Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Unit 5
MICROWAVE DEVICES
Solid State Power Devices
 Some Microwave Devices

• Impatt Diodes
• PIN Diodes
• Varactor Diodes
• YIG Devices (Yttrium-Iron Garnet)
• Dielectric Resonators
• BIPOLAR TRANSISTORS
• GaAsFETs
• HEMT – High Electron Mobility Transistors
 Microwave Solid State Devices

• Two problems with conventional transistors at

higher frequencies are:
1. Stray capacitance and inductance.
- remedy is interdigital design.
2.Transit time.
- free electrons move quicker than holes
therefore change from silicon to Gallium Arsenide
 Microwave Transistors

• Conventional bipolar transistors are not suitable for microwave

frequencies.
• Electrons move faster than holes.
• Component leads introduce elevated reactance.
• XL increases and XC decreases therefore collector feedback
becomes worse as frequency increases.
• Transit time and mobility of carriers. As transit time
approaches signal period phase shifts occur.
 Microwave Transistors

• REMEDIES:

Interdigital design of emitter and base minimizes

capacitances.
Gallium arsenide. Faster than silicon.

N type GaAsFET. Why N type?

Flat component leads.

 Microwave Transistors
• REMEDIES contd.:

Low noise design considerations: as opposed to diffusion method of mesa

structure implementing acid etching.
* Shot noise is proportional to the square of current therefore operate at
moderate Ic.

* Thermal noise is reduced at lower power levels. With interdigital

* Planar and epitaxial methods of construction use diffusion and surface

passivation to protect surfaces from contamination base design Rb is low
therefore lower voltage drop and less power.
 Gunn Devices
• Uses phase shift to minimize transmit time.
• Transferred-electron device (TED).
• N type GaAs – electron mobility decreases as electric field strength
increases.
• Characterized by a negative resistance region.
• A domain is developed that sustains oscillations as a voltage is
applied to the substrate of GaAS.
• A pulse current develops as domain of charge travels to the positive
terminal.
 Transferred Electron Devices (TED)
• TED’s are semiconductor devices with no junctions
and gates.

• They are fabricated from compound semiconductors

like GaAs, InP, CdTe etc.

• TED’s operate with hot electrons whose energy is

much greater than the thermal energy.
 Gunn Diode
• Invented by J.B Gunn
Gunn Effect:
• Above some critical voltage (Corresponding
to Electric field of 2k-4k V/cm) the current
passing through n-type GaAs becomes a
periodic fluctuating function of time.
• Frequency of oscillation is determined mainly
by the specimen, not by the external circuit.
• Period of oscillation is inversely proportional
to the specimen length and is equal to the
transit time of electrons between the electrodes
• The current waveform was produced by applying a
voltage pulse of 16V and 10ns duration to an n-type
GaAs of 2.5 x 10-3 cm length. The oscillation frequency
was 4.5Ghz
 RWH Theory
• Explanation for Gunn Effect:
Ridley – Watkins – Hilsum (RWH) Theory

• Two concepts related with RWH Theory.

– Differential negative resistance
– Two valley model
 Differential negative resistance
• Fundamental concept of RWH Theory.
• Developed in bulk solid state III-V compound
when a voltage is applied
• Differential negative resistance make the
sample electrically unstable.
Two valley
model
theory
• Data for two valleys in GaAs
Electron transfer mechanism
• Conductivity of n-type GaAs:

• e = Electron charge
• μ = Electron mobility
• = Electron density in the lower valley
• = Electron density in the upper valley
• is the electron density
• According to RWH theory, in order to exhibit negative
resistance the energy band structure of semiconductor
should satisfy
– The energy difference between two valleys must be
several times larger than the thermal energy (KT ~
0.0259eV)
– The energy difference between the valleys must be
smaller than the bandgap energy (Eg)
– Electron in lower valley must have a higher mobility
and smaller effective mass than that of in upper valley
• Possessed by GaAs, InP, CdTe etc
Formation of high field domain
• In GaAs, at electric
fields exceeding the
critical value of Ec
≈ 3.2 kV/cm the
differential mobility
is –ve.

