Business and Technical English: Handouts 201

Handouts 201
Business and
Technical
English
ENG201
Business and Technical English
ENG201
LESSON 1 .................................................................................................................................................................... 5
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS & TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION ..................................................... 5
LESSON 2 .................................................................................................................................................................. 11
ORAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................................................................. 11
LESSON 3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 19
READER-CENTERED WRITING...................................................................................................... 19
LESSON 4 .................................................................................................................................................................. 27
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................... 27
LESSON 5 .................................................................................................................................................................. 29
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION DEFINING OBJECTIVES-I ............................................................... 29
LESSON 6 .................................................................................................................................................................. 33
DEFINING OBJECTIVES-II ............................................................................................................. 33
LESSON 7 .................................................................................................................................................................. 41
ACCURACY, CLARITY, CONCISENESS AND COHERENCE............................................................... 41
LESSON 8 .................................................................................................................................................................. 48
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION-I ..................................................................... 48
LESSON 9 .................................................................................................................................................................. 54
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION II..................................................................... 54
LESSON 10 ................................................................................................................................................................58
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION III ................................................................... 58
LESSON 11 ................................................................................................................................................................64
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION ........................................................................ 64
LESSON 12 ................................................................................................................................................................70
PLANNING BUSINESS MESSAGES ................................................................................................. 70
LESSON 13 ................................................................................................................................................................75
COMPOSING BUSINESS MESSAGES ............................................................................................... 75
LESSON 14 ................................................................................................................................................................82
REVISING BUSINESS MESSAGES ................................................................................................... 82
LESSON 15 ...............................................................................................................................................................89
MEMORANDUMS, MEETING DOCUMENTS AND PROPOSALS ......................................................... 89
LESSON 16 ................................................................................................................................................................92
LETTERS ...................................................................................................................................... 92
LESSON 17 ................................................................................................................................................................96
LETTERS II ................................................................................................................................... 96
LESSON 18 ..............................................................................................................................................................100
WRITING DIRECT REQUESTS ...................................................................................................... 100
LESSON 19 ..............................................................................................................................................................103
WRITING ROUTINE, GOOD-NEWS AND GOODWILL MESSAGES .................................................. 103
LESSON 20 ..............................................................................................................................................................106
WRITING BAD-NEWS MESSAGES ............................................................................................... 106
LESSON 21 ..............................................................................................................................................................109
WRITING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES.............................................................................................. 109
LESSON 22 ..............................................................................................................................................................113
WRITING SHORT REPORTS ......................................................................................................... 113
LESSON 23 ..............................................................................................................................................................118
PLANNING LONG REPORTS......................................................................................................... 118
LESSON 24 ..............................................................................................................................................................122
WRITING LONG REPORTS ........................................................................................................... 122
LESSON 25 ..............................................................................................................................................................125
GENERAL REPORTS .................................................................................................................... 125
LESSON 26 ..............................................................................................................................................................128
EMPIRICAL RESEARCH REPORT.................................................................................................. 128
LESSON 27 ..............................................................................................................................................................134
FEASIBILITY REPORTS ................................................................................................................ 134
LESSON 28 ..............................................................................................................................................................140
PROGRESS REPORTS ................................................................................................................... 140
LESSON 29 ..............................................................................................................................................................145
PROPOSALS ................................................................................................................................ 145
LESSON 30 ..............................................................................................................................................................152
INSTRUCTIONS ........................................................................................................................... 152
LESSON 31 ..............................................................................................................................................................158
USING VISUAL AIDS .................................................................................................................. 158
LESSON 32 ..............................................................................................................................................................161
CREATING TWELVE TYPES OF VISUAL AIDS .............................................................................. 161
LESSON 33 ..............................................................................................................................................................166
WRITING SPECIFICATIONS AND ANALYSIS REPORTS .................................................................. 166
LESSON 34 ..............................................................................................................................................................170
HOW TO AVOID COMMON WRITING PROBLEMS......................................................................... 170
LESSON 35 ..............................................................................................................................................................174
LANGUAGE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 174
LESSON 36 ..............................................................................................................................................................183
LANGUAGE REVIEW: SENTENCES .............................................................................................. 183
LESSON 37 ..............................................................................................................................................................186
LANGUAGE REVIEW: SENTENCES II ........................................................................................... 186
LESSON 38 ..............................................................................................................................................................191
LANGUAGE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 191
LESSON 39 ..............................................................................................................................................................195
LANGUAGE REVIEW: PUNCTUATION II ...................................................................................... 195
LESSON 40 ..............................................................................................................................................................202
LANGUAGE REVIEW: MECHANICS ............................................................................................. 202
LESSON 41 ..............................................................................................................................................................208
LISTENING AND INTERVIEWING.................................................................................................. 208
LESSON 42 ..............................................................................................................................................................213
PLANNING INTERVIEWS AND CONDUCTING MEETINGS .............................................................. 213
LESSON 43 ..............................................................................................................................................................220
GIVING SPEECHES AND ORAL PRESENTATIONS I........................................................................ 220
LESSON 44 ..............................................................................................................................................................227
GIVING SPEECHES AND ORAL PRESENTATIONS II ...................................................................... 227
LESSON 45 ..............................................................................................................................................................234
REVIEW WRITTEN COMMUNICATION ......................................................................................... 234
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS & TECHNICAL

COMMUNICATION
Outline
Introduction to Business & Technical Communication
Books & Materials
Modules
Importance of Business & Technical Communication
Types of Communication
Introduction to Business & Technical Communication

