Micro and Mesoscale Combustion

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Proceedings
of the
Combustion
Institute
Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 33 (2011) 125–150
www.elsevier.com/locate/proci
Micro and mesoscale combustion

Kaoru Maruta ⇑
Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, Japan
Available online 6 October 2010
Abstract
A review of research and development on micro and mesoscale combustion is presented, with an empha-
sis on fundamental understandings achieved in the field during the last decade. Due to its small scale nat-
ure, increasing effects of flame–wall interaction and molecular diffusion are the characteristic features of
micro and mesoscale combustion. After brief review of device developments, overview of fundamentals
in micro and mesoscale combustion as well as possible future directions is presented.
Ó 2010 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Microscale combustion; Mesoscale combustion; Microcombustion
1. Introduction the large surface-to-volume ratio of small scale

devices. Thermal and chemical stability manage-
With the recognitions of broad potential appli- ments are required to establish stable combustion
cations not only for electrical power but for heat in micro and mesoscale devices. Thermal stability
and mechanical power sources, combustion at managements by the heat recirculation displayed
small scales (micro and mesoscales) is collecting the several novel phenomena such as flame bifur-
growing attentions these days [1–4]. Possible cation, weak flame, extinction and re-ignition
applications are sensors, actuators, portable elec- instabilities, spinning flames and pattern forma-
tric devices, robots, rovers, unmanned air vehicles, tions. From the aspect of flame–wall chemical
thrusters, industrial heating devices, and further- coupling, new concept catalytic combustion and
more, heat and mechanical backup power sources non-equilibrium effects at wall on combustion
for air-conditioning equipments in hybrid vehicles are started to be explored. Understanding on oxy-
and freight transportations as well. Needless to gen absorption led to extremely low-temperature
say, the concept is based on the nearly two-order operation of microscale catalytic combustion. In
higher energy densities of hydrocarbon fuels than this paper, recent applications and fundamentals
the existing modern batteries. of micro and mesoscale combustion are reviewed
Along with the demands for further develop- and summarized. Future directions and expecta-
ments of small scale combustion devices, funda- tions will be also discussed.
mentals on micro and mesoscale combustion
also collect increasing interests through the techni-
cal challenge to overcome quenching issues due to 2. Scaling for microscale combustion
In small scale combustion systems, surface-to-

volume (S/V) ratio is large due to the small
⇑ Fax: +81 22 217 5311. characteristic length scale. The large S/V ratio
E-mail address: maruta@ifs.tohoku.ac.jp leads to the severer heat-loss effect on small scale
1540-7489/$ - see front matter Ó 2010 The Combustion Institute. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.proci.2010.09.005
126 K. Maruta / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 33 (2011) 125–150
combustion systems. Hence, clear understanding and the continuum assumption of fluid mechanics
on flame extinction, which is governed by the ratio is no longer a good approximation. Although cur-
of heat-loss to the heat generation described in rent microscale combustion does not often
theory of non-adiabatic flames [5,6], is important. address this issue, some attempts have been made
Discussion on quenching diameter can be made in this direction by paying attention on the con-
by assessing the heat loss from a flame with finite centrations and temperature discontinuities at
diameter. It is essentially equivalent to the discus- wall.
sion based on Peclet number, in which the ratio of In this paper, the term “microscale combus-
quenching diameter to the flame thickness is tion” is used for combustion which involves
considered. characteristic length scales closely related to
Discussion on flame extinction by Peclet num- “quenching distance,” particularly when it plays
ber, defined as the ratio of longitudinal to radial critical role on the addressed phenomena. There-
heat transfers, is also of use. It can be widely fore, topics with length scales not only smaller
applied to flame extinction by replacing loss than 1 103 m physical-scales are dealt in this
mechanisms. Simple comparison between resi- paper. The term “mesoscale combustion” will also
dence and chemical time scales by Damköhler be used for the cases with characteristic length
number is also useful for blow-off type extinction. scales obviously larger than 1 mm but remains
Reynolds number is generally small due to the characteristic features of microscale combustion.
small characteristic length scale in small scale It is often used to highlight specific features of
system. Therefore, flow condition in microscale microscale combustion using scale-up model
system often remains in laminar, while it some- approach.
times reaches to the transition regime in mesoscale
system. Since turbulent mixing is least expected,
molecular diffusion is primary mechanism for 3. Application of microscale combustion
mixing. Thus, molecular diffusion may control
overall characteristics or performance of micro- 3.1. Microscale combustion for mechanical power
scale systems with low velocity forced flow or
non-premixed flames. 3.1.1. Microscale gas-turbines and internal com-
To overcome the effect of large heat loss on bustion engines
small flames, stability management is required. Based on the high energy density of hydrocar-
One of the effective stability managements is heat bon liquid fuels, scale-down approach of existing
recirculation through channel wall. To understand rotating machinery and internal combustion
the characteristics of heat recirculation process, engines for portable power sources have been
Biot number, which is defined as the product of conducted.
heat transfer coefficient and characteristic length MEMS-based silicon gas-turbine engines were
divided by thermal conductivity of the solid, is developed at MIT [7–10]. The micro gas-turbine
of use. It is denoted as thermally thin wall if is a 10 mm diameter by 3 mm thick, toward elec-
B < 0.1, where the heat resistance in the solid trical power output up to 20 W at rotor speed of
phase is small and surface heat resistance is pre- 2.4 106 rpm, consuming 7 g/h of H2 fuel.
dominant. For transient process, thermal and Hydrogen-fueled micro combustor produced exit
mass diffusion characterized by Fourier number, gas temperature in excess of 1800 K by a micro
defined by the ratio of the product of thermal or combustor having 66 mm3 chamber [11]. Stable
mass diffusivity and characteristics time scale hydrocarbon combustions were also demon-
divided by the square of the characteristic length strated by a micro combustor having 195 mm3
scale, is also important. Accordingly, characteris- chamber [9] and six-wafer catalytic micro combus-
tics of heat recirculation process for a stationary tor [12].
flame in a channel and those for propagating Tanaka, Esashi and co-workers at Tohoku,
flame are quite different. collaborating with IHI, demonstrated that the
Unequal thermal and mass diffusivities often world’s smallest-class gas-turbine which operates
lead to manifestations of the diffusive-thermal Brayton cycle [13]. It has a compressor of
instabilities. In microscale combustion with heat 16 mm diameter, a turbine of 17.4 mm diameter,
generation, heat transfer through wall is com- an annular combustor and a dummy electromag-
bined with gas-phase heat transfer, resulting in netic generator. The impellers are connected by
modified thermal and mass transfer balance. one piece of Inconel shaft of 8 mm diameter as
Thus, effective Lewis number should be estimated shown in Fig. 1 right. Brayton cycle was estab-
for describing the onsets of instabilities based on lished when pressure at the compressor inlet
the diffusive-thermal instability. became negative (minus a few kPa below the
If the length scale of the system is extremely atmospheric pressure) at the rotation speed of
small (or it is under the reduced pressure), Knud- 360,000 rpm and the combustor temperature of
sen number, defined as the ratio of mean free path 800–900 °C. Hydrogen was used for the
to the characteristic length scale, becomes large demonstration.
K. Maruta / Proceedings of the Combustion Institute 33 (2011) 125–150 127
Fig. 1. Left: MEMS-based gas-turbine engines developed at MIT. Right: Rotor for miniature gas-turbine developed at
Tohoku with IHI.
Meso- and microscale rotary engines by elec-

tro-discharge machining (EDM) and MEMS-
based fabrications were developed at UCB [14–
16]. Hydrogen-fueled, mesoscale rotary engine
with 10-mm rotor produced 4 W at 9300 rpm.
Meanwhile, research was centered on the fabrica-
tion of the individual engine components in the
case of MEMS-based micro rotary engines having
2.4 and 1.0 mm rotors,. Goal of the development
was set at 90 mW power output from 2.4 mm
engines (see Fig. 2).
A mesoscale single-shot free-piston rapid com-
pression machine was constructed for examining
the feasibility of miniature HCCI engine at
Honeywell in collaboration with University of Fig. 3. The mesoscale free-piston “knock” engine using
Minnesota [17,18]. Figure 3 shows piston and cyl- homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI).
inder assembly. The cylinder is Pyrex tube with Upper: picture of cylinder and piston assembly. Lower:
scheme of single-shot experimental apparatus.
nominal inside diameter of 3.0 mm. n-Heptane/
air mixtures with the equivalence ratio at 0.69
and 0.25 were successfully ignited with piston
stroke at 57 mm. HCCI combustion was possible A direct power generation by a ferromagnetic
in a combustion volume with 3 mm diameter free-piston and cylinder, surrounded by the per-
and 0.3 mm long. A single-shot zero-dimensional manent magnetic MEMS arrays were developed
numerical model reproduced piston position and at Georgia Tech [19]. From the 43-mm stroke
velocity measurements which predicted P–V dia- and 13,400-mm3 displacement, it produced 12 W
gram with the effect of the leakage on the effi- of the electrical power while efficiency was not
ciency of mini HCCI engines for various fuels high due to the severe sealing issue. For light-
(n-heptane and propane). weight power generation, a miniature internal
combustion engine (MICE) generator, a two-
stroke liner-motion free-piston engine with a lin-
ear electric alternator was developed at Aerodyne
Research [20].
An engine with swinging free-piston termed
“Mesoscale internal combustion swing engine
(MICSE)” with four combustion chambers
formed with swinging free-piston and combus-
tor-body, was developed at University of Michi-
gan (Fig. 4) [21,22]. The engine was designed to
operate in a four-stroke Otto cycle and energy
conversion is made by an inductive alternator
connected to the shaft of the swinging piston.
3.1.2. Micro thrusters

Micro and mesoscale thrusters with various
Fig. 2. Meso/microscale rotary engines developed at fabrication techniques have been developed for
UCB. space applications such as microsatellite primary
by EDM for scaling studies (Fig. 5, bottom).

