emerald
The true emerald is the green form of the mineral
beryl, although the name emerald has recently been
used to designate various green stones, such as the
Brazilian tourmaline, olivine, garnet, etc. The true
emerald is worth as much as a ruby and more than a
diamond. The reason for this high value is that green
stones are greatly in demand, and that perfect stones
are scarce as many emeralds contain small cracks and
foreign matter which make them dull. Large stones
are very rare and therefore very expensive. One of
the largest known to exist is owned by the Duke of
Devonshire ; it measures two inches across and weighs
8 %o ounces.
The chief sources of supply of this gem at present
are South America and Siberia. Emeralds are never
found in gravel like diamonds, rubies, and sapphires,
but are always embedded in rock formations.
The aquamarine has the same mineral composition
as the emerald. The pale blue and sea-green shades
take its name from the color of the sea. It is not
so rare as the emerald nor so much in demand.

The word beryl is usually applied to stones of golden
yellow or other colors which have the same compo-
sition as the emerald or aquamarine.
Pearls
Pearls are very unlike other gems in origin as they

are found in the shells of oysters and other shell-fish.
They are divided into two classes: (i) oriental or

true, and (2) fresh water pearls. Other pearls may
be similar formations produced by mollusks, but from
material that is not pearly.
Structure of Pearls
The structure of a pearl resembles that of an onion.
Layers of calcium carbonate and other matter, ex-
tracted from the water by the pearl oyster or pearl
mussel, are deposited about some foreign substance,
like a grain of sand, which has lodged itself within
the shell and irritates the body of the oyster or mussel.
A pearl may assume any shape: spherical the most
prized, drop or pear-shaped, oval or egg-shaped, or it
may be quite irregular in form. The word pearl itself

means a pear-shaped ornament. Boutons, or button
pearls, are frequently found attached to the shell from
which they are cut with the bottom part smoothed and
polished. They lack luster on the side which was at-
tached to the shell. Wart or blister pearls are the re-
sult of a parasite's being walled up at the point of
entrance to the shell. Irregular and odd-shaped pearls
are called baroques.
Color of Pearls
Ordinarily the color of pearls is a satiny silver or
bluish-white,' or a faintly tinged yellowish-white.

More rarely they are salmon-pink, purple, reddish, or
blackish-gray. Perfect black pearls are valuable, but
not so costly as the finest white. Pearls are translucent
to a varying degree.
Luster of Pearls
What brilliancy is to the diamond, luster is to the
pearl. This is known as " orient." The thinner the
coatings of deposit are, the finer is the luster. As
many as 87 layers are found in rare Indian oyster
pearls.
Sources of Pearls
About seven-eighths of all come from
pearls the
Arabian coast of the Persian Gulf. Most of the
others are found off the coasts of Australia, the Philip-
pine Islands, and about Ceylon. Those from the Ara-
bian coast are of excellent quality, but of a more yel-
lowish cast than those from Ceylon, which are beau-

tifully white and silvery. The black pearl is found
in the Gulf of Mexico. The abalone pearl, usually
occurring as a baroque,is found in the English Chan-
nel islands,and on the coasts of France, Japan, and

California. Pink or conch pearls are found in the
Bahamas.
Pearl Diving
Pearl fishers dive for the pearl oysters which are
found embedded among coral reefs, sponges, and other
sea life, in limestone formations from 15 to 40 or even
150 feet below the surface of the water. Sometimes

the oysters are on shoals, but always under the surface
of the water.
The industry is financed by merchants who control
the fishing. In the Red Sea district Arabs man the
boats and black slaves do the diving. Several boats
go out together and remain dufing the season, which
may be three or four months. The diver, connected
by a signaling line to the boat, is let down to the bot-
tom and remains there for hours, gathering shells,
which he brings up in his basket. These are counted
and the next day the pearls are taken from the dead
oysters and sorted by passing through brass sieves.
They are then classified as to size, color, and quality and
weighed and valued.
Size and Value of Pearls
Large pearls are sold separately. The smaller ones

known as seed pearls come into the market bored and
strung on silk in bunches. The unit of weight is the
pearl grain (% carat). Spherical pearls command
highest prices, the pearl drop the next, and the but-
ton the lowest. The cheaper grades are sold by the
carat.
Single pearls often command great prices, but a per-
fectly matched pair is worth four or five times the price
of either taken singly. It is said that there are only
four individual pearls that have a world-wide celebrity.
History of Pearls
The use and popularity of pearls extends back for
centuries. Chinese records show that pearls were used
as tribute in the twenty-third ceintury b. c. They
have always been associated with royalty and luxury,
being counted among the principal treasures of kings.
The pearl has been called the " aristocrat of gems."
Culture Pearls
Culture pearls are made by cementing small pieces
of mother-of-pearl to the interior surface 'of the oyster
shell. In about a year a coating of pearl is added
which is doubled in another two years. This is re-
moved from the oyster, cemented to a piece of ordinary

mother-of-pearl and the lower part ground to the usual
symmetrical shape. It makes a pearl similar to the real
except that the orient is inferior. Blister pearls are
same way, but also lack orient.
treated in the
The Japanese carry on pearl oyster cultivation for
the culture of these artificial pearls about the Island
Tadoka. Women and girls do the diving.
Setting of Pearls
Pearls are not cut though, if dull, the first skin
may be removed by a delicate operation and another
iridescent layer exposed. Because of their softness,

pearls must be set carefully lest they be injured by the
hard metal which holds them. When only the upper
half shows they are often sawed in half. Button pearls
are much used in rings.
Ruby
The ruby is the red form of the mineral corundum,
and the most valuable member of the group. It ranks
above the diamond in value, because large, perfect
rubies are extremely rare. In color it varies from a
rose to a deep carmine, the " pigeon's blood " hue
being the most valuable. There is a legend that the
expert's test for the color of a ruby is to put the gem on
a sheet of white paper and let a fresh drop of blood
from a pigeon's heart fall beside it. This explains
the name of the shade. The color varies greatly with
the direction from which the stone is viewed. There-
fore in cutting, the side from which the richest color
is seen is always uppermost.
Burma andIndia contain the most important ruby
mines. Other mines are located in Siam, Ceylon,
Afghanistan, and in the United States in North Caro-
lina.
Some rubies show a six-rayed star and are called

" asteriated " or star ruby, sometimes " cat's eye ruby."
They are quite rare.
Inferior stones and imitations are very often of-
fered for rubies because the stone is so valuable. The
most common substitutes are the red spinel and garnet.
Optical tests readily detect the difference.
Common faults of rubies are a lack of clearness,
or a presence of cloudiness, called silk, patches, and
internal cracks.
Sapphire
The sapphire same mineral as the ruby, namely
is the
corundum, but is the blue form. All shades and depths
of blue are found, but the most highly prized colors
are the cornflower and royal blues. The deep colored
stones are known as lynx or cat sapphires, and the
paler shades as feminine. The color usually grows
pale under artificial light but some specimens become
violet and these are very valuable. Like the ruby, some
sapphires show a six-rayed star in certain kinds of
light. If the rays are bright and the star well defined
the stone is very valuable.
The sapphire is the hardest form of corundum. In,
value it is approximately two-fifths that of the ruby,

but as sapphires of large size are more plentiful than
large rubies, the value does not increase so rapidly with
size. They often have to be cut down considerably
as they are frequently patchy in color.
Sapphires are found in the same localities as rubies.
usually with them. More than half of the world's sup-

ply conies from Siam; the rest from Ceylon, the
Himalaya Mountains, Australia, and the state of Mon-
tana.
Amethyst
The amethyst is a purple variety of transparent,
crystal quartz, ranging in color from the slightest vio-
let tint to a very dark plum color.
It is found chiefly
in Brazil, the Ural Mountains, and Siberia, but also in
a number of other localities, North America, the Brit-
ish Isles, Uruguay, and Ceylon. The Siberian stones
are the finest. The word amethyst means " prevent-
ink drunkenness," and the stone was supposed to keep
its wearer from this vice.
At one time the amethyst was quite rare and very
valuable, but because of the recent discoveries of large
deposits it is not nearly so valuable today. Its beau-
tiful color and ability to harmonize with a costume
scheme make it a popular stone at all times. The
amethyst is an appropriate stone for mourning wear.
It should be simply mounted for this use.
A good amethyst should be a uniform deep reddish-
purple color, and perfectly transparent. This shade
will hold its color under artificial light, while the paler
ones do not. Amethysts mounted in dull silver are
beautiful for wear with pearl-gray fabrics.

Chapter IX
DESCRIPTIONS OF STONES (Continued)
Coral
Coral, like the pearl, is carbonate of lime. It is built
up by the out-grown shells of minute sea animals, called
zooids and is found 60 to 100 feet below the surface
of the water, firmly attached to some object in the
bottom of the ocean, such as a stone or bottle. It is
found in many parts of the world, in low latitudes, but
the gem coral comes almost exclusively from the Medi-
terreanean Sea and off the coasts of Africa, Corsica,
and Sicily. Italy is the center of the coral industry,
both fishing and working, including the carving and
cutting of cameos.
In color the gem coral ranges from white and bright
pink to a dark red. The wild-rose pink is the most
desirable. The demand for coral has increased stead-
ily in recent years.
Garnet
Garnet is the name of a class of gem minerals, rang-
46
Fig-uri- I. Garnets in AFalrix
ing in color through red, pink, brown, yellow, and

green.
The precious garnet, the cherry or blood-red variety,
is known as almandite, from the name of the ancient
city which first introduced them to Rome. These come
from India, Australia, and Brazil. There has been
an increasing demand for this variety of garnet for
medium-priced jewelry in the last few years.
The garnet which is second in value is the very
deep shade, ranging from a deep blood-red to almost
black, is known as the Bohemian garnet, from the lo-
cality where it is found, or pyrope, meaning " fire-like."
The other colors are known by a great variety of

names. A beautiful, rich, green shade is known as
" olivine."
Opal
The distinguishing feature of the opal is its beauti-
ful play of colors. The term " opalescence " is used
to describe the blending of the yellow light transmit-
ted through the stone. It is not certain what causes
the variety of colors. Some authorities believe that
minute cavities cause a refraction of light. In the va-
riety used as a gem stone, the precious opal, brilliant
and pure greens, vivid crimsons, electric blues, rich
violets, or sherry yellows appear. The best precious
opals come from Hungary. They are also found in
Honduras, Mexico, Wales, and Australia.

The fire opal is so called because of its reddish tint.
It is particularly apt to deteriorate through exposure.

The harlequin opal is another popular variety showing
bright green and crimson flashes.Within recent years
a black variety has become popular, and there are a
great many other varieties.
Opal matrix is much used in artistic jewelry in which
a rugged effect is desired, because of the great contrast
between the stone and the rock in which it is found.
In earliest times the opal was considered an omen
of good luck, but since the seventeenth century it has
been superstitiously considered unlucky. Queen Vic-
toria is believed to have been responsible for reinstating
it in its present popularity by wearing it herself and
presenting it to each of her daughters upon their mar-
riage.
Topaz
Topaz is always thought of as being yellow, but it
may be almost any color or quite colorless. It is not so
popular today as in the past. The true topaz is very

heavy, 3% times as heavy as water, and can always be
detected by any one accustomed to handling stones. It
is also very hard, being the third in the scale of hard-
ness. Therefore, it can be highly polished, and the

.
colorless topaz has sometimes been mistaken for a dia-
mond.
Other minerals known as topaz are the yellow sap-

phire, called "oriental topaz," and the varieties of
quartz called " saxon," "Scotch," "Spanish,"
" smoky," and " false."
Brazil is the chief source of supply, but it is also
found in Saxony, Mexico, and the United States.
Turquoise
The turquoise is the most popular of the opaque
stones. It is found in the light shades of blue, the char-
acteristic color being a greenish, azure, or robin's egg
blue. The color isdue to a compound of copper which
it contains. It has awaxy luster showing a beautiful
play of light. Turquoises retain their color well at
night.
Persia has for centuries been the source of supply
for turquoises, but in recent years the supply has
greatly diminished and today stones come from New
Mexico, Arizona, and many other localities. History
is full of the legends surrounding this stone. It was
closely connected with social and religious rites and
ceremonies. It is said that its name is due to its being
brought into Europe through Turkey.
The value of this stone rises rapidly with increase of
weight on account of the difficulty of obtaining large
perfect pieces.
Turquoise matrix is somewhat popular at present.
The dark brown matrix is preferred as the mottling
of the brown and blue gives a very rich effect.
Cat's Eye
There are many different stones in the market called
cat's eye, any stone having a changeable, undulating
luster, like the eye of a cat in the dark being given
this name. The true stone is very valuable.

The distinctive feature of the stone is the milky-
white, bluish, or greenish-white sheen which crosses it
at every movement. This is due to a streak of closely

packed asbestos fibers contained in the stone. These
fibers reflect the light. The effect of the streak is
greatly influenced by the skill of the cutter. The

greater the curvature of the stone, the better the effect.
The best cat's eyes come from India and Ceylon.