• When the field

exceeds Ec and
further increases,
the electron drift
velocity decreases.
 Modes of Operation
• Gunn Oscillation Mode:
– (f x L) = 107 cm/s and (n x L) > 1012 /cm2
– Cyclic formation of High field domain
• Stable Amplification Mode
– (f x L) = 107 cm/s and 1011/cm2 < (n x L) >1012/cm2
• LSA Oscillation Mode
– (f x L) >107 cm/s and 2 x 104 < (n/f) > 2 X105/cm2
• Bias-circuit
– (f x L) is small. L is very small. When E=Eth current falls as
Gunn oscillation begins, leads to oscillation in bias circuit
(1KHz to 100MHz)
 Gunn Oscillation Mode
• Condition for successful domain drift:
Transit time (L/vs) > Electric relaxation time

• Frequency of oscillation = vdom/Leff.

• Gunn diode with a resistive circuit -> Voltage change

across diode is constant-> Period of oscillation is the
time required for the domain to drift from the cathode
to anode. Not suitable for microwave applications
because of low efficiency.
• Gunn diode with a resonant circuit has high efficiency.
• There are three domain modes for Gunn oscillation modes.
1. Transit time domain mode, (Gunn mode)
2. Delayed domain mode

– Here domain is collected while

– New domain cannot form until E rises above threshold
again.
– ,
– Also called inhibited mode.
– Efficiency: 20%
3. Quenched domain mode:

– If bias field drops below Es, domain collapses before it

reaches anode.
– When the bias field swings above Eth, a new domain starts
and process repeats.
– Frequency of oscillation is determined by resonant circuit.
– Efficiency : 13%
• Limited Space charge Accumulation Mode (LSA)

Most Important mode for Gunn oscillator.

Domain is not allowed to form.
Efficiency : 20%
 Gunn Characteristics
• Power: 1W (Between 4HHz and 16GHz)
• Gain Bandwidth product : >10dB
• Average gain : 1 – 12 dB
• Noise figure : 15 dB
 Applications of Gunn Diode

• In radar transmitters
• Air traffic control (ATC) and Industrial
Telemetry
• Broadband linear amplifier
• Fast combinational and sequential logic circuit
• Low and medium power oscillators in
microwave receivers
• As pump sources
InP Diode
Peak to valley current ratio
 Other Devices

• Pin Diodes - R.B.(R II C) F.B. (variable R)

• Varactor Diodes – R.B. (variable junction
capacitance)
• YIG Yitrium-Iron-Garnet Devices
• Dielectric Resonators
• MMICs – monolithic microwave integrated circuits
Avalanche Transit Time
Devices
Avalanche Transit Time Devices (ATTD’s)

1. IMPATT (Impact Ionization Avalanche Transit

Time) Diode

2. TRAPATT (Trapped Plasma Avalanche Triggered

Transit)
3. BARITT
 Basics of
ATTD’s
• Avalanche transit-time diode oscillators rely on
the effect of voltage breakdown across a
reverse-biased p-n junction to produce a supply
of holes and electrons.
• The avalanche diode oscillator uses carrier
impact ionization and drift in the high-field
region of a semiconductor junction to produce a
negative resistance at microwave frequencies.
• The negative-resistance properties of an idealized
n+ -p-i-p+ diode.

• Two distinct modes of avalanche oscillator have been

observed.

• One is the IMPATT mode, which stands for impact ionization

avalanche transit-time operation. In this mode the typical
dc-to-RF conversion efficiency is 5 to 10%, and frequencies
are as high as 100 GHz with silicon diodes.

• The other mode is the TRAPATT mode, which represents

trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit operation.

• Its typical conversion efficiency is from 20 to 60%.

 READ DIODE
– Physical Description
Avalanche Multiplication
Carrier Current lo(t) and External Current le(t)
where Q = total charge of the moving
holes
vd = hole drift velocity
L = length of the drift i region
Output Power and
Quality Factor Q
 IMPATT Diodes
• A theoretical Read diode made of an n+ -p-i-p+ or p+ -n-i-n+
structure has been analyzed.Its basic physical mechanism is
the interaction of the impact ionization avalanche and the
transit time of charge carriers.
• Hence the Read-type diodes are called IMPATT diodes.
• These diodes exhibit a differential negative resistance by two
effects:
1.The impact ionization avalanche effect, which causes the
carrier current Io(t) and the ac voltage to be out of phase by
90°
2.The transit-time effect, which further delays the external
current Ie(t) relative to the ac voltage by 90°
The Read diode is the basic type in the IMPATT
diode family
Three Typical Types of IMPATT
Diodes
Power Output and Efficiency
 IMPATT DIODE
A wide variety of solid state diodes and transistor
have been developed for microwave use.