Chemical efficiencies were exceeding 97% for
hydrogen/air and 85% for methane/oxygen-
enriched air. Numerical analysis identified flame
stabilization by a nearly quiescent region of hot
combustion products in the combustor core which
was created by flow recirculation. Liquid-propel-
lant chemical micro-thrusters were also developed
from aluminum oxide using ceramic stereo-lithog-
raphy [25].
Low-temperature co-fired ceramic (LTCC)
technology [29] was adopted for fabricating
microscale thrusters [26,30,31], since it enables to
construct multi-layered three-dimensional struc-
ture with highly conductive materials such as sil-
Fig. 4. Mesoscale internal combustion swing engine ver, copper and gold, for realizing ceramic
(MICSE) with four combustion chambers. package with control wiring circuit.
LTCC micro-thrusters were developed using
gunpowder-based solid propellant [31]. It pro-
propulsion and attitude control [23–27]. Digital duced 3.81 105 1.27 104 N s of total
propulsion micro-thruster, which has a three-layer impulse and 5.55–14.41 s of specific impulse. A
sandwich of silicon and glass layers, consists of monopropellant micro-thruster ignited by elec-
micro-resistors, thrust chambers and rupture- trolysis based on LTCC technology was devel-
diaphragms, was developed [23]. The sandwich oped [32]. The volume of the combustion
contains an array of small plenums each sealed chamber was 0.82 mm3. Screen printed silver elec-
with a diaphragm on one side. Arrays of the trodes were positioned on the top and bottom
thrusters were integrated in a 24-pin ceramic surfaces of the combustion chamber. DC voltage
DIP (Fig. 5, upper left). Using lead styphnate as potential applied across the electrodes initiates
a propellant, a unit thruster produced 104 N s decomposition of hydroxylammonium nitrate
of impulse and about 100 W of power. A high (HAN) based liquid monopropellants. A thrust
pressure bipropellant micro-thruster by fusion output of 150 mN was obtained at voltage input
bonding of stacked six silicon wafers (Fig. 5, of 45 V.
upper right) was developed at MIT [27]. It pro- Furthermore, various types of micro and
duces 1 N of thrust from a mass of 1.2 g chamber mesoscale thrusters, mega-pixel thruster arrays
and specific impulse is approaching 300 s. [24], a two-staged mesoscale combustor, which
Micro and mesoscale vortex flow combustors consists of a microscale catalytic reactor and a
using gaseous non-premixed combustion for use mesoscale quartz main combustor [33] and a
in small scale power and propulsion systems are mesoscale chemical thruster with catalytic decom-
developed [28]. Series of combustors, ranging in position of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) [34], were
size from 10.6 to 124 mm3 which correspond com- developed.
bustor diameters of 2.4–6.4 mm, were fabricated
3.2. Microscale combustion for heat source
Toward power generation, two-dimensional