The main objective of this course is to equip the students with skills that will enable them to
communicate clearly and concisely in diverse business situations. The students will learn the
importance of planning and organizing effective written messages. The course is divided into
two sections:
1. Written Communication
2. Oral Communication
Written communication will cover planning, structures, and stylistic issues. The students will
learn to write memos and letters, proposals, short and long reports, and procedure & policy
documents. Moreover, the students will learn to simplify complex information through editing
and revising for enhancing their ability to create powerful documents to sell their ideas. The oral
communication section will cover planning and execution of effective presentations; group
behavior, planning and conducting effective meetings.
Books & Materials
The Mayfield Handbook for Technical Writing

http://www.mhhe.com/mayfieldpub/tsw/home.htm
Business Communication Today by Bovee, C.L. & Thill, J.V.
Modules
Module 1: Basics of Effective Technical and Business Communication

Module 2: Forms of Written Communication: Reports, Proposals, Letters, Memos, Applications,
Resumes, Instructions, and Specification documents.
Module 3: Research &Writing
Module 4: Oral Communication
Importance of Business & Technical Communication

Learning ‘Business & Technical Communication’ helps a person to identify different roles at
workplace. For instance, you will need to identify your two roles at work. As a specialist, you
need to generate ideas which will be potentially useful. Secondly, you need to share the results of
your ideas with co-workers, customers, etc. as a communicator.
Example
Naila, a newly hired dietitian, must communicate to make the work valuable to her employer, at
a large hospital. She has devised a way to reorganize the hospital kitchen that saves money, etc.
Her insights will benefit the hospital only if they are communicated to someone who has the
power to implement them, such as the kitchen director.
Writing is critical to your success. As a college graduate, you will need to spend an average of 20
percent of your time at work writing. That comes out to one out of every five-day work week.
A graph plotted for percentage of hours spent versus the number of people who
responded for the survey. The study was conducted for a total number of 896 students in
the US Universities.
Besides enabling you to do your job, writing well can bring you many personal benefits
as well:
Recognition in the form of praise
Raises
Promotions
In many organizations, the communication with the upper management is not feasible. In
such a company, your memos, reports, and other writings may be the only evidence. They
only have specimens of your good written work as either a specialist or a communicator.
Writing is an important responsibility of mangers who have to communicate a wide

variety of messages to those working above and below them. Consequently, employers
look for writings when considering people for advancement.
In a study, 94 percent of the graduates from seven departments that send students to
technical writing classes reported that the ability to "write well" is of "some" importance
to them. Furthermore, 58 percent said that it is of great or critical importance to them.
In a survey of people listed in the "Engineers of distinction", 89 percent said that the
writing ability is considered when a person is considered for advancement.
Survey of people listed in the "Engineers of distinction" plotting the importance of writing skills
to people versus the number of people who responded.
In addition to bringing you recognition, writing well at work can bring you personal satisfaction
too. It will enable you to make an important impact. To succeed in any endeavors during your
professional career, you will need to influence people's opinions, actions and decisions mostly
through your writing skills.
Writing at work differs from writing at school

To write successfully at work, you will need to develop new writing skills and even new ways of
thinking about writing. That’s because writing at work place differs in some very fundamental
ways from writing done at school.
Purposes of Writing
As a student, you communicate for educational purposes, for example, writing term papers or
taking a written exam, etc. In contrast, as an employee, you will communicate for instrumental
purposes. Most of your communications will be designed to help your employer achieve
practical business objectives.
At school, where your aim is to show how much you know, one of your major writing strategies
is to write as much as you can about your subject. At work, your communications should only
include the information your readers need. Extra information would only clog your readers’ path
resulting in:
o decreased efficiency
o increased frustration
Audience
At school your interaction is only with one person, the instructor. In contrast at work, you
will often create communications that will address a wide variety of people with different
backgrounds.
The use they will make of your information.
The kinds of professional and personal concerns they will bring to your presentation.
Example
Consider the report in which Naila will present her recommendations for improving the hospital
kitchen. Her recommendations might be read by her supervisor Mr. Nadeem who will want to
know what measures he will have to take in order to follow her recommendations. The vice
president of finance, Mr. Altaf, will want to verify the cost estimates that Naila includes. The
director of purchasing, Mr. Chauhan, will need to know about the new equipment he will need to
order. The head of personnel, Miss Sara, will want to learn whether she needs to write any new
job descriptions. And lastly, to assure the kitchen staff that their new work assignment will treat
them fairly. So, writing for such a large and diverse audience requires skills that are not needed
when writing only to your instructor.
People at work write different types of writing for communication than those written at schools.
Instead of term papers and exams, they write such things as:
• Memos
• Business letters
• Instructions
• Project proposals
• Progress reports
Each on-the-job communication has its own conventions. To write successfully at work, you will
need to learn how to construct these kinds of communication.
Ownership
Ownership of a writer’s work is very important. While at school your communication only
belongs to you, at work however, your communication will belong only partly to you. It will
belong to your employer. What you write at work represents not only you but also your
department or your employer.
Example
If you write a letter or report to a customer, the customer views it as an official communication
from your employer. If you write a proposal, your employer will get the contract or lose it.
Two other situations are fairly common at work. Employees often work on committees that write
reports, proposals, and other documents collaboratively. The final version cannot be accredited
to only one individual.
People often write communication that is sent under someone else’s name. It is common for
departmental reports to be signed by the Head of Department, even though they are written by
the staff members.
To succeed in a job, you will need to learn to write under the circumstances in which your
employer claims ownership of your communication. It is absolutely essential to think constantly
about your readers.
• Think about what they want from you and why?

