Chapter Acid, base and salt

6.1 The role of water in showing acidic and alkaline properties

 When acid is dissolved in water, the acid will dissolve and ionise to produce
hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions will combine with water molecules to form
hydroxonium ion. H3O+.
 HCl + H2O → H3O+ + Cl-

Organic acids
[plant and animal]

Mineral acids Eg: methanoic acid, ascorbic acid

[from mineral]

Eg: sulphuric
acid, phosphoric
acid
An acid: a substance which ionises or
dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions,
Acids H +.

Monoprotic acid Diprotic acid Triprotic acid

 Produces one  Produces two  Produces three
hydrogen ion hydrogen ions hydrogen ions
when one when one when one
molecule of acid molecule of acid molecules of
ionises in water. ionises in water. acid ionises in
water.

HCl (aq)→ H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42- H3PO4 (aq) 3H+ (aq) + PO43-
(aq) (aq)
HNO3 (aq)→ H+ (aq) + NO3- (aq)
H2C2O4 (aq) 2H+ (aq) + C2O42-
+
CH3COOH (aq) CH3COO (aq) + H (aq)
(aq)

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 1

 The maximum number of hydrogen ions that is
Basicity of an acid produced when one molecule of the acid ionises in water.

 Some non-metal oxides react with water to produce acidic solutions which
contain hydrogen ions and turn blue litmus paper red.
 It is known as acidic oxides.

Eg: CO2 (g) + H2O (l) → H2CO3 (aq)

Carbon monoxide is a neutral oxide.
Eg: SO3 (g) + H2O (l) → H2SO4 (aq)

Eg: N2O5 (g) + H2O (l) → 2HNO3 (aq)

A base is a substance which ionises in water to

produce hydroxide ions, OH-.

Bases A base is a chemical substance which can react

with an acid to form a salt and water.

Covalent bases Ionic bases

 metal oxides, metal hydroxides

Soluble Insoluble

 NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) +

OH- (aq)

 NaOH (aq) → Na+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

 CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)
 Ca(OH)2 (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq)

 CuO (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) +

H2O (l)
 Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2(aq) +
2H2O (l)

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 2

  Bases that are soluble in water are called alkali.

 An alkali: a base that is soluble in water and ionises to produce hydroxide ions.

 An alkali: a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce free mobile

hydroxide ions.

Metal hydroxide,
Bases
metal oxide

Alkali Bases that are soluble in water.

Eg: potassium hydroxide, sodium
hydroxide

Soluble base (alkali) Insoluble base

Name Formula Name Formula
Ammonia Magnesium oxide
Sodium oxide Magnesium hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide Aluminium oxide
Potassium oxide Aluminium hydroxide
Potassium hydroxide Zinc oxide
Calcium oxide Zinc hydroxide
Calcium hydroxide Copper(II) oxide
Barium oxide Copper(II) hydroxide
Barium hydroxide Lead(II) oxide

Comparison between alkali and bases

 Alkali are bases which are soluble in water.

 Bases which are insoluble in water are still named as bases but not alkalis.
 All alkalis are bases but not all bases are alkalis.

Uses of acids, bases and alkalis in daily life

 Toothpaste (alkaline) is used to neutralize acid on the teeth.

 Vinegar (acidic) is used to make pickled chillies.
 Vinegar can be used to neutralise wasp sting (alkaline), jellyfish sting (alkaline).
 Bicarbonate can be used to neutralize bee sting (acidic).

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 3

The role of water to show acidity and alkalinity

 Solution of hydrogen chloride in water

 Solution of hydrogen chloride in methylbenzene
 Solution of ammonia in water
 Solution of ammonia in methylbenzene

Condition Hydrogen chloride dissolves Hydrogen chloride dissolves

in water in tetrachloromethane
Diagram

Effect on
litmus paper

Ionic equation

Explanation

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 4

 Condition Ammonia dissolves in water Ammonia dissolves in
tetrachloromethane
Diagram

Effect on
litmus paper

Ionic equation

Explanation

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 5

6.2 pH value

Acidity of a solution: a measure of the concentration of the hydrogen ions

Alkalinity of a solution: a measure of the concentration of the hydroxide ions in the solution.