Swiss-roll (Fig. 6a) and three-dimensional toroidal
(Fig. 6b and c) burners were developed at USC
[35]. To maximize heat recirculation and minimize
external heat loss, a toroidal three-dimensional
Swiss-roll burner was proposed [35] based on the
two-dimensional Swiss-roll burners, of which ori-
ginal two-dimensional burner concept suggested
by Weinberg [36,37]. For power generation, a
number of thermoelectric devices are embedded
in all the diving walls of these burners [38] by
developing a special fabrication technique.
Despite the great efforts, fabrication of thermo-
electric devices with high figure-of-merit in such
Fig. 5. Upper left: Digital micro-thruster developed at
TRW. Upper right: High-pressure bipropellant micro- complicated multi-dimensional configuration
thruster by stacked silicon wafers developed at MIT. remains a difficult task. Theoretical investigation
Bottom: Micro/mesoscale vortex flow combustors devel- for efficient energy conversion by thermoelectric
oped at Penn State. devices with a heat recycling burner is examined
Fig. 6. Burner prototypes fabricated at USC. (a) Two-dimensional Swiss-roll burner, (b) macro and (c) mesoscale
toroidal three-dimensional burners. Both macro and mesoscale versions attained self-stabilized combustion.
[39]. Two-dimensional Swiss-roll burner was suc- JP-8 at flow rates of 10 ml/h which corresponds
cessfully applied to hydrocarbon-fueled, thermally to 100 W of thermal power (6.7 MW/m3 of volu-
self-sustained, and single-chambered micro SOFC metric power density at 15 cc of combustor
by the same group [40]. volume) was achieved. For higher energy density,
A different-type ceramic Swiss-roll microreac- miniaturization through the combination of
tor (12.5 12.5 5.0 mm) coupled with thermo- microfabricated multiplexed electrospray system
electric devices was also developed with modified was conducted [44]. The same order of thermal
stereo-lithography [41]. power at one or more order smaller combustor
By taking the advantage of high energy density in volume was established. The corresponding
of liquid hydrocarbon fuels, mesoscale catalytic total energy density 270 MW/m3 is comparable
combustors using electrosprayed liquid hydrocar- to those of conventional macroscale gas-turbine
bons, which will be coupled with energy engines operated at elevated pressures. JP-8 elec-
conversion modules, were developed [42,43]. Elec- trosprayed catalytic combustor was combined
trospray atomization relies on electric charging of with a free-piston Stirling engine. It recorded
liquid fuel with sufficient electric conductivity. much higher efficiency though the system is in lar-
Under the electric field, leading edge of the liquid ger scale [45].
jet at the outlet of the nozzle breaks up toward the Disk-shaped Swiss-roll microcombustors for
downstream and atomized into a spray of fine, general purpose heat sources were developed at
charged droplets (Fig. 7) [43]. The electrospray Tohoku [46,47] (Fig. 8). Several prototype com-
enables quasi-monodispersity of the droplets bustors with outer diameters of 64, 45, 26 and
within the order of the 10% deviation from the rel- 20 mm with channel widths smaller than the
ative standard droplet size. Coulombic repulsion ordinary quenching distance were fabricated. By
of the charged droplets prevent droplet coales- varying the ratio of channel width and height,
cence resulting in mixing enhancements. the ratio of the heat emission from top and bot-
tom panels to the outside, to the incoming mixture
can be designed. Larger prototypes (64 and
45 mm) exhibited wide turn-down ratio at the
averaged inlet mixture velocity from 0.4 to
8.0 m/s. Blow-off limit was not observed at large
combustors due to the high temperature limit of
the employed material (SUS304). Established sur-
face temperature range was from 400 to 1173 K.
Fig. 7. A catalytic mesoscale burner (left) and electro- Fig. 8. Disk-shaped Swiss-roll combustors for general
spray injection system (right) with catalytic screens purpose heat sources. (a) A 64-mm Swiss-roll combustor
which act as a uniform and stable high temperature in operation; a top panel replaced by a quartz plate for
source for energy conversion modules. visualization. (b) Coin-size combustor (26 mm, o.d.).
Temperature controllability of the heater panel axis, and very rich regions near the walls. For
was within 1 K when simple feed-back control the observation of the film and flame behavior, a
was used. Total thermal efficiency as a heater sapphire/metal burner was also developed.
was 60–85%, which were 1.5–2 times larger than Ishizuka and co-workers [51] also examined
those of conventional resistive heaters. Simple flame propagation in a vortex flow within a meso-
analytical model was constructed to examine the scale tube and confirmed the effect of maximum
effect of design parameters on combustion charac- tangential velocity on the onset of the vortex
teristics. Based on the model, the possible smallest bursting.
self-sustaining Swiss-roll combustors with 26 and
20 mm were fabricated by EDM and tested. The 3.3. Current achievements in micro power
model predictions were excellent and narrow sta- generation
bility windows with both lower and blow-off limits
were observed. Demonstrations of catalytic or non-catalytic
A small combustor having a stabilized annular combustion toward power generation with ther-
flat flame of inner and outer diameter of 5 and moelectric [52–54] and TPV devices [55–57] were
10.5 mm, which would fit the MIT micro gas-tur- also conducted.
bine was fabricated by Yuasa et al. [48]. Flame Catalytic microreactors with high-precision
stabilities and effect of design parameters on tape-casting method [58] applied for butane
extinction limits in the developed combustor were accomplished stable operation. Thermal energy
examined for hydrogen/air and methane/air density around 2–8 108 W/m3 [59,60] are
mixtures. achieved for higher temperature application
“Mesoscale liquid-fuel-film combustor” was (1073–1173 K) such as TPV devices. Integrated
developed at UCI [49,50]. The fuel is injected as power generation system of hydrogen-fueled
a liquid film on the inner surface of cylindrical catalytic combustion on TiO2 supported Pt with
combustor and swirling air flow provides effective separated TE elements (Bi2Te3–Sb2Te3 for p-type
fuel vaporization. It enables reduction of heat and Bi2Te3–Bi2Se3 for n-type elements) recorded
losses by redirecting heat towards film vaporiza- 184 mW output from 6.6 W chemical energy input
tion and cools the combustor walls. Due to the which corresponds to the total efficiency of 2.8%
large S/V ratio in small scale, large liquid sur- [52]. Methanol-fueled catalytic microreactor sys-
face-area is expected for vaporization. It was tem of Pt on anodized aluminum with commercial
shown that internally stabilized flame was thermoelectric devices successfully produces
attained for liquid-fueled flames but not for gas- 0.65 W electricity output which corresponds to
fueled flames. Figure 9 shows the first prototype the total efficiency 1.1% [61]. The combination
Pyrex-glass burner (left) and temperature profiles of catalytic combustor and TE devices attained
at 2 mm above the metal burner exit from CARS an overall efficiency of converting chemical energy
measurements for heptane flame at overall / to electricity of 0.8% [53].
= 1.69 (right). The latter shows that measured A micro TPV power generator system, consists
temperatures are below the stoichiometric adia- of hydrogen-fueled cylindrical SiC microcombu-
batic flame temperature, but generally above the stor (3 mm in diameter and 16 mm in length), a
fully premixed adiabatic flame temperature. This nine-layer dielectric filter, and a GaSb (gallium
suggests that the flame is partially premixed, with antimony) photovoltaic cell array, generated
near stoichiometric conditions along the central 1.02 W electricity output from 140.1 W chemical
Fig. 9. Mesoscale liquid-fuel-film glass burner (left) and temperature profile at 2 mm above burner exit from CARS
measurements for heptane flame of overall / = 1.69 (right).
energy input which corresponds to 0.73% total was also addressed experimentally by using a large
efficiency [56]. Combination of reactor with fuel tube (i.d. 50 mm) at reduced pressure (2–60 kPa)
reformer for hydrogen production is also [67]. Such flame is a model of ordinary ambient
attempted [62,63]. Characteristics of co-current flame in narrow tube. Modified quenching Peclet
and counter-current flow reactor reformer for numbers based on two kinds of characteristic flame
NH3 reforming on Ru are numerically examined length, such as measured thermal flame thickness
[62]. Effect of heat recirculation on the perfor- and that estimated from the product of density
mance of catalytic microcombustor is also investi- and mass flow rate of stationary flames, were found
gated using catalytic reactor with heat to be distributed between 10 and 15.
recirculating channel [64]. CFD results showed To establish stable combustion in a small chan-
that the excess enthalpy effect is substantial only nel, stability managements are required. Promis-
in the limit of low-conductivity walls, where there ing method can be roughly divided into thermal
is insufficient preheating of the reactants. Cata- and chemical approaches. The former include heat
lytic reactor as a heat source for micro endother- recirculation, heat shield, and high wall tempera-
mic reactor is fabricated using catalyst bed made ture. The latter is mainly attempted by catalytic
from Isolite B5 coated with Pt by the incipient reaction. Microscale combustion is often dis-
wetness method [65]. cussed in the context of combustion with heat
Recently, a narrow ceramics tube of i.d. recirculation, which is termed “excess-enthalpy
0.8 mm with porous catalytic layer inside the tube combustion.” It is collecting renewed and increas-
was used as combustor and it was combined with ing interests due to its flame-strengthening effect
commercial Bi–Te TE modules. Total conversion as well as flame bifurcation, which results in weak
efficiency of 3.0% was achieved for methane [54]. flame, various novel instabilities and flame pattern
formations. Weinberg and his co-workers
[36,37,68] originally suggested the concept of
4. Fundamentals of microscale combustion excess-enthalpy combustion by using heat recircu-
lating burners. It enables higher flame tempera-
4.1. Flame quenching and stability managements ture than the adiabatic flame temperature, stable
combustion for low calorific fuels and extended
For the discussion on flame quenching, flammability limits [69,70] as well as sustaining
one-dimensional planar premixed flame with volu- combustion at small scales.
metric heat loss is considered [5,6]. Solution for In the context of microscale combustion, the
non-dimensional form of equation is given as effects of heat recirculation on flame response
m2 = exp(l/m2), where m and l are non-dimen- were analyzed by Ronney and co-workers [71,72]
sional flame speed and heat loss parameter. For and Ju and Xu [73]. U-shaped counter-current
instance, fundamental flammability limit can be burner having inlet and outlet ports at one side
given by providing radiative heat loss from the and combustion chamber modeled as well-stirred
burnt gas to the ambient as a loss mechanism. reactor (WSR) at the other side was analyzed
Here, quenching diameter is addressed by consid- [71]. The model was formulated using three non-
ering convective loss from a flame with a finite dimensional parameters, the Biot number (B),
diameter [4,6]. Heat balance can be given as: heat loss coefficient (H) and mass flux (M) in the
ðHeat lossÞ cp ðT f T u Þxðpd 2 =4Þdf
H¼ ¼
ðHeat generationÞ pddf hðT f T u Þ
¼ 4Nud2f =d 2 :
Since extinction condition
pffiffiffi for the above solution
is given as m ¼ 1= e and p l= 1/e,ffi quenching
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
diameter dq is given as d q ¼ 2 ebNudf .
When b around 10 and convective heat transfer
of laminar flow in a cylindrical channel is consid-
ered, the quenching diameter is estimated approx-
imately 20 times of the reaction-zone thickness.
Numerical study addressing premixed flame prop-
agation in two-dimensional channel by considering
conduction to the channel wall and a prescribed
Poiseuille flow [66] identified the quenching dis-
tance as the smallest channel width permitting
flame propagation in cold tube. The ratio of the Fig. 10. Effect of mass flux on WSR temperature in the
laminar flame thickness to the half channel width counter-current combustor for finite reaction rates at
was equal to 0.13, which gives quenching Peclet Da = 107 with DT = 1.5 (B: Biot number and H:
number dq/df of 15.4. Quenching Peclet number normalized heat loss coefficient).
channel. Figure 10 shows the effect of mass flux M flame in a channel using methane/air mixture.
on the reaction temperature at the combustion Nearly flat flame in a channel with the inner diam-
chamber for adiabatic flame temperature rise at eter equal to its flame thickness was established
DT = 1.5. In the adiabatic (H = 0) and infinite under the reduced pressure [82]. The existence of
reaction rate (Da = 1) case, flame temperature flame with Peclet number unity, proves the theo-
decreases as the mass flux M increases. For finite retical implication by Daou and Matalon [66],
reaction rate (Da = 107) case, there exists maxi- showing no extinction limit for flame in an adia-
mum mass flux M which corresponds to the batic channel, is still valid in such extreme condi-
blow-off limit. For non-adiabatic (H – 0) case, tion without significant wall quenching effect.
lower mass flux limits in addition to blow-off
limits exist when B – 1, which indicates stream-
wise heat conduction in the dividing wall is dom- 4.2. Wall thermal effect
inant for the existence of the lower mass flux limit.
This supports experimental facts, e.g., obtained by Combustion with heat recirculation is very
the coin-size Swiss-roll combustor [46,47]. effective for strengthen combustion. It also induces
The effects of external heat loss on flame speeds rich variety of flame dynamics due to flame–wall
were conducted [74] using opposite propagating thermal interaction, as was also discussed in the
flame model. Opposite-propagation flame model context of mild and flameless combustion [83–
enables explicit discussion on flame propagation 85]. Weak flames and various instabilities result
under the heat-recirculation condition. Figure 11 from flame bifurcation are discussed.
shows flame speed as a function of external heat
loss with heat recirculation. It is clearly indicated 4.2.1. Appearance of weak flames
that the flame speed at extinction limit increased Combustion in a narrow channel with heat
with increasing heat recirculation parameter v In recirculation was studied experimentally and theo-
[74], significant extension of the flammable fuel- retically [73,77]. One-dimensional quasi-steady
mass fraction by the heat recirculation was dem- flame propagation was modeled under the
onstrated as well. Opposite propagating flame assumption of a constant wall temperature at
model was used earlier for analyzing filtration upstream, uniform flow velocity, constant proper-
gas combustion [75]. It is interesting to see com- ties and a thin flame model. Figure 12 shows a
mon approach to examine microscale combustion model and results of analysis and experiments
and filtration gas combustion. [73]. Normalized governing equations for gas
Advantages of the combustion with heat recir- and solid phases were solved and normalized
culation are extensively recognized and many flame speed m (=u Uf) as a function of normal-
studies addressed this issue. One-dimensional ized heat transfer rate H was given. For the case at
computation for hydrogen/air flame in a heat u = 0, normalized flame speed response exhibited
recirculating channel with detailed chemistry was stable-upper and unstable-lower solutions (not
conducted by Leach and Cadou [76]. Enhance- shown) which is similar to those in Fig. 11. On
ment of stability limits and increase in burning the contrary, normalized flame speed showed
rate were also shown. It concluded that combus- flame bifurcation at u = 0.1, exhibiting two stable
tor design that maximizes power density does flame branches and two extinction points for var-
not maximize efficiency. Two-dimensional model- ious wall thermal diffusivities (Fig. 12ii). This
ing approaches for heat recirculating channel bifurcation leads to the appearance of weak flame,
showed the existence of the flame bifurcation which is on the lower stable branch with very low
and significant effects of near-wall flame quench- propagation velocities. Pictures of C3H8/air
ing and flame structure on flame speed [77], and flames in a mesoscale tube (d = 5 mm) are indi-
the effect of wall thermal conductivity, external cated in the same figure (iii) and showed flame
heat loss coefficient, flow rate and wall thickness propagation distance with time for normal (flame
of heat recirculating channel on lower and blow- speed larger than 3.5 cm/s) and weak (flame speed
off limits [78,79]. Optimal channel dimension less than 1 mm/s) flames. Flame bifurcation,
was also discussed [80]. A heat recirculating com- resulted in weak flame in a heated microchannel,
bustor for a CH4/air mixture having a straight was independently reported [86,87]. Zamashchi-
main duct surrounded by annular porous inert kov [88] experimentally showed the existence of
media for preheating was presented [81]. Preheat- very low-speed propagating flames in a tube which
ing annulus and insulation on the exterior surface corresponds to weak flame. Two-temperature
reduced heat loss and offered potential to mini- model successfully analyzed the experimental
mize surface heat loss in miniature combustion observation and showed the existence of weak
systems. Potential application for pre-vaporizing flames [89]. Effects of Lewis number on flame in
liquid fuels was suggested. a channel including three-dimensional structures
To examine the feasibility of stability manage- were also addressed [90].
ment by high temperature wall, simple heat loss Flame bifurcation was reported earlier for
control by an external heater was employed for mesoscale particle-laden flame [91]. It is also noted
Fig. 13. A narrow channel with a prescribed wall

