WATER RESOURCES

ENGINEERING

Engr. Ricardo L. Fornis

Final Grade Computation

Sources of points for grading

Exam 1 (E1)
Exam 2 (E2)
Exam 3 (E3)
Projects (group projects)
Seatworks and Homeworks

FS  20%(E1)  20%(E 2)  20%(E3)  30%(Project)  10%(SW & HW )

Final Score (FS) Final Grade

95%  100% 1.0
94% 1.1
75% 3.0
References
1) Water-Resources Engineering by David Chin 3rd Edition
2) Water Resources Engineering by Linsley, Franzini,
Freyberg, and Tchobanoglous, 4th Edition
3) Hydrologic Analysis and Design, McCuen
4) Urban Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Stormwater Quality
by Akan and Houghtalen, John Wiley & Sons
5) Elementary Hydraulics by Cruise, Sherif, and Singh
6) Water Code of the Philippines and the Amended
Implementing Rules and Regulations by National
Water Resources Board (PDF)
What is Water Resources Engineering?
 Water resources engineering is the profession that focuses on
Planning, Development, and Management of water resources.
 The following tasks/skills are expected of a Water Resources
Engineer
 Estimate the future population of a community
 Locate one or more sources of water of acceptable quality
 Determine volume of storage of water, and design water
works required to deliver the water from the source to the
service area which is the community.
 Determine the physical, chemical, and biological
characteristics of the water and establish water quality
requirement.
Why water resources engineering?
 Waters are available in different sources
 Precipitation
 Rivers , Lakes, Oceans

 Springs

 Groundwater, etc

 Water is not always readily available in matching

the demand in terms of quantity and quality
 Water source identification and development
 Extraction

 Storage

 Treatment
Why water resources engineering?
 Water sources are, in many cases, far from the
consumers
 Conveyance and Distribution
 Water resource is finite
 Proper Management
Fields of water resources engineering

 Under the category Control and Regulation of

water so that it will not cause excessive damage to
property, inconvenience to the public, damage to
the environment, or loss of life the following
applications can be identified:
 Planning,design, and implementation of Flood Control
measures and Mitigation
 Design of Drainage systems

 Design of wastewater treatment facilities

Fields of water resources engineering

 Under the category Utilization of water for

beneficial purposes the following applications can
be identified
 Planning and design of Water Supply Systems
(Domestic, Municipal, industrial)
 Water resources development for irrigation,
Hydropower, Fisheries, Navigation, and
Entertainment(Sports, Decoration, Water parks)
Fields of water resources engineering

 Under the category Water Quality Management

the following applications can be identified
 Water Sources Protection
 Regulations on wastewater treatment

 Regulations on disposal of wastewater

Some points related to water resources engineering
THE WATER CODE OF THE
PHILIPPINES
Water Code of the Philippines
 The Water Code of the Philippines was instituted
by Presidential Decree No. 1067 enacted in 1976
by the Late President Ferdinand E. Marcos.
 National Water Resources Board (NWRB) is vested
as the body to administer and enforce the
provisions of the water code.
 Metro Cebu Water District (MCWD) a water district
in Metro Cebu deputized by NWRB to conduct
inspections and make recommendations on issuance
of water permits
The Institution of NWRB as Resource Regulator

 In 1976, Presidential Decree No. 1067, otherwise

known as the “Water Code of the Philippines” was
enacted. Based on the principles that: (a) “all water
belongs to the State;” and (b) the State may allow
the use or development of its waters by administrative
concession,” the NWRB was instituted as a “water
resource regulator” tasked to regulate and control the
utilization, exploitation, development, conservation
and protection of all water resources.
The specific functions of the NWRB, as a "Water
Resource Regulator”