• Think about the ways you want to affect them.
• Think about the ways they will react to what you have to say.
• Think about them as if they were right there in front of you while you talked
together. The communication must affect the individual people you are
addressing in specific ways.
Example
If Naila’s proposal of modifying the hospital kitchen explains the problems created by the
present organization in a way that her readers find compelling, if it addresses the kinds of
objections that her readers can relate to, if it reduces the reader’s sense of being threatened by
suggesting improvements to a system that they set up, then it may succeed.
On the other hand, if Naila’s proposal leaves the readers confused, and fails to persuade them, it
will make Naila seem like a pushy person who has overstepped her appropriate role. As you
write in a professional environment, you need to remember three things:
1. Readers create meaning.

2. Readers’ responses are sharpened by the situation.
3. Readers react on a moment-by-moment basis.
Readers create Meaning

Instead of receiving the message, people interact with the message to create meaning. While
reading, we build larger structures of knowledge from small fragments of sentences. These
structures are not the words we have just read but our own creation.
Readers’ responses are shaped by the situation

Responses to a communication are shaped by a total situation surrounding the message such as
the readers’ purpose of reading, their perceptions of the writer’s aims, their personal interests
and stake in the subject discussed, and their past relations, if any, with the writer.
Readers react on a moment-to-moment basis

On job, people react to each part of the memo, report or other business communication as soon
as they come to it.
Exercises
1. Find a communication written by someone who has the kind of job you want. Explain its
purpose from various points of view of both the writer and the readers. Describe some of the
writing strategies the writer has used to achieve those purposes.
2. Find a piece of writing that you believe to be ineffective. (You might look for an unclear set
of instructions or an unpersuasive advertisement of some business or a technical product.)
Write a brief analysis of three or four “reading moments” in which your interaction with the
text is in a way that inhibits the author’s desired results.
3. Now analyze an effective piece of writing. This time, write about three or four “reading
moments” in which you interact with the text in a way that helps the author bring about the
desired result.
LESSON 2
ORAL COMMUNICATION
Outline
Types of Oral communication
Modes of Delivery
o Extempore
o Impromptu
o Memorization
o Reading
Preparation and Delivery of a Presentation
Delivery Guidelines
Using Visual Aids
Oral Presentations
Oral presentations can be formal or informal depending upon their explicit and implicit purposes
and the delivery situation. An oral presentation can be almost any report type such as a design
review, a proposal, or a conference talk.
Whatever the specific type, however, an effective oral presentation is carefully planned with
your objectives in mind and pays close attention to the demands of your audience.
Effective oral communication is a combination of many skills:
outlining and planning

preparing overheads or other display media
rehearsing
delivery
Formal and Informal Oral Reports

An oral report may be delivered around a small table with just a few listeners or in a large
auditorium to hundreds of people.
Formal oral reports are usually prepared well in advance of presentation and are, therefore,
well-rehearsed. Your manner of delivery is extremely important in a formal oral report situation.
Formal oral reports may follow an outline similar to the parts of any formal written report and
may be presented to an audience of one's peers or to an interested general or mixed audience in a
setting such as a large auditorium or hall.
Informal oral reports are generally characterized by small-group settings with a high degree of
audience interaction and a relaxed manner of delivery and dress. Informal oral presentations can
foster the free exchange of ideas and can be important for producing action items.
Oral presentations in a professional environment generally fall into two categories:
Informative speaking
Persuasive speaking
a. Informative Speaking
Informative Speaking has audience learning as its primary goal. An informative speech may
explain a concept, instruct an audience, demonstrate a process, or describe an event. In a
professional setting, the informative speech may take many different forms:
• Individual or Group Report

• Oral Briefing
• Panel Discussion
• Oral Critique
b. Persuasive Speaking
Persuasive Speaking is used to influence what an audience thinks or does. Some of the goals of
persuasive speaking include:
• To reinforce the attitudes, beliefs, and values an audience already holds

• To inoculate an audience against counter persuasion
• To change attitudes
• To motivate an audience to act
Delivery Methods
There are at least four methods for making an oral presentation:
1. Extempore
2. Impromptu
3. Memorization
4. Reading
Extempore
In this method of delivery, the thought is planned before starting to speak, either in a few hurried
minutes or in the course of long, elaborate and exacting preparation, but the exact wording is left
to the moment of speaking. The extemporaneous method involves significant effort but results
in a degree of quality that tells your audience that you care about them.
It requires the detailed laying out of the presentation from beginning to end.
Doing your homework to fill in your knowledge gaps.
The use of 3 x 5 cue cards or similar method to jog your memory on specifics and keep
your presentation on track.
Impromptu
The impromptu speech is given without any advance preparation, any notes or other additional
materials; it is a spontaneous reaction to the topic at hand which may introduce an interesting
turn to the discussion.
Memorization
A memorized speech is a speech that is recited from memory rather than read from cue cards or
using the assistance of notes. This method of speech delivery does not come as highly
recommended as other methods.
The memorization method is risky; you can lose your place or leave something out and, in a
panic, you might revert to the impromptu method, resulting in disaster.
Reading
The drawback of reading is that when you read your speech, you are communicating with the
text instead of the audience.
Novice speakers often believe that if they memorize their speeches by reading them over and
over word for word, they will be able to stand up and deliver the speech verbatim without
reading. It is a great idea but it just does not work. If you practice by reading from a written
manuscript, you will become so devoted to the paper that it will be virtually impossible to break
away from it. You also lose most of the expressiveness and engaging body language that make
speeches work in the first place.
Preparation of the presentation