Fig. 11. Flame speed as function of external heat loss at temperature profile. Inner diameter of 2 mm, which is
different heat recirculation intensity. smaller than the ordinary quenching diameter, was
chosen. Though hydrogen/air flat flame burner was
shown as a heat source here, flat panel heaters were also
that weak flame is in close connection with mild or used for earlier study.
flameless combustion, which is normally discussed
in macroscale industrial applications.
experiences high enough temperature for auto-
4.2.2. Repetitive extinction and ignition instability ignition, it is ignited and flame propagates to the
Microscale combustion was also examined upstream. Then flame leads to extinction due to
using a narrow channel with a prescribed wall the low-temperature in the upstream. After some
temperature profile along the flow direction time delay, re-ignition occurs at the high tempera-
[86,87]. A channel with the inner diameter smaller ture region where previous auto-ignition started.
than the ordinary quenching diameter and an This cycle is repeated regularly with frequencies
external heat source were used (electric heater or from 10 to 100 Hz. It is termed “flames with repet-
flat flame burner) for attaining a wall temperature itive extinction and ignition (FREI)” or “repetitive
profile (Fig. 13). Such approach was motivated extinction and re-ignition instability” due to its
during the development of disk-shaped Swiss-roll nature. Clear image of the relevant oscillating
burners for general purpose heat sources [46,47], flame in a curved duct, which exhibits repetitive
in which a narrow toroidal channel with tempera- extinction and ignition, is shown in Fig. 15 [93].
ture profile ramping from low to high temperature Figure 16 shows the details of dynamic flame
along the channel. motions. Figure 16a is a normal flame stabilized
In addition to the normal flames, repetitive at a certain location in a channel. Figure 16b is
extinction and ignition instability was observed a time history of reaction-zone location obtained
in a straight channel [86,87,92] and curved duct by OH-filtered high-speed images, which is typical
[93]. Figure 14 shows direct flame images of (A) to FREI. In addition, one-dimensional pulsating
normal flame and (B) flames with repetitive flame (Fig. 16c), which exhibited regular periodi-
extinction and ignition. If flammable mixture cal motions was observed. Its luminescence
Fig. 12. Flame response with heat recirculation through thermally-coupled wall, H and H0: normalized convective heat
transfer coefficients at the inner and outer surfaces of the channel wall, C: ratio of heat capacity of gas-phase to the solid
structure, b: Zeldovich number, ag and aw: thermal diffusivities of gas and solid structure.
considers flame front acceleration and rate of flame

temperature variation [94]. Figure 17 shows stables
flames at high and low velocity regions and FREI
at middle velocity. Amplitudes of the FREI, that
is, length between upstream and downstream turn-
ing points during FREI are clearly seen. Length of
the FREI shortens when mixture flow velocity
decreased toward the transition point from FREI
(middle branch of steady-state solution) to weak
flame regime (lower branch). This implies that
weak flames are stabilized flame on an ignition
branch. The theory provides very clear overall pic-
tures of the experiments for a flame in a prescribed
wall temperature profile [86,87].
In addition, two-dimensional computations for
narrow tube captured oscillatory and chaotic
flame dynamics [95], FREI-like limit-cycle phe-
nomena close to its limit for self-stabilized flame
with heat recirculation [78], and mixed and pure
FREI [96]. Furthermore, two-dimensional com-
putations with detailed chemistry and transport
Fig. 14. Direct images of (A) normal flame and (B) for fuel lean hydrogen/air flames (/ = 0.5) in pla-
flames with repetitive extinction and ignition (FREI) nar microchannels with prescribed wall tempera-
which were observed in a heated channel (a channel with ture [97,98] identified much richer varieties of
a prescribed wall temperature profile). Mixture flows flame dynamics including open symmetric, asym-
from right to left. metric, oscillating, pulsating flames at higher flow
rates as well as the details of FREI for the first
time. Figure 18 shows the details of ignition/
extinction behaviors shown by temporal varia-
tions of maximum temperature inside the channel,
and two-dimensional distributions of OH (c–e)
and H2 (f–g) fractions at time instants t1–t3, for
UIN = 1 cm/s. At the moment of ignition of the
incoming fresh mixture heated by the hot walls,
confined flame propagates horizontally both
upstream and downstream directions. The
upstream propagating flame changes its configu-
ration from curved to nearly flat flame and extin-
guishes in the upstream. The downstream
propagating flame keeps its initial configuration
in the remaining fresh mixture and extinguishes,
finally. Such double ignition-kernels, propagating
Fig. 15. Flame exhibiting repetitive extinction and the opposite direction at the moment of re-igni-
ignition which was observed in a curved duct fuel rich tion during FREI were independently observed,
condition. and thoroughly examined numerically and exper-
imentally [99,100].
Detailed laser diagnosis on FREI were also
remained almost constant and steady. Further- conducted [101]. FREI were observed through
more, flames which have the characteristics of CH* and OH* PLIF measurements and move-
both pulsating flame and FREI were also ments of these excited species during FREI are
observed (Fig. 16d). The flames are characterized successfully captured for the first time. Besides,
by two kinds of flame behaviors, which are a com- reaction-zone temperature measurement by OH
bination of the periodical motions of pulsating two-line method showed flame temperature his-
flame with small amplitude and repetitive ignition tory from ignition to extinction during FREI,
and extinction with large amplitude. experimentally [102].
Theoretical study examined dynamics of flame
in a channel with prescribed wall temperature pro-
file [94]. Non-stationary flame behaviors as well as 4.2.3. Lower limit of weak flame
overall flame response are successfully captured For self-sustaining flame in a channel with heat
analytically by proposing one-dimensional nonlin- recirculation via channel wall, lower limits of
ear evolutionary equation of flame front which weak flame do exist due to the decrease of heat
Fig. 16. Temporal histories of various flames of propane/air mixtures at an average mixture velocity of 30 cm/s and an
equivalence ratio of 0.5; (A) stable flame in the case of maximum wall temperature, Tc = 1320 K; (B) flame with
repetitive extinction and ignition, Tc = 1130 K; (C) pulsating flame, Tc = 1270 K; and (D) flame with a combination of
pulsating flame and FREI, Tc = 1200 K.
Fig. 17. Theoretical flame response for a narrow chan-

nel with a prescribed wall temperature. V and Xfs are
flow velocity normalized by adiabatic flame speed and
flame location. Overall flame response with two stable
and one unstable branches were identified. Amplitudes Fig. 18. Ignition/extinction mode at UIN = 1 cm/s in the
of flame oscillation for FREI at middle branch are h = 2 mm channel: (a) temporal variation of the maxi-
clearly predicted by nonlinear evolutionary equation of mum temperature inside the channel; (b) expanded detail
flame front. Triangles and squares are the upstream of (a); (c–e) and (f–h) two-dimensional maps of the YOH
(‘extinction’) and downstream turning points (‘ignition’), and Y H2 , respectively, at the three times t1 to t3 marked
respectively. in (b). The minimum in the color-coded bar corresponds
to zero for YOH and Y H2 , while the maximum to
YOH = 7.1 104, 1.0 103, and 6.0 104, in (c–e),
generation with decreasing incoming enthalpy respectively, and to 5.14 103 for Y H2 .
[73]. On the other hand, weak flame extinction
of microscale flame in a tube with prescribed wall
temperature does not likely occur, since tube wall external heater. This issue, the lower limit of weak
temperature is somehow compensated by an flame, was recently addressed [103].
XK
By the preliminary experiments, weak flame
_ dT 1 d kA dT þ A
M qY k V k cpk
dT
regime for CH4/air mixture was identified at the dx cp dx dx cp k¼1 dx
mean flow velocity smaller than 3.0 cm/s. In the
main experiments, although distinguishable weak A X K
A 4kNu
flames were observed on or above 0.2 cm/s, no þ x_ k hk W k ðT W T Þ ¼ 0:
cp k¼1 cp d 2
weak flame was observed at the mean flow veloc-
ity smaller than 0.2 cm/s, with even longer expo- Based on the fully developed flow in a circular
sure time. This indicated the existence of the tube for the case between constant wall heat flux
lower limit of weak flame in a prescribed wall and constant wall temperature, constant Nu (Nus-
temperature. selt number) = 4 is assumed. Figure 20 shows the
Figure 19 shows the difference between flame computed flame response to the mean flow veloc-
and wall temperatures in a weak flame regime. It ity in a log-scale at equivalence ratio unity. The
shows temperature increase at the flame. The fig- location of the CH peak is considered as flame
ure clearly indicates that the temperature differ- location. Dashed line with open circles in the fig-
ences decrease with the decrease of the mean ure is the prescribed wall temperature. The com-
flow velocity and the difference is almost zero at putational flame response showed an e-shaped
the mean flow velocity of 0.2 cm/s, where the wall curve, which has an additional lower velocity
temperature is around 1225 K regardless of mix- branch with the S-shaped curve in Fig. 17 [94].
ture composition. Therefore, this temperature at Based on the stability analysis for the S-shaped
the limit of weak flame can be considered as the curve, the lowest velocity branch is considered to
ignition temperature of the given mixture based be unstable. If this assumption is true, the exis-
on the two characteristics of weak flame, (1) very tence of two stable and two unstable solutions in
small temperature increase and (2) stabilized flame the four regimes can be inferred. Therefore, the
on the ignition branch, which were inferred by the existence of the lower limit of the experimental
analysis (Fig. 17) [94]. weak flame can be interpreted as the lower limit
Although ignition is usually considered to be of the region (3) in Fig. 20.
transient phenomena, it was established as sta- Computational temperature difference between
tionary propagating weak flame on the ignition flame and wall at the flame position in weak flame
branch with the help and temperature confine- regime [103] were quite similar to the experimental
ment by the prescribed wall temperature. Hence, result shown in Fig. 19. Computed temperature
ignition and limit of the weak flame propagation difference becomes almost zero (Tg Tw < 1 K)
can be considered to be equivalent to each other at mean flow velocity of 0.1 cm/s when wall tem-
at this extreme condition. This fact also indicates perature is 1230 K, which agrees very well with
that the general ignition temperature of given mix- the experimental result (1225 K). However, this
ture (at given residence time under the existence of point locates in the middle of the lowest velocity
diffusion), which is apparatus independent, can be branch (regime (4)) in Fig. 20. Since the boundary
identified with the position of the weak flame between the stable and unstable branches is unre-
(local wall temperature) by this approach. solved, stability analysis should be conducted. It
One-dimensional computations with detailed should be also noted that the extremely small tem-
chemistry and transport properties was conducted perature increase does not directly correspond to
[103] for more information. A steady-state flame flame quenching in the low velocity regime; how-
code [87] with GRI-mech 3.0 was used. Energy ever, the conventional reaction with intense heat
equation with a convective heat transfer between release no longer occurs in regime (4), even
gas and wall is expressed as: though the heat loss from the flame zone is com-
pensated by the external heater.
30
If the thermal quenching does not occur at the
φ = 1.2
1.2 lower limit of the stable weak flame, what is the
Temperature difference (K)
φ = 1.0
1.0
25 φ = 0.85
0.85 possible mechanism of the extinction of weak
φ = 0.6
0.6 flame? It is currently considered that the cause
20
of such limit is related to the dominance of diffu-
15 sive mass dissipation over the convective mass
10
transfer in the extremely low velocity regime.
Based on this assumption, the effect of diffusion
5 on the lower limit of weak flame is examined com-
0
putationally by comparing the convective and dif-
fusive mass fluxes of OH in the case of high and
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Flow velocity (cm/s)
low velocity regimes. OH was chosen because it
is one of the key radicals for chain branching as
Fig. 19. Measured temperature difference between the well as its high diffusivity. Results indicated that
flame and inner surface of tube wall at the flame position diffusive mass dissipations from the reaction zone
as a function of meat flow velocity. to both upstream and downstream directions were
1400
100 (1) Stable
Mean flow velocity (cm/s)