 The following are the specific functions of the NWRB, as a

"Water Resource Regulator",
 (a)the issuance water permits for the
appropriation, and use of waters; and
 (b) adjudication of disputes relating to the
appropriation, utilization, exploitation,
development, control and conservation, and
protection of waters.
Ownership of Water in the Philippines
 Chapter ll Art. 5 of the Water Code of the Philippines
states that the following waters belong to the State
 Rivers and their natural beds;
 Continuous or intermittent waters of springs and brooks
running in their natural beds and the beds themselves;
 Natural lakes and lagoons;
 All other categories of surface waters such as water flowing
over lands, water from rainfall whether natural or artificial,
and water from agricultural runoff, seepage and drainage;
 Atmospheric water
 Subterranean or ground waters; and,
 Seawater
Ownership of Water in the Philippines
 Chapter ll Art. 6 states that the following waters found on
private lands also belongs to the State
 Continuous or intermittent waters rising on such lands
 Lakes and lagoons naturally occurring on such lands;
 Rain water falling on such lands;
 Subterranean or ground waters; and
 Waters in swamps and marshes.
The owner of the land where the water is found may use
the same for domestic purposes without securing a permit,
provided that such use shall be registered, when required
by the council. The Council, however, may regulate such use
when there is wastage, or in times of emergency.
Ownership of Water in the Philippines

 Art. 7 of The Water Code of the Philippines

provides that
any person who captures or collects water by means
of cisterns, tanks, or pools shall have exclusive control
over such water and the right to dispose the same.
Appropriation of Waters
 Art. 9 of The Water Code of the Philippines defines Appropriation of
waters as the acquisition of rights over the use of waters or the taking or
diverting of waters from the natural source in the manner and for any
purpose allowed by law.
 Art. 10 of The Water Code of the Philippines states the purposes by which
water may be appropriated
 Domestic
 Municipal
 Irrigation
 Power Generation
 Fisheries
 Livestock raising
 Industrial
 Recreational
 Other purposes
Utilization of water
 Domestic purposes
 Utilization of water for domestic purposes is the utilization of water
directly drawn from a source by a household for drinking, washing,
bathing, cooking, watering of gardens or animals and other
domestic uses.
 Municipal purposes
 Utilization of water for municipal purposes is the utilization of
water for supplying the water requirements of the community,
whether by pipe or bulk distribution for domestic and other uses,
direct consumption, the drawer or abstractor of which being the
national government, its subsidiary agencies, local government
units, private persons, cooperatives or corporations.
Utilization of water
 Irrigation purposes
 Utilization of water for producing crops
 Water for Power generation
 Utilization of water for producing electrical or mechanical power
 Water for Fisheries
 Utilization of water for propagation and culture of fish as a
commercial enterprise.
 Water for Livestock Raising
 Utilization of water for large herds or flocks of animals raised as
a commercial enterprise
Utilization of water
 Water for industrial Purposes
 Utilization of water in the factories, industrial plants and
mines, including the use of water as an ingredient of the
finished product.
 Water for recreational purposes
 Utilization of water for swimming pools, bath houses,
boating, water skiing, golf courses and other similar facilities
in resorts and other places or recreation.
Water Permit
 Chapter lll Art.13 states that no person, including
instrumentalities or government-owned or controlled
corporations, shall appropriate water without a
water right, which shall be evidenced by a
document known as “Water Permit”

 Water Right is the privilege granted by government

to appropriate and use water.
Article 50
 “Lower estates are obliged to receive the waters
which naturally and without the intervention of the
man flow from the higher estates, as well as stone
or earth which they carry with them”.

 “The owner of the lower estate can not construct

works which will impede this natural flow, unless he
provides an alternative method of drainage;
neither can the owner of the higher estate make
works which will increase this natural flow.”
PRECIPITATION AND
RUNOFF
Engr. Ricardo L Fornis
The Hydrologic Cycle

Precipitation
Interception Transpiration

Infiltration Overland flow

Detention Evaporation
Subsurface flow
QWT
Percolation Seepage

Runoff
THE RATIONAL METHOD
Calculation of peak runoff
The Rational Formula
 Rationale
 The peak runoff at the outlet of the watershed due a
steady rainfall is obtained when the entire basin is
contributing runoff at the outlet.
 Time of Concentration
 The time of travel of the water from the most remote
part hydraulically of the catchment to the outlet of that
catchment.
The rational formula
Q  CiA
3
Q is discharge (ft /sec)
i is rainfall intensity (in/hr)
A is catchment area (acres)
CiA
Q
3600000
3
Q is discharge (m /sec)
i is rainfall intensity (mm/hr)
A is catchment area (m 2 )
Assumptions of the rational formula
 The rain is uniform all throughout the entire
drainage basin.
 The entire drainage basin has contributed to the
runoff at the outlet which means that the rain has
duration equal to or longer than the time of
concentration.
 The runoff coefficient C takes care all the losses in
the drainage basin.
Intensity-Duration-Frequency Curves