pH scale: 0 – 14  The lower the pH, the higher the

concentration of hydrogen ions.
 Acidic pH < 7  The higher the pH, the higher the
 Neutral pH = 7 concentration of hydroxide ions.
 Alkaline pH > 7

pH = -log [H+] pH value can be determined by

(a) universal indicator
(b) pH meter
(c) acid-base indicators
pOH = -log [OH-]

pH + pOH = 14 The sum of pH value and pOH value is 14.

pH = 14 - pOH

Indicator Colour in acid Colour in neutral Colour in alkali

solution solution solution
Litmus Red Purple Blue
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Methyl orange Red Orange Yellow
Bromothymol blue Yellow Green Blue
Cresol purple Yellow Green Purple

Example 1:
Calculate the pH value of nitric acid with 0.8 mol dm -3 of hydrogen ion, H+.

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 6

Example 2:
Determine the molarity of hydrochloric acid with pH value of 1.0.

Example 3:
Calculate the pOH value for sodium hydroxide solution with 0.5 mol dm -3 hydroxide ions,
OH-.

Example 4:
Calculate the pH value for potassium hydroxide that has 0.02 mol dm-3 hydroxide ions,
OH-.

Example 5:
Determine the molarity of lithium hydroxide solution with pH value 13.0.

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 7

6.3 Strength of acids and alkalis

Strong and weak acids

 Degree of ionisation of an acid is a measurement of the percentage (or fraction)
of the total number of acid molecules that will ionize when it is dissolved in water.

Strong acid: an acid which ionises completely in water (the degree of ionisation is 100%) to
produce a high concentration of hydrogen ions.

Eg: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4

Weak acid: an acid which ionises partially in water (low degree of ionization) to produce a
low concentration of hydrogen ions.
Eg: ethanoic acid, carbonic acid
[most of weak acid still exist as covalent molecules and only a small number of acid
molecules ionises to form ions.]
The degree of dissociation of ethanoic acid molecules is 1.54%.
From 100 molecules of ethanoic acid, only one molecules of ethanoic acid ionises to produce
hydrogen ion and ethanoate ion.

Strong and weak alkalis

 Degree of ionisation of an alkali is a measurement of the percentage (or
fraction) of the total number of alkali molecules that will ionise when it is
dissolved in water.

Strong alkali: an alkali which ionises completely in water (the degree of ionisation is 100%)
to produce a high concentration of hydroxide ions.

Eg: NaOH, KOH

Weak alkali: an alkali which ionises partially in water (low degree of ionisation) to produce
a low concentration of hydroxide ions.
Eg: NH3 solution
[ammonia exists as covalent molecules and only a small number of ammonia molecules
ionises to form ions.]
The degree of dissociation of ammonia is 1.3%.
From 100 molecules of ammonia, only one molecules of ammonia ionises to produce
hydroxide ion and ammonium ion.

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 8

 6.4 Chemical properties of acids and alkalis

Sour taste pH value < 7

Effects on indicators
 Blue litmus paper : red
 Universal indicator:
red/orange
 Methyl orange: red/pink
Properties of
acids

React with :
(a) Metals
 Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
[copper and silver do not react with dilute acid]
Eg: 2HCl (aq) + Mg(s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
(b) Bases
 Acid + base → salt + water
Eg: 6HNO3 (aq) + Fe2O3 (s) → 2Fe(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
Eg: CH3COOH (aq) + KOH (aq) →CH3COOK (aq) + H2O (l)

(c) Carbonates
 Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
Eg: H2SO4 (aq) + CuCO3 (s) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

pH value > 7 Effect on indicators:

Bitter taste,  Red litmus paper: blue
soapy feeling  Universal indicator: blue/purple
 Methyl orange: yellow
Properties of
alkalis

Reactions of React with:

alkalis with (a) Acid
ammonium  Alkali + acid → salt + water
nitrate and Eg: NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l)
ammonium (b) Ammonium salts
 Alkali + ammonium salt → salt + water + ammonia gas [on heating]
carbonate do
Eg: 2NH4Cl (aq) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l) + 2NH3 (g)
not produce
(c) Metal ions
ammonia.
 Alkali + metal ion → metal hydroxide + solution
Eg: MgCl2 (aq) + 2NaOH (aq) → Mg(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl (aq)
Eg: CuSO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s) + K2SO4 (aq)

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 9

6.5 Concentration of aqueous solution

 Concentration of a solution is a measurement that shows the quantity of solute

dissolved in a unit volume of solution, normally in 1 dm 3 solution.