• IMPact ionization Avalanche Transit-Time

• Function as microwave oscillator.
• Used to produce carrier signal for microwave
transmission system.
• IMPATT can operate from a few GHz to a few hundred
GHz
 IMPATT DIODE Operation
• The diode is operated in reverse bias near
breakdown, and both the N and N- regions
are completely depleted
• Because of the difference in doping between
the "drift region" and "avalanche region",
the electric field is highly peaked in the
avalanche region and nearly flat in drift
region.
• In operation, avalanche breakdown occurs
at the point of highest electric field, and this
generates a large number of hole-electron
pairs by impact ionization.
• The holes are swept into the cathode, but the
electrons travel across the drift region
toward anode.
Figure 1: Impatt Diode
Operation
 IMPATT DIODE Operation

Figure 2: The Build Up Of Microwave Oscillation.

 IMPATT DIODE Operation

• As they drift, they induce image charges on the

anode, giving rise to a displacement current in the
external circuit that is 180° out of phase with the
nearly sinusoidal voltage waveform
• Figure 2 shows the buildup of microwave oscillations
in the diode current and voltage when the diode is
embedded in a resonant cavity and biased at
breakdown
IMPATT DIODE Operation

Figure 3: Close Up Current And Voltage.

 IMPATT DIODE Operation
• Figure 3 shows a close-up of the current and
voltage waveforms after oscillations have
stabilized. It is clear from Fig. 3 that the
current is 180° out of phase with the voltage
• This represents a NEGATIVE AC
RESISTANCE
Diode Mounting Procedure
and Precautions
• The IMPATT diode has a negative resistance
from DC through microwave frequencies.
Consequently, it is prone to oscillate at low
frequencies, with the lead inductance from
bias circuit connections. The voltage due to
bias circuit oscillations may be large enough to
burn the device out if adequate precautions are
not observed. It is prudent practice to suppress
the bias circuit oscillation.
 Diode Mounting Procedure
and Precautions
• Adequate heatsink must be provided for the
diode to operate properly. These IMPATT
diodes have been designed to operate in the
precollection mode. As the diode is tuned up
from a low operating current from a constant
current source, it will be noticed that at the
onset of precollection mode, the diode voltage
falls down..
 Diode Mounting Procedure
and Precautions
• The power output will increase by several dBs.
with a slight shift in the operating frequency.
When the circuit is detuned in such a fashion
that the diode falls out of the precollection
mode, the diode voltage will increase. The
power dissipation will increase as the power
output falls down. If the diode is not
adequately heatsink, the diode may burn out
 IMPATT DIODE Applications

• A main advantage is their high power capability. These

diodes are used in a variety of applications from low power
radar systems to alarms.

• Nevertheless these diodes make excellent microwave

generators for many applications. An alternating signal is
generated simply by applying a DC supply when a suitable
tuned circuit is applied. The output is reliable and relatively
high when compared to other forms of diode.
 IMPATT DIODE Applications

• In view of its high levels of phase noise it is

used in transmitters more frequently than as
a local oscillator in receivers where the phase
noise performance is generally more
important.
 IMPATT DIODE Applications
• The following products are available as examples of
IMPATT diodes application:

1) Cavity Stabilized IMPATT diode Oscillators CIDO series.

2) Pulsed IMPATT Power Sources IPSP series.

3) IMPATT Active Frequency Multipliers IAFM series.

4) Pulsed and CW IMPATT Injection-Locked Amplifiers IILAP

and IILA series.

5) Voltage Controlled IMPATT Oscillators VCIO series.

 TRAPATT Diodes
• The abbreviation TRAPATT stands for trapped plasma
avalanche triggered transit mode.

• It is a high-efficiency microwave generator capable of

operating from several hundred megahertz to several
gigahertz.

• The basic operation of the oscillator is a semiconductor

p-n junction diode reverse biased to current densities well
in excess of those encountered in normal avalanche
operation.
 TRAPATT Physical Structure
• High-peak-power diodes are typically silicon n+ -p-p+ (or p+
-n-n+) structures with then-type depletion region width varying
from 2.5 to 12.5 μ,m.