The rainfall intensity to be used in the

rational formula depends on the return
period of the event to be considered in
the design of the system. The rainfall
intensity is obtained from the
established IDF using a duration equal
to the time of concentration.
Time of Concentration Formulas
Kinematic Wave and Manning equation (ASCE, 1992)
0.6
6.99  nL 
tc  0.4  
ie  so 

tc =time of concentration in minutes
i e = rainfall excess in mm/hr
L =distance from the catchment boundary to the outlet in meters
n= Manning roughness coefficient
s o = is ground slope
Time of Concentration Formulas

Kirpich equation
 L0.77 
tc  0.0194  0.385 
 so 
tc = time of concentration in minutes
L = channel length in meters
s o = (dimensionless) average slope along the flow path
Small agricultural watershed (less than 80 ha)
Slope range 3%-10%
Kirpich Equation if L is in feet
Kirpich equation if L is in meters is expressed as
 L0.77 
tc  0.0194  0.385   Eq(1)
 so 
If the length L is in feet, then convert it to meters
and plug in the result to Eq(1), that is,
0.77
 1  1m 
tc  0.0194  0.385   L( ft ) 
 so  3.28 ft 
 L0.77 
tc  0.0078  0.385   This the Kirpich Eq
 so 
where L is in feet
Time of Concentration

Izzard equation (English units)

Laboratory experiments on pavements and turfs
41.025  0.0007ie  cr  L1/3
tc  2/3 1/3
, where i e L  500 in.ft / h
ie S
tc in minutes
i e = effective rainfall intensity in in/hr
L = overland flow distance in feet
c r = retardance factor
s o = slope of catchment (dimensionless)
Time of Concentration

Izzard equation
Laboratory experiments on pavements and turfs
526.7 cr  2.756 x105 ie  L1/3
tc  , where i e L  3.9 m 2 / h
ie 2/3 so1/3
tc is in minutes
i e = effective rainfall intensity in mm/hr
L = overland flow distance in meters
c r = retardance factor
s o = slope of catchment (dimensionless)
 Cr in the Izzard Equation

Surface Cr
Very smooth asphalt 0.0070
Tar and sand pavement 0.0075
Crushes-slate roof 0.0082
Concrete 0.012
Tar and gravel pavement 0.017
Closely clip sod 0.016
Dense bluegrass 0.060
Kerby-Hathaway
0.467
 L*r 
tc  k   where L  365 m
 S 
tc = time of concentration in minutes
L= overland flow length
k  0.826 if L is in English System
k  1.439 if L is in SI
r = overland flow retardance coefficient
S = overland flow slope
Values of r in Kerby Equation
Source: Kerby(1959), Westphal(2001), Seybert (2006) in David Chin 3rd Ed

Surface r
Smooth Pavements 0.02
Asphalt/Concrete 0.05-0.15
Smooth bare packed soil, free of stones 0.10
Light turf or Poor grass on moderately rough ground 0.20
Cultivated row crops 0.20
Average grass or Pasture 0.40
Dense turf or Dense grass 0.17-0.80
Bermuda Grass 0.30-0.48
Deciduous timberland 0.60
Conifer timberland, dense grass 0.60-0.80
Deciduous timberland (with deep forest litter) 0.80
Federal Aviation Agency FAA
(English units)

1.8 1.1  C  L0.5

tc 
S 1/3
tc is time of concentration in minutes
L overland flow length  feet 
C is rational formula runoff coefficient
S is overland flow slope in percent
Federal Aviation Agency FAA (SI units)

3.26 1.1  C  L0.5

tc 
S 1/3
tc is time of concentration in minutes
L overland flow length  m 
C is rational formula runoff coefficient
S is overland flow slope in percent
Van Sickle

0.55 L0.13 L0.13

tc  t
0.065
m

S
tc is time of concentration in minutes
Lt overland flow length  feet 
L m channel flow length  feet 
S is overland flow slope
 SCS Velocity Method
Travel time can be obtained from the velocity and distance
distance
traveled by using the relation time 
velocity
The time of concentration of a drainage basin can be
determined by identifying a flow path and the flow path
is then divided into segments of length Li of uniform slope Si .
The average velocity for each segment is then calculated
R 2/3
by the formula Vi  ki Si . The value of k  of the
n
Manning's equation and is called intercept cefficient.
 SCS Velocity Method