Molarity / molar concentration

 The number of moles of solute present in 1 dm3 of solution.

mass of solute ( g )
concentrat ion ( gdm 3 ) 

volume of solution dm 3 

 molar mass  molar mass

moles of solute (mol)

molarity (mol dm 3 ) 

volume of solution dm 3 

n = MV

n = number of moles
M= molarity
V = volume

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 10

6.6 Standard solution
Preparation of standard solution

A solution whose concentration is accurately known is

called a standard solution.

Standard
solution
Can be prepared using a volumetric flask
[100cm3, 250cm3, 500cm3, 1000cm3, 2000cm3, 5000cm3]

 Calculate the mass needed to prepare for the solution.

 The mass of solute needed to give the required molarity is weighed.
 The solute is completely dissolved in some distilled water then transferred to a
volumetric flask.
 Distilled water is added until the water level almost reaches the calibration mark.
 A dropper is used to drop the distilled water until the solution reaches calibration
mark.
 The volumetric flask is closed with a stopper and is shaken to ensure thorough
mixing.
 The standard solution is prepared.

Preparation of a solution by dilution method

Moles of solute before dilution = moles of solute after dilution

 Adding water to a concentrated solution :

(a) changes the concentration of the solution.
(b) does not change the number of moles of solute present.
Steps:
 Calculate the volume needed to prepare the required molarity of the solution
using the following formula:
M1V1 = M2V2
 A pipette is used to obtain the required volume from a solution.
 The solution is transferred to a volumetric flask.
 Distilled water is added until the solution almost reaches the calibration mark.
 A dropper is used to drop the distilled water until the solution reaches
calibration mark.
 The volumetric flask is closed with a stopper and is shaken to ensure thorough
mixing.
 The solution is prepared.
FeliciaS Form 4 Chemistry 11
Eg: To prepare 100cm3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution.

1. The mass of sodium hydroxide required to prepare 100cm 3 of 2.0 mol dm-3
aqueous sodium hydroxide solution is calculated.
Number of moles of sodium hydroxide
MV
=
1000
(2.0)(100)
=
1000
= 0.2 mol

Mass of sodium hydroxide required

= 0.2 x [23 + 16 +1]
= 8.0g

2. 8.0g of sodium hydroxide solid is weighed accurately in a weighing bottle using

an electronic balance.
3. Sodium hydroxide solid is transferred to a small beaker. Sufficient distilled water
is added to dissolve all the solid sodium hydroxide.
4. Using a filter funnel and a glass rod, the dissolved sodium hydroxide is
transferred to a 100cm3 volumetric flask.
5. The small beaker, the weighing bottle and the filter funnel are all rinsed with
distilled water, and the contents are transferred into the volumetric flask.
6. Distilled water is then added slowly until the water level is near the calibration
mark of the volumetric flask. A dropper is then used to add water drop by drop
until the water level reaches the calibration mark.
7. The volumetric flask is closed with stopper. The volumetric flask is shaken to mix
the solution completely. The solution prepared is 100cm 3 of 2.0 mol dm-3 aqueous
sodium hydroxide solution.

Solid sodium hydroxide

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 12

Eg: To prepare 100cm3 of 0.1 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid from 1.0 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid

1. The volume of hydrochloric acid required to prepare 100cm 3 of 0.1 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid is calculated.

M1V1 = M2V2
(1.0)(V1) = (0.1)(100)
V1 = 10cm3

2. Using a pipette and pipette filler, 10.0cm3 of 1.0 mol dm-3 hydrochloric acid is
transferred to a 100cm3 volumetric flask.
3. Distilled water is added to the acid in the volumetric flask until the level is near
the calibration mark. A dropper is then used to add distilled water drop by drop
until the water level reaches the calibration mark.
4. The volumetric flask is closed with stopper. The volumetric flask is shaken to mix
the solution completely. The solution prepared is 100cm 3 of 0.1 mol dm-3
hydrochloric acid.

Pour stock solution into

a beaker

Add distilled water until

the solution level
approaches the
calibration mark

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 13

 6.7 Neutralisation

Neutralisation
 The reaction between an acid with a base/alkali to produce a salt and water
only.

Hydrogen ions from an acid react with oxide ions or hydroxide ions from base/alkali to
form water molecules.

