Unit - 3

IP Layer :
● The internet layer is a group of ​internetworking methods, protocols, and specifications
in the ​Internet protocol suite that are used to transport ​datagrams (packets) from the
originating ​host across ​network boundaries​, if necessary, to the destination host
specified by a network address (​IP address​) which is defined for this purpose by the
Internet Protocol​ (IP).
● The internet layer derives its name from its function of forming an internet
(uncapitalized), or facilitating ​internetworking​, which is the concept of connecting
multiple networks with each other through ​gateways​.

Mobile IP Network Layer :

● The Mobile IP allows for location-independent routing of IP datagrams on the
Internet.
● Each mobile node is identified by its home address disregarding its current location in
the Internet.
● While away from its home network, a mobile node is associated with a ​care-of
address which identifies its current location and its home address is associated with
the local endpoint of a tunnel to its home agent.
● Mobile IP specifies how a mobile node registers with its home agent and how the
home agent routes datagrams to the mobile node through the tunnel.

Packet Delivery :
Correspondent node (CN)─ ​an MN or a fixed IP host linked to a router, which
communicates IP packets to another MN in a home or foreign network.

● Case 1: CN a fixed node and MN1 at the home network

○ CN message transmits for connection establishment or a packet using the IP
protocol
 ○ HA1 (the home agent for MN1) receives the message or packet and, using the
information that the destined MN1 is at the home network itself, it delivers the
message or packet to MN1
○ Receives the response message or packet from MN1
○ Delivers it to the CN using the IP protocol
● Case 2: CN an MNk and MN1 both at home networks with agents HAk and HA1
○ MNk message for connection establishment or a packet using the IP protocol
transmits through HAk
○ The packet delivers to HA1 and then to MN1
○ MN1 response like in case 1
○ HAk and HA1 deliver the packets from one end to another and vice versa by
just forwarding the packets to their respective MNs using the IP protocol
Handoff Management :
● CN transmits a message for connection establishment or a packet using the IP
protocol
● HAl receives the packets and uses the information that the destined mobile node MN1
is not at the home network and is presently visiting a foreign network and is reachable
via a foreign agent FAj
● HAl encapsulates the received IP packet using a new header
● Care-of address (COA) at the new header over the IP packet sent by HAl
● Handover─ Packet encapsulated with the new header with COA transmits to FAj by
tunnelling.
● The FAj reads the COA and decapsulates the IP packet
● Reads the destination IP address and transfers the packet to MNl

Location Management :
● Location Areas :
○ A hybrid of paging and update
○ Used in the current cellular networks such as GSM
○ Partitions the cells into location areas (LA) – e.g., around 10 cells in diameter
in current systems
○ Each cell (BTS) periodically announces its LA id
 ○ If a mobile station arrives at a new location area, it updates the base station
about its presence
○ When locating a MS, the network pages the cells in an LA
● Dynamic/Distributed Location Management :
○ Timer based : A MS sends an update after some given time T
○ Movement based : A MS sends an update after it has visited N different cells
○ Distance based : A MS sends an update after it has moved away for D distance
(need ability to measure distance)
○ Profile based : A MS predicts its mobility model and updates the network
when necessary

Registering :
● Mobile node sends an update (called) registration request) to its home agent with the
care-of address information
● Home agent approves/disapproves the request
● Home agent adds the necessary information to its routing table
● Home agent sends a registration reply back to the mobile node
Encapsulation :
● Encapsulation describes the process of placing an IP datagram inside a network
packet or frame
● Encapsulation refers to how the network interface uses packet switching hardware
○ two machines communicating across IEEE 802.3 using IP encapsulates each
datagram in a single Ethernet packet for transmission
○ the encapsulation standard for TCP/IP specifies:
■ that an IP datagram occupies the data portion of the IEEE 802.3 packet
■ the IEEE 802.3 packet type must be set to IP