Irrespective of the method of delivery, the presenter must consider the following parameters in
preparing for the presentation:
knowledge of the audience

knowledge of subject
use of time
rehearsal
personal appearance and grooming
Additionally, the preparation and use of visual aids is an important element of any effective
presentation.
a. Knowledge of the Audience

You should know about your audience’s pre-existing knowledge. Know the age level of the
audience as well as its members’ level of educational sophistication and special interests. Then
tailor your presentation accordingly.
b. Knowledge of the Subject

Whether you use notes, manuscript, or strictly memory, you must know your subject well. If
gaps exist, you should fill them up.
c. Use of Time and Rehearsal

Time limits are to be observed. Even if no time limit is given, you should strive to do justice to
your subject in as little time as possible but not at the price of an incomplete presentation.
d. Personal Appearance
Your personal appearance affects your credibility. Informal clothing is rarely appropriate for a
professional presentation. Pay significant attention to personal grooming.
Delivering an Oral Presentation

A well planned and well-structured presentation can almost be ineffective because of bad
presentation delivery. Keep in mind the following factors:
Poise and Enthusiasm

Eye Contact
Use of Voice
Use of Time
a. Poise and Enthusiasm

Be well prepared and strive for muscular control, alert attention, vibrant interest in the subject,
and an eagerness to communicate. Avoid distracting mannerisms, but don't stand in a "frozen"
position. Moving about, if not excessive, can accentuate your enthusiasm.
b. Eye Contact
During your presentation, try to make eye contact with most of the people and, if possible, every
person in the room. Avoid fastening your gaze on your notes, on your chart or screen, or on some
point in space above the heads of your listeners.
c. Use of Voice
Don't speak too soft, too fast, or mumble. Your audience must be able to:
hear what you say

understand what you say
d. Use of Pace
Without adequate preparation, it is easy to become nervous and start rushing through a
presentation. Instead, use the pacing established during your many rehearsals.
Making a Formal Presentation

The material of your presentation should be concise, to the point, and tell an interesting story. In
addition to the obvious things like content and visual aids, the following are just as important as
the audience will be subconsciously taking them in:
Voice - how you say it is as important as what you say.

Body language - a subject in its own right and something about which much has been
written and said. In essence, your body movements express what your attitudes and
thoughts really are.
Appearance - first impressions influence the audience's attitudes to you. Dress
appropriately for the occasion.
As is the case with most personal skills, oral communication cannot be taught. Instructors can
only point the way. So as always, practice is essential both to improve your skills generally and
also to make the best of each individual presentation you make.
Preparation
Prepare the structure of the talk carefully and logically just as you would for a written report.
Keep in mind:
the objectives of the talk

the main points of the talk
Make a list of these two things as your starting point. Write out the presentation in rough, just
like a first draft of a written report. Review the draft. You will find things that are irrelevant or
superfluous - delete them. Check that the story is consistent and flows smoothly. If there are
things you cannot easily express, possibly because of some doubt, it is better to leave them
unsaid.
Never read from a script. It is also unwise to have the talk written out in detail as a prompt sheet;
chances are you will not locate the thing you want to say amongst all the other text. You should
know most of what you want to say - if you do not, then you should not be giving the talk. So,
prepare cue cards which have key words and phrases (and possibly sketches) on them.
Postcards are ideal for this. Do not forget to number the cards in case you drop them. Remember
to mark on your cards the visual aids that go with them so that the right OHP or slide is shown at
the right time. Rehearse your presentation, to yourself at first and then in front of some
colleagues. The initial rehearsal should consider how the words and the sequence of visual aids
go together.
Making the Presentation

Greet the audience (for example, 'Good morning, ladies and gentlemen') and tell them who you
are. Good presentations then follow this formula: tell the audience what you are going to tell
them, at the end tell them what you have told them. Keep to the time allowed. If you can, keep it
short. It is better to under-run than over-run. As a rule of thumb, allow two minutes for each
general overhead transparency or Power Point slide you use but longer for any that you want to
use for developing specific points. 35mm slides are generally used more sparingly and stay on
the screen longer.
However, the audience will get bored with something on the screen for more than 5 minutes,
especially, if you are not actively talking about it. So switch the display off or replace the slide
with some form of 'wallpaper' such as a company logo. Stick to the plan for the presentation,
don't be tempted to digress - you will eat up time and could end up in a dead-end with no escape.
Unless explicitly told not to, leave time for discussion. Five minutes are sufficient for
clarification of points. The session chairman may extend this if the questioning becomes
interesting. At the end of your presentation, ask if there are any questions. Avoid being terse-
when you do this, the audience may find it intimidating (i.e. it may come across as any
questions?If there are, it shows you were not paying attention). If questions are slow in coming,
you can start things off by asking a question from the audience, so have one prepared.
Delivery Guidelines
Following are some very useful and practical guidelines for delivering a smooth presentation:
Speak clearly. Do not shout or whisper. Judge the acoustics of the room. Do not rush or talk
deliberately slow. Be natural - although not conversational. Deliberately pause at key points -
this has the effect of emphasizing the importance of a particular point you are making. Avoid
jokes - always disastrous unless you are a natural expert.
Use your hands to emphasize points but do not indulge in too much hand waving. Ask colleagues
occasionally what they think of your style. Look at the audience as much as possible, but do not
fix on an individual - it can be intimidating. Pitch your presentation towards the back of the
audience, especially in larger rooms. Do not face the display screen behind you and talk to it.
Also, do not stand in a position where you obscure the screen. In fact, positively check for
anyone in the audience who may be disadvantaged and try to accommodate them.
Avoid moving about too much. Pacing up and down can unnerve the audience; although, some
animation is desirable. Keep an eye on the audience's body language. Know when to stop and
also when to cut out a piece of the presentation.
Using Visual Aids for Oral Presentations