The quartz cat's eye exhibits the same ray of light,
but is far less beautiful. It is greenish-gray in color.
The tiger's eye is also quartz and resembles the cat's
eye. It is not much demand at present, but about

in
twenty-five years ago was much used for carving cam-
eos. In color it is yellow, ranging to blue, green, or
red. The blue variety is known as hawk's eye.
Chrysoprase
Chrysoprase was at one time a very fashionable
stone, then its use died out, but in recent years it has
again come somewhat into favor. It is the apple-green

variety of quartz, obtaining its color from nickel.
Moderate heat or strong light destroys the color. It is
found in India.
Jade
Jade is a sage-green or green-and-white stone par-
ticularly valued by the Chinese, who use it lavishly for
ornamental purposes. In jewelry it is seen in brace-
lets and seal rings and it is set in silver chains. It is
not the beauty of the mineral that interests people so

much as the wonderful workmanship displayed by the
Chinese.
The best variety comes from Burma and New Zea-
land.
Moonstone
The moonstone a very beautiful form of feldspar,
is
reflecting a soft, bluish-white light in an opalescent

manner. It is found chiefly in Ceylon, but also in sev-
eral localities in North America. Colorless translu-
cent pebbles found on one of the beaches in California,
and sometimes called moonstones, are often gathered
by tourists for cutting and mounting in scarf-pins and
cufif buttons, but these are not the true moonstones.
Moonstone is usually cut so that the light takes

the form of a more or less well-marked band. Lucky
charms of moonstone are often sold in ball forms, as
the moonstone is popularly considered a lucky
stone.
Peridot
Peridot is found in a variety of colors, but it is only
regarded as a gem when it is of rich olive-green color,
resembling that seen on looking through a delicate
translucent leaf, and when it is perfectly transparent.
It is sometimes called " the evening emerald." When
it is a bright yellowish-emerald green tint it is called
" olivine," although green garnets are also known as
" olivines."
Peridots come from Burma, Ceylon, Egypt, and
Brazil. As they are moderate in price and effective,
they are quite popular, but being soft they are not
adapted to settings where they would receive hard
usage as in rings.
An interesting variety of peridot is Job's tears, which
are found in separate pear-shaped globules.
Kunzite
Kunzite is lilac-colored, varying from a deep rosy
shade to delicate pink. It isa comparatively new gem,
having been discovered in California in 1903, and
named for the mineralogist, Dr. Kunz, an American
authority on gems. At present the supply of this gem
does not nearly equal the demand.
DESCRIPTIONS OF STONES S3
Tourmaline
Tourmjaline is found in a great variety of colors.
The shades which are most used for stones are green,
pink, red, and blue. The green variety is the most
beautiful of green stones, the medium bright green
all
shade being considered better than the brighter or

more blackish-green. The deep blue shade is known
as the " Brazilian sapphire," and the dark red " rubel-
lite." It is so like the ruby that it easily deceives any
one but an expert. In fact, the varieties of tourma-
line show a strong resemblance to other stones such as
the sapphire, the ruby, and so on, though they are easily
distinguished by scientific tests. The stones are likely
to show flaws or " feathers " especially the pink shades.
Tourmalines are found in a great many different
localities in the United States, but the principal sources
are Ceylon, Burma, Brazil, and the Ural Mountains.
Amber
Amber, like the pearl and coral, is a product of the
sea, but of vegetable origin. It is the fossil resin gum
of extinct pine trees buried in the ocean beds of the
Baltic and Adriatic Seas, and off the coasts of Sicily,
France, China, and India, and in the states of New
Jersey and Maryland. The chief source of supply
is the Baltic coast where it is cast up by the waves. It
is also dredged for in the sands of shallows.

In color it is yellow, sometimes reddish, purplish or
brownish, brittle and both transparent and translucent.
A mottled variety is called demi-amber, Amber takes
a brilliant polish and is soft enough to be easily worked.
It produces electricity when In fact the word
rubbed.
electricity is derived from the Greek word, elektron,
meaning amber, because of this characteristic.
Amber is mentioned by Homer and another ancient
writer says that it was stained to imitate precious
stones. The Romans used amber for all kinds of orna-
ments.
It is much used for beads, for necklaces, mouth-
pieces for pipes and cigarette-holders, cane knobs, and
so on. It is very durable and is imitated in celluloid.
Bloodstone
Bloodstone is a form of opaque, dark green quartz
containing small red spots. The best qualities show
bright spots on a uniform ground. It is not exten-
sively used in jewelry now, except in signet rings,
where it is used because it can be carved easily.
Agate
All agates are varieties of quartz. The name agate
usually describes the variety which contains parallels
of different colors, spots, or patches. It is variously
known as banded, ribbon, or ring agate, according to

the formation of the lines. Agate in general is little
DESCRIPTIONS OF STONES 5S
used in modern jewelry, although it is much in de-

mand for art objects and interior architectural deco-
rations. The center of the industry of cutting and
polishing agates has been located at Oberstein, Ger-
many, for centuries.
The moss agate, however, is in vogue for jewelry at
the present time. This agate contains, instead of

parallel bands, particles of iron giving it the ap-
pearance of a variety of vegetable growth. The finest
specimens come from India and many beautiful ones
Rocky Mountains of the United States.
are found in the
These are cut and mounted for sale to tourists as
souvenirs.
Lapis Lazuli
Lapis lazuli, or azure stone, is given a place among
precious stones because of its beautiful blue color. It
is frequently mottled with white spots and specks of

iron. The finest variety, found in Russia, has a clean
or very slightly spotted dark blue surface. Another
variety, found in Chile, is lighter and mottled with
white quartz. Lapis lazuli is also found in India and
Burma. The stone is in great demand at present.
Amazonite
This is a bluish-green opaque feldspar. It is found
in Siberia a.nd Scotland and Pike's Peak, Colorado and ;
is used in scarf-pins and cuff buttons.

Azurite
Azurite a most beautiful, opaque, blue stone,
is
whose color is due to the presence of copper. As it is

soft, however, its use for gem purposes is limited.
Cairngorm
Cairngorm is a brown variety of crystal quartz,
also called " smoky topaz." Its rich dark color makes
it much desired for jewelry.
Carnelian
Carnelian is a form of quartz, so called on account
of its flesh color. When found, however, it is usually
very dark, sometimes almost black or greenish. On
heating it becomes red and translucent.
Carnelian is used as a substance upon which to carve
devices for signets. Its popularity for this purpose is
due to the fact that the sealing wax leaves the design
very easily, and because of its uniformity of color.
Labradorite
Labradorite is so called because it was first found in
Labrador. It has bright splashes of blue which show

when turned to the light but otherwise it has a dull gray
or brownish appearance.
Malachite
Malachite is a carbonate of copper, an opaque stone
appearing in layers and patches of green. It has a

silky luster and takes a high polish. When inter-
mingled with azurite it forms beautiful peacock colors
and is then called malachite-azurite.
Marcasite
Marcasite is often called " fool's gold " because it is
frequently mistaken by the uninformed for gold. It

has little value, but is used in rings, brooches, and
scarf-pins.
Rhodonite
Rhodonite is opaque or translucent, and in color
pink or flesh color. It sometimes has black mark-
ings. It occurs in large pieces making it suitable
for cutting jewel boxes, paper weights, etc. It also
makes a very beautiful stone for cuff-links, scarf-pins,
and artistic jewelry.
Smithsonite
Smithsonite a translucent mineral, apple-green
is
or sky-blue in color, named for the founder of Smith-

sonian Institution in Washington, D. C. A striped
variety found in Greece makes a striking gem for scarf-
pins. As it is rather soft it is not much used in other
ways.
S8 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
Spinel
Spinel is a beautiful transparent gem found in many
colors, but the flame-red is best known.
Zircon
Zircon is found in a variety of colors, brown pre-
dominating. The white stones, called jargoon, are
sometimes mistaken for diamonds. It ranks second
to the diamond in brilliancy and also has the adaman-
tine luster. It is the heaviest of all gems. Zircons
come chiefly from Ceylon.
Chapter X
ARTIFICIAL AND IMITATION STONES
Difference
There is a wide difference between artificial and

imitation stones. Artificial stones are identical in com-
position with the natural stones, but they are made in
the laboratory instead of by nature. The ruby and
the sapphire are the stones successfully made in this
way, and these are used in high-grade jewelry.
Imitation stones, on the other hand, are used in
cheap jewelry, and are only glass, or " paste " repro-
ductions.
Synthetic Stones
Rubies and sapphires are made in the laboratory

from the same chemical elements which enter into the
composition of the genuine stone. A compound of
aluminum, with the correct coloring matter, oxide of
chromium for rubies, titanic acid for sapphires, is al-
lowed to trickle through a hole into, the flame of the

oxy-hydrogen blow pipe, which reaches a temperature
of 1800° C. The mass fuses. It is then gradually
59
6o JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
cooled. The resulting stone has all the properties of a
genuine stone except the inner crystallization and there^
fore the synthetic stones lack the " fire " of real stones.
Chemists for years sought a practical method for
duplicating nature's work. The conditions necessary
are extreme heat and high pressure, and it was not un-
til the invention of the electric furnace and the oxy-
hydrogen blow pipe that sufficiently high temperatures
could be produced. The originator of the practical
method now used was A. Veneuil, a Frenchman.
Reconstructed Stones
The term reconstructed has been erroneously ap-
plied to synthetic stones. A true reconstructed stone is
formed from tiny fragments of genuine stones, fused

at a very high temperature into a single stone. At
the present time, however, there are no true recon-
structed rubies or sapphires on the market.
" Faked " Real Stones
which have been altered and
Inferior, real stones
improved by heating or by treatment with
in color
chemicals are also seen among good jewelry.
For example, Brazilian topazes, when heated become
a beautiful rose-red color. Sapphires lose their color
in burning. Off-color diamonds have been passed as
" first water " stones by dyeing them with a magenta
varnish, which neutralizes the yellowish color. This
:
IMITATION STONES 6l
wears off in time and the true color is exposed. A

suspected diamond can be soaked in alcohol. This re-
moves the varnish, if any is present, and shows the
real color.
Imitation Stones
"
The process of making glass imitation, or " strasse
manufacture of any glass.
stones, is similar to the A
mixture of powdered quartz, potassium carbonate, and
lead to give brilliance gives a fairly good imitation.
Rhinestones are made in this way. Definite propor-
tions of coloring matter are added if colored stones
are to be made.
Coloring of Imitation Stones

To obtain the correctly colored imitations for the
ruby, amethyst, etc., traces of metallic oxides are
used. The proportions for the most commonly used
imitations are
Imitation ruby — i,ooo parts glass

40 " oxide of antimony
I part purple of cassius
I " gold
" sapphire — 1,000 parts glass
25 " oxide of cobalt
" emerald — 1,000 parts glass
8 " copper oxide
.2 " chromium oxide
(>2 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
Imitation amethyst — i,ooo parts glass
25 " oxide of cobalt
trace of oxide of manganese
" garnet — 1,000 parts glass
trace of purple of cassius
" turquoise — 1,000 parts glass (opaque white)
trace of copper oxide or oxide of
cobalt
The mixture is heated for about thirty hours in a

crucible; the heat is then gradually lowered and the
melted glass solidifies.
The stones are cut and polished in the same way as

the real stones, although the process is simpler as the
glass is not so hard.
The chief difi&culty encountered in the manufacture
of imitation stones is obtaining a sufficiently hard glass
to withstand the knocks and hard usage which a real
stone will bear. A very hard glass can be obtained but
it is not brilliant. The harder the glass the less bril-
liant the stone.
Test for Imitation Stones

The test for glass imitations depends on this lack of
hardness, for a piece of flint will easily scratch the
hardest paste known, but it has no effect on the ruby,
sapphire, and others.
Imitation Pearls
Imitation pearls may be perfectly made and have the
IMITATION STONES 63
advantage of being more durable than real pearls.

Small spheres of glass, or beads, are coated inter-
nally with a preparation of fish scales. (It may be of
interest to know that 4,000 fish are required to make
one-quarter of a pound of "pearl essence.") The
beads are then coated both externally and internally
with pearl essence, and filled in with wax. They are
exceedingly beautiful and have a rich luster, but lack
the concentric layer effect of the true pearl.
Imitation Coral
Imitation coral is made from red gypsum or cellu-
loid.
Imitation Amber
Amber is imitated also in celluloid.
Imitation Cameos
Imitation cameos may be made by putting glass or
" strasse " into a mold of the raised portion, and melt-
ing it. After cooling, the cast glass is trimmed and

cemented on a background of real stone. These imi-
tations can be detected by placing them in hot water,
which dissolves the cement and the front separates
from the back.
History of Imitation Stones

The art of imitating precious stones has been prac-
ticed for centuries.
In the tombs of upper Egypt pastes dating back to
2000 B. c. have been found. Even at this early time
this ancient country was in a high state of civiHzation
and one of their most profitable and scientific trades
vi^as imitating all manner of precious stones.

Later on the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans made
them. An ancient Roman historian, Seneca, men-
tions a process of making emeralds by giving a green
color to rock crystal. The famous table of Solomon
taken from the Temple by Vespasian, the Roman con-
queror, was studded with imitations. Many of the
famous gems of antiquity were merely of glass.
In our own times the manufacture of false stones
has become a thriving industry.
Part III —Manufacture of Jewelry
Chapter XI
METAL WORKING
The Goldsmith an Artist
Because of the precious materials from which jew-

elry is made and the fact that jewelry is made for
ornament rather than for practical use, the workman
has an interest like that of the artist in creating and
developing beautiful forms and combinations.
Some of the great sculptors and painters of Italy
had their early training in the goldsmith's shop and
the goldsmith was given a place of honor and respect
among all craftsmen.
The goldsmith required in his workshop many kinds
of appliances, including:
A lamp for melting and annealing the metal.

Blow pipes for controlling and directing the flame.
Charcoal blocks upon which small quantities of
metal might be melted.
6s
Crucibles or melting pans for melting larger quan-
and for making alloys
tities
Draw plates for drawing out wire.

A draw bench in which the draw plates were held
when necessary. ^
Pitch blocks upon which sheets of metal were

placed for repousse work.
flat or rounded upon
Stakes or small anvils either
which the metal was hammered and shaped.
A sand bag.
Molds for casting.
A doming block for making hollow balls.
Acid for making the " pickle " in which the metal
was placed in order to remove the film which
collected on its surface when it was annealed.
Sand, wax, borax, solder, binding wire, and wire
gauges, and a work bench with pans or leather
pockets beneath it to catch the tiny particles of
metal from filings.
Enameling required
Mortars and pestles for grinding colors.
Metallic oxides and enamel materials, lead, sheet-
iron, aluminum, ground glass, burnishers, etc.
A muffle furnace for firing.
The tools used for delicate work included

Hammers and mallets of steel and horn.
METAL WORKING 67
Gravers, chisels, and punches for chasing and re-

pousse work.
Files of many kinds including a set of " needle
files."
Shears and piercing saws for cutting the metal.