H+ + OH- → H2O

Application of neutralisation in daily life

 Milk of magnesia Mg(OH)2 relieves gastric pin by neutralizing the excessive
hydrochloric acid in the stomach.
 Toothpaste neutralizes lactic acid produced by bacteria in our mouth.
 Slaked lime, Ca(OH)2 is used to treat acidic soil.

Titration method
 Titration method is a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of
acid needed to completely neutralize a given volume of alkali and vice versa.

Acid-base titration

Acid-base titration
 A quantitative analysis used to determine the volume of an acid required to exactly
neutralize a fixed volume of an alkali with the help of an acid-base indicator such as
phenolphthalein or methyl orange.

When an acid is continuously

added to an alkali, it will reach a Must be able
stage where the amount of acid to change
added exactly neutralizes all the colour at
alkali. end point
The point in the titration at
which the acid-base indicator
changes colour

Can be determined through

 Acid-base titration method
 pH meter
 conductivity cell

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 14

Acid-base titration

Sodium hydroxide solution

Hydrochloric acid

Sodium hydroxide solution

+ methyl orange
Sodium hydroxide solution

Use 25cm3 pipette to draw up Transfer sodium hydroxide Fill a burette with a standard
25cm3 sodium hydroxide solution into a flask. Add 2 to 3 solution of hydrochloric acid.
solution drops of methyl orange. Record the initial burette reading.

Hydrochloric acid Continue adding hydrochloric

acid until a permanent colour
change of methyl orange
Add hydrochloric acid drop by from yellow to orange is
drop into the alkali. Swirl the obtained. Record the final
conical flask during titration. burette reading.

Solving numerical problems involving neutralisation

a Acid A + b Alkali B → c Salt + d Water

𝑴 𝒂 𝑽𝒂 𝒂
=
𝑴 𝒃 𝑽𝒃 𝒃

Molarity of acid A = Ma
Volume of acid A = Va
Molarity of alkali B = Mb
Volume of alkali B = Vb

a = mol
b = mol

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 15

pH meter

Hydrochloric acid

Sodium hydroxide solution

Conductivity cell

Hydrochloric acid

Sodium hydroxide solution

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 16

 6.8 Salts, crystals and their uses in daily life

An ionic compound consisting of a cation such as a metal ion or

an ammonium ion which originates from a base that combines
with an anion which originates from an acid.
SALT

An ionic compound formed when the hydrogen ion from an acid

is replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion.

Base + Acid → Salt + Water Food industry

Eg: CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O  Sodium chloride

Eg: NaOH + HNO3 → NaNO3 + H2O  Monosodium glutamate
 Sodium hydrogen
carbonate: baking powder
[together with potassium
Agriculture hydrogen tartrate, calcium
hydrogen phosphate and
 Synthetic fertilizers sodium hydrogen
 Eg: ammonium sulphate, phosphate]
ammonium nitrate, Uses of salts in daily life  Sodium nitrite and sodium
ammonium phosphate, benzoate: preservatives.
potassium chloride, NPK
fertilizer [ammonium
nitrate, ammonium
phosphate, potassium Medical field
chloride]
 Inorganic pesticides  Hydrated calcium sulphate:
 Eg: copper(II) sulphate, plaster casts
iron(II) sulphate, sodium  Iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate: Industry
arsenate, sodium iron pills for anaemia
chlorate(V)  Potassium chloride  Sodium hypochlorite:
 Magnesium sulphate bleaching agent
heptahydrate and sodium  Tin(II) fluoride: toothpaste
sulphate decahydrate: laxatives and water
 Sodium hydrogen carbonate:  Sodium carbonate
anti-acids decahydrate: soda-lime
 Barium sulphate: for patients glass
who need to take X-ray of  Silver bromide:
stomach. photographic paper and
 Potassium manganate(VII): film.
kill bacteria.

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 17

Physical characteristics of crystals

 When cations and anions are packed closely with a regular and repeated arrangement in an
orderly manner, a solid with definite geometry known as crystal lattice is formed.
 The repeating basic unit in this ordered structure is called a unit cell.