• The doping of the depletion region is generally such that the

diodes are well "punched through" at breakdown; that is, the dc
electric field in the depletion region just prior to breakdown is
well above the saturated drift-velocity level.

• The device's p+ region is kept as thin as possible at 2.5 to 7.5

μ,m. The TRAPATT diode's diameter ranges from as small as
50 μ,m for CW operation to 750 μ,m at lower frequency for
highpeak-power devices.
BARITT DIODE ( Barrier injection transmit time devices ):
•BARITT devices are an improved version of IMPATT devices. IMPATT devices employ
impact ionization techniques which is too noisy.
•Hence in order to achieve low noise figures, impact ionization is avoided in BARRITT
devices. The minority injection is provided by punch-through of the intermediate region
(depletion region).
•The process is basically of lower noise than impact ionization responsible for current
injection in an IMPATT.
•The negative resistance is obtained on account of the drift of the injected holes to the
collector end of the material.
Properties IMPATT Diode TRAPATT Diode BARITT Diode
Impact Ionisation Avalanche Trapped Plasma Avalanche
Full name Barrier Injection Transit Time
Transit Time Triggered Transit
Developed by RL Johnston in the year 1965 HJ Prager in the year 1967 D J Coleman in the year 1971

Operating Frequency range 4GHz to 200GHz 1 to 3GHz 4GHz to 8GHz

Principle of operation Avalanche multiplication Plasma avalanche Thermionic emission

250 Watt at 3GHz , 550Watt at
Output power 1Watt CW and > 400Watt pulsed Just few milliwatts
1GHz

3% CW and 60% pulsed below

1GHz, more efficient and more
35% at 3GHz and 60% pulsed at 5% (low frequency) , 20%(high
Efficiency powerful than the Gunn diode type
1GHz frequency)
Impatt diode Noise Figure: 30dB
(worse than a Gunn diode)

Very high NF of the order of about

Noise Figure 30dB (worse than Gunn diode) Low NF about 15dB
60dB
· This microwave diode has
· Less noisy than impatt
high power capability compare to
· Higher efficiency than Impatt diodes
Advantages other diodes.
· Very low power dissipation · NF of 15dB at C band using
· Output is reliable compared
Baritt amplifier
to other diodes

· Not suitable for CW

operation due to high power
· High noise figure · Narrow bandwidth
densities
Disadvantages · High operating current · Limited few mWatts of
· High NF of about 60dB
· High spurious AM/FM noise power output
· Upper frequency is limited
to below millimeter band

· Voltage controlled Impatt

oscillators
· Used in microwave beacons · Mixer
· Low power radar system
Applications · Instrument landing systems · Oscillator
· Injection locked amplifiers
• LO in radar · Small signal amplifier
· Cavity stabilized impatt
diode oscillators
Waveguide Components & Applications
 Coupling mechanisms
• The probe is placed at a distance of from the shorted end of the
waveguide and the centre of broader dimension of the waveguide
because at that point electric field is maximum.
• This probe will now act as an antenna which is polarized in the
plane parallel to that of electric field.
• The coupling loop placed at the centre of shorted end plate of the
waveguide can also be used to launch mode i.e, coupling is
achieved by means of a loop antenna located in a plane
perpendicular to the electric field and loops to a magnetic field
but in each case both are set up because electric and magnetic
fields are in seperable.
• An inductive iris allows a current to flow where none flowed before.
The iris is placed in a position where the magnetic field is strong (or
where electric field is relatively weak).
•Since the plane of polarization of electric field is parallel to the
plane of iris, the current flow due to iris causes a magnetic field to
be set up.
•In capacitive iris, it is seen that the potential which existed between
the top and bottom walls of the waveguide now exists between
surfaces which are closer.
•The capacitive iris is placed in a position where the electric field is
strong.
• In parallel resonant iris, the inductive and capacitive irises are
combined. For the dominant mode, the iris presents a high
impedance and the shunting effect for this mode will be
negligible.
• Parallel resonant iris acts as a band pass filter to suppress
unwanted modes.
• A series resonant iris which supported by a non metallic material
and it is transparent to the flow of microwave energy.
 Posts & tuning screws
• When a metallic cylindrical post is introduced into the broader
side of waveguide, it produces the same effect as an iris in
providing lumped reactance at that point.
• If the post extends only a short distance (< ) into the waveguide,
it behaves capacitively shown in figure 1. When the depth is
equal to , the post acts as a series resonant circuit shown in
figure 2. If it is greater than, the post behaves inductively.