Pliers, nippers, and vises for holding and bending
the pieces.
Mandrels or steel rods upon which wire was coiled
and rings shaped.
Making of Jewelry
"
Much of the most artistic jewelry was " built up
from tiny grains or wires or shaped pieces soldered to-
gether instead of being cut out of a sheet or block of
metal. The designs were in open filigree work or
backed with a foundation of solid metal.
Grains and Grain Clusters

When gold or silver is melted on a charcoal block
the metal does not spread out in a thin sheet but gath-
ers itself into tiny globules or grains. If the block has
small hollows in it these grains will be of uniform or

graded sizes.
Many beautiful designs were made of clustered
grains soldered together but they were usually com-

bined with wire which was made by a process called
" drawing."
Wire Drawing
If one end of a strip of soft metal is held firmly
and the other end pulled with a certain force it will
" draw " or lengthen out. The draw plates used for
drawing wire were simply steel plates with holes of
graduated sizes.
Wire drawing was one of the most important

branches of the jeweler's work. The bar or strip
of metal was first hammered at one end until it had a
tapering point which fitted into one of the holes of the
draw plate. It was then grasped with a pair of pliers
and pulled through the hole. It came out thinner and

longer. Then it was pulled through the next smaller
hole in the same way until the wire was the required
size. The coarser wire from short pieces of metal
could be drawn by hand but fine wire had to be drawn
with the draw bench.
The holes of the draw plate were not always round.
They might be oblong, square, or triangular, produc-
ing different kinds of wire. Hollow tubing was made
by shaping the end of a flat piece of metal around a
tapering mandrel so that it would fit one of the holes
in the draw plate. It was then drawn out in the same
way as the solid metal.
Annealing
As the wire became thinner, the metal hardened and
METAL WORKING 69
became brittle and had to be annealed or softened.

This was accomplished by heating it to a temperature
below the melting point and cooling it slowly. All
jewelers had at hand a jeweler's spirit lamp and a
blow pipe for this purpose.
The blow pipe was used for increasing and direct-
ing the flame of the lamp. A blow pipe is a metal tube
through which a stream of air may be forced in order
to supply additional oxygen and thus make
to a flame
it hotter. The heat was
regulated by increasing and
diminishing the pressure. The mouth blow pipe was
simply a brass tube tapered to a fine point at one end,
and the flame was controlled by the breath. Other
pipes had the air forced in by a bellows which was
operated with the foot.
Wire Jewelry
When drawn to the required size, gold or silver wire
may be twisted, plaited, or cut into small pieces which
may then be bent into fancy shapes and hammered into
leaves or other delicate designs. One of the methods
of securing pieces of convenient size and shape was the
winding of wire closely around a small rod called a
mandrel.
Wire which has been coiled around a mandrel looks
like a spiral spring. When the coils are cut apart they
form small rings open on one side. Some rings were
made only to be melted into grains as this was the best
way of insuring that the grains would be exactly the
same size. They were also used to form chains or
flat decorations, being soldered together with gold
solder. Rings of a larger size were bent separately
with and after being soldered together, were
pliers,
shaped on a triblet or tapering mandrel. Gold solder

is made of gold alloyed with copper and silver. The
alloy melts at a lower temperature than the pure gold
and therefore can be applied without injury to gold
ornaments.
Beaded Wire
Beaded wire was produced by pressure when the
metal was soft. A quaint description of the way in
which beaded wire was made is given by Theophilus,
a monk of the eleventh century:
" There is an iron instrument called the beading tool,
which consists of two irons, one above and one below,

the lower part is as broad and as thick as the middle
finger and somewhat thin.

is
" In it are two spikes by which it is fixed to wood
below and out of the upper face rise two thick pegs
which fit into the upper part of the iron and this upper
iron is of the same size and length as the lower and
is pierced with two holes, one at each end which receive
the two pegs of the lower so that they can be joined

togethei".
1
METAL WORKING 7
" They must be joined very closely with the file and
in both faces thou wilt groove out several rows of
little pits in such a way that when the irons are joined
together a little hole may appear.
" In the large grooves place thou gold or silver rods
beaten out long and smoothly round, and when the

upper iron is smartly struck with the horn mallet while
the gold or silver rod is turned around with the other
hand, grains are formed as large as small beans, in the
next grains as large as peas are formed, and in the
third like lentils and so on smaller."
Repousse Work
Jewelry which was not built up from grains and
wires was either modeled from thin sheets of gold or
cast in a mold. The first process is known as repousse
work. The thin sheet of gold was laid on a pitch block
or other yielding material such as lead or soft wood,
and the design was worked out slowly with hammers
and punches from the back. In order that the metal
might not be pierced or bent out of ghape the modeling
was done very carefully with rounded punches and light
blows of the hammer repeated a great many times and
occasionally the piece was removed from the block and
worked down from the right side.
Casting
Casting is too complicated a process to describe with-
^2, JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
out a number of illustrations. It was done by melting
the metal and pouring it into a mold made of plaster,
sand, or clay.
A model of the article was first made of wax or
clay. Plaster of paris, sand, or other material was
pressed around it. Then the model was removed from
this cast, and the melted metal poured into the space.
If the figure was to be hollow a " core " was made like
the model only smaller. The core was placed in the
mold and the metal poured around it.
Very fine modeling was done by the " waste wax "
process. The wax model in this case was not pressed
into the sand but painted over with a number of thin
coats of wet, finely powdered sand which were allowed
to dry and harden. Then the wax was heated so that
it melted and ran out, leaving a hollow shell of fine
sand. When the metal had been poured into this shell
and hardened the sand could be broken away.
After the figure had been taken from the mold it
was modeled and finished by hand.
Silver jewelry was made by the same general process
though silver is so much less valuable than gold that the
work was not usually so delicate and finely finished.
Methods Ornamenting
of
Chasing was done from the right side with graving
tools of various kinds. All this work required an
fM
Q
o
w
METAL WORKING 73
" eyeglass " or small microscope which fitted in the
jeweler's eye and enabled him to see tiny flaws or ir-
regularities in the pattern.
Damascening was the cutting of grooves in the metal
and forcing into them wires or pieces of another metal.
Pierced work was done with tiny saws or drills, but,
like carving, it was less used for gold than for silver
or copper jewelry.
Modern Methods of Manufacture

Fine jewelry still requires many of the same tools
and equipment for its manufacture as in the past, but
great improvements have been made as the result of
discoveries in chemistry concerning the treatment of
metals and through improvements in machinery.
The jeweler's lamp has been replaced by the gas jet
and the blow pipe has been greatly improved. Wire is
now drawn by machinery and grains are obtained in
large quantities in the various sizes needed.
The increasing use of platinum for fine jewelry has
also modified the process as platinum may be ham-
mered, drawn, or cut like gold and silver, but melts
only at a very high temperature. No ordinary flame
will affect platinum so that an oxygen torch must be
used for melting or annealing it.
Designs for platinum jewelry are somewhat different

in characterfrom those suitable for gold. Much of
this jewelry is pierced by means of fine drills and
studded with tiny stones. Diamond jewelry is now
usually made of platinum incrusted with diamonds and
set with larger stones where these are required by the
design. Figures 2 and 3 show the differences between
gold and platinum mounts for precious stones.
Thoiigh methods have been improved and some
operations can be better performed by machinery than
by hand those who wish distinctive jewelry wish to
have it specially designed. In other cases the original
is carefully wrought out and it is then duplicated by
castings made in molds of cuttlefish bone.
Craftsman Jewelry
, Craftsman jewelry is made by hand from silver and
copper with simple tools, but with much attention to
design. ornamented with the softer precious
It is
stones, sometimes irregular in shape and unpolished.

Inlay and enamel are also features of this type of
jewelry which is often massive and somewhat bar-
baric.
Commercial Jewelry
Nearly all the jewelry sold at a moderate price is
now made in large factories Hand-

by machines.
work is not entirely done away with, but the main
processes are carried out by machinery which is very
wonderful in its perfection and delicate construction.
The factory makes its own alloys, usually 10 karat
METAL WORKING 75
or 14 karats fine, from the pure gold which it receives
from the government assayers. This alloy is cast into

small bars, and then rolled into thin plates or drawn
into wire or tubing by machinery.
Rings, brooches, and other solid articles are stamped
out of thin plates by means of steel dies, operated by
machines. Rings which are to have claw settings are
cut in two pieces which are soldered together in the
middle and are then rounded in another machine be-
fore having the settings soldered in place. In some
cases a machine stamps the claws out of the plate
composing the ring instead of having them made of a
separate piece and soldered on.
Brooches and lavalieres are made in the same way,
sometimes being cut in one piece, but more often made
in several pieces which are put together by hand. A
number of machines are usually required for the com-
pletion of each design. Chains are made by machines
which turn the links and join them automatically. A
long strip of chain or gallery is then put through an-
other machine which can solder all the links in a section
at once. When finished it is cut into the desired
lengths and the clasps or fastenings put on.
Bracelets are cut from long flat pieces or from tub-
ing and finished with clasps and hinges. The original
designs for commercial jewelry are made with the
greatest care and skill, and the machines used can fol-
low these designs exactly. One remarkable machine
is able to copy a design in seven different sizes.
Sometimes the parts of rings, chains, brooches, or
bracelets are sent from the factory in sets ready to be
put together and finished in the jeweler's shop.
Cheap Jewelry
Gold jewelry may range in fineness from 22 karats
which is found in old pieces, through 18, 16, to 14
karats, which is the accepted standard in America.
Ten karat gold is made, but as more than half its weight
is alloy it should not be called solid gold.
The luster of the cheaper alloys is dull and they may
be affected by dampness.
Gold-Filled Jewelry
For gold-filled jewelry a thin shell of gold is stamped

with the pattern and this shell is backed by baser metal,
after which the back is covered with an inferior quality
of gold.
Seamless filled wire is made by covering a wire with
gold and drawing it to the required fineness.
Rolled Gold
Rolled gold, or rolled plate is made of exceedingly
thin sheets of gold made to unite by pressure with a
sheet of composition. The plate is rolled until it may
become the thousandth part of an inch in thickness, but
METAL WORKING "jy
even then it will not tarnish or be affected by acids if
it is rtiore than 14 karat gold. The plates are then an-

nealed and polished on the gold side with rottenstone
and oil.
Rolled gold may be of any quality or thickness. In

Germany an official stamp is placed on the best rolled
plate guaranteeing its quality and thickness; but in
England the assay office does not recognize anything

but solid gold and the United States is equally indiffer-
ent to the quality of rolled or filled gold. A revision
of the stamping laws in the United States is now in
progress and this defect will probably be remedied.
Electroplating
When we speak of gold-plated jewelry, we now mean

articles which have been electroplated. This is a
modern method of covering articles with a very thin
coat of gold or silver by means of a current of elec-
tricity.
For gold plating an enameled iron saucepan can be

used,' with the articles to be plated attached to one pole
of an electric battery and a piece of solid gold to the
other. Then the saucepan is filled with a gold solution
and placed over a gas burner or lamp. Manufacturers
of gold plate have vats of enameled iron heated with
Bunsen burners and containing from ten to thirty gal-
lons of the gold solution.
The electric current acting on the sheet of gold
transfers it through the liquid to the article to be
plated until covered with a very thin coat of the
it is
precious metal. If the article is made of zinc, lead,
or pewter, it must first be plated with copper and it
must be absolutely clean. A strong- coat is deposited

in a few minutes. For a thick deposit the article must
be taken out and brushed with scratch brushes to re-
move a brown film which collects on it. A frosted
appearance is given by roughening the surface. The
color depends on the temperature of the solution and
the thickness of the deposit.
When taken out the articles are weighed to determine
the quantity of the gold. They are rinsed in pure wa-
ter and dried in sawdust. At this stage the surface is
dull and must go through several polishing processes
in which soft mops of swans-down, felt, or chamois are
used to apply rouge and emery powder.
The process of silver-plating is similar except that
the vats are larger, sometimes holding several hundred
gallons. The articles to be silver-plated must be sus-
pended by copper wire and the anodes of the battery
attached to copper rods because silver is such a good
conductor of electricity. Iron or steel must be copper-
plated before receiving the coat of silver.
Tinting
The tinting of gold is a process by which the color
METAL WORKING 79
of gold ischanged without changing its real character.

It is done to produce artistic effects such as " dull
gold." The article must first be absolutely clean, even

the film left by the hand must be removed or the acids
used will not act evenly on every part.
When the article has been carefully washed it is
plunged in a hot bath of nitric acid to remove the silver

or copper alloy from the surface; then alum, salt-
peter, salt, nitrate of potash, hydrochloric acid, or

other substances are used in solutions to give the de-
sired effect. The objects to be colored are plunged
into the hot solution. This process may be repeated a
number of times till the right tint is secured; after
which the articles are brushed and polished.
Roman gold is gold from which the luster has been
removed by nitric acid.
Chapter XII
CUTTING OF PRECIOUS STONES

Importance
The cutting is the most important treatment given to
the stone, the beauty of which depends to a large extent
upon the skill and accuracy of the cutter.
Styles
There are two principal styles of gem cutting:
1. Faceted cutting, in which the surface of the stone
consists of a large number of small, geometri-
cal faces.
2. Cabochon cutting, in which the surface is
smoothly curved.
Facet Cutting
The purpose of cutting gems with facets is to in-
crease their sparkle, and therefore it is the transparent
and semitransparent stones, such as the diamond, the
ruby, the sapphire, etc., which are cut in this style.
There are three styles of facet cutting:
Brilliant
Rose
Step
So
CUTTING OF PRECIOUS STONES 8l
Brilliant Cut
The brilliant cut is the most popular of all and is
the one used for the most valuable stones, as the dia-
mond, the ruby, the sapphire, the am,ethyst, etc.
In this style there are 58 facets altogether, 33 in the
section known as the "crown," which lies above the
" girdle," or greatest circumference of the stone, and
25 in the " culasse," the portion below the girdle.
(See Figure 4.)
There are many modifications of the brilliant pattern,
the finished form of the stone depending upon the
character of the rough gem. However, certain pro-
portions of size and arrangement of the facets are ad-
hered to. For example, if a diamond is properly pro-
portioned, after it is cut, the depth from the table or
top plane down to a line with the girdle is just one-
third of the entire depth. The table would take up
one-third of the face, and each side running from the
table to the girdle would also measure one-third of the
face of the stone. These proportions affect the bril-
liancy of the diamond. For instance, a stone of good
color, cut shallow with a large table, will have a bril-
liant edge, but the center will have what is known as a
" fish eye " as the culet or bottom plane will be seen
through the stone.