1200
Wall temperature (K)

(2) Unstable
10
1000
(3) Stable
800
1 (4) Unstable
600
0.1
Flameposition
Flame ( φ(=1.0)
positionφ =1.0)
400
Walltemperature
Wall temperature
0.01 200
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Location (cm)
Fig. 20. Computed flame positions with mean flow velocity at the unity equivalence ratio.
significant close to the weak flame limit. Thus, movement [111] are also observed. Spiral flames
lower limit of weak flame was attributed to this, are observed at high velocity region at the gap
which lowered the number of collisions and the between two plates larger than 2 mm [107,109].
rate of production of chain carriers, finally leads The observed flame patterns are sensitive to the
to extinction. Existence of the weak flame limit system parameters, particularly to the gap
and its mechanism was also investigated under between two plates. For instance, no stable circu-
the reduced pressure [82,103]. lar flames are observed when the gap is equal to
1.5 mm. Instead, traveling and pelton-wheel-like
4.2.4. Pattern formation flames occupy 80% and 20% of regime diagram,
Spiral and other pattern formations, which are respectively.
common in excitable media, were often observed This implies that small scale combustion with
in combustion systems [104–106]. Accordingly, radial flow geometry is likely to be suffered from
pattern formations in microscale combustion have analogous combustion instabilities. Accordingly,
been also observed. Dynamic flames in straight, combustion completeness in the radial channel
flat and radial channels exhibited various flame during the pattern formation is examined [108].
patterns with the parameter change. Periodic reg- Combustion efficiencies estimated from the
ular oscillatory phenomena made transitions and burned gas composition are 0.82–0.88 at double
resulted in chaotic behavior or pattern formation. pelton flames whereas 0.48–0.82 at single pelton
Combustion in a straight tube (one-dimen- flame. Significant amount of unburned fuel and
sional) with prescribed wall temperature profile CO are flowing out without completing combus-
was extended to a radial channel (two-dimen- tion in low combustion efficiency conditions. Dif-
sional) having a mixture supply tube at the center. ficulties in completing combustion at small scale
A positive temperature gradient in radial direction combustor with two-dimensional geometries, such
from room temperature to around 850 K (pre- as MEMS micro gas-turbines, are inferred.
scribed radial wall temperature) was applied to a Mechanisms of pattern formations were inves-
radial channel between two circular plates. Fig- tigated and few aspects were clarified to date.
ure 21 shows rich varieties of instabilities and pat- Inner and outer edges of the pelton and traveling
tern formations, such as single, double, triple flames are correlated with the locations of ignition
pelton-wheel-like flames, tri-brachial flame, spiral and extinction of FREI phenomena in a straight
flame and traveling-wave flames as well as stable tube based on experimental results [112]. Single/
circular flame [107–109]. Each pattern can be double pelton flames and spiral flames were
transformed one to another with the variations numerically reproduced with two-dimensional
of the parameters such as mixture flow rate, equiv- transient computations [112] and their structure
alence ratio and gap between two plates and those were examined. Clarifications of pattern forma-
transitions were summarized as regime diagram tion mechanism and those flame structures are,
[107]. As expected, most probable flame pattern however, difficult task and still ongoing.
in the regime diagram is stable circular flame Details of re-ignition in FREI on a straight
when the gap between two plates is 2 mm. How- channel is examined numerically and experimen-
ever, other patterns, such as single or double sep- tally [99,100]. Splitting flames, which have dual
arated flames rotating around the center of the reaction fronts, one propagating to upstream
channel, which are termed as pelton-wheel-like and another to downstream directions, are
flames [110], circular flames divided into some observed. This is due to the fact that re-ignition
fractions where each fraction exhibiting tangential of FREI starts not at the edge of recharging fresh
Fig. 21. Flame patterns observed in a radial microchannel with prescribed wall temperature profile under different
conditions; (a) stable circular flame; (b, c) single and double pelton-wheel-like flames; (d) tri-brachial flame; (e) spiral
flame; and (f) traveling flames.
mixture but at a certain point with small distance the steady open symmetric flame with the chaotic
from the edge of the fresh mixture. Splitting flame cellular flame.
behavior is playing key role for pattern forma-
tions in radial channel [112]. Splitting flame 4.2.5. Spinning flames
behavior is identified independently [98] by two- Heat recirculation through tube wall or heat
dimensional DNS for hydrogen/air mixture. transfer in prescribed wall temperature geometry
Rich varieties of flame patterns are also substantially modifies the balance between heat
observed by two-dimensional direct numerical and mass transfer of flames in a tube. Thus, flame
simulation with detailed chemistry and transport dynamics attributed to Lewis number effect is
for hydrogen/air flames at atmospheric pressure expected to occur. In fact, spinning flames are
in a rectangular channel between two parallel reported in a cylindrical divergent channel with
plates [97,98]. Temperature gradient along the heat recirculation [113] and a cylindrical straight
flow direction which ramps smoothly from 300 channel with prescribed wall temperature [114].
to 960 K is given. Three kinds of channel heights, Spinning flames in a divergent section of the
2, 4 and 7 mm cases are examined for wide range convergent–divergent channel (Fig. 23) were
of inlet mixture velocities from 0.3 up to 1100 cm/ reported [113]. Flame was stabilized in a divergent
s. Because of this wide velocity range and wider section as a weak flame under the strong thermal-
channel height compared with the ordinal quench- coupling between flame and wall. Spinning flames
ing distance of hydrogen/air mixture, rich varie- was experimentally observed in addition to prop-
ties of flame patterns are obtained as well as agating, self-extinguishing and stabilized planar
comprehensive results which cover the conditions flames. After ignition of the mixture at the chan-
that are addressed by the existing experimental nel outlet, flame started to propagate toward sec-
studies [87,93]. Four new kinds of flame regime, tion C through D, when the flame enters the
i.e., open steady symmetric flames, oscillating, section C, flame propagation speed decreases
asymmetric and chaotic flames are predicted at owing to the decrease of tube diameter where
UIN > 75 cm/s for the channel height of 4 mm, in the local flow velocity increases. Finally, flame is
addition to the three flame regime, such as weak stabilized in a certain location in the section C
flames, ignition/extinction and closed steady sym- as a planar stable (Q = 3 cm3/s) or spinning
metric flames at UIN < 75 cm/s. flames (Q = 5 cm3/s) at / = 1.5. Some time delay
Figure 22 shows the temporal variation of the existed for the start of spinning motion due to the
integrated heat release rate and OH fraction con- time requirement for the flame–wall thermal-cou-
tour of oscillating flame at UIN = 300 cm/s. The pling was established. Spinning direction was
oscillation of the integrated heat release rate is found to be random. There exists a critical flow
somehow periodic while oscillating flame at rate, above which spinning flame exists and below
UIN = 100 cm/s exhibits chaotic oscillatory which flame is stable both methane/air and
behaviors. Two separated flames in the figure propane/air flames. For methane flames, there is
appear to be resulted from the interaction of a quenching limit at low flow rates. Close to the
Fig. 22. Oscillating flames at inlet mixture velocity at 300 cm/s in the 4 mm height channel; (a) time history of integrated
heat release rate and (b)–(d) OH fractions at the time instants t1 to t3.
600mm
A
B C D
4mm 10mm
Inlet 100mm Outlet
Fig. 23. Scheme of convergent–divergent channel.
stoichiometric conditions, propane flames with results in exceeding the critical non-dimensional
low flow rate pass thorough the throat without Lewis number b(Le 1) = 21/2 for adiabatic and
extinction. It was found that the spin frequency 18/5 for limiting cases in the conventional theory,
is almost proportional to the average flame speed if the Zeldovich number assumed to be around
but not depend on the flow rate. Spinning flames 10. Thus, it can be concluded that the current
were observed for both methane and propane spinning flames are induced by the increase of the
flames at lean and rich conditions regardless of
the mixture Lewis numbers. In a conventional the-
ory on diffusive-thermal instability [115], flame
Effective Lewis Number, Le*/Le
instability appears at mixture Lewis numbers lar- 1.6