 Fixed geometrical shapes [cuboid, rhombic, prism, octahedral shapes, needle-liked]

 Flat surfaces, straight edges, sharp corners / vertices
 Fixed angle between two adjacent surfaces
 Different crystals have different geometrical shapes.
 Crystals of same substance: same shape but different size
[Depend on the rate of crystallization]
 Fast crystallization: smaller crystals
 Slow crystallization: bigger crystals

6.9 Preparation of salts

Solubility of salts in water

Type of salt Solubility in water

Ammonium salts All are soluble
Sodium and potassium salts All are soluble
Ethanoate salts All are soluble
Nitrate salts All are soluble
Chloride salts All are soluble except Hg2Cl2, PbCl2, AgCl
Sulphate salts All are soluble except PbSO4, BaSO4,
CaSO4
Carbonate salts All are insoluble except Na2CO3, K2CO3
and (NH4)2CO3
Lead(II) salts All are insoluble except Pb(NO3)2 and
Pb(CH3COO)2

Solubility of common compound

Compound Solubility in water
Metal oxides All are insoluble except Na2O, K2O and
CaO (slightly soluble)
Metal hydroxides All are insoluble except NaOH, KOH and
Ba(OH)2

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 18

 Preparation of salts

YES Is the salt soluble in water? NO

Soluble salts of K+/Na+/NH4+ Soluble salts: NOT of K+/Na+/NH4+ Precipitation method through a double
decomposition reaction

Reaction: Neutralisation Reaction of a solid with acid

Method: Titration Solution contains Solution contains
 Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen cation anion
 Acid + metal oxide → salt + water [Metal ion] [Non-metal ion]
 Acid + metal carbonate → salt + H2O + CO2
 Add acid to alkali through * Copper, silver, mercury, gold do not react with
titration with the help of acid because less electropositive than hydrogen.
indicator phenolphthalein /
methyl orange.
 Repeat the titration without  Dilute acid is heated gently. Precipitate + solution
any indicator  Solid [metal, metal oxide, metal hydroxide,
 Salt solution is poured into an metal carbonate] is added little by little until
evaporating dish, heated til in excess.
1/3 of the solution left,  Mixture is filtered to remove excess solid.
 Choose a nitrate salt to provide
saturated.  Filtrate is evaporated til 1/3 of the solution
cation
 The saturated solution is left, saturated.
 Choose Na/K salt to produce anion
allowed to cool for  The saturated solution is allowed to cool for
crystallization. crystallization.
 Eg:  Eg:
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl CuO + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O
NaOH + HNO3→ NaNO3 + H2O Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl → MgCl2 + 2H2O  Mix 2 solutions
2KOH + H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O PbCO3 + 2HNO3→ Pb(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2  Filter
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
 Wash with distilled water
 Dry with filter papers
 Eg:
 Filter, wash with little distilled water. Pb(NO3)2 + K2SO4 → PbSO4 + 2KNO3
 Dry with filter papers. Ca(NO3)2 + K2CO3 →CaCO3 +2KNO3
CuSO4 + Na2CO3 → CuCO3 + Na2SO4

Recrystallisation  Allow to cool for crystallization

 Dissolve crystal in water [heat gently]  Filter, wash with little distilled water
 Filter to remove impurities  Dry with filter papers
Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry  Evaporate filtrate til 1/3, saturated 19
6.10 Effect of heat on salts

Gas tests

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 20

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 21
Effect of heat

(A) Action of heat on carbonate salts

Carbonate salt Action of heat

Potassium carbonate  Do not decompose
Sodium carbonate
 Decompose to produce metal oxide
and carbon dioxide
 Metal carbonate → metal oxide +
carbon dioxide

Calcium carbonate

Magnesium carbonate

Aluminium carbonate

Zinc carbonate

Iron(III) carbonate

Lead(II) carbonate

Copper(II) carbonate

 Decompose to produce metal, oxygen

and carbon dioxide

Mercury(II) carbonate

Silver carbonate

Gold(I) carbonate

 Decompose to produce ammonia,

water and carbon dioxide
Ammonium carbonate

Carbon dioxide turns limewater milky.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 22

 (B) Action of heat on nitrate salts

Nitrate salt Action of heat

 Decompose to produce nitrite salt
and oxygen

Potassium nitrate

Sodium nitrate

 Decompose to produce metal oxide,

nitrogen dioxide and oxygen
 Metal nitrate → metal oxide +
nitrogen dioxide + oxygen

Calcium nitrate

Magnesium nitrate

Aluminium nitrate

Zinc nitrate

Iron(III) nitrate

Lead(II) nitrate

Copper(II) nitrate

 Decompose to produce metal,

nitrogen dioxide and oxygen

Mercury(II) nitrate

Silver nitrate

Gold(I) nitrate

 Decompose to produce nitrous oxide

and water
Ammonium nitrate

Nitrogen dioxide is a brown gas; acidic.