A colored stone is usually cut shallower than a color-
less one, the deeper the color, the thinner the stone.
The half-brilliant cut is sometimes used in very
thin stones. The lower part of the stone is a plane
surface; the upper part is cut like the crown of the
ordinary brilliant.
The brilliant cut was originated by a Venetian to-

wards the end of the seventeenth century, and its dis-
covery first brought out the true beauty of the diamond.
Rose Cut
In the rose cut all the facets are nearly of a size and
triangular in shape. The stone shines with a very
mellow but subdued luster, as it has a flat base. This
form of cutting was first used about 1655 and was one
of the earlier ways of cutting diamonds. ( See Figure
4.)
Sometimes a stone is double rose cut, the form of
two rose cut stones joined together by their plane sur-
faces. This is called " briolette " or " rosette."
Step Cut
This style of cutting is so called because when viewed
from the side the facets form a series of steps. The
crown may have two or three steps, the culasse five or
six or more. Step cut stones are usually square or six-
sided. (See Figure 4.)
This form of cut is suitable for stones where a dis-
play of color is the chief consideration, rather than a

brilliant play of light from the interior. If a light
CUTTING OF PRECIOUS STONES 83
F^?!
to
>3
1. Round Brilliant (tog view) 7. Step Cut (octacron)

2. Oval Brilliant (top view) 8. Pear Brilliant (top view)
3. Rose Cut (top view) 9. Step Cut (oblong)
4. Round Brilliant (side view) 10.' Cabochon (side view)
5. Cushion Brilliant (top view) 11. High Cabochon (side view)
6. Rose Cut (side view) 12. Lentil Shape (side view)
Figure 4. Styles of Cutting Precious Stones

(Courtesy of Espositer, Varni Company)
color is desired, the stone is cut shallow so that the
light may easily penetrate; if a dark color is desired
it is cut deep to secure a deep tone.
The form are the topaz,
stones most often cut in this
sapphire, ruby, emerald, garnet, peridot, and amethyst.
Curved Surface Cutting — Cabochon

In this style the upper surface of the stone is the
shape of a low dome. The under surface is usually
flat, although it sometimes follows the curve of the
outer edge. ( See Figure 4.
It is used to bring out the natural color and luster of

opaque and translucent stones therefore such stones as
;
the turquoise, garnet, lapis lazuli, carbuncle, cat's eye,

star sapphire, etc., are usually cut cabochon.
Difficulties in Cutting Valuable Stones

The from the rough form
cutting of a valuable stone
is a highly skilled operation, and great delicacy of
touch as well as judgment on the part of the cutter is

required to produce the final treasure.
The cuttermust carefully study the rough stone to
determine how he can get the greatest beauty and value
from it, and at the same time diminish it in size as
little as possible. He must take into consideration the
proportions of the stone. How exact these should be
was described under the brilliant cut, in the case of the
diamond.
Slitting
The first process is " slitting." The rough stone is
held against a circular revolving plate made of thin

metal on the edge of which there is diamond dust,
which causes it to cut easily.
Faceting
For gems which are to be faceted, the principal facets
are next outlined by a horizontally revolving wheel.
The stone here takes on a definite form. Each gem is
then cemented to the end of a wood holder, very much
like the ordinary penholder. The faceting is then fin-
ished on other wheels.
Polishing
At the end of the faceting operations the gem is
dull, colorless,and uninteresting. Its brilliance and

color are brought out by the polishing process.
This is accomplished on a disk with some polishing
material, such as rottenstone. This operation is also
a very delicate one, as the angle or size of the facet
must not be changed.
Loss of Size During Cutting
In the processes of cutting and polishing a large
rough stone will lose 5 per cent or more of its weight,
a small one 40 per cent.
Center of Diamond-Cutting Industry

Holland and Belgium have been the centers of the
diamond-cutting industry, but the United States has
now estabhshed a number of factories with great tech-
nical perfection and more uniform standards than those
in Europe. The center of the industry is New York
City.
Diamond Cleaving
When the rough diamonds arrive at the factory they
are weighed and the weight of each is recorded with
its other characteristics in a book. Each stone is then
examined closely in order to determine the direction of
the planes of cleavage which can only be recognized
by an expert.
The cleaver then cements the diamond to a wooden
stick and with another diamond cuts a narrow groove
in it at the exact place selected. A dull steel knife is
inserted in this groove and a smart blow struck upon

it. If this has been skilfully done the diamond divides
at once and both surfaces are as smooth as if they
had been polished.
This process requires the greatest care and skill on
the part of the cleaver as any error would cause serious
loss. If the groove is not exactly in the right place
flaws are apt to appear when the stone is split thus
greatly lessening its value.
Diamond Sawing
A new method has recently been introduced by which
stones may be sawed through the center and cleavage

need not be considered. This gives much better re-
sults than cleaving though the former method is still
used for large diamonds.
One-half of the stone to be sawed is embedded in a
small metal receptacle with melted aluminum in a

filled
machine run by an individual electric motor. The edge

of a circular bronze saw is set against the stone on the
line selected and gradually cuts its way through.
These saws are almost as thin as paper and are charged
with a paste of diamond dust and olive oil. They make
three thousand revolutions a minute.
The time required to saw a stone in half depends
upon its size. A diamond takes from three to
large
four days. saw were not charged with diamond
If the
dust the stone would destroy it in a short time.
Cutting and Polishing Diamonds

The diamond is cemented to the center of a rotating
cutting lathe and another diamond is cemented to a
long stick. The operator presses the stone on the

stick steadily against the stone in the lathe at the proper
angle until the stone in the lathe becomes rounded and
smooth. The other stone is then put in its place in
the center of the lathe and their mutual action is re-
versed until both stones are shaped and ready for the
cutting of the facets.
"
This work is done upon iron wheels called " skaifs
which make twenty-two hundred revolutions per min-
ute. The diamond powder produced at the cutting is
the only material used for polishing. It is applied with
olive oilforming a paste which the polisher uses on his
wheel. The utmost skill and watchfulness are neces-
sary as the angles of the facets must be mathematically
exact in order to secure the greatest brilliancy. Some-
times a gauge is used and each facet measured.
The smooth surface made by the saw becomes the
table of the diamond which the polisher first cuts on
four sides and then divides each section in half, making
eight equal surfaces extending to the girdle. The
number of facets cut from the girdle to the culet ex-
actly corresponds to the ones above.
This accomplished, the stone is ready for its " bril-
landeening," or making the small facets. Eight star
facets are cut close to the table and sixteen small facets
run from the stars to the girdle while sixteen small

facets are cut from the girdle down to the culet.
The perfectly cut diamond should have fifty-eight
facets. Above the girdle there are eight division
facets, eight star facets, sixteen small facets, and one
table, thirty-three in all ; below the girdle there are eight
division facets, sixteen srnall facets, and one culet,
twenty-five in all ; making a total of fifty-eight in the
finished diamond. (See Figure 4.)

During this process the stone is imbedded in a ball of
hot lead from which it must be taken out and reinserted

eight times.
By modern American methods the loss in cutting and
polishing has been greatly reduced by scientific methods,
but the demand for perfect stones is greater than in
Europe, making the quality assured but increasing the
price.
Diamond cutting is one of the most highly skilled of
all occupations. The workmen require five years' ap-
prenticeship before they are qualified to take positions
as skilled artizans.
Cabochon Cutting
In cutting stones cabochon the operator keeps the
handle on which the gem is mounted in constant motion
so as to give a smoothly rounded form.
Special Cuts
In addition to these two principal groups of cuts
there are special forms of cutting such as
Cameo Monogram
Intaglio Scarab
Crest
Cameos
During the last few seasons the fashion for cameos
has been revived, and they are at present very popular.
A satisfactory definition of the word cameo is not
easy to give because it may be applied to so large a
group of carved materials, and yet does not include all.
One writer, Percivale, defines a cameo as " A carv-
ing in relief on some hard substance of intrinsic beauty
or value."
Materials Used in Cameos

The substances upon which cameos are cut include
all precious and semiprecious stones, such as emeralds,
carbuncles, amethysts, turquoises, agates, onyx, ja-
cinth, and a number of others and also amber, mother-
of-pearl, shells, coral, ivory, and precious metals.
Cameos may be cut from a material all of one color,
but the term is usually associated with delicate carvings
on a material having layers of different colors which
serve to bring out the beauty of the design, sometimes
as a background only, sometimes with tints and shades
which shine through the translucent figures in certain
places.
Stone Cameos
Onyx and the various forms of agate from which
the largest number of stone cameos are cut, do not
have their colors in horizontal, even layers, but with

little bends and curves, thicker in some places than
in others. This is due to the fact that the deposits were

made in hollows of the rock by trickling drops of water
which carried coloring matter in the form of metallic
oxides. The layers took the shape of the hollows.
When cameo he considers these

the artist cuts a
variations in the stone as a part of the design, and
tries to rnake them add to its beauty. Stone cameos
must be cut with a diamond point or drill and grinding
wheels such as are used in faceting. The height of
the relief and elaborateness of detail give the carving
its value. They are polished with diamond dust or
emery.
Shell Cameos
A large number of the cameos now made are cut on
the inner surface of shells such as the pearl oyster,
the abalone, and other beautifully tinted sea shells.
Shell cameos are not so valuable as those cut from
stone, but they are softer in color and often very beau-
tiful. All the work must be done by hand, the tools
being similar to those used for carving or engraving
metal. They may be polished with rottenstone.
Brown and white and pink and white shells are most
adaptable to cameo cutting, as beautiful flesh tints may
be secured where the color shows through a thin upper
layer of shell. The human head and figure is the
favorite subject for cameos.
History of Cameos
The earliest known were miade in Egypt, where the
was carved in stone or molded
scarab or sacred beetle
in pottery. Scarabs were worn as amulets. From
there the art was taken to Greece where it was per-
fected. No modern cameos equal in beauty the finest
of the Greek specimens which are very valuable and are
preserved in museums and private collections among
their choicest art treasures.
The Romans were great collectors of cameos, but
they employed Greek workmen to make them. In the
Middle Ages the Byzantine cameos were less graceful
and beautiful because all their art was more rigid and
formal.
At the time of the Renaissance when everything clas-
sic was in fashion, the ancient cameos were imitated

and often actual forgeries were made of the signature
on the back. Queen Elizabeth was a great lover of
cameos and her own portrait was carved on a number
of them.
Italy is the source of most of our cameos today, but
they are no longer made by great artists and so do not
equal the older ones.
Imitation Cameos
Imitation cameos have been made of glass either
cut and polished or simply molded, or of pottery. The
Wedgewood pottery medallions look like cameos with
their .green, violet, buff, or pale blue backgrounds, and
white figures.
Intaglios
Intaglios are the exact opposites of cameos, as the
design is cut into the stone instead of being carved in
relief. As, intaglios have been used principally for

seals they are nearly always small and oval in shape.
Intaglios are often in the form of crests or monograms
with which the wax is impressed in sealing a letter.
Scarab
The scarab, which was the earliest form of carved
cameo, has remained as an individual cutting to the
present time. The sacred beetle of Egypt was a sym-
bol of immortality and many of the little green or blue
stones cut in this form, have been found in the tombs
and ruins in Egypt, but many also have been forged
to imitate these treasures. The scarab is cut with the
beetle's wings folded, but it is often set between two
long outspread wings.
History of Cutting
The art of gem cutting is very ancient. As early as
1285 an organization called a guild of gem cutters
existed in Paris; and it is probable that the art was
practiced long before this.
One Ludwig Van Berguen, or Louis de Berquem
(French), is given credit for first cutting a diamond
with facets in about 1460. It is said that the king
sent him three diamonds to cut. The first one had a
very romantic history, being taken as spoils of war, and
it may still owned by the
be seen in the collection
Spanish royalty. Throughout the sixteenth century
the style which de Berquem introduced prevailed.
Chapter XIII
SETTING OF STONES
Characteristics of Good Settings
The setting of precious stones is exceedingly inter-
esting work and requires great skill in order that the
stones may be held firmly and yet show no unnecessary
thickness of metal and no mark of the process.
Tools
The tools used in setting stones consist of
Drills for making holes in metal or flat stones.
Scorpers for hollowing out the metal.

Piercing saws, files, and shears.
Push tools for pressing the stone home in its
setting.
Setting or pressing tools for pushing down the
tops of the claws.

Graining tools, hollow at the end, for shaping the
metal into grains.
A roulette wheel with depressions like a tracing
wheel for making a row of small grains upon a
narrow edge of metal.
94
:
SETTING OF STONES 95
Triblets for turning up and shaping rings or

collets.
Sticks ofwood with a knob of cement at the top

upon which small articles are held firmly while
working with them.
A wax stick to pick up stones when trying them
in the settings.
Burnishers and polishing materials.
Stones for sharpening and burnishing.
Styles
Settings may be open or closed, that is, they may

show the lower part of a stone between the parts of the
from beneath or they may be
setting or like a solid cup
showing only the top of the stone.
The principal settings are
Claw or Coronet
Cut Down
Gypsy or Flush
Roman
Rubbed Over, Band, or Clamp
Thread or Thread and Grain
Claw Setting
The claw setting is the one most used for diamonds
and other very brilliant stones because it allows the
light to strike the lower part of the stone and add to
itsbrightness. It is made by cutting a strip of metal
the proper size for the setting desired, and bending it
into a ring which is soldered together. This is called
the " collet." The collet is then put on the cement
stick where it is held firmly while a tiny shelf or
" bearer " is cut into the inner surface about one-
sixteenth of an inch from the top. This shelf is for
the stone to rest on just below the girdle. Some stones
are shaped so that they do not require the shelf. Then
the metal is cut out above and below this shelf, leaving
the claws. A disk of metal is soldered on the lower
claws to form a base and a hole is drilled in it for the
point of the stone if it is a brilliant cut. The claws
are forced apart to receive the stone. After placing it,
the ends of the claws are bent down over the stone,
shaped, and smoothed down.
Cut Down Setting

A cut down setting is cut at first like the claw setting,
but instead of having claws cut out it is left as a solid
ring. The lower edge of this collet is beveled off to
form the base. When the stone has been placed on the
bearer the upper rim is pressed down over it and small
sections of the rim are cut out so that it will fit per-
fectly.
Flush Setting
A flush setting is made by drilling a hole in the solid
SETTING OF STONES 97
metal just large enough to hold the stone. The metal
outside the hole is filed down so as to leave a narrow
ring or bank extending above the edge of the stone.
This bank is pressed dovm on the stone until the ridge
has disappeared and then filed till it is true and level.
Roman Setting
A Roman setting is made like a flush setting by drill-
ing a hole for the stone, but in this case a groove is cut
allaround the stone and very near it. Then a smooth
round tool is rubbed along the groove until the rim of
gold next to the stone is pressed down on it. The
groove is then smoothed down and the setting finished
and polished.
Band Setting
A band setting is made with a strip of metal bent

into a ringwhich is soldered onto another flat piece
of metal or on the face of the pin or other piece of
jewelry. A smaller ring for the bearer is soldered
inside of the band or the stone may rest on the metal
at the bottom of the band. The top is pressed down
over the stone. The clamp setting has part of the bor-
der filed away, leaving little points to bend over the
stone.
Thread Setting
A thread or " thread and grain " setting may be used
where a number of stones are set close together.
Holes are drilled for the stones as in the flush or
Roman setting but, as there are spaces between the
stones to be filled in, little curls of metal are scooped
out, pushed up against the stones, and rubbed over with
the graining tool. They hold the stones fast.
Settings for Special Stones

Stones cut en cabochon usually have closed settings.
Enamels or cameos, which should not have any pres-
sure for fear of damage, are set from the back by mak-
ing a ring deeper than the enamel and bending over the
upper rim before placing it. Then a ring is put in the
collet back of the stone and soldered on with soft solder
or secured with tiny pins.

