Structure and Properties of Engineering Polymers

Lecture: Polymer Processing

Nikolai V. Priezjev

Textbook: Plastics: Materials and Processing (Third

Edition), by A. Brent Young (Pearson, NJ, 2006).
 Polymer Processing

 Plastic manufacturing processes are used to convert plastic

materials in the form of pellets, powders, sheets etc.
 Different types of plastic manufacturing processes are:

a. Compression molding
f. Calendaring
b. Transfer molding
g. Thermoforming
c. Injection molding
h. Thin Films
d. Extrusion molding
i. Fibers
e. Blow molding

Reading: Chapters 11-18 of Plastics: Materials and Processing by A. Brent Strong

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 Polymer Processing

• Thermoplastic –
– can be reversibly cooled & reheated, i.e. recycled
– heat till soft, shape as desired, then cool
– ex: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, etc.

• Thermoset –
– when heated forms a network
– degrades (not melts) when heated
– mold the prepolymer then allow further reaction
– ex: urethane, epoxy

Reading: Chapters 11-18 of Plastics: Materials and Processing by A. Brent Strong

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 Compression Molding

 The charge (thermosets) is heated by means of the hot

mold to polymerize and cure (Xlink) it into a solidified
desired shaped molded plastic component. (Waffle making).

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 Compression Molding

 First, the charge is loaded into the lower half of mold which is
preheated to maintain the temperature of charge during the
process.
 The placed charge is compressed by bringing both halves of
mold close together.
 The charge is heated by means of the hot mold to polymerize
and cure it into a solidified desired shaped molded plastic
component.
 Then, the halves are opened & molded plastic part is removed
by pressing knockout pins towards inside.
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 Compression Molding

Advantages
 Low initial setup costs and fast setup time
 Heavy plastic parts can be molded
 Complex intricate parts can be made
 Good surface finish of the molded parts
 Wastes relatively little material as compared with other
methods
 The molding process is cheaper as compared to injection
molding

Disadvantages
 Low production rate
 Limited largely to flat or moderately curved parts with
no undercuts
 Reject part cannot be reprocessed
 Compression Molding

Applications

 Electrical and electronic equipments, brush and mirror

handles, trays, cookware knobs, aircraft main power
terminal housing, pot handles, dinnerware plates,
automotive parts.

Compression molded rubber boots

before the flashes are removed.
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 Transfer Molding

Step #1 - A piece of uncured rubber is

placed into a portion of the mold called
the "pot." The plunger (on the top-most
part of the mold) fits snugly into the "pot."

Step #2 - The mold is closed up and

under hydraulic pressure the rubber is
forced through the small hole (the
"gate") into the cavity. The mold is held
closed while the rubber cures.

Step #3 - The plunger is raised up

and the "transfer pad" material may
be removed and thrown away.
Transfer molding is a process where the amount of
material is measured and inserted before the molding
process takes place. The material is then preheated and
loaded into a pot and a plunger is then used to force the
material from the pot through the runner system into the
mold cavities. The mold remains closed as the material is Step #4 - Mold is opened and the part
inserted and is opened to release the part from the can be removed. The flash and the gate
runner. The mold walls are heated to a temperature may need to be trimmed.
above the melting point of the mold material; this allows
a faster flow of material through the cavities.
 Transfer Molding
Advantages
 Fast setup time and lower setup costs
 Low maintenance cost
 Plastic parts with metal inserts can be made
 Design flexibility
 Dimensionally stable
 Uniform thickness of parts
 Large production rate
Disadvantages
 Wastage of material
 Production rate lower than injection molding
 Air can be trapped in the mold

Applications Integrated circuits, plugs, connectors, pins,

coils, studs, radio, television cabinets and car body shells.
 Injection Molding

– thermoplastic & some thermosets

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 Injection Molding

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 Injection Molding

 Palletized material is fed with use of hopper into a cylinder

where material melts due to heating coils.
 Molten material (thermoplastic) is impelled through nozzle
into the enclosed cavity.
 Outstanding characteristic of this molding process is cycle
time is short (10 – 30 sec), i.e. rate of production is very
high. (longer cycle times for thermosets).
 The complete injection molding process is divided into four
stages: clamping, injection, cooling and ejection.