Visual aids significantly improve the interest of a presentation. However, they must be relevant
to what you want to say. A careless design or use of a slide can simply get in the way of the
presentation. What visual aids you use depend on the type of talk you are delivering.
Here are some possible visual aids you can benefit from:
Overhead projection transparencies (OHPs)

35mm Slides
Computer projection (PowerPoint, applications such as Excel, etc.)
Video and film
Real objects - either handled from the speaker's bench or passed around
Flipchart or blackboard - possibly used as a 'scratch-pad' to expand on a point
Keep it simple though - a complex set of hardware can result in confusion for both the
speaker and audience.
Make sure you know in advance how to operate equipment and also when you want particular
displays to appear and when and what signals you will use. Edit your slides as carefully as your
talk - if a slide is superfluous then leave it out. If you need to use a slide twice, duplicate it.
Slides and OHPs should contain the minimum information necessary. To do otherwise risks
making the slide unreadable or will divert your audience's attention so that they spend time
reading the slide rather than listening to you.
Try to limit words per slide to a maximum of 10. Use a reasonable font size and a
typeface which will enlarge well.
Typically use a minimum 18 pt. Times New Roman on OHPs and preferably larger. A
guideline is: if you can read the OHP from a distance of 2 meters (without projection)
then it's probably ‘OK’.
Avoid using a diagram prepared for a technical report in your talk. It will be too detailed
and difficult to read.
Use color on your slides but avoid orange and yellow which do not show up very well
when projected. For text only, white or yellow on blue is pleasant to look at and easy to
read. Books on presentation techniques often have quite detailed advice on the design of
slides.
If possible, consult an expert such as the Audio Visual Centre. Avoid adding to OHPs
with a pen during the talk - it's messy and the audience will be fascinated by your shaking
hand!
On this point, this is another good reason for pointing to the screen when explaining a
slide rather than pointing to the OHP transparency. Room lighting should be considered.
Too much light near the screen will make it difficult to see the detail.
On the other hand, a completely darkened room can send the audience to sleep. Try to
avoid having to keep switching lights on and off, but if you do have to do this, know
where the light switches are and how to use them.
LESSON 3
READER-CENTERED WRITING
Outline
In this lesson, you will learn the following steps for writing a resume & letter of application:
Defining your objectives
Planning
Drafting
Evaluating
Revising
Writing your Resume

a. Defining your objectives
The first activity of writing- defining objectives- is especially important while you are writing a
simple letter or job application letter. When defining your objectives, you tell what you want
your communication to do. Thus, your objectives form the basis of all your other work of
writing.
To take the reader centered approach, you need to look at three things:
a. The final result you desire.
b. The people who will read your communication.
c. The specific way you want your communication to affect the people as they read your
communication.
In the first stage, employers try to attract applications from as many qualified people as
possible. At this stage of recruiting, resumes are usually read by people who work in a personal
office.
To understand the first stage, you may find it helpful to draw an imaginary portrait of the
person going through your resume. Imagine a man who sat down to read a stack of 25-50 new
applications that arrived in today’s mail. He does not have time to read through all the
applications, so, he quickly sorts those applications which merit additional consideration.
He quickly finds reasons to disqualify most applicants. Only, occasionally, does he read a full
resume. As you write your resume you must keep in mind that it must quickly attract and hold
that man’s attention.
In the second stage of recruiting, employers carefully scrutinize the qualifications of the most
promising applicants. Often this involves the visit of the candidates to the employer’s work
place. The second stage reader of your resume includes managers of the department you have to
work for.
To imagine your reader, you can imagine the head of the department at this stage. This person
is shorthanded and wants rapidly to fill one or more openings. When s/he gets the resumes, s/he
knows precisely what qualifications she seeks.
Of course, some job searches vary from the two-stage recruiting procedure as described
above. If you interview at a campus placement center, you will probably hand in your resume to
the company recruiters at the same time you meet them.
Deciding how you want your resumes to affect your readers is important. After you have
identified the readers, you should determine how your resume will affect them in the job that you
are seeking. More precisely, you should define how your resume is to affect your readers while
they read it.
To determine how your resume will affect your reader, you can think about two things:
The way you want your communication to alter your reader’s attitude
The task you want to help your readers perform while they read
Altering your Audience’s Attitudes

First determine how your audience feels before reading what you are writing, and then decide
how you want them to feel after they have read it. However, your reader’s attitude before they
read anything is neutral towards you.
Once you have described your reader’s present and desired attitudes, try to find out things
about your reader that will help you plan a strategy for persuading them to change their attitudes
the way you specified. To begin, find out what will appeal to your audience.
Altering your employer’s attitudes

As common sense will tell you, your employers will want to hire people who are capable –
applicants must be able to perform the tasks assigned to them. Responsible – applicants must be
trustworthy enough to benefit the organization. Pleasant – applicants must be able to interact
compatibly with other employees.
The reader of your resume will look for specific terms. Instead of asking, “Is this applicant
capable?”, he will ask “Can this person program in Java?”, etc.
Helping your readers perform their tasks

Different kinds of communication involve different tasks. When you know what those tasks are,
you can write your communication in a way that will help your readers perform them easily.
While reading your resume, your reader’s primary task is to get the answers to the following
questions:
What exactly does the person want to do?