Tunneling :
● By contrast, the term tunneling refers to the use of a high level transport service to
carry packets or messages from another service.
● the key difference between tunneling and encapsulation lies in whether IP transmits
datagrams in hardware packets or uses a high level transport service.
● IP encapsulates each datagram in a packet when it uses hardware directly.
● It creates a tunnel when it uses a high level transport delivery service to send
datagrams from one point to another.
Route Optimization :
● Route optimization enables the datagrams to be routed directly in both directions.
● Route optimization also provides support for smooth handoffs by letting the previous
foreign agent tunnel datagrams to mobile node's current location.
● The route optimization extension adds a conceptual data structure, the binding cache,
to the correspondent node and to the foreign agent.
● The binding cache contains bindings for mobile nodes' home addresses and their
current care-of addresses.
● With the binding the correspondent node can tunnel datagrams directly to the mobile
node's care-of address.
● Every time the home agent receives a datagram that is destined to a mobile node
currently away from home, it sends a binding update to the correspondent node to
update the information in the correspondent node's binding cache.
 ● After this the correspondent node can directly tunnel packets to the mobile node. Thus
direct bi-directional communication is achieved with route optimization.

DHCP :
● The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a standardized ​network
protocol​ used on ​Internet Protocol​ (IP) networks.
● The DHCP is controlled by a DHCP server that dynamically distributes network
configuration parameters, such as ​IP addresses​, for interfaces and services.
● A ​router or a ​residential gateway can be enabled to act as a DHCP server. A DHCP
server enables computers to request IP addresses and networking parameters
automatically, reducing the need for a ​network administrator or a user to configure
these settings manually.
● In the absence of a DHCP server, each computer or other device (e.g., a ​printer​) on
the network needs to be statically (i.e., manually) assigned to an IP address.
Ad Hoc Network :
● An ad-hoc network is a local area network (LAN) that is built spontaneously as
devices connect.
● Instead of relying on a base station to coordinate the flow of messages to each node in
the network, the individual network nodes forward packets to and from each other.
Localization :
● P​hysical localization occurs when the exact physical location of the nodes is provided
in reference to a coordinate system.
● Symbolic localization only provides location information that refers to abstract
predefined notions of place: in the kitchen, on the second floor, next to a building etc.
● In fine-grained localization the nodes in the network can measure their distance or
angle estimates to (a number of) their neighbors, and thus infer their position
 ● In coarse-grained localization only proximity (connectivity) information is available.
A node is in the position to detect its neighboring nodes, but it does not possess any
information regarding its distance to them, except perhaps an upper bound of it
implied by its detection capability range.
MAC Issues :
● Hidden Terminal Problem:
○ A hidden node is one that is within the range of the intended destination but
out of range of sender
○ Node B can communicate with A and C both
○ A and C cannot hear each other
○ When A transmits to B, C cannot detect the transmission using the carrier
sense mechanism -> C falsely thinks that the channel is idle
○ If C transmits, collision will occur at node B

● Exposed Terminal Problem :

○ An exposed node is one that is within the range of the sender but out of range
of destination
○ Consider the case that node B is attempting to transmit to A
○ Node C can hear the transmission from B. When B senses the channel it finds
the channel to be busy.
○ However, any transmission by C cannot reach A (not in range), hence does not
interfere with any reception at A.
○ In theory C can therefore have a parallel transmission with any node that
cannot hear the transmission from B, i.e. out of range of B.
 ○ But C will not transmit to any node because its an exposed node. Exposed
nodes waste bandwidth

Global State Routing Protocol :