2NO2 + H2O → HNO2 + HNO3
Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 23
 (C) Action of heat on sulphate salts

Sulphate of heavy metals are decomposed into metal oxides and sulphur trioxide when
heated.

Sulphate salt Action of heat

Iron(III) sulphate

Copper(II) sulphate

Zinc sulphate

Iron(II) sulphate

Ammonium sulphate  Sublimes when first heated.

 Further heating decomposes the salt
into ammonia and hydrogen
sulphate.

Sulphur trioxide is acidic oxide, dissolves in water to form sulphuric acid.

SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

(D) Action of heat on chloride salts

 Chloride salts are stable to heat EXCEPT ammonium

chloride.
 Initial heating of ammonium chloride causes the salt to
sublime.
 NH4Cl (s) → NH4Cl (g)
 Further heating decomposes the salt to produce ammonia and
hydrogen chloride.
 NH4Cl (g) → NH3 (g) + HCl (g)

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 24

 glowing

Gas produced Inference

Gas turns limewater cloudy Carbonate salt
Gas is brown and acidic Nitrate salt
Gas is pungent and alkaline Ammonium salt
Gas ignites the glowing wooden splinter Might be nitrate salt or Ag2CO3

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 25

6.11 Qualitative analysis

Salt Colour
Solid Aqueous solution
Potassium salts
Sodium salts
Ammonium salts
Aluminium salts White Colourless
Calcium salts
Lead(II) salts
Zinc salts
(with colourless anions)
Carbonate salts
Chloride salts
Nitrate salts White Colourless
Sulphate salts
(with colourless cations)
Iron(II) salts:
Iron(II) chloride Green Pale green
Iron(II) nitrate
Iron(II) sulphate
Iron(III) salts:
Iron(III) chloride Brown Brown
Iron(III) nitrate
Iron(III) sulphate
Copper(II) salts:
Copper(II) chloride Blue-green Blue
Copper(II) nitrate Blue
Copper(II) sulphate Blue
Copper(II) carbonate Green Insoluble

Oxide Hot Cold

Solid zinc oxide Yellow White
Solid lead(II) oxide Brown Yellow
Copper(II) oxide Black Black

Anions Colour
Chromate(VI) ion, CrO42- Yellow
Dichromate(VI) ion, Cr2O72- Orange
Manganate(VII) ion, MnO4- Purple

Transition metal cation Colour

Iron(II) ion Green
Iron(III) ion Brown
Copper(II) ion Blue

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 26

Testing for anions in aqueous solutions

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 27

 Anion

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 28

Testing for cations in aqueous solutions

 Zn2+
 Fe3+
 Fe2+
 Cu2+
 Mg2+
 Pb2+
 Ca2+
 Al3+
 NH4+
 Dissolving a soluble salt in water
 Dissolving an insoluble base in dilute acids
 Test with sodium hydroxide solution
 Test with ammonia solution
 Test with confirmatory test

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 29

 Cation

Add little NaOH (aq)

No precipitate Precipitate is produced

NH4+

White precipitate Blue precipitate Green precipitate Brown precipitate

Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+

Al3+ Ca2+ Pb2+ Mg2+ Zn2+

Add excess Add excess Add excess

NaOH (aq) NaOH (aq) NaOH (aq)
Colourless Colourless Colourless
solution solution solution

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 30

Confirmatory test for NH4+

Cation

Add little NH3 (aq)

No precipitate Precipitate is produced

NH4+ Ca2+ White precipitate Blue precipitate Green precipitate Brown precipitate

Cu2+ Fe2+ Fe3+

Zn2+ Al3+ Pb2+ Mg2+

Confirmatory test for Confirmatory test for
Fe2+ Fe3+

Confirmatory test for Pb2+

Add excess
NH3 (aq)

Add excess Dark blue

NH3 (aq) solution
Colourless
solution

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 31

 Gas turns red
litmus paper blue.
NH3 gas produced

Felicia S Form 4 Chemistry 32