Pearls have holes drilled in them and are secured by
pins to the setting. Pearls may have plaster of paris
put in the setting to form the desirable white back-
ground and other jewels may have metal foil back of
them tinted to enhance their color.
Jewelers can buy the collets of stones already made,
or they can buy " gallery " for claw settings with the
claws already cut. This can be cut the right size,
soldered together, and finished. Rings and other
pieces are often made in the factory complete except
for setting the stones and finishing.
Chapter XIV
ENAMEL IN JEWELRY
Characteristics of Enamel
On many pieces of jewelry we see colored decora-
tions which look like precious stones or colored glass,
we cannot tell Sometimes the color has fine
which.
lines of gold running through it. Sometimes it is clear
and sometimes opaque. It may be even with the sur-
face and polished or it may be uneven and unpolished."
In jewelry from Hungary or Russia, we find that the
colored material is enclosed by metal at the sides, but
there is none at the back. We can see the light through
it.
If it has metal at the back we can sometimes see fine

patterns drawn underneath the color which give it
golden while some French jewelry has an effect
lights,
of gray and black and white and just the faintest color.
All of these varieties and their cheaper imitations
are called " enameled " jewelry. The decoration is
made of melted glass which is poured or spread upon

the metal in very small quantities and then put into a
99
lOO JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
hot oven to be " fired," or hardened onto it. Enamel
color is not on or under the glaze, but in it and it must
be annealed to the surface of the metal.
Enameling
The name enamel is given to any hard, glassy outer
coating. Enamel may be a coating fused on glass,
pottery, metal, or any mineral surface that will stand
enough heat to fuse it, but when we say " an enamel "
we mean enameled metal.

There are seven different kinds of enamel
1. Cloisonne
2. Champleve
3. Repousse
4. Baisse Taille
5. Plique a Jour
6. Encrusted Enamel
7. Painted Enamel
Cloisonne
The name cloisonne is the one we know best because
so many come to us from Japan and
beautiful pieces
China, but cloisonne enamel was known in Eastern Eu-
rope fifteen hundred years ago.
According to one story, an early queen of the By-
zantine kingdom brought enamelers with her from the
East, but the Greeks and Romans also made cloisonne
enamels.
ENAMEL IN JEWELRY lOI
Cloisonne is named from " cloisson," which means a

wall. Enamel is melted glass poured on metal, and
hardened in the fire. But the goldsmiths who invented
cloisonne found that the paste would not remain evenly
spread on the surface but would become thicker in some
places and different colors would run together. There-
fore, gold wire is soldered on the surface of the metal
firstand then the enamel is poured into the little cells
which have been made. The wire walls hold the glass
in place until it is fired. Sometimes a piece has twenty
layers of thin glass and needs to be fired twenty times.
Then, when the glass is even with the top of the wire,
the surface is polished and only shows the fine lines of
gold running through the color.
Champleve
Champleve is made in a different way. Instead of
soldering wires on top of the metal, the jeweler digs
out troughs in it and thus makes the hollows into which
the glass is poured.
Cloisonne a goldsmith's method because gold is
is
not only too precious to be wasted but it is a very soft

metal and easy to handle. Champleve was invented by
men who worked in copper and bronze. They could
use thicker pieces and did not object to losing a part of
the metal.
Champleve is sometimes used for gold and silver,
I02 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
especially in India, but it is more often used for copper
and bronze. Craftsman jewelry is usually champleve
or repousse.
Repousse
Repousse enamel is made by beating up the ground
and filling in certain hollows with enamel. In both
champleve and repousse the metal may be seen in
broader surfaces than in cloisonne. The jeweled
brooches in beaten copper and aluminum in Figure S
forms of champleve and repousse
illustrate different
enamel work, showing the broad surfaces of metal.
Baisse Taille
Baisse taille is a translucent enamel on a ground
which has been chased or engraved in patterns which
can be faintly seen through the color. Sometimes the
uneven lower surface allows the enamel to be heavier
in certain places which gives it a deeper color and a
shaded effect.
Plique a Jour
Plique a Jour is like a screen of metal with enamel
in the spaces. It may be compared to a stained glass
window as the enamel is held by the metal just as
panes of stained glass are held by the leads. It is
often called Russian enamel because it has been used
so much in that country. It is like the open setting of
Li'urLcsy ot InternaUi/iial Studii
A and ] J
—-lieateii Cop]"ter. C and D— Ueaten Aluminum
Figure 5. Jeweled Brooches
ENAMEL IN JEWELRY 103
stones and, with the Russian wire enamel, made of

twisted filigree wire, may have been brought from
Persia as a substitute for the glass imitations of jewels.
Encrusted Enamel
Encrusted enamel is a fused glass coating on a
raised pattern. Sometimes the enamel covers the en-

tire surface and sometimes appears in drops or beads
producing a jeweled effect.
Painted Enamel
Painted enamel reached perfection in France in the
city of Limoges where there were and
in the fifteenth
sixtenth centuries great factories for the making of
enamels of many kinds. The most famous of these
were those painted " en grissaille," or gray produced
by painting many layers of white on a dark back-
ground, the shading being produced by the various de-
grees of thickness of the color and by black lines or
hatchings. Blue and green were used for the back-
ground as well as black. This kind of enameling is
not much used today as people care more for rich
warm tones.
Enamel Colors
Enamel may be either opaque or translucent. Gold
is the best background for translucent enamels as its
brightness shines through and enriches them. Silver,

however, is often used and sometimes copper, brass,
or alloys of gold and silver.
Opaque color may be enameled on any metal which
can stand the heat of firing.
The color of the glass is due to metallic oxides, some

of which leave the glass quite clear and others destroy
its transparency. Different colors are produced not
only by the kind of oxide but also by the degree of
heat applied. Different enamels require different de-
grees of heat and the hardest must be fired first. There
is always a risk in firing. The artist can never be
quite sure that some accident will not spoil his work.
Transparent Colors
The transparent colors are produced as follows
Sapphire-blue by cobalt
Turquoise-blue by copper with soda base
Emerald-green by copper
Brownish-green by iron
Ruby-red by copper protoxide
Rose-pink by gold and tin
Pale-yellow by silver
Brownish-yellow by iron
Purple by manganese
Black by mixture
Opaque Colors
For opaque colors used for red; antimony,
iron is
lead, and iron for yellow; chromium for green; and

oxide of iron for white.
ENAMEL IN JEWELRY 105
History
The first use of enamel was probably to take the
place of precious stones or of colored glass in imitation
of stones. The Hungarian and Russian enamels still
show by their size, shape, and variety of colors that this
was their original purpose.
The Egyptians did not make true enamels but they
used colored glass inserted in gold and stone. The
Greeks soldered designs in gold wire on their jewelry
and vases and afterwards filled the hollows with
enamel.
Germany and France have done enameling for many
centuries as well as the countries farther east. Cham-
pleve is said by some to have originated in Ireland
where many were practiced during the early Chris-
arts
tian centuries. Limoges, France, was the most cele-
brated center for enamels.
Modern enamels could be as beautiful as the older
ones butworkmen are not so willing to devote the
length of time necessary to make their work perfect.
Chapter XV
DESIGN IN JEWELRY
Importance of Design in Jewelry
Design is becoming an increasingly important mat-
ter in themaking and choosing of jewelry. The time

has passed when a quantity of showy stones crowded
together without thought of design or arrangement can
be considered beautiful.
Jewelers are returning to the older styles of gold-
smith's work in which precious stones or enamel be-
come a part of a beautiful pattern.
Some manufacturing jewelers make a specialty of re-
setting the stones from jewelry made a few years ago,
when designs were heavy and meaningless. One
jeweler's catalogue says " Never before has Dame
:
Fashion been so exacting in her demands that jewelry

shall possess true artistic merit as well as commercial
value."
Relation of Design to Material and Purpose

The jewelry designer must consider three things
1. His material.
2. The use of the article.
io6
DESIGN IN JEWELRY 107
3. Beauty of form and workmanship.

Designs in metal differ from those in stone or wood
or cloth because metal must be handled in a special way
and also because metal has peculiar beauties which
should be brought out by the design.
The color of the precious metals, their lustrous sur-
face, the forms which they take when melted or drawn
out into wire, are all important to the designer.
The use to which the article is to be put also affects
the design. Designs for pendants should be different
from those for rings and long chains are not made after
the same patterns as necklaces.
Those who are constantly handling jewelry will find
it fascinating to study different types of design and to
discover for themselves why some pieces seem to grow

more beautiful as they are better known, while others
which at first seemed attractive after a while become
tiresome and tawdry. They will sometimes find that
the design is inappropriate for its use ; sometimes that
it is badly balanced or sprawling or heavy instead of
light, graceful, and beautifully proportioned.
Platinum, gold, and silver are all dense, or fine
grained. All are soft. Gold and silver melt at a
moderate temperature but platinum requires intense
heat. One may, therefore, see wire or filigree jewelry
in all these metals, but grains are only found in the gold
and silver.
Some of the greatest goldsmiths in the world have
built their designs from wire and rings and the
up
round or flattened grains, which seem to form them-
selves into beautiful patterns almost without effort.
Jewelers make " units of design " by cutting wire into
small pieces and bending them into fancy shapes. One
designer ^
700 different
gives forms which can be made
from pieces of wire an inch long. These tiny pieces
can be combined in chains or shaped into ornaments to
form rhythmic patterns more easily than they could be
drawn on paper.
Filigree jewelry is like lace work, yet the tiny wires
are not quite like threads of lace. Their stiffness sug-
gests a different kind of material and their luster gives
an added beauty.
The color and luster of metals add greatly to the va-
riety and beauty of design. Polished surfaces reflect
white or colored light in such a way as to give not
only brightness but different tones of color in the dif-
ferent planes of surface. The deeper, concave parts
of gold ornaments look redder than the convex parts.
One of the greatest charms of wire or filigree orna-
ments is the play of light on the fine twists and coils.
Modeling, casting, and chasing also give this variety
of color and brightness and, if finely finished, the work

seems to need no further decoration.
iR. L. B. Rathtone.
Use of Gems in Design

Precious stones or enamel, however, usually com-
plete the ornament. They can be used vulgarly, that
is,without any thought except to display the size of
the stone, or their beauty may be increased many times
by art and setting. An irregular or imper-
in cutting
fect stone which forms part of an artistic design is far
more beautiful than a perfectly regular stone in a set-
ting which has no character. Figures 2 and 3 illus-
trate good and poor use of precious stones in a design.
Sometimes individual stones are so large and so
beautiful that the jeweler fears to add anything in the
way of goldsmith's work but even such splendid gems
will shine more brilliantly against a background of ap-
propriate enamel, chasing, or modeling which give
depth, contrast, and variety. In this case the color and
design of the background should lead up to the princi-
pal feature and not away from it.
A diamond should not be surrounded by brightly
colored stones as their color distracts attention. It
may be most effectively displayed against dark blue

enamel or black onyx as the dark, retreating colors give
it depth and contrast. Platinum forms a more beauti-
ful backgrotmd for diamonds than gold because its
bluish-white brilliancy reflects and increases the same
characteristic in the stone.
Nearly all colored stones gain in beauty by being sur-
no JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
rounded by diamonds, because the clear, white stones
do not call attention from the colored ones but appar-
ently add to their luster. Sapphire and pearl jewelry
is particularly rich in efifect because of the contrast be-
tween the rich blue and the pearl-white.
Form and Line in Design

The one feature of design which is most important
yet least understood by the makers of our commercial
jewelry is beauty of form and line in the construction
of ornaments.
A straight line is the simplest form but the hardest
to make beautiful. Bar pins may be artistic because
they have beautiful detail in the decoration, but many
of them are simply stupid even if they are set with a
row of fine stones.
Curves
Curving lines are more graceful, but they may be
sprawling and not restful. L'Art Nouveau jewelry
often has beautiful lines and forms in it but the gen-
eral impression is not satisfactory. It lacks dignity
because it seems to wander without a proper sense of

balance and restraint.
The Foundation of Good Design

Good design must first be built on a well-proportioned
geometrical figure as a foundation. The lines of this
DESIGN IN JEWELRY III
figure may not show but they must be in the artist's

mind. Even the bar pin, if it is designed at all, must
be treated not as a simple line but as a narrow rect-
angle.
The most common figures are the circle, square, ob-
long, diamond, and ellipse, all of which may have ir-
regular edges or be bent in such a way as to suggest

a variety of shapes. Heart shapes are only modified
triangles and crosses are made of two oblongs.
Flower designs and scroll patterns, properly propor-
tioned, will be seen to fit into a geometrical framework,
and even horseshoes and wish-bones, which are happily
less common than they used to be, owe their attraction
to their graceful elliptical shapes rather than to their
suggestions of horses or chickens.
The French comb shown in the Frontispiece is an
example of perfection of balance in a design. The
geometrical figure upon which the design is built is an
equal-sided triangle. However, the graceful curves do
not follow the line so closely as to seem stiff. This
comb also illustrates the effective use of gems in com-
pleting a design.
Pendants are more graceful when the length is
greater than the width. Pear shapes, which are ellipses

drawn out to a point, as well as crosses and dropping
ornaments which give a long pointed effect, are beau-
tiful when they emphasize the fact that they are hang-
ing ornaments. The elongated shape is better for
scarf-pins because it suggests vertical lines which cor-
respond with the general lines of the tie.
Brooches and rings with a markedly pointed effect