ger than the critical value. Therefore, the current
results seem to be inconsistent with the theory of
diffusive-thermal instability of non-adiabatic 1.4
flames. However, it was pointed out that the bal-
ance between heat and mass transfers are different mv=500
from that obtained by mixture Lewis number due 1.2
to the heat recirculation through tube wall. mv=400
Hence, effective Lewis number, which accounts
for the heat transfer through the tube wall, was esti- 1.0
mated to examine the condition for the onset of 20 40 60 80 100
Normalized Diameter, d
flame spinning. Figure 24 shows effective Lewis
number as a function of normalized tube diameter Fig. 24. Effective Lewis number estimated from theo-
which was theoretically estimated by matching the retical analysis by matching the flame speeds with and
flame speed with and without heat recirculation without heat recirculation for methane–air mixture. mv is
[113]. Significant increase in the estimated effective volumetric flow rate normalized by the product of
Lewis number at small normalized diameter readily adiabatic flame speed and the square of flame thickness.
effective Lewis number due to the heat recircula- mode plays a dominant role in the transitions. Sig-
tion. Two curves with different flow rates in the fig- nificant spinning-frequency dependence on the
ure clearly explain the existence of the critical flow flow velocity, which contradicts those found in a
rate above which the flame spinning is being divergent tube [113], was reported. The success
observed. of three-dimensional DNS with detailed chemistry
Very recently, three-dimensional numerical shows that the microscale combustion is one of
simulation with detailed chemistry and transport the perfect platforms for the interactive develop-
on premixed hydrogen/air flames (/ = 0.5) in ments of multi-dimensional DNS, comprehensive
cylindrical tubes (inner diameters of 1.0 and theory and experiments using modern diagnosis.
1.5 mm) with prescribed wall temperature profile
was conducted [114]. In the wider tube, spinning 4.3. Wall chemical effect
flames (Fig. 25) as well as steady mild combustion,
oscillatory ignition/extinction, steady closed and 4.3.1. Catalytic combustion
open axisymmetric flames, and steady non-axi- In microscale applications, catalytic exother-
symmetric flames were identified. Coexistence of mic reaction is advantageous because of the large
the spinning and axisymmetric flames was further surface-to-volume ratio, immobile heat release
discussed based on axisymmetric computations to zone, no quenching distance, moderate reaction
elucidate the nature of the observed transitions in temperature and clean emission. Some new funda-
the wider tube. Fourier analysis during the transi- mental aspects of catalytic combustion, design,
tions showed that a unity wave-number azimuthal operation, modeling and diagnosis which are
Fig. 25. Clockwise spinning flame at the flow velocity of 150 cm/s in the 1.5 mm tube: (a) time history of the temperature
(solid line) at the reference point P at ðx; y; zÞ ¼ ð0:3; 0:1; 2:06Þ mm, and integral heat release HRR (dashed line);
(b, d, f, h) iso-surfaces of YOH = 1.7 103, and temperature iso-contours on the y–z plane at the four times t1 to t4
shown in (a); (c, e, g, i) iso-contours of YOH on the z = 1.5 mm plane at times t1 to t4.
newly highlighted for microcombustion applica- the stoichiometric condition. Rich limit of cata-
tion are briefly overviewed. lytic combustion was very rich, e.g., /lim > 40 at
Re = 15. This fact suggests that catalytic flamma-
4.3.1.1. Stability and flammability limits of cata- bility limit is totally governed by the different
lytic combustion. Flame stability and flammabil- mechanism with that of gas-phase combustion.
ity limits are one of the key fundamental Maximum burner temperatures as a function
subjects of combustion science. Thus, “flammabil- of Re, along the extinction limits in Fig. 26 was
ity limit” of catalytic combustion was addressed recorded and the lowest temperature for self-
using Swiss-roll burners [116] for very wide range sustaining catalytic combustion is 350 K at
of physical parameters. Their principle findings Re = 1.2, when NH3 conditioned catalysis was
are capability of low-temperature catalytic reac- used. Meanwhile, the lowest temperatures for
tion and flammability limit boundaries which are self-sustaining gas-phase reactions are far above
unsymmetrical to the stoichiometry and extremely 900 K. It is emphasized again that those remark-
wide toward fuel rich condition. A 3.5-turn square ably low self-sustaining temperatures for catalytic
spiral counterflow Swiss-roll burner with combustion at “lean” limits were accomplished at
70 70 50 mm tall having 3.5 mm channel the rich side of the stoichiometry (Fig. 26).
width was constructed and bare platinum strips Capability of low-temperature self-sustaining
with approximately 30 cm2 in total area were catalytic combustion at the rich side of stoichiom-
placed at the center of the burner. Propane/air etry has been reported earlier by using simple cat-
mixture and other diluents were used and both alytic channel [117]. Figure 27 shows the lowest
catalytic and gas-phase combustion were tested self-sustaining temperature curve, which is discon-
in the experiments. Figure 26 shows the lean and tinuous at stoichiometric condition and required
rich extinction limit boundaries of catalytic and temperature drops by almost half there, demon-
gas-phase combustion on Reynolds number – strated by varying fuel-to-oxygen ratio in a meth-
equivalence ratio plane. Notable feature in the fig- ane/nitrogen/oxygen mixture. The figure shows
ure is very wide self-sustained boundary of cata- extinction limits and required temperatures for
lytic combustion, which has reached down to self-sustaining reaction of N2-diluted methane/
very small Re close to unity, being unsymmetrical oxygen mixtures in a non-adiabatic, 1 mm diame-
to the stoichiometric condition. Its difference with ter catalytic channel at representative operating
that of gas-phase combustion is remarkable espe- condition of mixture velocity = 0.06 m/s and heat
cially in low Re and fuel rich conditions. For transfer coefficient from the outside of the channel
example, gas-phase reaction cannot be sustained wall to the ambient is 5 W/m2 K. The limit tem-
at Re < 40, while catalytic combustion with NH3 peratures are higher than 1200 K in fuel lean con-
conditioned catalysis can be sustained at Re ’ 1, dition while those at fuel rich condition are lower
where maximum temperature record at the burner than 800 K and decreasing down to 600 K as
center is very low (350 K at Re = 1.2.) shown in the figure. This high/low limit tempera-
It is also noted that at Re < 15, lean extinction ture at fuel lean/rich side and its discontinuity at
limit of catalytic combustion is at richer side of the stoichiometry is interpreted in terms of inhibi-
tion of methane absorption by O(s) surface cover-
age [118], which drastically differs at lean and rich
sides of the stoichiometry.
Fig. 27. Lower self-sustaining limits of fuel concentra-