● Global State Routing (GSR) is similar to DSDV. It takes the idea of link state routing
but improves it by avoiding flooding of routing messages.
● In this algorithm, each node maintains a Neighbor list, a Topology table, a Next Hop
table and a Distance table.
● Neighbor list of a node contains the list of its neighbors (here all nodes that can be
heard by a node are assumed to be its neighbors.).
● For each destination node, the Topology table contains the link state information as
reported by the destination and the timestamp of the information.
● For each destination, the Next Hop table contains the next hop to which the packets
for this destination must be forwarded.
● The Distance table contains the shortest distance to each destination node.
● The routing messages are generated on a link change as in link state protocols. On
receiving a routing message, the node updates its Topology table if the sequence
number of the message is newer than the sequence number stored in the table.
● After this the node reconstructs its routing table and broadcasts the information to its
neighbors.
Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing :
● Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector Routing (DSDV) is a table-driven routing
scheme for ​ad hoc mobile networks​ based on the ​Bellman–Ford algorithm​.
 ● Each entry in the routing table contains a sequence number, the sequence numbers are
generally even if a link is present; else, an odd number is used.
● The number is generated by the destination, and the emitter needs to send out the next
update with this number.
● Routing information is distributed between nodes by sending ​full dumps infrequently
and smaller incremental updates more frequently.
Dynamic Source Routing :
● The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol is a source-routed on-demand routing
protocol.
● A node maintains route caches containing the source routes that it is aware of. The
node updates entries in the route cache as and when it learns about new routes.
● The two major phases of the protocol are: route discovery and route maintenance.
● When the source node wants to send a packet to a destination, it looks up its route
cache to determine if it already contains a route to the destination.
● If it finds that an unexpired route to the destination exists, then it uses this route to
send the packet. But if the node does not have such a route, then it initiates the route
discovery process by broadcasting a route request packet.
● The route request packet contains the address of the source and the destination, and a
unique identification number.
● Each intermediate node checks whether it knows of a route to the destination. If it
does not, it appends its address to the route record of the packet and forwards the
packet to its neighbors.
● To limit the number of route requests propagated, a node processes the route request
packet only if it has not already seen the packet and it's address is not present in the
route record of the packet.
Ad Hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing :
● Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) is an improvement on the
DSDV algorithm.
● AODV minimizes the number of broadcasts by creating routes on-demand as opposed
to DSDV that maintains the list of all the routes.
● To find a path to the destination, the source broadcasts a route request packet. The
neighbors in turn broadcast the packet to their neighbors till it reaches an intermediate
 node that has a recent route information about the destination or till it reaches the
destination.
● A node discards a route request packet that it has already seen. The route request
packet uses sequence numbers to ensure that the routes are loop free and to make sure
that if the intermediate nodes reply to route requests, they reply with the latest
information only.
● When a node forwards a route request packet to its neighbors, it also records in its
tables the node from which the first copy of the request came.
● This information is used to construct the reverse path for the route reply packet.
AODV uses only symmetric links because the route reply packet follows the reverse
path of route request packet.
● As the route reply packet traverses back to the source, the nodes along the path enter
the forward route into their tables.

VoIP :
● VoIP (voice over IP) is the transmission of voice and multimedia content over
Internet Protocol (​IP​) networks.
● VoIP ​encapsulates audio via a ​codec into data packets, transmits them across an IP
network and decapsulates them back into audio at the other end of the connection.
● By eliminating the use of ​circuit-switched networks for voice, VoIP reduces network
infrastructure costs, enables providers to deliver voice services over their ​broadband
and private networks, and allows enterprises to operate a single voice and data
network.
● VoIP also piggybacks on the resiliency of IP-based networks by enabling fast ​failover
around outages and redundant communications between endpoints and networks.
IPSEC :
● In ​computing​, Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) is a network ​protocol suite that
authenticates​ and ​encrypts​ the ​packets​ of data sent over a network.
● IPsec includes protocols for establishing ​mutual authentication between agents at the
beginning of the session and negotiation of ​cryptographic keys for use during the
session.
 ● IPsec can protect data flows between a pair of hosts (​host-to-host​), between a pair of
security gateways (​network-to-network​), or between a security gateway and a host
(​network-to-host​).
● Internet Protocol security (IPsec) uses cryptographic security services to protect
communications over Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
● IPsec supports network-level peer authentication, data-origin authentication, data
integrity, data confidentiality (encryption), and replay protection.