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 Injection Molding

Advantages
 Higher production rate
 Close tolerances on small intricate parts
 Minimum wastage of material
 Complex geometry can be easily produced

Disadvantages
 Tooling cost higher
 High setup cost
 Large undercuts can’t be formed

Applications
 household appliances, electronics, and automotive
dashboards, buckets, etc…
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 Extrusion Molding
Continuous parts

thermoplastics
• plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw
• plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them forward by
the heaters
• molten polymer is forced under pressure through the shaping die
to form the final product
 Extrusion Molding

 Similar to injection molding except long uniform sections

are produced.
 The material which is fed through hopper, is conveyed
forward by a feeding screw & forced through a die,
converting to continuous polymer product.
 Heating is done in order to soften or melt the polymer. The
temp is controlled by thermocouples.
 The product going out of the die is cooled by blown air or in
water bath.

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 Extrusion Molding
Advantages
 High production volumes
 Relatively low cost as compared with other molding
process
 Design flexibility
 Short lead times
 Coating of wire can be done to achieves desired properties
 Continuous part can be produced
Disadvantages
 Limited complexity of parts
 Uniform cross section can only be produced

Applications The extrusion process is used for manufacturing

rods, plates and tubes, wire and cable coating, hose liners,
hose mandrels, filaments, sheet, multilayer film, medical
packaging and food packaging, etc. (continuous shape)
 Blow Molding

hollow parts with uniform thickness: plastic bottles

 Blow Molding

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 Blow Molding

 Using this manufacturing process hollow parts are made

like bottle or sphere etc.
 Air is blown into a thin walled plastic cylinder called the
parison. The parison is formed by melted plastic material
being pushed through an extruder.
 When the parison reaches a certain length, the two halves
of the mould close around the parison sealing it at the
bottom.
 Compressed air is then used to inflate the parison to form
the shape of the cavity inside the mould.
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 Blow Molding
Advantages
 Low tooling cost
 Fast production rates
 Ability to mold complex part with uniform thickness
 Little scrap generated
 Large hollow shape can be produced
 Produced parts can be recycled

Disadvantages
 Limited to hollow parts
 Thick parts can’t be manufactured

Applications bottles in different shape and size, jars, and

containers, ducting, fluid oil tanks, mugs, and toys, etc.

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 Blown-Film Extrusion

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 Calendaring

 In this process the plastic material is allowed to pass

between the cylindrical rollers.
 The process is used to prepare plain flat sheets of plastics.
 Calendaring

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 Polymer Types: Fibers

Fibers - length/diameter >100

• Textiles are main use
– Must have high tensile strength
– Usually highly crystalline & highly polar

• Formed by spinning
– ex: extrude polymer through a spinneret
• Pt plate with 1000’s of holes for nylon
• ex: rayon (artificial silk) – dissolved in solvent then pumped through
die head to make fibers
– the spun fibers are drawn under tension
– leads to highly aligned chains- fibrillar structure

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 Thermoforming

 Thermoforming is a plastic manufacturing process in which the

thermoplastic sheets are formed with the application of heat and
pressure in a mold.
 The thermoplastic sheet is held horizontally over a mold surface
and clamped with a holding device. The sheet is heated up to
predetermined temperature using a heating element (heater).
 The thermoplastic sheet softens with the application of heat and is
pressed into or stretched over the mold surface by application of
air pressure or by any other means.

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 Thermoforming

 The softened sheet conforms to the mold shape and it is held in

place until it cools.
 The mold cavity is opened and the thermoformed part is released.
 The excess material is then trimmed out from the formed part.
Excess material can be reground, mixed with unused plastic, and
again reformed into thermoplastic sheets.
 There are mainly three different types of thermoforming process
depending upon the pressure required i.e., vacuum thermoforming,
pressure thermoforming and mechanical thermoforming.

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 Thermoforming

a. vacuum thermoforming

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 Thermoforming

b. pressure thermoforming

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 Thermoforming

c. mechanical thermoforming
 Thermoforming

Advantages
 Extremely adaptive to design requirement
 Rapid prototype development
 Low initial setup costs
 Low production costs
 Smaller thermal stresses than injection molding and
compression molding
 Good dimensional stability
Disadvantages
 Poor surface finish
 Parts may have non-uniform wall thickness.
 All parts need to be trimmed
 Ribs and bosses cannot be molded easily
 Very thick plastic sheets can’t be formed
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 Thermoforming

Applications

 food packaging, automotive parts, trays, building products,

aircraft windscreens, medical equipment, material handling
equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, spas and
shower enclosures etc.

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 Polymer Foaming
Foaming processes are characterized by techniques that cause tiny
bubbles to form within plastic material such that when plastic solidifies
the bubbles remain. Foams or cellular plastics.

Foams have been widely used in a variety of applications: Insulation,

cushion, absorbents, etc.