93
 Matched
• Matched Loadload:
is a device used to terminate a transmission line
or waveguide so that all the energy from the signal source will
be absorbed.

94
Introduction
▪ A two port network is shown in the figure below.

▪ From network theory a two port network can be

described by a number of parameters such as H, Y ,
ABCD parameters.
If the frequencies are in microwave region these parameters cannot be used
due to the following reasons.
The figure below shows the S parameters of two port network.
 Scattering Parameters
Consider a circuit or device inserted into a
T-Line as shown in the Figure. We can
refer to this circuit or device as a two-port
network.
The behavior of the network can be
completely characterized by its scattering
parameters (S-parameters), or its
scattering matrix, [S].
Scattering matrices are frequently used to Scattering matrix
characterize multiport networks, especially
at high frequencies. They are used to
represent microwave devices, such as
amplifiers and circulators, and are easily
related to concepts of gain, loss and
reflection.
Scattering Parameters (S-Parameters)
The scattering parameters represent ratios of voltage waves entering and
leaving the ports (If the same characteristic impedance, Zo, at all ports in
the network are the same).

In matrix form this is written

Where,
Properties:
1) Reciprocity
The two-port network is reciprocal if
the transmission characteristics are
the same in both directions (i.e. S21
= S12).
It is a property of passive circuits
(circuits with no active devices or
ferrites) that they form reciprocal
networks.
A network is reciprocal if it is equal
to its transpose. Stated
mathematically, for a reciprocal
network

Condition for Reciprocity: S = S21

12
2) Lossless Networks
A lossless network does not contain any
resistive elements and there is no
attenuation of the signal. No real power is
delivered to the network. Consequently, for
any passive lossless network, what goes in
must come out!
In terms of scattering parameters, a
network is lossless if

where [U] is the unitary matrix

For a 2-port network, the product of the transpose matrix and the complex
conjugate matrix yields

If the network is
reciprocal and lossless
Waveguide Multi port Junctions
The interconnection of two or more microwave devices may be regarded as
microwave junction.

• In microwave circuits a waveguide or a coaxial line with three independent ports

as commonly referred to as Tee Junction.
• From S parameter theory it is evident that the device is characterized by a third
order matrix consisting of nine elements, six of which should be independent.

The following are the three important statements of any three port microwave
device.
 E Plane Tee
•An E Plane Tee is a waveguide Tee in which the axis of its side arm are parallel to
electric field of the main guide. If the collinear arms are symmetric about the side
arm , there are two different transmission characteristics.
• If E plane Tee is perfectly matched the diagonal components of the S matrix S 11, S22,
S33 are Zero because there will be no reflection.
•When the waves are fed in to side arm(port3), the waves appearing at port1 & 2 of
collinear arm will be in opposite phase & in same magnitude, so

• The –ve sign indicates that they are opposite to each other.
For matched junction is given as
Due to the symmetric property of S matrix, we have

--------Eq.(1)

From zero property, the sum of the products of each term of any column /
row multiplied by complex conjugate of the corresponding term of any
other column/ row is zero.

so
This means that either S13 or S23, or both should be zero.
From unity property of S matrix , the sum of products of each term of any
one row / column multiplied by its complex conjugate is unity.

------Eq.(2)
-- ------Eq.(3)
------Eq.(4);
 Substituting Eq.(1) in Eq.(2) we have
------Eq.(5)
Eq.(4) & Eq.(5) are contradictory, so if S13=0 implies s23=0, &
if s23=0 then s13 becomes zero
• In general, when an E plane Tee is constructed of an empty
waveguide, it is poorly matched at the T junction. Hence S ij
not equal to zero if i=j.
Since collinear arm is usually symmetric about the side
arm, | S13| = | S23 | & S11=S22.
• The final S matrix is given below.