are less satisfactory. The abnormally long marquise
ringsworn a few years ago looked badly proportioned
and uncomfortable. For both brooches and rings,
radiating designs are best, although designs moving
around the border are also good.
Types of Decoration
The motives or elements of decorative design may be
either natural, conventional, or abstract.
Natural designs imitate nature as much as the ma-
terial will permit.
Conventional designs suggest nature but are simpli-
fied and adapted to the purpose of the ornament or the
pattern.
Abstract designs are made up of repeated lines and
patterns which have no intentional resemblance to nat-
ural forms, though sometimes it is hard to draw a
clear line between very much conventionalized nature
and abstract patterns.
Natural designs in jewelry are such ornaments as
coral roses, ivory jewelry tinted in the natural colors,
or flowers, birds, and insects enameled to imitate na-
ture. Such jewelry, however, is usually of the novelty
type.
DESIGN IN JEWELRY II3
Fine jewelry is more or less conventionalized even

when it suggests nature. There is something a little
bizarre in trying to represent so fragile a thing as a

flower in hard metal and stone. The designer there-
fore makes his rose or butterfly exquisite in its own
way but does not try to change the character of his
material. Figure 6 an example of a design in whicli
is
the flower and leaf forms have been well-adapted to

the material.
He must know his plant well in order to simplify it
without losing all its character. Too often the reason

that designs suggest no definite flower or leaf is that
the artist has not studied the one he wishes to represent
in such a way as to bring out its characteristics.
Elements of a Design
Pattern designs are made up of lines, forms, and
spaces.
1. There must be a center of interest. In jewelry
this may be a precious stone or some feature of the
workmanship.
2. The pattern should be well-distributed and have
proper balance. One side, for instance, should not
seem too heavy for the other. It should follow the
shape of the ornament.
3. The parts of the design must harmonize and be
well botmd together. It should not be too much broken
up, and if some
the ornament has several sections
feature of the design should cross from one to the
other. Designs may radiate from the center outward
or from the rim toward the center. They may move
around the border —
with attention on the outer edge,
with attention on the inner edge, or with attention
equally divided.
The kinds of lines to be used depend on the use and
shape of the ornament as well as on its material. Fili-
gree and enamel work have fine traceries, while modeled

or carved work, cameos or intaglios, have bolder out-
lines. Straight lines steady a design while curving
lines give it grace and lightness. Formality adds dig-
nity to design.
Design in Different Countries

Masters of decorative design were found in the East
— in Persia, Syria, India, and Damascus. The artists
of the Far East have been careful followers of tradi-
tion and have rigidly obeyed the rules of art as they
were worked out by earlier craftsmen. Their lines
are smooth and flowing and their details perfect.
Japanese art is very naturalistic and often rugged.
The wonderfully beautiful as the Japanese
older art is
are most keenly alive to the subtle beauty of natural

forms. They represent in art fine differences in tex-
ture and in form which other people have not noticed.
Courtesy uf Internati'inal Suidin
Figured. X^'cklace and Earrings of Brilliants (Austrian Design)

Chinese art more conventional. The designs are

is
more purely ornamental and not so close to nature.

The Chinese have not allowed their art to be cheapened
to suit Western demands as the Japanese have, but
both these countries have lost something characteristic.
Of Byzantine design, which is the background of
Russian and Italian jewelry, Walter Crane says:
" Whether in building, carving, mosaic, or goldsmith's
work, it impresses one with a certain restraint in the
midst of its splendor ; a certain controlling dignity and
reserve appears to be expressed even in the use of the
most beautiful materials as well as in design and the
treatment of form."
Egyptian art is being revived in the figures of the
scarab or winged beetle. It always has dignity and
orderly simplicity.
Benvenuto Cellini was a very noted Italian gold-
smith and artist of the sixteenth century. Writing
of the Italian designers he says " In Italy we have
:
several different ways of designing foliage : the Lom-

bards, for example, construct very beautiful patterns
by copying the leaves of briony and ivy in exquisite
curves; the Tuscans and Romans imitate the
. . .
leaves of the acanthus with its stalks and floWers curl-

ing in divers wavy lines, and into these arabesques one
may excellently well insert the figures of little birds and
different animals." The Italians excel in mosaics and
Ii6 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
cameo cutting as the French have always excelled in
enamel work.
One of the most delightful writers on jewelry and
jewelry-making was the old monk, Theophilus, who
lived in the eleventh century. He told designers that
they must be very humble and look to God for inspira-
tion. This chapter may well close with his quaint
words: "Whatsoever thou art able to learn, under-
stand, or devise in the arts is administered to thee by
the grace of the sevenfold spirit, the Spirit of Wisdom,
the Spirit of Understanding, the Spirit of Counsel, the
Spirit of Fortitude, the Spirit of Piety, and the Spirit
of Fear of the Lord."
Part IV — Articles of Jewelry
Chapter XVI
STANDARD ARTICLES
Rings
Rings are the most typical and common forms of
ornamental jewelry. They may be of several vari-
eties :
1. A cylindrical band, plain like a wedding ring, or

carved and set with stones or otherwise orna-
mented.
2. The upper side broadened for ornament, usually
with stones.
3. Spiral or serpentine form with several coils.
4. Signet ring.
5. Open on one side.
Wedding rings are sometimes cut from a bar of

metal in order that they may be equally strong at every
point. Other simple band rings are made by soldering
the ends of wire together.
The broad top type may be made by flattening the
117
Il8 JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
band or soldering on another piece. Gem settings are
usually put on in this way.
When open on one side, the ends of the wire are
carved in ornamental shapes. Spiral rings are coiled
wire.
A cheaper method of making rings is to stamp tlie
it and run it into molds.

metal with a die or to melt
Rings for men are heavier than those for women
and when set with gems and stones are usually set
lower, sometimes having the top of the stone little
above the surrounding metal. Men's rings are some-

times encrusted with small stones forming part of a
design. Signet rings, rings bearing the emblems of
masonic or fraternal orders, and class rings of special
design are more common than those worn merely for
ornament.
Pins
The pin serves a useful as well as an ornamental pur-
pose. There are three general types
1. Thescarf pin, which has a stem pointed at one
end and a knob or ornament at the other.
2. The brooch or safety pin, which has two parts.
The upper part is of various shapes, usually
ornamented. The pin is attached on the un-
der side by a hinge or spring and fits into a
catch or sheath at the other end.
STANDARD ARTICLES 1 19
3. Double pins, which are connected by chains.

Scarf pins are generally made of round gold or
silver wire. The wire may be steel or brass plated
with gold or silver, but if it is solid, the head or orna-
mental top may be shaped from the end of the wire.
Usually the top is soldered on. The shape of the top
is more often rounded or conical than fiat.
Brooches and bar pins may be round, oval, oblong
discs or various fanciful shapes. Pins for lingerie or
collars are simple in shape and design, but brooches
offer an unlimited field for decoration with goldsmiths'
work, gems, or enamel.
Pins were used in ancient times in place of buttons
for holding the folds of garments together and re-
sembled buttons in shape.
Hairpins are split into two prongs. Those found
in the Jewelry Department may be of tortoise shell,
perhaps carved and ornamented, or of horn qt shell
with gold, silver, or jeweled tops.
Chains
Chains are of two general types
1. Chains made of finely twisted or plaited wires.
2. Chains made of links, balls, or small pieces
joined together.
Twisted and plaited chains are made flexible by the
twist of the wire which acts as a spring.
Link chains have pieces or sections in endless variety.
The principal ones are
1. The cable link, an ordinary oval or round ring.

2. The curb link, the cable link twisted. An open
curb has the sides pushed slightly together.
A close curb has the sides pushed close to-
gether. Trace links have the curb elongated.
These may be modified or ornamented by hammer-

ing or chasing.
Fancy chains are made with and twisted
bent, coiled,
pieces of wire made and connected
into small patterns
by rings. Ball or bead chains are also made by string-
ing perforated balls on a flexible wire.
There are three types of men's watch chains.
In one type the chain is worn across the vest, be-
tween the two pockets. On one end there is a swivel
for the watch, and on the other a spring ring for a
knife, cigar cutter, etc. This is a very popular style.
Another type also has a swivel on one end and a
spring ring on the other, but in the center of the chain
there is a bar for holding the chain in the vest button-
hole,and a drop chain for a charm.
The third style goes to one pocket only and has a
bar for attaching to the vest buttonhole and the drop
chain for the charm.
The links or sections of ordinary chains are made
STANDARD ARTICLES 121
and put together by machinery but hand-made chains

are stronger because of the anneahng of the wire.
Necklaces
Necklaces are made in four general forms
1 The close fitting collar-likeband made of numer-

ous stones, beads, filigree, or ornamental tab-
lets.
2. The chain' with single pendant as the lavaHere.

3. A row of beads, usually graduated in size, on a
wire or chain. The beads may be of stones,
as pearls, amethysts, amber, coral, or of plain
or filigree gold.
4. Several chains or strings of different lengths
worn one above the other.
The may be large or

pearls used for pearl necklaces
small and may be either graduated or of equal size.
The clasps may be studded with diamonds or other
precious stones, but otherwise the pearl necklace is an
example of perfect simplicity. The gems are pierced
and strung on a wire or cord without pendants or
ornamental treatment of any kind. Chains for lorg-
nettes or fans which are made of seed pearls may have
small diamonds or other stones set between.
Unless naade of pearls or ornamental beads, nedc-
laces almost always have pendants. The chain is often
very light and simple; all the attention is directed to
the pendant or row of pendants.
Clasps for necklaces are either spring rings or bar-
rel clasps.
Pendants
Pendants may be suspended from any kind of chain
or ornament, but are most used for necklaces. There
are many kinds, among them
1. The locket to hold a picture.
2. The miniature.
3. The cross or medallion.
4. Single gems or cameos.
5. Lavaliere ornaments.
This list does not exhaust the possibilities of the

pendant as it is the thing upon which the goldsmith
may use his greatest skill.
The locket may be plain or ornamented with precious

stones or enamel. It may have but one piece or be
made in two parts hinged and clasped together.

The miniature is painted on ivory or porcelain and
usually set with small brilliants which make it very
ornamental.
The cross is a favorite form of pendant, although its
religious meaning is often forgotten in the ornamen-

tation and the gems with which it is set. Medallions
STANDARD ARTICLES 123
or other more massive pendants are ornamented with

enamel, gems, or pearls.
Single gems or cameos form beautiful pendants when
hung on slender chains.
Lavaliere ornaments which are named for a famous
French beauty, are the most popular form of pendants
at this time. They are made of very delicate filigree
work of beautiful design and set with precious stones.
The lavaliere pendant is an effort on the part of jew-
elers to make the goldsmith's work contribute to the
beauty of the stones instead of merely forming a
background.
Necklaces and pendants are most popular when fash-
ion decrees the open neck style of dress, which re-
quires some little ornament at the neck.
Bracelets
Bracelets are rings worn on the arm. They may be
1. Closed rings or bands.
2. Open on one side.
3. Spiral coils.
4. Hinged and closed with a clasp.
5. Flexible bands made of links.
The simplest form is the closed ring which is made

of wire or tubing drawn through a draw plate to the
desired size. After annealing it is bent into shape and
the ends soldered together.
The open bracelet is made in the same way but the
ends are finished and ornamented instead of being
soldered together.
Spiral coils are also, made of wire and are usually
finished with a serpent's head.
Hinged bracelets are usually made of tubing though
they may also be solid. They are made in two pieces
connected with a hinge at one side and with a hook or
clasp at the other.
Flexible bracelets are made of links or tablets so con-
nected that they may be bent at each joint. The flex-
ible bracelets made for wrist watches have springs in

each of the sections so that they may be pulled apart
when drawn over the hand.
Bracelet makers buy the wire tubing already drawn
and then cut, join, and design the bracelet as they wish.
Earrings
Earrings are ornaments for the ears. They are of
two kinds
1. Ornaments which are set against the lobe of the
ear.
2. Hanging drops or pendants.
The was formerly supposed to re-
use of earrings
quire the piercing of the ears and as this was consid-
ered a barbarous custom, earrings went out of fashion,
but at present, by means of a fine screw at the back of
STANDARD ARTICLES 125'
the ring they are quite secure and therefore the fashion
has revived.
The favorite form for the ornament set closely
against the ear is the single large pearl, either real or
artificial. Pendant earrings have a tendency to be

long and rather oriental in effect.
Collar Buttons
Collar buttons differ in the length of post and shape
and size of the head.
For the front of the collar a longer post is required
than for the back.
The head may be ball-shaped, dome-shaped, or
elongated. The latter type is very useful in holding
the necktie in place in the back.
The buttons made in one piece are very strong. The
soldered ones are more liable to break.
Cuff-Links
Cuff-links are of two varieties
Stiff bar buttons have ends of unequal size, con-
nected by a stiff bar. The end which does not show
isusually bean-shaped to enable it to be inserted easily.
These are very strong, especially suitable for use in
stiff cuffs.
Loose links, with the two ends alike, are joined by

flexible connections. These may be worn in all styles
of cuffs, and are especially desirable for the soft styles.