The time of concentration is obtained by summing up

the travel time for each segment, that is,
m m
Li
tc   ti  
i 1 i 1 Vi

where m  number of segemnts

Li  length of segment i
Vi  average flow velocity in segment i
Values of Intercept Coefficients, k
Source: U.S. Federal Highway Administration in David Chin, 3rd ed. Water
Resources Engineering

Land Cover (Flow Regime) k(m/s)

Forest with heavy ground litter; hay meadow (overland flow) 0.76

Trash fallow or minimum tillage cultivation; contour or strip 1.52

Cropped; woodland (overland flow)

Short grass pasture (overland flow) 2.13

Cultivated straight row (overland flow) 2.74
Nearly bare and untilled (overland flow) 3.05
Grass waterway (shallow concentrated flow) 4.57
Unpaved (shallow concentrated flow) 4.91
Paved area (shallow overland flow) small upland gullies 6.19
 Sample problem 1
Using the following information below, determine the time of
concentration from point A to point E. Using the SCS Velocity method.
Reach Flow Description Slope % Length (m)
A to B Overland (average grass) 10 260
B to C Overland (grass waterway concentrated flow) 3 250
C to D Storm sewer n=0.012, diameter is 0.9 m 1.5 450
D to E Open channel (1.2 m wide, 0.75 m deep, n=0.013) 0.5 580

A B C D
E
Solution
Travel time for segment AB
L AB  260 m, slope S = 10% , k AB  2.13 m / s (from the table)
VAB  k AB S  2.13 0.10  0.67 m / s
LAB 260
t AB    388 s
VAB 0.67
Travel time for segment BC
L BC  250 m, slope S = 3% , k BC  4.57 m / s (from the table)
VBC  k BC S  4.57 0.03  0.79m / s
LBC 250
t BC    316 s
VBC 0.79
 Solution
Travel Time for segment CD
Culvert diameter 0.90 m, n  0.012, L  450m, slope S  1.5%
1
V=  R  S
2/3 1/2

n
D 0.9
Assume that the pipe is just flowing full, R=   0.225m
4 4
1
 0.225   0.015   3.78m / s
2/3 1/2
V=
0.012
L 450
tCD    119 s
V 3.78
Solution
Segment CD
Length L=580m
Open Chnannel: width =1.2m, depth = 0.75, slope =0.5%, n=0.013
A=1.2(0.75)=0.90 m 2 ; P=1.2+2(0.75)=2.70 m
A 0.9 1
R=   0.75
P 2.70 3
1.20
2/3
1 2/3 1/2 1 1
V R S       2.61 m / s
1/2
0.005
n 0.013  3 
L 580
travel time t DE    222sec
V 2.61
Time of concentration tc=t AB  t BC  tCD  t DE
tc  388  316  119  222  1045sec or 17.42 min
Sample problem 2
 A residential catchment has an area of 1.2 sq km. The
distance from A, which is the catchment boundary, to the
outlet B is 900 m and the average ground slope is 3%. At the
catchment location the 10-year storm has the intensity
duration frequency relation as indicated in eq i. The surface
cover is concrete(n=0.014) and the effective rainfall may be
estimated as 85% of the rainfall intensity from the IDF.
Estimate the time of concentration using a) Kinematic
wave equation, b) Izzard equation, c) FAA, and d) Kerby
equation

For a 10-yr storm: i  335.82  60.95ln(t )  Eq i

where t is the duration in minutes
Solution
 Using the Kinematic Wave Equation
0.6
6.99  nL 
tc  0.4  
ie  S0 
1st iteration: Try tc  10 min
i  335.82  60.95ln(10)  195.48 mm/ h
ie  0.85 195.48   166.16 mm/h
0.6
6.99  0.014(900) 
tc   11.84 min  10 min
166.160.4  0.03 