What kind of education does the person have for the job?
What experience does the person have in this or a similar job?
What other activities has the person engaged in which have helped him prepare for the
job?
How can I get more information about the person’s qualifications?
Knowing that your readers will be looking for the answers to these questions tells you a great
deal about what to include in your resume.
b. Planning
When you plan, you decide what to say and how to organize your material. In addition, you
should find relevant expectations your readers have about your communication. Those
expectations may limit the choices you make concerning content and organization. Deciding
what to say provides you with direct help in determining what to say. In addition, your resume is
a persuasive argument whose purpose is to convince your readers to hire you.
The persuasive argument has two elements: a claim and an evidence to support your claim. Your
definition of your objectives tells you what the implicit claim of your resume should be. That is:
you are the kind of capable, responsible, and pleasant person that employers want to hire. You
identify the specific facts you can mention as evidence to support the claim about yourself. Your
objectives do that by alerting you to the kind of questions your readers will be asking about your
resume.
Organizing your material

When planning a communication, you need to decide not only what you will say but also how
you will organize your material. For example, your definition of resume objectives requires you
to emphasize the points as major evidence that you are qualified for the job you seek. More than
one organizational pattern can be used to achieve those objectives. Most resumes are organized
around an applicant’s experience. Thus, you can categorize them under educational experiences,
work experiences, and so on.
However, some individuals choose to organize a substantial part of their resume around their
accomplishments and abilities. Such a resume is called a functional resume because it
emphasizes the functions and tasks the applicant can perform. Whichever organizational pattern
you choose, you must still decide the order you will use to present your resume. If you imagine
your readers reading your resume, you will see that you have to make your name and
professional achievements prominent. If you are writing conventional resume, you can provide
the desired prominence by placing the name and professional objectives at the top. If you are
designing a non-conventional resume, you may place your name along the bottom or side. After
stating your professional objective, you should organize your remaining material by following
one of the most basic strategies for writing at work: put the most important information first.
This will ensure that your hurried readers come to the most important information quickly.
For example, people in conservative fields take a similar conservative approach to resumes. To
them, resume should be typed in a white, buff or gray paper with the applicant’s name and
address at the top. Keep in mind, the conventions in your fields may be different and you may
have to do some investigation to learn whether or not that is the case.
c. Drafting
When you draft, you transform your plans, notes, outlines, and ideas into a communication. For
your resumes that you create at work, you must not only draft a prose but also draft the design
and the visual appearance of your message.
Drafting the Prose

While you draft the prose of your resume, keep in mind the imaginary portraits of your readers.
Remember that your purpose is to enable those people to locate the answers to their questions
relating to you. Your professional objectives are statements which are one or two sentences long
and are usually general enough that the writer could send them, without alteration to many
prospect employers.
Example
If you follow the convention, for example, you would not say “I want to work in the process
control department of Adam Jee cloth manufacturing unit.”
Instead, you would make a more general statement like “I want to work in the process control of
a mid-sized cloth manufacturing unit.”
This does not mean, however, that you need to develop a single professional objective that you
can send to all employers you might contact.
Professional Objectives
When you state your professional objective, you answer your reader’s question, ‘What exactly
do you want to do?’ Your answer is extremely important to the resume. In contrast, people in
other fields such as advertising are accustomed to seeing highly unconventional resumes,
perhaps printed on a pink paper.
You could write multiple resumes each with professional objective suited to respective fields.
Consequently, the challenge you face when writing your professional objective is to be neither
too general nor too specific. You have struck the proper balance if you could send the same
resume to several companies and if your readers can see that you want to work in a particular
kind of organization.
Education
When describing your education, you provide evidence that you are capable of performing the
job you applied for. The basic evidence is your college degree, so you should name the college
and your degree and the date of graduation.
Remember
If your grades are good, mention them. If you have earned any academic honors, mention them.
If you have any specialized academic experience, such as a co-assignment or internship, describe
it.
Example
By looking at Ramon and Sharon’s resumes you can see how three very different people have
elaborated on the way their education qualify them for the jobs they want. Ramon, for example,
describes his honors in a separate section, thereby, making them more prominent than they
would have been under the simple heading of ‘Education’.
Ordering your job experience

When deciding on the order in which to present your jobs, remember that you want to enable
your busy readers to see your most impressive qualification. Most people can achieve that
objective by stating their jobs in the reverse chronological order because their most recent job is
also their most impressive.
d. Evaluating & Revising

Revision literally means to "see again", to look at something from a fresh, critical perspective.
Writing is a process of discovery, and you do not always produce your best stuff when you first
get started.
Revising is an ongoing process of rethinking: reviewing your evidence, refining your purpose,
reorganizing your presentation, reviving stale prose and correcting grammar and punctuation. So,
revision is a chance for you to look critically at what you have written to see:
if it's really worth saying
if it says what you wanted to say
if a reader will understand what you are saying
LESSON 4
AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
Outline
In this lecture, you will learn ‘Audience Analysis:
Target Audience
Writing for Experts
Types of Experts
o General experts
o Specific experts
Audience’s use of Document
Target Audience
‘Target audience’ is a specified audience or demographic group for whom a message is designed.
Your target audience is the individuals, groups, communities and bodies of decision makers who
can influence your target. Your target is the individual or individuals who have direct decision-
making power over the issue your organization is working to address. Often a document will be
read by readers with different levels of expertise.
A mixed group of audience may be based on experts, technicians, managers, and laypersons.
Target your audience by identifying audience type, characteristics and level of expertise.
Determine your audience's needs by assessing their expertise and their purpose in reading the
document. Determine document density.
People read technical documents for different reasons, and readers have varying levels of
technical expertise. To be effective, technical writing must target its audience or audiences.
Target your audience by identifying your audience type and level of expertise, your audience
purpose in using the document, and your audience attitude towards both you and the content of
your document.
Writing for Experts