Cuflf-links for evening wear are of mother-of-pearl,
either all pearl, or with a tiny rim of platinum or gold.
Studs and Vest Buttons

Studs are of two varieties
Rigid, like small collar .buttons, the backs being

smaller and the posts shorter than in the regu-
lar collar button.
Flexible, small balls of gold or mother-of-pearl
mounted on an adjustable back.
Vest buttons made of mother-of-pearl for wear in

white vests are mounted on adjustable backs.
Evening Sets for Men

Evening sets for men
are made of mother-of-pearl
and consist of either studs and links, or studs, links,
and vest -buttons.
Other Articles
Many other little articles are found in the Jewelry
Department which are afifected by changing fashions.
Buckles and clasps for belts and metal girdles are
made of gold and silver and often beautifully carved
and ornamented with precious stones or enamel.
Smelling bottles, powder boxes, chatelaines for hold-
ing a number of small articles, and other trifles are
always subjects of interest.
Chapter XVII
FANS
Types of Fans
One of the sections of the Jewelry Department is
usually devoted to fans. Their ornamental character

and the beautiful materials of which the finer ones
aremade suggest this department as the natural place
for their display.
The principal types of fans used today are:
1. The Fixed
2. The Radial
3. The Brise or lamellar
4. The Folding
The fixed fan has a leaf immovably fastened to the
stick. It is usually found in the simpler materials, such
as the palm leaf fan or those made of printed gauze.
The radial fan is niade of a strip of material pleated
together and fastened to the handle with a pin so that
when spread out it forms a circle with this pin at the
center.
The Brise or lamellar fan is made of strips or blades
127
of thin wood or other stiff material fastened together
at one end. When folded it forms a narrow oblong;
open, a semicircle. The free ends of the sticks are
laced together with ribbon or cord.
The folding fan has sticks or blades similar to the
lamellar, but with a folded strip of paper, silk, or
other material connecting the blades and extending
about half the depth of the fan. When opened out
this folded piece forms the leaf of the fan.
Materials
The sticks of fans are made of wood, ivory, bone,

celluloid, tortoise shell, and mother-of-pearl. Most of
these materials are described elsewhere in this manual.
The wood used is light and easily splintered, except
sandalwood, which is close grained, may be exquisitely
carved, and has a and permanent fragrance.
delicate
Mother-of-pearl is composed of calcium carbonate,
the same substance as the pearl. It is the inside sur-
face of many varieties of seashells and occurs in the
most beautiful iridescent colors. The pieces are usu-
ally cut in very thin layers which are glued or ce-
mented to the wood forming the foundation.
The leaf of the fan may be made of gauze, silk, or
satin, specially prepared skins, as parchment, vellum,
kid (sometimes called chicken skin), of lace, quills or
ostrich feathers, or of paper. These materials are all
FANS 129
described in the manuals for the Stationery, Silk, or

Leather Goods departments.
Manufacture
Paper fans are made chiefly in Japan and China.
Labor is so cheap in these countries and the workmen
have become such adepts in handling the thin light
wood, in making the tough rice paper, and in sketch-
ing their effective designs that other countries do not
try to compete with them. The Japanese also make
many fans of gauze and the Chinese of ivory and
sandalwood exquisitely carved.
France is the European country from which we have
obtained the greatest number of fans. Watteau and
other French artists excelled in painting miniatures and
other beautiful pictures upon them. The French have
also made fans of lace, of embroidered and spangled
gauze or silk, and have set mirrors in them. Vernis
Martin invented the fine varnish or lacquer which is
used on certain fans of the Brise type.

We have also Spanish, Italian, and English fans
decorated characteristically with painting, gilding, and
etching or printing.
The design of the lace fan shown in Figure 7 has
many excellent features. The floral pattern is con-
ventionalized in such a way that the flower form is
preserved, and yet, at the same time, is well-adapted
to the material. The design is also so proportioned
that it is efifective, that is, does not appear fragmentary
when the fan is only partly spread.
History
The fan originated in hot countries where it was
used as a shield from the sun as well as for the purpose
of creating a current of air and brushing away insects.
It was a badge of rank and a luxury, and was usually
carried and swung by slaves. On ceremonial occasions
fans were carried by poles as flags or banners. These
ceremonial fans were very large with long handles or
standards beautifully decorated. The Egyptians used
fans made of ostrich feathers; in India the feathers
were from the peacock ; were sawed' out
in China, fans
of ivory nearly a thousand years b. c, the works being
within the palace at Pekin. Oriental fans had beauti-
ful handles of gold and silver filigree, enamel, tortoise
shell, and mother-of-pearl.
Spanish women have been noted for their coquettish

use of the fan which is made by them to speak a sort
of sign language. The Spanish fan may vary from an
exceedingly small to a very large size.
The North American Indians use fans made of

eagles' feathers.
J
be
Chapter XVIII
COMBS AND HAIR ORNAMENTS

Types
Combs and barrettes are used to ornament the hair
as well as to hold it in place. They may be classed as
1. Back-combs
2. Side-combs
3. Ornamental hairpins
4. Bandeaux
5. Barrettes
Hair ornaments and combs are made of tortoise

shell, amber, jet, silver, silverite (a composition metal),
celluloid, and hard rubber. They may be ornamented
with gold, silver, enamel, precious stones, and imita-
tion stones.They are made in many shapes and sizes
and form a large division of the Jewelry Department
materials. The styles vary with the prevailing fashion
for dressing the hair.
Tortoise Shell
Real or imitation tortoise shell is the most approved
material for the foundation of all hair ornaments.
131
Tortoise shell is composed of the scales or outer shell
of the hawksbill turtle which grows to a very large
size. The color is brown or amber, more or less mot-
tled or clouded. Clear amber shells are the most valu-
able and the red brown comes next. The dark brown
shells sell for less than half the price of the amber.
After the plates have been removed from the turtle's
back the animal is put back in the water.

The best tortoise shell is found in the Indian Ocean
but the center of the tortoise shell industry is Naples,
Italy. There and in some other Italian towns the
shells are scraped with knives and files and polished
with olive oil or rottenstone. The scales are then
softened by boiling them in oil or water and molded
into shape. They may be welded together after being
boiled, by the pressure of hot irons.
Tortoise shell has been used for ornamental pur-
poses for many centuries.
Tortoise shell may be imitated in horn or celluloid,
but the imitations lack the brilliant polish and clear

color of the real shell.
Amber
See Qiapter IX, " Description of Stones," for a
description of amber. Amber combs are very effective
and beautiful for golden hair.
COMBS AND HAIR ORNAMENTS 133
Jet
Jet is a form of dense coal, tougher and more com-
pact than common coal, which can be carved and
polished. It is also called black amber because it pro-
duces electricity when The softer kinds are
rubbed.
sometimes called bastard The finest varieties of
jet.
jet come from Whitby, England. Some of it is mined

but at times it is washed up on the shore near Whitby.
Jet is found in Spain but it is not so lustrous or so
also
durable. Spanish jet contains sulphur which is af-
fected by extreme heat and cold and will chip and
break.
Rough jet is covered with a hard blue or brown
shellwhich must be removed with a large chisel. The
block is then sawed into pieces of the required size.
These are shaped on a grindstone, and the surfaces
ground, after which they are ready to be carved.
Beads, heads of hat pins, etc., are made from the
smaller pieces, although Spanish jet is more commonly
used for such articles.
Jet spoken of in old Saxon poetry and was used

is
for beads, buttons, and other kinds of jewelry before

the Romans conquered Britain. It was used for rosa-
ries by the Whitby Abbey probably as early

priests of
as the fourteenth century, and in 1598 there was a
regular trade in jet.
Horn
Horn, as its name implies, comes from the horns of
the ox, buffalo, sheep, and goat. It may resemble
tortoise shell and is used as a substitute for it, but it
is less brilliant and more brittle so that it cannot be
carved. Horn has streaks of color and mottled spots
which are often beautiful in their shading.
Celluloid
Celluloid is composed of vegetable fiber, cellulose,

which has been treated with acids, camphor, and other
substances until it has become plastic and capable of
being molded into permanent forms. While it is still
soft it may be colored to imitate ivory, amber, shell,
horn, or even pearl.

For imitation tortoise shell, the mass is dyed a light
yellowish-brown and then sprayed with color in spots,

or thin sheets of different colors are passed under
heated rolls which blend them together. Sometimes it
is colored by hand.
For amber, yellow dyestuff is dissolved in the solu-
tion ofcamphor used in the process. Translucent or
opaque patches of natural color are imitated by rolling
small pieces of the deeper colored material with the
amber-colored sheets.
The effect of horn is given by building up layers of
celluloid sheets having spots, colors, and lines in them,
and by heat and pressure combining them into a varie-

gated mass which can then be carved or molded.
Manufacture of Combs
Like all other processes, that of making combs, cut-
ting the teeth, welding the parts together, and decorat-
ing them, was originally done by hand. The first ma-
chine for making combs was invented in 1798. The
were then cut by a fine saw, but
teeth in 18 14 a machine
was invented to cut combs at one operation. Some
machinery is so delicate that it will cut one hundred
teeth to an inch.
The tops of tortoise shell and amber combs and bar-
rettes are often beautifully carved. This is especially
the case when large Spanish combs are in fashion.
Celluloid is pressed to look like carving. Gold, rhine-
stones, and silver filigree and enamel are also used but
rhinestones are the most popular decorations because
of their brilliance which is shown to the greatest ad-
vantage against dark hair. Cut steel is less brilliant
though it also makes a glittering decoration.

Because of their plastic material, combs of all these
materials can be mended by welding the pieces together
under heat and pressure.
History
Combs made of boxwood were used among the
Egyptians. The ancient wooden combs shown in
Figure ,8. Primitive Wooden Combs

(Courtesy of International Studio)
Figure 8 are illustrations of this type. Roman ladies

plaited and crimped their hair and filled it with orna-
ments. During the Middle Ages combs were made of
ivory, precious metals, and horn handsomely carved
and decorated with jewels. In Spain and Mexico the
comb is the most elaborate ornament of women.
These combs are very large and costly as they are
carved in the most exquisite lacelike filigree. The first
factory in the United States for the making of horn

combs was opened at West Newbury, Mass., in 1759.
Chapter XIX
HISTORY OF JEWELRY
Jewelry Among Savage Tribes
One of the first signs that men have developed a
sense of beauty is their desire for decoration. Even
the lowest groups of savages paint their bodies and
wear strings of beads, stones, or other ornaments.
Their tools may be very crude and their clothing scanty,
but they find some way of making themselves attractive
in their own eyes. Early metal workers were largely
engaged in making ornaments as well as useful articles,
and these ornaments were usually worn by men rather
than by women.
In Ancient History,
We cannot read any accounts of the life of ancient
people without finding descriptions of their jewelry,
and when buried treasures are dug up from the ruins
of ancient cities the remnants of jewelry are among the
most frequent discoveries.
Egyptian jewelers had attained a high degree of skill
in the handling of the precious metals and in carving
138
HISTORY OF JEWELRY 139
precious stones. All oriental countries have paid much

attention to jewelry. Oriental beauties are loaded with
£:^
Irish Fin Graeco-Roman Egyptian Hairpin

Figure 9. Ancient Pins
rings, bracelets, chains, and ankle ornaments. Greek

jewelry was as perfect in form and proportion as other
ornaments. The Greeks excelled in embossing, en-
graving, and filigree work. Roman jewelry was
heavier, with less grace and more magnificence. The
pins in Figure 9 illustrate the characteristics of jewelry
of these various periods.
The peasants of European countries have kept the
old types of silver and gold jewelry which have been
handed down for many generations and are often very
quaint and of fine workmanship, though much of it is
rather monotonous, because of the repetition of a few
traditional designs.
Renaissance jewelry was very gorgeous and elabo-
rately ornamented with enamel and precious stones. It
was often worked up in symbolic designs of large size

and many parts.
Centers of Modern Industry

London and Paris have been the centers of jewelry
manufacture, but large amounts of cheap jewelry are
now made in various parts of England, France, and
Grermany. Garnet jewelry is made at Prague, filigree
work and mosaics at Florence, Venice, and Rome,
while tortoise shell jewelry is made in Naples, Rome,
and Florence. Holland has been the center of the
diamond-cutting industry, but diamonds are now cut in
America. A large part of the solid and plated jewelry
used in this country is manufactured here, the center
of the industry being the New England States.
History of American Jewrelry

The use of jewelry was not approved by our Puritan
forefathers, and gold and silversmiths were only al-
lowed to make belt buckles and shoe buckles for men

and wedding rings and simple brooches for women.
Today Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut
make a large percentage of the jewelry and ornamental
silverware for the entire country.
Nehemiah Dodge was the pioneer among American
jewelers. He
began to manufacture jewelry in 1794,
at first making ornaments from 18 karat gold. Later
he introduced rolled plate by which he soldered a thin
sheet of gold on a thicker sheet of copper and then
hammered and rolled the combined sheet still thinner.
He was able to reduce the cost of manufacture and
therefore began to sell jewelry to other goldsmiths,
becoming the first manufacturing jeweler. Out of this
enterprisegrew the great jewelry industry, centering
in Providence, R. I., and in Attleboro, Mass. Jabez
Gorham, the founder of the Gorham Company, was
apprenticed to Dodge.
In 182 1 filigree jewelry was introduced by a French-
man. In 1846 Thomas H. Lane, who came to Provi-
dence from Birmingham, England, began to make

rolled plate by sweating the thin sheet on the base metal
instead of soldering it on. This method was simpler,
better, and more economical than the soldering proc-
ess.
The discovery of gold in California added a strong

impetus to the manufacture of jewelry. The Civil
War checked it for a time, but it has had a steady
growth for the past forty years.
History of Various Articles

The history of different articles of jewelry is most
interesting as it is connected with religious and social
customs and political history.
Brooches and pins were necessary for holding gar-
ments together, as they were used before buttons. The
brooch is merely an ornamented safety pin, while the
more simple stick-pin is only a development from the
thorn, which savages used for holding things together.
Rings are among the most ancient ornaments, often
having a religious or mystical meaning. Signet or
seal rings are of oriental origin, but were also used by
the Romans to seal documents. Engagement or be-
trothal rings were originally large and curiously
wrought. The custom of wearing them on the third
finger of the left hand is supposed to have originated in
the belief that a vein ran from that finger directly to
the heart. They were only worn at the ceremony and
then kept as mementos. Wedding rings were also
highly decorated. They are of very ancient origin.
The use of wedding rings was considered a pagan
custom, and was not adopted by Christians until about
860 A. D.
Chains of massive links were worn by kings and
nobles until a comparatively recent period. They

were considered one of the badges of rank. Bracelets
and ankle ornaments have always been worn in pro-
fusion by women in oriental countries. At one time a
broad band of gold worn on the upper part of the arm
was considered a suitable ornament for men.
The use of elaborate jewelry is no longer considered
good form for men and jewelry for women is tending
more toward artistic and dainty designs rather than
great display; but the love of beautiful ornaments of
gold and precious stones seems to be a permanent in-
stinct that will always make jewelry a field for the
artist and manufacturer.
Chapter XX
BIRTHSTONES
Origin
The term birthstone or natal stone is given to the
precious stone which is popularly assigned to the month
in which one is born. The custom of associating cer-
tain gems with certainmonths of the year is of very
ancient origin, but the custom of wearing the stone be-
longing to the month of one's birth has only developed
during the few centuries.
last
The Romans had many traditions about precious

stones and in each month one or more stones were sup-
posed to have peculiar power, especially in warding ofif
disease or danger.
Early in the Christian era these traditions began to
be effective. The stones selected for the months did
not exactly follow the Roman order, but were almost
identical with the order of the twelve stones in the
breastplate of the Jewish high priest and the stones of
the New Jerusalem. The changes in the lists were
probably due to changes in the names of the stones or
uncertainty as to the stone referred to.
144
BIRTHSTONES 145
The Original List