adjust the trial value of t c .
Solution
 Using the Kinematic Wave Equation
0.6
6.99  nL 
tc  0.4  
ie  S0 
2nd iteration: Try tc  12 min
i  335.82  60.95ln(12)  184.36 mm/ h
ie  0.85 184.36   156.71 mm/h
0.6
6.99  0.014(900) 
tc     12.12 min 12 min
156.710.4
 0.03 
Use tc  12 min
Using Izzard Formula
526.7 cr  2.756 x105  L1/3
tc  , where i e L  3.9 m 2 / h
ie 2/3 so1/3
Try tc = 12 min
i  335.82  60.95ln(12)  184.36 mm/ h
ie = 0.85 184.36   156.71mm / h
c r = 0.012 for concrete (From the table)
526.7 0.012  2.756 x10 (156.71)   900 
5 1/3

tc 
156.71  0.03
2/3 1/3

tc  9.2 min  12 min, revise

 Using Izzard Formula

526.7 cr  2.756 x105  L1/3

tc  , where i e L  3.9 m 2 / h, where i e L  3.9 m 2 / h
ie 2/3 so1/3
Try tc = 8.8 min; i  335.82  60.95ln(8.8)  203.3mm/ h
ie  0.85(203.3)  172.78mm / h
c r = 0.012 for concrete (From the table)
526.7 0.012  2.756 x105 (172.78)   900 
1/3

tc   8.84 min 9 min

172.78  0.03
2/3 1/3

Use tc=9min
NOTE: ie L  0.17278(900)  155.5 3.9m 2 / h
Izzard Eq is strictly not applicable
 Using Kerby-Hathaway Equation
0.467
 L*r 
tc  1.439   where L  365 m
 S 
Here L=900 m > 365 m, the Kerby Hathaway is not applicable.
Let us see the result if the equation is used:
The value of retardance factor r is between 0.10 to 0.15.
Using r=0.10
0.467
 900*0.10 
tc  1.439    26.68 min
 0.03 
Using FAA

3.26 1.1  C  L0.5

tc 
S 1/3
L=900m; C=0.80 concrete; S=3%
3.26 1.1  0.8  (900) 0.5
tc  1/3
 20.34 min
3
FAA is developed from airfield drainage
 Runoff Coefficient in the Rational
Formula

The runoff coefficient C in the

Rational formula Q  CiA takes into account
the rainfall losses of the drainage basin. Values
given in the following tables reflect the effect of
landuse, soil, and slope on the potential runoff that
can be generated.
Runoff coefficients for use in the rational method
(Schaake, Geyer, and Knapp, 1967 in Haestad, 2003)
Type of Area or Development Runoff Coefficient C

Types of Surface Areas

Asphalt or Concrete 0.70-0.95
Brick paving 0.70-0.80
Roofs of Buildings 0.80-0.95
Unimproved grassland or pasture 0.10-0.30
Grass-covered sandy soils
Slopes 2% or less 0.05-0.10
Slope 2% to 8% 0.10-0.16
Slopes over 8% 0.16-0.20
Runoff coefficients for use in the rational method
(Schaake, Geyer, and Knapp, 1967 in Haestad, 2003)
Type of Area or Development Runoff
Coefficient C
Grass-covered clay soils
Slopes 2% or less 0.10-0.16
Slope 2% to 8% 0.17-0.25
Slopes over 8% 0.26-0.36
Types of Development
Urban Business 0.70-0.95
Commercial Office 0.50-0.70
Residential Development
Single Family Homes 0.30-0.50
Condominiums 0.40-0.60
Apartments 0.60-0.80
Suburban residential 0.25-0.40
Composite runoff coefficient
If the drainage basin consists of regions with
different runoff coefficients, it is advisable to
divide basins into subbasins of the same runoff
coefficient and the composite runoff coefficient
can be obtained by weighting, using the corresponding
area of the subbasins as weights, that is,

Cc 
 cA
i i

A i

where
ci =curve number for subbasin i
A i =size of subbasin i
SCS RAINFALL-RUNOFF DEPTH
RELATION
R. Fornis
 NCRS Curve Number (formally named Soil
Conservation System (SCS) Curve Number)

The NCRS Model (SCS-CN)

P
F Q
is expressed as 
S P  Ia Q
where Ia F
F  portion of rainfall that reach the
time
ground and retained by the catchment
Q  direct runoff
S  potential retention
P  precipitation
I a  initial abstraction
 NCRS Curve Number (formally named Soil
Conservation System (SCS) Curve Number)
As can be seen in the diagram, the retention, F,
can be obtained as P
F   P  Ia   Q
Q
Empirical data indicate that
initial abstraction, Ia , can Ia F
be expressed as a certain percentage time
of the maximum retention, S, and
commonly expressed as
I a  0.2 S
NCRS Curve Number (formally named Soil
Conservation System (SCS) Curve Number)
F Q