--------Eq.(6)
H Plane
Tee
An H plane tee is a waveguide tee in which the axis of its arm is shunting the
E field or parallel the H field to main guide as shown .
•It can be seen that if two input waves are fed in to port
1 & 2 of the collinear arm the output wave at port 3 will
be in phase & additive.
• If the input is fed to port 3 the wave will split equally in
to ports 1 & 2 in phase & same magnitude.

The S matrix of H Plane tee is similar to that of E plane

tee as shown

but S13=S23.
 Magic Tee
•Also known as E H Plane Tee or Hybrid Tee
•It is a combination of E Plane Tee & H Plane Tee
•Its characteristics are given below

The S matrix of Magic Tee is given as

• The Magic Tee is mainly used for mixing, duplexing & impedance measurements.
A magic Tee may be used to couple the two transmitters to antenna in such
a way that the transmitters do not load each other. The two transmitters should
be connected to ports 3 & 4 as shown in the figure
• Transmitter 1 connected to port 3 causes a wave from port 1 & another
through port 2. These are equal in magnitude & opposite in phase.
•Similarly Transmitter 2 connected to port 4 causes a wave from port 1 & another
through port 2. These are equal in magnitude & in phase.
• At port 1 the two opposite waves will cancel each other
• At port 2 the two in phase are added. So double out put power at port 2 is
obtained.
This can be observed in the following figure.

Magic Tee coupled

Transmitters to Antennas.
Hybrid Ring
A hybrid ring consists of an annular line of proper electrical length to sustain
standing waves, to which four arms are connected to a proper intervals by means
of series or parallel junctions.
Figure shows hybrid ring with series junctions.
The hybrid ring has characteristics similar to that of Magic Tee. When a wave is
fed in to port 1 it will appear at port 3 because the difference of phase shifts for
waves travelling in clock wise is 180o. So the waves are cancelled at port 3.
The same reason for the waves fed in to port 2 will not emerge at port 4 and so
on.
The S Matrix for hybrid Ring is as shown
 Directional Coupler
A Directional coupler is a four port wave guide junction as shown in
figure.

The primary waveguide is 1-2

Secondary waveguide is 3-4

When all ports are terminated there is a free transmission of power

without reflection between ports 1 & 2.
There is no transmission between 1 - 3 & 2 – 4 because of no
coupling.
The characteristics of directional coupler can be expressed in terms of
Coupling factor & diversity.
A two hole directional coupler with
travelling wave propagation in it is
illustrated in the figure given.
The spacing between the centre of two
holes should be

In directional Coupler all four ports are This equation can be reduced
completely matched. So using zero property

There is no coupling between port 2 & 4,

thus Unitary Property

Consequently, the S matrix of Directional We have

Coupler is
Let

Where P is positive real, then we have

Let

Where q is a positive real so that

Then the resultant S Matrix for Directional Coupler will be

 Microwave propagation in

ferrites
Microwave propagation in ferrites
• Ferrites are non metallic materials with resistivity 𝜌
nearly 1014 times greater then metals and with
dielectric constant 𝜖𝑟 around 10-15 and relative
permabilities of 1000 order.

• These are oxide based compounds having general

composition of the form MeO. 𝐹𝑒2𝑂3 ie mixture of
metallic ferrites and ferric oxides.

• Ferrites have atoms with large no. of spinning

electrons resulting in strong magnetic properties.
These magnetic properties are due magnetic dipole
1
moment associated with the electron spin. 1
4
 Cont’d
• These are the raw materials used for making the
microwave components.
• Irreversible property:-
• Whatever you have the property in forward direction it
will not be in the reverse direction.

• Now we are going towards different microwave

components where we are using these ferrite
materials.
 Cont’d
• Gyrator
• Isolator
• Circulator
• We will discuss here only isolators
and circulators.
 Circulato
Arcirculator is a multiport wave guide junction in which wave can flow only
from nth port to n+1th port in one direction.
There is no restriction on number of ports.
The operating principle of a microwave circulator can be analyzed with the
help of figure below.

Each of the two 3dB couplers in circulator introduces a phase shift of 90o and
each of the two phase shifters produce a certain phase change, the wave is
split in to two components by the coupler 1.
The wave in primary guide arrives at port 2 with a relative phase change of
180o . The second wave propagates through the two couplers & secondary
guide arrives at port 2 with relative phase shift of 180 o , since the two waves
reaching port 2 are in phase , the power transmitted is obtained fron port 1 to
port 2.
The waves propagating through primary guide , phase shifter, & coupler 2
arrives at port 4 with a 270o phase change.
The wave travelling through coupler 1 & secondary guide arrives at
port 4 with a phase shift of 90o.