The following list of natal stones is given by so
eminent an authority as Mr. George Frederick Kunz
as the one believed in for the past five hundred years
January
146
Part V—Suggestions to Salespeople
Chapter XXI
SELLING SUGGESTIONS
Arrangement, Display, and Care of Stock
No department of the store will repay careful ar-
rangement and display so well as that containing jew-
elry, as not only the individual pieces but the beauty
of the whole is the basis of appeal to the customer.
Arrangement should include suitable backgrounds
(black or purple velvet is best for gold ; silver-gray or
sapphire-blue for platinum), careful lighting, and com-
binations which will enhance rather than lessen the
artistic effect of individual beauty.
Jewelry should be kept free from dust which not
only detracts from its appearance but scratches the
polished surfaces. In addition to a jewelry brush the
salesperson should always have chamois or selvyt and
soft canton flannel for wiping the articles after they
have been handled.
The salesperson's hands should always be kept clean
and dry and articles should be handled by their edges
so far as possible. All moisture should be immediately
removed as it injures the finish.
147
Lockets, vanity cases, and other articles which close
with clasps or snaps should be opened and cleaned on
the inside to prevent the accumulation of dust and
moisture. The hinges or springs should be given
special attention.
Some materials and finishes are unusually perishable
and should be given special care. Roman gold must
not be rubbed but wiped carefully. Gun-metal will
rust and therefore must be kept free from all moisture.
Enamel is scratched by polishing powders and care
must be taken when rubbing up enameled jewelry.
Jet is very perishable and must be handled carefully
to prevent chipping.
Materials
A knowledge of the relative values and character-

istics of gold and platinum will help to make good
sales. Some " pure " gold is sold which contains so

much copper that it will leave a greenish stain on the
skin in hot weather. This explanation may be made so
that the customer will not think she has been cheated.
Precious stones are so interesting that almost every
customer will gladly receive information with regard
to their colors, relative values, most effective place-
ment, etc.
The difference between synthetic stones and imita-

tion stones should be clearly in a salesperson's mind as
SELLING SUGGESTIONS 149
the first are real stones, though not so valuable as natu-

rally formed ones.
Manufacture
Since the making of jewelry is one of the fine arts, a
knowledge of the hand work involved, and of the way
in which designs are built up, especially a knowledge of
the principles of design as shown in metal work, can
give a salesperson most efJective and legitimate selling
points.
Customers usually know very little of enameling or
how cameos and intaglios are made. They will be in-
terested in comparing the goldsmith's method with the
coppersmith's.
Practical questions as to durability and suitability
may be also answered from a knowledge of manufac-
ture.
The advantages of soldered links over those which
are merely pressed together, different types of clasps
and hinges, and the strength and security of each
should be known and explained. Stone cutting and
setting are not less important.
History
Many telling points can be made if one is familiar
with the and customs regarding jewelry.
history
Nearly every precious stone and every kind of orna-
ment has its romantic or practical story; sometimes
ISO JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
they have both. The symbolism of precious stones
often appeals to the sentiment of the customer.
Scarabs may remind one of the Eg)^tians, cameos of
the Roman emperors, or perhaps of Queen Elizabeth.
The life of the coral builder, and the way in which
the color varies under different conditions, is another
absorbing story.
The saleswoman will not always have a chance to go
into these things, but the choice of an ornament or
jewel is usually made with some and if one is
care,
personally interested and full of the subject some little
remark may be made which holds the attention of the
customer. A longer story will depend on circum-
stances, but the customer always wants to be waited on
by " one who knows."
Suitability
Jewelry is very often purchased for gifts. Prob-

ably a very large percentage of all such ornaments is
not intended fpr the use of the purchaser, but for some
one else. Customers are therefore peculiarly depend-
ent on the judgment of the salesperson, because they
are trying to satisfy another person's taste and wishes.
The mischoice of gifts is shown by the number that
come back after Christmas, and many more would
come back if the recipient had the courage to return
them!
It is not possible to know the peculiar tastes of peo-

ple whom we have never seen, but care and good sense
would prevent many an utterly inappropriate one such
as a highly ornamented shoe horn for a young baby, a
vanity case for a child of six, or gold beads for an old
lady. Yet such gifts have been made many times.
The salesperson may very properly inquire as to
whether the one for whom the gift is intended is young
or old, the favorite color, and perhaps the color of hair
and eyes. Turquoises are more likely to be worn by
blondes and topazes by brunettes.
Many people now adopt their birthstones, and sales-
people should know the stone or stones for each month,
especially if it is to be a birthday present. If advice
as to design or style is asked, a conservative opinion
should be given. It is unsafe to suggest the latest
novelty unlessit is for a young girl, as good jewelry
is a permanent possession and novelties lose their in-

terest. In cheaper jewelry novelties are very ac-
ceptable.
Gifts for special occasions acquire an added value
when they have some relation to it. -Friendship
brooches or bracelets are appropriate for bridesmaids
or girl graduates ;
pendants as the groom's gift to the
bride.
Wedding rings are now not always the plain circlet
of gold, but are often carved with orange blossoms or
other symbolic devices. becoming customary for
It is
the bride and groom to wear matched rings.

Mourning jewelry has its own conventions. The
amethyst, and diamonds set in black onyx, or with
black enamel and platinum or gun-metal are appropri-
ate.
For people who " have everything," but are to re-
ceive one thing more the salesperson should be well
informed as to artistic and unusual things, both in the
better and the less expensive grades. Under these cir-
cumstances the novelty is appropriate, especially if it
suggests a new convenience or satisfies an undiscovered

want.
Jewelry for men should be distinctive and handsome
rather than dainty. The Japanese have been very
successful in giving jewelry the masculine touch. , Men
wish " correct form " in dress more than artistic effect,
as a rule, and a salesperson should keep in touch with
the best in current fashions.
Style in jewelry is always affected by style in dress
and it is well to watch the style movement as shown in
shop windows or on the street as well as in the goods

which come into the department.
Suggestions as to jewelry appropriate for morning,
afternoon, or evening wear will often help to define the
purchaser's idea of the ornament desired. Jewelry
for morning or street wear should be simple and rather
severe. For afternoon it may be more ornate, while

for evening dress there is no limitation except the per-
sonal taste of the wearer. Sparkling stones like the
diamond are more beautiful under artificial light, as
more appropriate for the evening.
well as
Care
Suggestions as to the care of precious stones are
very gratefully received. The following are import-
ant:
Pearls should never be put in hot water and soap or
chemicals, which will dissolve tljem. They must al-
ways be handled carefully, as they are soft and easily
scratched. Their beauty is permanently affected by
ink, grease, or perspiration, and they will actually dis-
solve in acids. Extreme heat will ruin them. Pearls
should be wiped with a soft cloth after being worn or
exposed and should be kept wrapped in a tightly closed
box or casket.
The same rules apply to opals, moonstones, and tur-
quoises.
Turquoises should not be put in water as they lose
their beautiful color.
Extreme heat affects the color and texture of nearly
all gems, the harder ones being less injured than soft
stones.
Light oxidizes the softer stones and causes them
to fade. Dirt and grease scratch them. Acids will
change their color.
Pearls and opals, which are rather soft stones, must
be carefully set, so that the claws will not cut into them.
Jewelry should be kept scrupulously clean and should
be frequently taken back to the jeweler for cleaning as
well as for examination of settings and clasps. Pearls
need to be restrung once in three months as they wear
upon each other and upon the string.
Chapter XXII
CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK OF A TYPICAL
JEWELRY DEPARTMENT*
Divisions
A. Jewelry (Gold and Platinum; Plated and Novelty)
B. Fans and Fancy Bags
C. Combs and Hair Ornaments
D. Toilet Articles
E. Sewing Equipment
A — Jewelry
I. Articles
(a) Rings
Wedding
Seal or Signet
Solitaire
Two, Three, and Five Stones
Cluster
Filigree
Cameo
(b) Pins
Scarf
Brooch
Bar
* This classification does not include Watches, Optical Goods, or Novel-
ties.
Lingerie
Spot
(c) Chains
Watch
Lorgnette or Fan
(d) Necklaces
Pearl
Bead
Dog Collars
Lavaliere
Sautoir
Festoons
(e) Pendants
Lockets
Crosses
Lavaliere
(f) Bracelets
Clasp
Bangle
Flexible
(g) Men's Jewelry

Rings
Pins
Chains
Cufif Buttons and Links
Studs
Collar Buttons
Tie Clasps
Dress Sets
Belts and Belt Buckles
2. Materials
(a) Metals
Platinum
CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 157
Gold
Silver
Gun-Metal
Copper
Nickel
(b) Stones
Precious
Synthetic and Reconstructed
Imitation
(c) Enamel
(d) Ivory
(e) Mother-of-Pearl
(f) Coral
(g) Amber
(h) Jet
3. Manufacture
(a) Metals, Combined or Pure
Platinum
Gold and Platinum
Solid Gold
Gold-Filled
Gold-Plated
Sterling Silver
Silver-plated
Silverite (Composition)
Silver and Copper
Copper and Brass
Gun-Metal
(b) Methods
Distinctive from Special Designs
Jewelry " Sets " Finished by Hand
Commercial Jewelry
(c) Styles
Filigree
Repousse
Modeling
Engraving
Carving
Enameling
Niello
Inlaying
Stone Setting
Cameo Cutting
B — Fans and Fancy Bags
I. Fans ,
r
(a) Types
Rigid
Folding
Collapsible
(b) Materials
Gauze
Parchment
Feather
Paper
Celluloid
Tortoise Shell
Ivory
Mother-of-Pearl
Lace (Real and Imitation)
Princess
Duchess
Spider Web
Point Applique
Carick-ma-Cross
Venise
Rose Point
Renaissance
CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK 1 59
(c) Decoration
Lace
Painting
Printing
Embroidery
Feathers
Carving
Inlay
Bags
(a) Kinds
Mesh
Bead
Crochet
Silk and Velvet
Leather
(b) Materials
Gold
Silver
Gun-Metal
Steel
Brass
White Metal
Silk
Velvet
Velveteen
Linen
Leather
(c) Decoration
Beads
Embroidery
Lace
Engraving
Studding with Stones
Enamel
Filigree
I bo JEWELRY DEPARTMENT
C — Combs and Hair Ornaments
1. Kinds
Side
Back
Barrettes
Bandeaux
Tiaras
Hairpins
2. Materials
Tortoise Shell
Celluloid
Aluminum
Silverette (Composition)
Amber
Jet
3. Decoration
Pressed
Carved
Studded
Rhinestmies
BohemiEm Garnets
Imitation Stones
Gold Inlaid
Aluminum
Gold Bands
Crystal or Claire
Cut Steel
4. Colors
Shell
Amber
Black
Gray
CLASSIFICATION OF STOCK l6i
D — Toilet Articles
(See " Manual for Toilet Goods Department.")
E — Sewing Equipment
(See " Manual for Notion Department.")
Appendix
Books for Reference
Gem Stones, G. F. Herbert Smith. Pott, $2

Book of Precious Stones, J. Wodiska. Putnam, $2.50
The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, George Frederick
Kunz. Lippincott, $5
Precious Stones, W. Goodchild. Van Nostrand, $2
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Thft. World's Minerals, L.J. Spencer. Stokes, $2
The World's Gold, L. DeLaunay. Putnam, $1.75
Silverwork and Jewelry, H. Wilson. Appleton, $1.40
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The Art of the Goldsmith and Jeweler, T. B. Wigley. Lip-
pincott, $2.75
Enamelling, L. F. Day. Scribner, $3
Handbook of Ornament, F. S. Meyer. Hessling, $3.60
Nature and Ornament, L. F. Day. Scribner, $3
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Lin,e and Form, Walter Crane. Macmillan, $2.25
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Autobiography, B. Cellini. Dutton, 35 cents
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Art Metal Work, Arthur Payne. Manual Arts Press, $1.50
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Divers Arts, Theophilus. (Out of Print)
Chats on Old Jewelry and Trinkets, M. Percivale, Stokes, $5
American Watchmaker and Jeweler
Great Industries of the United States (Trade Journal)
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l|Pifc*li)[;^iil^-/;;-:^V:;'

New York State Colleges

3 1924 013 811 199

The original of tliis book is in

tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 381 1 1 99

Comb in Gold and Horn (French Design)

BEULAH ELFRETH KENNARD, M.A.

are not satisfied to be mere counter servers — to those

Beulah Elfreth Kennard.

the Jewelry Department. On account of the scope of

Stein and Company, Manufacturing Jewelers; Mr. T.

The Jewelry Department

PART II — PRECIOUS STONES

VII Valuation of Precious Stones ... 27

IX Descriptions of Stones (Continued) . . 46

X Artificial and Imitation Stones 59

PART III — MANUFACTURE OF JEWELRY

XII Cutting of Precious Stones .,..80

XIII Setting of Stones 94

XIV Enamel in Jewelry 99

XV Design in Jewelry 106

PART IV — ARTICLES OF JEWELRY

XVII Fans 127

XVIII Combs and Hair Ornaments 131

XIX History of Jewelry 138

Jewelry Among Savage Tribes

XXII Classification of Stock of a Typical

Appendix (Books for Reference) . . .163

2. Examples of Gold Mounts for Precious Stones ... 72

3. Platinum Jewelry Mounted with Stones from Pieces in

4. Styles of Cutting Precious Stones .... (on page) 83

5. Jeweled Brooches 102

6. Necklace and Earrings of Brilliants (Austrian Design) 114

7. Design for Lace Fan 130

8. Primitive Wooden Combs (on page) 136

9. Ancient Pins (on page) 139

Precious stones, for instance, are so fascinating that

ability of a certain jewel for the customer's purpose

Jewelry may be divided, according to purpose, into

Jewelry for Men:

The jewelry stock may also be divided into:

1. Gold and platinum jewelry, set with real gems.

jewelry is that it should be beautiful.

Gold is the most beautiful of all metals. It is soft

Malleable — may be beaten into thin sheets.

Dense — the are very

Gold may be beaten into a sheet 1/250,000 of an

fornian deposits are remarkably pure.

ore which could be secured by such simple methods as

the gold (being heavier than sand) falls to the bottom.

of water which removes the sand, the gold being

of water in a " Long Tom," which is a box about four

3. The Hydraulic Method. The hills in certain

land which was good for farming or fruit raising and ;

second, the debris was left on the land.

and therefore fires are built or steam pipes are inserted