Fig. 26. Stability boundary of catalytic and gas-phase tion and operation temperature for N2-diluted methane/
combustion on Reynolds number – equivalence ratio oxygen mixtures in a Pt catalyst channel (1 mm in
plane. Reynolds number is defined by the area-averaged diameter) at the averaged inlet mixture velocity 0.06 m/s
inlet mixture velocity at the standard state. Swiss-roll under heat loss condition. Heat transfer coefficient
burner is made of Inconel. between outer wall to the ambient is 5 W/m2 K.
Additional advantage of fuel rich operation for observed. Blow-off limits obtained with gas-phase
limiting formation of metal oxides is discussed in chemistry were extended both for TIN = 600 K
[119]. Metal oxides are often volatile than the and 700 K at 5 bar. These limit extensions are
reduced metal and loss of Pt in the form of PtO2 interpreted by gas-phase homogeneous reaction
is a significant mechanisms for catalyst deactiva- occurred along the center of the channel, at
tion under fuel lean operation. Under fuel rich slightly downstream of the region of surface reac-
conditions, however, volatility of the catalyst is tion as shown by streamwise profiles of methane
not a significant deactivation mechanism, allow- conversions in gas-phase and at the catalyst
ing long catalyst life and broad choice of catalyst surface.
materials, without constraints regarding oxide Similar tendencies containing interaction
volatility. between gas-phase and surface reactions were
reported for hydrogen/air mixture at ambient
4.3.1.2. Interaction/transition between gas-phase pressure and temperature [125]. Both gas-phase
and surface reactions. Interaction/transition and surface reactions are computed in a
between surface and gas-phase reactions (hetero/ 10 mm 1 mm-diameter thermally thin cylindri-
homogeneous reaction interaction) is important cal Pt channel. Convective and radiative external
for understanding the operation boundary of cat- heat losses were considered. Figure 29 [125] shows
alytic combustion. It was addressed by several computed temperature and OH concentration dis-
studies [120–122] for macroscale applications of tributions for stoichiometric hydrogen/air mixture
catalytic partial oxidation and NOx reduction at an inlet flow velocity of 2 m/s by three reaction
and use of high temperature heat exchangers modes: both gas-phase and surface reactions, gas-
[123]. phase reaction-alone and surface reaction-alone.
Stability diagram with evident extension of sta- Though comparatively rapid temperature rises
bility limits due to gas-phase reaction was pre- close to the channel inlet were attained in all cases,
sented for 10 1 mm Pt-coated catalytic plane most prompt temperature increase was seen in
channel, computationally [124]. Heat conduction gas-phase reaction-alone case, not in both gas-
in the wall (wall thermal conductivity, ks), heat phase and surface reaction case, which implies
loss from outer wall to the ambient (heat transfer that gas-phase reaction is inhibited by catalyst.
coefficient, h), and inlet flow velocity, UIN were This tendency can be more evidently seen from
parameterized using methane/air mixture of / the absence of OH in the vicinity of channel inlet,
= 0.4 at inlet temperature 600 and 700 K. Fig- especially in a region close to catalyst wall for both
ure 28 [124] shows stability diagram constructed gas-phase and surface reaction case. OH concen-
by varying external heat transfer coefficient and tration is higher at wall vicinity for surface reac-
the inlet flow velocity when wall thermal conduction-alone case than that for both gas-phase and
tivity, ks = 2 W/m K. Dual-limit behavior was surface reaction case, and more significantly, OH
are only seen in the vicinity of catalyst wall for sur-
face reaction-alone case because chemical reaction
only occurs on the wall in this case. In a single-
channel catalytic micro burner, self-ignition,
gas-phase combustion in parallel with catalytic
combustion and audible “whistle” together with
temperature bifurcation were also identified [126].
The effect of channel diameter on the interac-
tion between gas-phase and surface reactions is
also essential. Since characteristic diffusion time
scale is proportional to the square of channel
diameter, the decrease in channel diameter leads
to weaker gas-phase reaction through the fuel
depletion by surface reactions. Hence, OH con-
centration along the center axis in gas-phase shifts
upstream and sharply decreases with the decrease
of tube diameter. On the contrary, blow out of
gas-phase reaction is easy to occur when channel
diameter is too large, where promotion of gas-
phase reaction through high temperature and rad-
Fig. 28. Stability diagrams of critical heat transfer icals produced by surface reaction is scarcely
coefficient and inlet velocity at p = 5 bar (squares:
expected. Eventually, optimum channel diameter
TIN = 700 K, triangles: TIN = 700 K without gas-phase
chemistry, circles: TIN = 600 K, crosses: TIN = 600 K exists for intense gas-phase reaction as shown by
without gas-phase chemistry), and at p = 1 bar (filled blow-off limits as a function of channel diameter
diamonds: TIN = 700 K). The stable regimes for the [125]. By summarizing this, overall picture of
700 K cases are shown by the shaded areas. gas-phase and surface reaction interaction divided
Fig. 29. Computed temperature (left) and OH concentration (right) distributions for three different modes: upper: both
homogeneous and heterogeneous reactions, middle: homogeneous reaction-alone, and lower: heterogeneous reaction-
alone.
into three regions was shown in Fig. 30. Gas- in the figure. The existence of upper limit of sur-
phase reaction exceeds surface reaction in the face reaction for hydrogen/air mixture was not
region I, gas-phase reaction is inhibited by surface discussed. For mixtures with moderate surface
reaction to some extent but they both co-exist in reaction rate, e.g., methane/air mixture, have both
region II, and surface reaction is dominant in lower and blow-off limits [117,124].
region III [125]. Line A in the figure corresponds For comprehensive understandings on the limit
to the blow out limits of gas-phase reaction. behavior of catalyst together with interaction of
Above the line B, gas-phase reaction is inhibited the hetero/homogeneous reactions, further inves-
and has no effects on the phenomena. Since tigations at lower catalyst temperatures are
hydrogen/air mixture is lead to light-off even at required. Specific characteristics of catalytic
room temperature, no lower velocity limit exists combustion induced by discontinuous lowest
self-sustaining temperature at the stoichiometry,
competing with hetero/homogeneous reaction
interaction would lead to wide variety of new phe-
nomena in this area.
4.3.1.3. Ignition and low-temperature catalytic

reaction. Ignition or light-off of catalytic reaction
is another key subject of catalytic microcombus-
tion system. Significant role of adsorption–
desorption on catalytic ignition was presented in
one of the early numerical studies [118], though
it was not addressed for micro power generation.
In brief, fuel rich conditions for hydrocarbon fuels
and fuel lean conditions for hydrogen are advan-
tageous for low temperature ignition of catalytic
reactions since catalytic ignition is governed by
the availability of sufficient uncovered surface
sites. Detailed earlier studies on catalytic ignition
were also conducted [127].
Such characteristics motivated various ignition
Fig. 30. Regime of gas-phase and surface reaction strategies for catalytic microcombustion systems
interaction. region I: gas-phase reaction dominant; as well as self-ignition of hydrogen/oxygen mix-
region II: gas-phase reaction inhibited by surface reac- ture at room temperature.
tion but they both co-exist; and region III: surface Hydrogen assisted self-ignition of methane/air
reaction dominant. [128] and propane/air [129] mixtures were investi-
gated. Norton et al. [129] pointed out that concept shows the mole fraction of methane for a quench-
of hydrogen assisted self-ignition of hydrocarbon less wall (solid line) and for a fast radical quench-
can be applied to catalytic microscale devices ing wall (dashed line) for a 100 lm radius channel.
without ignition sources. More practical approach Figure 31b shows the corresponding wall temper-
was conducted to identify the effective ignition ature. The figure shows radical quenching can
strategies for simple catalytic channel with heat result in flame extinction. It is also seen that the
conducting wall numerically [130]. Multi-segment rate of heat released by radical recombination at
catalyst disposition is also examined numerically the wall is insufficient to compensate for the rate
for hydrogen/air mixture in a 1-mm height micro of heat loss through the wall. Therefore, the
channel [131]. kinetic mechanism clearly dominates over the
Catalyst pretreatment is common strategies for thermal process.
achieving desirable catalyst ignition characteris- For qualitative but general understanding,
tics. Catalyst activation at lower temperatures for numerical study using three-step skeletal kinetic
hydrocarbon fuels were attempted by using NH3 mechanism, consists of chain-initiation, branching
pretreatment [116]. This technique was applied and termination process, as well as radical
for low-temperature catalytic “plastic” combustor quenching on the wall surface was conducted
system which produces electric power [132] with [137]. Steady flame propagation in a two-dimen-
so-called micro heat engine [133]. The micro heat sional mesoscale channel was considered. The
engine converts thermal power to mechanical effects of channel widths, diffusivity of radicals
power through the expansion and compression of and radical quenching coefficient on the flame
a two phase working fluid. Then the mechanical speed were discussed by using two different values
power is converted into electrical power through of crossover chain-branching temperature. Con-
the use of a thin-film piezoelectric generator tours of fuel and radical mass fractions (not
[133]. Room temperature ignition for DME at plat- shown here) of stabilized flame indicated the exis-
inum pellet catalytic reactor is also achieved by tence of significant amount of radicals near the
pure DME feed followed by mixture supply [134]. wall for the case without radical quenching, while
the radicals near the wall is consumed due to the
radical quenching at the wall for the case with
4.3.2. Radical quenching radical quenching. Figure 32 shows the effects of
The effects of radical quenching on flame speed radical quenching on the flame speed at different
and extinction are considered to be significant in wall temperatures. Radical quenching does not
microscale combustion due to the large surface- play significant role at large channel widths. When
to-volume ratio. The wall chemical effect has been the channel width decreases, radical quenching
discussed based on interfacial concentration and starts to reduce the flame speed. At higher wall
temperature discontinuities at the wall [135] in temperatures, radical quenching on the wall
microscale combustion system. Radical quenching
at wall [78,136,137] and non-equilibrium slip in
catalytic combustion [135,138] were addressed to
date. Physically, the former is considered that rad-
icals adsorb on the wall where they recombine by
the surface reactions through surface diffusion to
form stable molecules that could desorb to the
gas-phase. The radical removal rate is modeled
using the sticking coefficient, describing the prob-
ability of an impinging molecule to stick to the
surface and the probability of a radical encounter-
ing an empty active wall site [139]. The limiting
case of zero sticking coefficient corresponds to
an inert wall, while a sticking coefficient of one
corresponds to the fastest possible radical
removal. A study on stagnation flow [139] found
that radical recombination was exothermic and
its released heat can have a net stabilizing effect
on the flame under certain conditions, while radi-
cal removal retards combustion under isothermal
conditions and can cause extinction. Fig. 31. Mole fraction of (a) methane and (b) dimension-
Two-dimensional computations for preheated less temperature (normalized by 1273.15 K) along the
methane/air combustion in a non-adiabatic length of the reactor for quenchless walls (solid lines) and
straight channel with detailed chemistry and quenching material (dashed lines). Temperature discon-
transport focusing on the gas-surface interfacial tinuity is not taken into account in these simulations.
phenomena were conducted [78,136]. Figure 31a External heat transfer coefficient at 4.187 W/m2 K.
in a polycrystalline alumina burner as shown in