Since the two waves reaching port 4 are opposite in phase the power
transmission from 1-4 is zero.
A perfectly matched lossless nonreciprocal four port circulator has
an S matrix of the form.

Using the parameters of S parameters the above matrix is simplifies

as
Isolator
An isolator is a non reciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one
component from reflections of the other in a transmission line.
An ideal isolator completely absorbs the power from propagation in one
direction and provide loss less transmission in opposite direction
It is also known as UNILINE
It is used to improve the frequency stability.
One type of isolator is Faraday rotation Isolator, the input resistive card is in y-z
plane, the output resistive card is displaced 45o with respect to the input card.
The magnetic field which is applied longitudinally to the ferrite rod rotates the
wave plane by 45o.
This is normal to the output resistive card
As the result of rotation the wave arrives at the out put end without attenuation
at all.
On the other end a reflected wave from the output end is similarly rotated
clockwise 45o by the ferrite rod, since the reflected wave is parallel to the input
resistive card the wave is absorbed by the input card.
Isolato
r
 Cont’d
• The wave in the ferrite rod section is rotated clockwise by
45° and is normal to the output resistive card. As a result of
rotation, the wave arrives at the output end without
attenuation at all.

• On the contrary, a reflected wave from the output end is

similarly rotated
clockwise 45° by the ferrite rod.

• However, since the reflected wave is parallel to the input

resistive card, the wave is thereby absorbed by the input
card.

1
• The typical performance of these isolators is about 1-dB
2
4
Gyrator

Gyrator is a nonreciprocal ferrite device. It is a two port

device that has a relative phase shift of 180° in the forward
direction and 0 (zero) phase shift in reverse direction.
The schematic symbol for gyrator is shown in the figure
When signal is transmitted from port 1 to port 2 it offers
phase shift of 180° (π radians) and when signal if fed to port
2 it offers 0° phase shift to the signal
Hence it is also known as differential phase shift device.
•Gyrator filter consists of a circular to rectangular waveguide transition both at
dominant mode.
•A twin circular ferrite rod tapered at both ends is located inside the circular
waveguide surrounded by permanent magnets which generate d.c. the
magnetic field for the operation of ferrite.
•A rectangular waveguide twisted by 90° is connected by input and reduces
attenuation and also provide smooth attenuation of the polarized wave.
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Description of Microwave Bench
 Microwave Power Measurement
• The Microwave Power measured is the average power at any
position in waveguide. Power measurement can be of three
types.
• Measurement of Low
power 0.01mWto10mW0.01mWto10mW
Example − Bolometric technique
• Measurement of Medium power 10mWto1W10mWto1W
Example − Calorimeter technique
• Measurement of High power >10W>10W
Example − Calorimeter Watt meter
 Measurement of Low Power
• Bolometer is a device which is used for low
Microwave power measurements.
• Measurement of Medium Power
The measurement of Microwave power around
10mW to 1W, can be understood as the
measurement of medium power.

Measurement of High Power

• The measurement of Microwave power around
10W to 50KW, can be understood as the
measurement of high power.
 Measurement of Attenuation

• Attenuation is the ratio of input power to the

output power and is normally expressed in
decibels.
• Attenuation in dBs=10log(Pin/Pout)

•
Power Ratio Method
RF Substitution Method
Measurement of Phase Shift
 Measurement of VSWR

Which is denoted by S.
•S=Vmax/Vmin=1+ρ/1−ρ

•Where, ρ=reflectionco−efficient
=Preflected/Pincident
• Measurement of Low VSWR S<10
The measurement of low VSWR can be done by
adjusting the attenuator to get a reading on a DC
millivoltmeter which is VSWR meter.

• Measurement of High VSWR S>10

The measurement of high VSWR whose value is
greater than 10 can be measured by a method
called the double minimum method.
 Measurement of Impedance
• Impedance Using the Slotted Line
Impedance Using the Reflectometer
Measurement of Q of Cavity Resonator
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microwave_e
ngineering/microwave_engineering_example_
problems.htm