TCP/IP :
● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the basic communication
language or protocol of the Internet. It can also be used as a communications protocol
in a private network (either an ​intranet​ or an ​extranet​).
● TCP/IP is a two-layer program. The higher ​layer​, Transmission Control Protocol,
manages the assembling of a message or file into smaller ​packet​s that are transmitted
over the Internet and received by a TCP layer that reassembles the packets into the
original message.
● The lower layer, ​Internet Protocol​, handles the ​address part of each packet so that it
gets to the right destination. Each ​gateway computer on the network checks this
address to see where to forward the message.
● Even though some packets from the same message are routed differently than others,
they'll be reassembled at the destination.
Snooping TCP :

● “Transparent” extension of TCP within the foreign agent

● Buffering of packets sent to the mobile host
● Lost packets on the wireless link (both directions) will be retransmitted immediately
by the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called “local” retransmission)
● The foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes
acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
● Changes of TCP only within the foreign agent
● Problems :
○ snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-TCP
 ○ snooping might be tough if packets are encrypted

Mobile TCP :

● The M-TCP splits up the connection into two parts:

○ An unmodified TCP is used on the Standard host-Supervisory Host section
○ An optimised TCP is used on the Supervisory Host- Mobile Host section.
● The Supervisory Host (SH) adorns the same role as the proxy (Foreign Agent) in
I-TCP.
● The SH is responsible for exchanging data to both the Standard host and the Mobile
host.
● Here in this approach, we assume that the error bit rate is less as compared to other
wireless links.
● So if any packet is lost, the retransmission has to occur from the original sender and
not by the SH. (This also maintains the end-to-end TCP semantic)
● The SH monitors the ACKs (ACK means acknowledgement) being sent by the MH. If
for a long period ACKs have not been received, then the SH assumes that the MH has
been disconnected (maybe due to failure or moved out of range, etc...).
● If so the SH chokes the sender by setting its window size to 0.
● Because of this the sender goes into persistent mode i.e. the sender’s state will not
change no matter how long the receiver is disconnected.
● This means that the sender will not try to retransmit the data.
● Now when the SH detects a connectivity established again with the MH (the old SH
or new SH if handover), the window of the sender is restored to original value.

Unit - 4

Mobile Databases :

● Mobile computing devices (e.g., ​smartphones and ​PDAs​) store and share data over a
mobile network​, or a database which is actually stored by the mobile device. This
 could be a list of contacts, price information, distance travelled, or any other
information.
● Many applications require the ability to download information from an ​information
repository​ and operate on this information even when out of range or disconnected.
● This type of access and work load generated by such users is different from the
traditional workloads seen in ​client–server​ systems of today.

Data Hoarding :

● A mobile device─ not always connected to the server or network, neither does the
device retrieve data from a server or a network for each computation
● Rather, the device caches required specific data, which may be required for future
computations, during the interval in which the device is connected to the server or
network.
● Advantages :
○ No access latency (delay in retrieving the queried record from the server over
wireless mobile networks)
○ The client device API has instantaneous data access to hoarded or cached data
○ After a device caches the data distributed by the server, the data is hoarded at
the device

Data Dissemination :

● Data dissemination is the distribution or transmitting of statistical, or other, data to

end users.
● There are many ways organisations can release data to the public, i.e. electronic
format, CD-ROM and paper publications such as PDF files based on aggregated data.
● The most popular dissemination method today is the ‘non-proprietary’ open systems
using internet protocols.

User Agent Profile (UAPROF) :

● The UAProf (User Agent Profile) specification is concerned with capturing capability
and preference information for wireless devices. This information can be used by
content providers to produce content in an appropriate format for the specific device.
 ● UAProf files typically have the file extensions ​rdf or ​xml​, and are usually served with
mimetype application/xml.
● A UAProf file describes the capabilities of a mobile handset, including Vendor,
Model, Screen Size, Multimedia Capabilities, Character Set support, and more.