Various polymers have been used for foam applications: Polyurethane

(PU), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), poly(vinyl
chloride) (PVC), polycarbonate (PC), etc.

1- Mechanical Foaming
2- Foaming with Hollow Glass Beads
3- Chemical Foaming
4- Physical Foaming

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 Classification of Polymer Foams

Polymer foams can also be defined as either closed cell or open cell foams.

In closed cell foams, the foam cells are isolated from each other and cavities are
surrounded by complete cell walls. Generally, closed cell foams have lower
permeability, leading to better insulation properties. Absorb sound, especially bass
tones. Closed cell foams are usually characterized by their rigidity and strength, in
addition to the high R-value (Resistance to heat flow).
Closed cell polyurethane spray foam has among the highest R-values of any
commercially available insulation.
In open cell foams, cells are connected with each other. They have softer and
spongier appearance. Open cell foams are incredibly effective as a sound barrier in
normal noise frequency ranges and provide better absorptive capability.

The advantages of closed-cell foam compared to open-cell foam include its strength,
higher R-value, and its greater resistance to the leakage of air or water vapor. The
disadvantage of the closed-cell foam is that it is denser, requires more material, and
therefore, is more expensive.

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 Polymer Foaming

Fig. 1 Examples of cellular solids:

a) open-cell polyurethane foam,
b) closed-cell polyethylene foam.

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 Polymer Foaming
Injection moulding of
foams is achieved in
two steps
1. An inert gas is
dispersed through the
molten region directly
before moulding by
• direct gas injection
(usually N2) or
• pre-blending of the
resin with a chemical
blowing agent.

2. Rapid injection of gas/resin mixture into the mould cavity causes the gas to expand "explosively". The
material is thus forced in all parts of the mould. The resulting properties of the foam are :
• Very high rigidity/weight ratio,
• Almost no orientation effect (uniform shrinkage),
• Moulding of thick sections without sink marks.
Foamed articles are used for insulating containers and for packaging. The process above may be used with
thermoplastics or thermosets.
 Classification of Polymer Foams

Polymer foams can be classified as rigid or flexible foams

Rigid foams are widely used in applications

such as building insulation, appliances,
transportation, packaging, furniture, food
and drink containers.

Flexible PU Rigid PU foam panels

Flexible foams are used as furniture, transportation,

bedding, carpet underlay, textile, sports applications,
shock and sound attenuation.
 Classification of Polymer Foams

According to the size of the foam cells, polymer foams can be classified as:
 Macrocellular (>100 µm),
 Microcellular (1–100 µm),
 Ultramicrocellular (0.1–1 µm)
 Nanocellular (0.1–100 nm).

Polyurethane foams. The thermal

insulation performance of a
polyurethane rigid foam depends
chiefly on the size of the foam pores.
The smaller the diameter, the lower the
thermal conductivity and the better the
insulating effect. Today's polyurethane
rigid foams typically have pore sizes of
roughly 150 micrometers, which
exceeds the pore size of nanofoams
planned for the future by a factor of
approximately 1,000.
 Polymer Foaming

Advantageous

• They have low density so they are light weight materials.

• Some polymer foams have low heat or sound transfer, making them optimal insulators.
• Many are flexible and soft, meaning they provide more comfort as cushion.

Disadvantageous

• Inferior mechanical strength

• Low thermal and dimensional stability
• The most widely used chloroflorocarbon (CFC) blowing agents have been found to
cause ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere and banned by 2010 according to
Montreal Protocol.

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 Advanced Polymers

• Ultrahigh molecular weight

polyethylene (UHMWPE)
– Molecular weight
ca. 4 x 106 g/mol
– Outstanding properties
– high impact strength
– resistance to wear/abrasion
– low coefficient of friction
– self-lubricating surface

– Excellent properties for Adapted from chapter-

opening photograph,
variety of applications Chapter 22, Callister 7e.

• bullet-proof vest, golf ball

covers, hip joints, etc.

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 Advanced Polymers

The Stem, femoral head, and the AC socket are made from Cobalt-chrome metal alloy or ceramic, AC
cup made from polyethylene
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ABS – A Polymerized “Alloy”
 Summary

 Plastic manufacturing processes are used to convert plastic

materials in the form of pellets, powders, sheets etc.
 Different types of plastic manufacturing processes are:

a. Compression molding
f. Calendaring
b. Transfer molding
g. Thermoforming
c. Injection molding
h. Thin Films
d. Extrusion molding
i. Fibers
e. Blow molding

Reading: Chapters 11-18 of Plastics: Materials and Processing by A. Brent Strong

https://www.slideshare.net/NikolaiPriezjev