Distinguish between two types of experts:
General experts
Specific experts
Both kinds are readers with extensive technical knowledge of the document's subject matter.
General experts possess extensive knowledge about a field in general, but they might be
unfamiliar with particular technical terms, specific equipment, or recent advances in your
document's subject matter. Specific experts, on the other hand, share or surpass your knowledge
about a document's subject matter.
Audience’s Use of a Document

Experts read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:
To maintain and expand their own general expertise
To obtain specific answers to their own research and writing
To evaluate a document's technical or scientific content
Strategies for Writing to Technicians

Following are the strategies for writing to technicians:
Keep introductions and background information brief.

Make information accessible.
Provide short definitions or explanations of any unfamiliar terms, tools, devices, or
procedures.
Managers read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:
To aid in making decisions

To assess current situations
To maintain their general level of expertise
To evaluate projects and employees
In general, managers read for the bottom line, a concise summary of the present situation and
specific recommendations for action.
Audience’s General Use of Document

Readers of technical and scientific writings, whatever their level of expertise, read a document
for three general purposes:
To acquire information
To help make decisions
To learn how to do something
On the other hand, if the audience does not know you or does not consider you an expert, or if
the reader has had past negative experience with you or your organization, the document should
include extensive explanations of your conclusions and recommendations to create trust and
establish credibility.
LESSON 5
EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
DEFINING OBJECTIVES-I
Outline
In this lecture, you will learn:
Defining Objectives
Document Purpose
a. Explicit Purposes
o to provide information
o to give instructions
o to persuade the reader
o to enact (or prohibit) something
b. Implicit Purposes
o to establish a relationship
o to create trust and establish credibility
o to document actions
Defining your Communication Objectives

Defining Objectives – determining what your document needs to accomplish to be successful.
Defining the objectives of your communication is extremely important. Defining objectives has a
strong link with the audience analysis covered in the last lesson.
Purpose for writing documents

Document Purpose
Documents should be created for explicit purposes or goals that both the writer and the reader
would readily agree on. Although there are many explicit purposes for creating a scientific or
technical document, there are four general categories:
• To provide information
• To give instructions
• To persuade the reader
• To enact (or prohibit) something
Points to keep in mind while writing a document

Make the explicit purpose clear at the beginning of your document in an abstract, an executive
summary, an introduction, or all of these. Sometimes, a formal statement of objective is called
for.
You may also need to identify the person, the agency, or the contract requiring or authorizing the
document or research. In addition to explicit goals, however, writers almost always write with
unstated but still extremely important implicit goals in mind. Among the most common of these
goals are to establish a relationship, to create trust and credibility, and to document actions.
a. Explicit Purposes of a Document

Explicit purpose means the purpose which is clearly stated. As discussed earlier, most scientific
documents have, as their principal (explicit) purpose, one or more of the following actions:
• To provide information
• To give instructions
• To persuade the reader
• To enact (or prohibit something)
Whatever is the general purpose of an overall document, certain sections of a document always
have a specific purpose.
Documents that provide information

Document Types
• Literature reviews
• Specifications
Sections in Document
• Background
• Theory
• Materials
• Results
• Tables
Example
“This document will discuss the reasons behind constructing a new Trade Center in Islamabad.”
Documents that give instructions

Document Type
Proposals
• Procedures
• Work plan
Example
“This document outlines a procedure for constructing a new Trade Center in Islamabad.”
Documents meant to ‘persuade’ the reader

Document Types
• Proposals
• Recommendation Reports
• Job application Letters
• Résumés
• Discussion
• Conclusion
• Recommendation
Example
“This document proposes a feasibility study for constructing a new Trade Center in Islamabad.”
Documents meant to ‘enact’ something

Document Type
Acceptance Letters
Regulations
Patents
Authorization Memoranda
Example
“NOTICE: Construction site for Trade Center ahead; no unauthorized persons allowed.”
b. Implicit Purposes of a Document

Implicit purpose means the purpose which is not clearly stated in the document. Keep your
implicit goals in mind when writing a document. In addition to explicit goals, writers almost
always write with other unstated but still extremely important implicit goals. Common goals are:
To establish a relationship
To create trust and establish credibility
To document actions
To Establish a Relationship
Communication not only conveys information but also establishes a relationship between a
speaker and listener, or a writer and reader. A well-written letter of inquiry, for example, can
begin a professional connection that may last for years. Readers of research reports often initiate
long and fruitful correspondences with the authors.
Even seemingly impersonal documentation and instructions can, if written carefully to address a
user's need, establish a positive relationship between the user and producer of the product.
To Create Trust and Establish Credibility

An underlying goal of all technical and scientific writing is to get the reader to trust the writer's
credibility.
Scientific and technical writing is based on precision. Accordingly, any technical or scientific
document should justify the reader's confidence in the accuracy of its content, style, and
organization. Carefully qualify statements that need to be qualified. Do not make claims that are
merely suppositions. If your reader begins to doubt your ability or intent to analyze and shape
data with a minimum of distortion, the document will no longer be effective.
To Document Actions
Scientists, engineers, and managers often use writing to create permanent records of their
thoughts and actions. One of the primary differences between most forms of written and spoken
communication is that writing can be fairly permanent; whereas, speech vanishes as soon as it is
produced. Consequently, technical communication is often more effective when it is written
down.
Make important observations, suggestions, or objections in writing. Similarly, communicate

important tasks and deadlines in documents such as project plans. Keeping precise records of
experiments and procedures in notebooks is crucial to a project's overall accuracy and to
establishing intellectual-property rights.
Statement of Objective
If appropriate, state your document's objective at the beginning. Readers of technical writers are
often busy people; such a statement will alert them that it is important to read further. The
sentence given below is from a memorandum by an engineer at a Hydro-electric Power Plant
where he warns his superiors of the problem that later caused the explosion in one of the plant’s
sections and it provides an example of a good statement of objective.
“This letter is written to ensure that management is fully aware of the seriousness of the current
erosion problem in the section III from an engineering standpoint.”
How do you actually go about defining your objectives?