Service Discovery :

● Service discovery is the automatic detection of devices and services offered by these
devices on a ​computer network​.
● A service discovery protocol (SDP) is a ​network protocol that helps accomplish
service discovery.
● Service discovery requires a common language to allow software agents to make use
of one another's services without the need for continuous user intervention.
● There are many service discovery protocols, including:
● Bluetooth​ ​Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)
● DNS Service Discovery (DNS-SD), a component of ​Zero Configuration
Networking
● Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol​ (DHCP)
● Internet Storage Name Service​ (iSNS)
● Jini​ for ​Java​ objects.

Data Management Issues :

● Mobility :
○ The search cost to locate mobile elements is added to the cost of each
communication involving them.
○ Efficient data structures, algorithms, and query execution plans must be
devised for representing, managing, and querying the location of mobile
elements, which is a fast changing data.
● Wireless Medium :
○ Wireless networks are more expensive, offer less bandwidth, and are less
reliable than wireline networks.
● Portability :
○ Mobile elements must be light and small to be easily carried around.
 ○ Such considerations, in conjunction with a given cost and level of technology,
will keep mobile elements having less resources than static elements,
including memory, screen size and disk capacity.

Data Replication :

● Replication in ​computing involves sharing information so as to ensure consistency

between redundant resources, such as ​software or ​hardware components, to improve
reliability, ​fault-tolerance​, or accessibility.
● Types :
○ active replication is performed by processing the same request at every
replica.
○ passive replication involves processing each single request on a single replica
and then transferring its resultant state to the other replicas.
● Models :
○ Transactional replication​. This is the model for replicating ​transactional data​,
for example a database or some other form of transactional storage structure.
The ​one-copy serializability​ model is employed in this case.
○ State machine replication​. This model assumes that replicated process is a
deterministic finite automaton and that ​atomic broadcast of every event is
possible.

Mobile File System :

● A mobile file system is a ​client/server​-based ​application that allows clients to access

and process data stored on the ​server​ as if it were on their own computer.
● When a user accesses a file on the server, the server sends the user a copy of the file,
which is ​cached on the user's computer while the data is being processed and is then
returned to the server.
● Ideally, a mobile file system organizes file and ​directory services of individual servers
into a global directory in such a way that remote data access is not location-specific
but is identical from any client.
● All files are accessible to all users of the global file system and organization is
hierarchical and directory-based.
 ● Since more than one client may access the same data simultaneously, the server must
have a mechanism in place (such as maintaining information about the times of
access) to organize updates so that the client always receives the most current version
of data and that data conflicts do not arise.

Data Synchronization :

● Data synchronization technologies are designed to synchronize a single set of ​data

between two or more ​devices​, automatically copying changes back and forth.
● Data synchronization can be ​local synchronization where the device and computer are
side-by-side and data is transferred or ​remote synchronization when a user is mobile
and the data is synchronized over a mobile ​network​.
● ​Models :
○ One to Many : Each system or device caches the data pushed from the server
or sends a pull request to the central server and gets a response
○ Many to Many : Employs peer-to-peer architecture where each system is
capable of sending pull requests and of pushing responses

Synchronization Markup Language (SyncML) :

● SyncML (Synchronization Markup Language) is the former name for a

platform-independent ​information synchronization standard. The project is currently
referred to as ​Open Mobile Alliance​ Data Synchronization and Device Management​.
● The purpose of SyncML is to offer an ​open standard as a replacement for existing
data synchronization solutions, which have mostly been somewhat vendor-,
application- or operating system specific.

Syncml works by exchanging commands, which can be requests and responses. As an

example:

● the mobile sends an ​Alert command for signaling the wish to begin a refresh-only
synchronization
● the computer responds with a ​Status​ command for accepting the request
● the mobile sends one or more ​Sync command containing an Add sub-command
for each item (e.g., phonebook entry); if the number of entries is large, it does not
include the <Final/> tag;
● in the latter case, the computer requests to continue with an appropriate ​Alert
message, and the mobile sends another chunk of items; otherwise, the computer
confirms it received all data with a ​Status​ command