Fig. 33. Fuel and oxidizer were supplied from
the Y-shaped separated inlet ports at the bottom
of the burner and exhaust gas was ejected from
the outlet at the top. Observed flame structures
were found to be sensitive to fuels employed
(H2, CH4 and C3H8). The flame instabilities were
only seen for CH4 and C3H8 cases, while they
were not observed for H2–O2 case except the case
with He dilution. The number of flame cells in the
burner was dependent on flow rates and overall
stoichiometry.
To elucidate the mechanism of diffusion-flame
instability in a mixing layer in microscale channel,
Fig. 32. Effects of radical quenching on the channel
Xu and Ju [144] examined the dynamics of diffu-
width and inlet temperature T0 on flame speed (normal- sion flame in a mesoscale channel with elevated
ized). TB and ls are employed chain-branching temper- temperature wall, experimentally and analytically.
ature level and radical quenching coefficient. Radical By the study, structure of flame streets in the mix-
quenching is significant at higher temperature. ing layer was shown to be multiple triple-flames.
The number of flamelets and the flame distance
becomes more significant since flame can be sus- in the mixing layer depends on the flow rate, wall
tained at smaller channel and the radical concen- temperature, and fuel diffusivity. Figure 34 shows
tration is higher. In addition, radical quenching multiple flamelets at different wall temperatures.
lead to narrower flammability limit via decreasing At higher wall temperatures, the heat loss from
the flame speed. flame to the wall is reduced and the flame temper-
Feasibility study of hydrocarbon combustion ature will increase. Thus, the flamelets can stabi-
in a small burner was experimentally conducted lize at more diluted conditions and the flame
by paying special attention to thermal and radical separation distance becomes shorter. This effect
quenching [140]. Several wall materials which are surpasses the flow velocity increase by the thermal
not expected to trap radicals are selected based expansion for methane case. The size of the flam-
on an earlier analysis [141]. By using the gap elets was proportional to the width of the mixing
formed by those materials, quenching test was layer. An analytical scale model qualitatively
conducted with a standard methane/oxygen torch. explained the mechanism of flame streets and
The wall temperature was controlled by heating or reproduced the flame separation distance. At
cooling the material blocks to maintain an inside lower flow rate and lower temperature region,
wall temperature at constant. Results show that an unsteady bimodal flame regime was also iden-
quenching distance did not depend on wall mate- tified in addition to the flame streets.
rials when the wall temperature is below 500 K
whereas those at wall temperature near 1273 K
are strongly dependent on the wall materials. It
was concluded that the thermal quenching was
dominant at low-temperature wall while the radi-
cal quenching was dominant at high temperature
wall. Effects of thermal and chemical surface–
flame interaction on flame quenching were exper-
imentally investigated at KAIST [142]. Reactive
and inert test plates with three kinds of materials,
such as stainless steel, alumina and quartz are
chosen for the panels organizing narrow gap.
Nearly identical quenching distances are demon-
strated at wall temperature at 500 K regardless
of wall material and pretreatment, while material
and pretreatment sensitivities are confirmed at
wall temperature at 1100 K.
4.4. Diffusion-controlled phenomena

Fig. 33. Diffusion-flame instabilities observed in (a)
4.4.1. Diffusion-flame instability 30 5 0.75-mm Y-shaped rectangular channel in an
Novel cellular-type diffusion-flame instability alumina burner. Flame images of (b) three flame cells
in flow direction was observed [143] in a formed with 100 sccm CH4/200 sccm O2, and (c) four
30 5 0.75-mm Y-shaped rectangular channel flame cells for 100 sccm CH4/130 sccm O2.
Humanoid robots, unmanned vehicles, powered

wheelchair, etc., which definitely need portable
power sources, will have growing markets in the
future. By considering the average power con-
sumption of human beings are slightly larger than
100 W, CO2 emission from the combustion-based
smaller power generators with the same power
levels may not have serious environmental
impacts. It is noted that application to micro
power generation is not for any global energy or
CO2 issues but for the future value-added, reason-
able products which utilizes high energy density of
hydrocarbon fuels.
Fig. 34. Photographs of flame streets in a fuel/oxidizer Flame bifurcations induced by wall thermal
mixing layer in a microscale channel at different wall effects exhibited weak flames and dynamic oscil-
temperatures. At wall temperature 500 °C, diffusion lating and spinning flames. Experimental, compu-
flame branch does not quench and all flamelets merge, tational and theoretical studies stimulated each
leading to a single triple flame structure. other and disclosed rich variety of novel micro/
mesoscale flame phenomena. Low-temperature
catalyst operation, interaction between gas-phase
4.4.2. Microscale jet flames and surface reactions and radical quenching
For examining diffusion limited phenomena, gained increasing interests through wall chemical
microscale hydrogen-jet diffusion flames formed effects. Novel diffusion-controlled phenomena
by microscale tubes (d = 0.2 and 0.48 mm) were were observed and analyzed.
investigated with UV Raman scattering coupled In addition to them, what we have learned
with LIPF technique [145]. Point measurements from fundamental microscale combustion are
of temperature, major species concentrations expected to be applied for new concept combus-
(O2, N2, H2O and H2), and absolute hydroxyl rad- tion technologies. By the knowledge of flame
ical concentration (OH) were conducted. Two- bifurcation, weak flame and extinction and igni-
dimensional OH image shows that a spherical tion instabilities, we may establish very slow
flame with 1-mm radius was established at 0.2- and/or spatially distributed heat sources for fur-
mm tube. Computation showed that the flames ther energy conversions. Catalytic combustion
are in the convection–diffusion controlled regime with extremely low-temperature will be technically
because of low Peclet numbers. useful, and also may lead to totally unexpected
A theoretical study on the extinction limit of catalyst usage. Knowledge on predominant diffu-
microscale jet diffusion flames conducted by Kuw- sion also might lead new applications. For sum-
ana et al. [146] showed that the mixture-fraction mary, some new trials and future directions are
gradient at the flame tip greater than a critical discussed.
value leads to flame extinction.
5.1. Microscale engines and power generators
5. Summary and future of micro and mesoscale Future hybrid and electric vehicles are requir-
combustion ing power sources for driving compressor, genera-
tor, pump and even heat sources for air
Micro and mesoscale combustion engines, tur- conditioning and adsorption heat pump system.
bines, thrusters, reactors and power generators Therefore, further developments of scale-down
with various operation principles were introduced. versions of existing engines, such as SI, and com-
Though the developments are still not at fully pression–ignition engines, gas-turbines, rotary
matured stage, sufficient feasibilities were demon- and free-piston engines, Starling engines as well
strated through the technical challenges. As noted as efficient, reliable, microscale combustors with
at the beginning, combustion-based small scale clean emissions and robust controls are required.
energy devices possess broad potential applica- Low temperature operation using weak flame or
tions not only as electrical power source but as dynamic flames may be possible for low power
heat and mechanical power sources. Thus, scale- density sources due to higher energy efficiency
down approaches of the existing macroscale IC using slower process.
engines, turbines as well as devices with specific Combinations of combustors/reactors with
operation principles which are advantageous in energy conversion devices are also promising.
small scales have bright future-outlook. Various The latest development on 1-cm-size power gener-
microscale combustors with/without energy con- ators using a tube-type catalytic combustor and
version devices, micro-thrusters are also promis- conventional thermoelectric devices marked
ing as mechanical power and heat sources. 3.52% of total efficiency and energy density
420 W h/kg [147], which is nearly 2.5 times of Li- are only at the beginning. Temperature measure-
ion batteries. Micro power generator with TPV ments of oscillating flames in a heated channel
device or other conversion principles are also by OH two-line method, which enriched our
expected to be invented for new applications. understandings on the dynamic flames, were per-
formed [102].
5.2. Micro reactors for fuel reforming Finally, it is emphasized that further funda-
mental studies on microscale combustion on
Microreactors for fuel reforming using thermal extremely small scale targets, non-equilibrium
energy based on small combustion devices are effects, wall quenches and their control, in addi-
promising. Heat and mass transfers, and reaction tion to stability boundaries, mild or flameless
processes can be optimized through the precise combustion in collaboration with cutting-edge
process control rather than the macroscale coun- computations and laser diagnosis are strongly
terparts. Recently, the conversions of wet ethanol, encouraged for flexible, innovative new designs
or ethanol that has not been fully distilled or and concepts for novel combustion technologies.
dehydrated, to syngas were investigated using
combustion in porous media [148], and shown
that wet ethanol to be a promising biological Acknowledgements
source for hydrogen. Design challenges for such
direction using flexibility of microcombustion The author would like to express special
are plausible. thanks to Prof. Yiguang Ju of Princeton Univer-
sity for incentive and enjoyable discussion on
5.3. Microscale combustion for fuel characterizations microscale combustion. Independent coauthored
review is in press [4].
Knowledge on weak flame and increasing
demand for anti-knocking fuels for future HCCI
engines motivated fundamental study of ignition References
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Micro and Mesoscale Combustion

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Micro and mesoscale combustion

Available online 6 October 2010

Keywords: Microscale combustion; Mesoscale combustion; Microcombustion

1. Introduction the large surface-to-volume ratio of small scale

In small scale combustion systems, surface-to-

Meso- and microscale rotary engines by elec-

3.1.2. Micro thrusters

by EDM for scaling studies (Fig. 5, bottom).

Toward power generation, two-dimensional

Fig. 13. A narrow channel with a prescribed wall

considers ﬂame front acceleration and rate of ﬂame

Fig. 17. Theoretical ﬂame response for a narrow chan-

Mean flow velocity (cm/s)

Wall temperature (K)

Inlet 100mm Outlet

Fig. 23. Scheme of convergent–divergent channel.

instability appears at mixture Lewis numbers lar- 1.6

Fig. 27. Lower self-sustaining limits of fuel concentra-

4.3.1.3. Ignition and low-temperature catalytic

in a polycrystalline alumina burner as shown in

4.4. Diﬀusion-controlled phenomena

Humanoid robots, unmanned vehicles, powered

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