S P  Ia
using the expression F  ( P  I a )  Q
(P  Ia )  Q Q P
we obtain 
S P  Ia
Q
 P  Ia 
2

and Q Ia F
 P  Ia   S
time
Using I a  0.2 S , we can have
 P  0.2 S 
2

Q
P  0.8S
Determination of S using
Curve number, CN
25400
S  254 where S is in mm
CN
1000
S  10 where S is in inches
CN
CN is curve number which is a function of
three (3) factors:
 Soil group (Groups A, B,C, and D),
 cover complex, and
 antecedent moisture conditions
Soil group classification
 Group A: Deep sand; deep loess; aggregated silts
 Group B: Shallow loess; sandy loam
 Group C: Clay loams; Shallow sandy loam; soils low in
organic content; soils usually high in clay
 Group D: Solis that swell significantly when wet; heavy
plastic clays; certain saline soils
SCS soil group can be identified using
one of the three ways
 1) Soil characteristics
 2) Country Soil surveys
 3) minimum infiltration rate
Group Minimum Infiltration
rate (mm/hour)
A 7.5 -11.4
B 3.8 - 7.5
C 1.3 - 3.8
D 0 - 1.3
 Runoff curve numbers
(Average watershed condition, Ia=0.2S)
CN for Hydrologic Soil Group
Land Use Classification A B C D
Developing Urban Areas (No vegetation 77 86 91 94
established) Newly graded
Fully Developed Urban Areas (vegetation
established)
Lawns, Open Spaces, Parks, Golf courses,
cemeteries, etc.
* Good Condition; grass cover on 75% or 39 61 74 80
more of the area
*Fair Condition; grass cover up to 50% to 49 69 79 84
75% of the area
Poor Condition; grass cover 68 79 86 89
 Runoff curve numbers
(Average watershed condition, Ia=0.2S)

CN for Hydrologic Soil Group

Land Use Classification A B C D
Paved Parking lots, roofs, driveways, etc. 98 98 98 98
Streets and Roads
* Paved with curbs and storm sewers 98 98 98 98
* Gravel 76 85 89 91
* Dirt 72 82 87 89
* Paved with open ditches 83 89 92 93
 Runoff curve numbers
(Average watershed condition, Ia=0.2S)

CN for Hydrologic Soil Group

Land Use Classification A B C D

Average %
Impervious
Commercial and Business 85 89 92 94 95
Centers
Industrial Districts 72 81 88 91 93
Row Houses, Town houses, and 65 77 85 90 92
residential lot sizes 500 sq m
or less
 Runoff curve numbers
(Average watershed condition, Ia=0.2S)

CN for Hydrologic Soil Group

Land Use Classification A B C D
Residential: Average %
Average lot size Impervious
1000 sq m. 38 61 75 83 87
1350 sq m 30 57 72 81 86
2000 sq m 25 54 70 80 85
4050 sq m 20 51 68 79 84
8100 sq m 12 46 65 77 82
Sample Problem (Similar to example
9.18 of Chin, 2013)
 An engineer is to design drainage facilities of a catchment for
a rainfall event with a return period of 50 years and a
duration of 1 h. The IDF for 50-year storm is given by the
equation below. Infiltration test has indicated that minimum
infiltration rate is at 5mm/h. The area being developed is
mostly open space with less than 50% grass cover. Estimate the
total amount of runoff (in mm) using the SCS-CN method.
5840.46
i
 t  29.26 
0.95
Solution
5840.46 5840.46
i 
 t  29.26   60  29.26 
0.95 0.95

i  81.9 mm/hour
Soil is classified as poor condition: Grass cover less than 50%
Soil is Class B infiltration is 5 mm/h, Use CN=79
25400 25400
S  254   254
CN 79
S  67.5

 P  0.2S   81.9  0.2(67.5) 

2 2

Q 
P  0.8S 81.9  0.8(67.9)
Q  34.3 mm
Solution

 P  0.2 S   81.9  0.2(67.5) 

2 2

Q 
P  0.8S 81.9  0.8(67.9)
Q  34.3 mm
This is the amount of runoff in terms of depth
spread uniformly over the entire watershed.