Example
Consider the example of Ali, a fresh graduate from FAST who has been appointed as the junior
Software Engineer in Adam Soft. Today Ali’s boss dropped by and asked him that the two vice
presidents of Adam Soft have asked Ali for a report on his progress. Ali must now decide what
he has to write in the report. If he writes his objectives clearly and precisely, they can guide him
through all his work at writing.
Guideline-I (Identifying the final result you want from your communication.)
When defining your objectives, start by identifying the final result you want from your
communication. Doing so will help you remember that when you write, you are performing an
action for your desired result/outcome.
Examples
You want your boss to approve the project you are describing in your proposal. You want two
new people to assist you in the new project you have been assigned by your employer. You want
a new printer as sharing the old one with the whole department reduces your efficiency.
People’s response on reading something

When people read they respond in two ways simultaneously. They think and they feel at the
same time. Focus your attention on accurately understanding the communication to be delivered
and present it in such a way that it is viewed favorably.
LESSON 6
DEFINING OBJECTIVES-II
Outline
In this lesson, you will learn to identify the tasks you will help your readers perform while they
read. You should:
• Tell how you want to change the readers’ attitudes.

• Learn your readers’ important characteristics.
• Learn the types of your possible readers.
• Fill in a sample worksheet that should be kept in mind when defining objectives.
• Learn the importance of ‘Appropriateness’ in business and technical communication.
Identify the tasks you will help your readers perform while they read. When you identify the
tasks, you are describing the enabling element of purpose. At a general level, all tasks are the
same for all readers. Readers perform tasks of locating, understanding, and using information in
many ways, depending on the situation.
As discussed earlier, not only do readers vary but different readers’ tasks are helped by different
writing strategies. It should be part of your aim while writing to enable your readers to perform
their reading tasks quickly and efficiently.
Example
Consider the example of Ayesha, an engineer, employed by a Steel Mill. Her task is to study two
types of furnaces and present a proposal to help the upper management decide which one to buy.
She has two options to present the immense amount of information she has gathered.
Divided Pattern Alternating Pattern
Furnace A Cost Cost Furnace A
Efficiency Furnace B Construction Efficiency
Time Furnace A Air pollution Furnace B
Furnace A Construction Time Cost Furnace A
Efficiency Furnace B Construction Air Pollution
Time Furnace A Air pollution Furnace B
As the information in both the patterns is exactly the same, she cannot decide for herself which
furnace to choose. But she has produced the results of her study in a manner that it is easy for her
superiors to judge the best path. Should she choose a writing pattern which is easier to write? But
then ease of writing is a writer-centered consideration, not a reader-centered one.
She should choose an alternating pattern keeping in view the reader-centered approach. She
knows that her readers will surely want to compare the two furnaces in detail in terms of various
criteria they consider important. To make your writing reader centered, you should:
Identify the questions your readers will ask.

Identify the strategy to answer all these questions.
Identify the ways in which your readers will use your answers.
Guideline-II (Tell how you want to alter the readers’ attitudes.)

Consider how you want your communication to alter the readers’ attitudes. Begin by identifying
the attitudes you want to alter. Sometimes, you will want to reinforce an existing attitude. For
example, you might aim your presentation in a way that the readers feel more favorably
impressed by your qualifications. At other times, you might try to reverse an attitude you want
your readers to abandon.
For example, you might want to persuade them to like something they don’t like. You might
need to persuade them that a problem exists where they feel that everything is fine. Finally at
times, you might need to shape your readers’ attitude about a subject they have not thought about
seriously.
Guideline –III (Identify and learn about your readers’ important characteristics.)
You might want to think of your readers in terms of the following three roles:
Decision Makers
Advisors
Implementers
Learn your readers’ important characteristics.
Decision makers
The decision maker’s role is to say how the organization, or some part, will act when confronted
with a particular situation.
Advisors
Advisors provide information and advice for the decision makers.
Implementers
Implementers carry out the decisions that have been made.
Familiarity with your topic

Your readers’ familiarity with your topic will determine the amount of background information
you will need to make your communication understandable to your audience. Keep in mind that
people unfamiliar to your topic will also want you to explain how the information relates to
them.
Preferred Communication Style

Most people have preferences concerning the style of communication they read. To a certain
extent, the peoples’ communication preferences are shaped by the customary practices in the
organization that employs them. Information style may vary from a simple prose writing to
illustration with tables, graphs, and charts, etc.
Special Factors
Each reader is unique, so you should be on the outlook for special reader characteristics you
would not normally need to consider. For example, you might be facing an individual who
detests certain words, insists on phrasing certain statement, etc.
Sometimes, you will also need to consider the settings in which your reader will be reading. How
to consolidate information about readers? You must consolidate all information in the same way
that will let you keep the key points about your audience in mind as you write. Remember, you
should view the key points not merely as list of facts but as a dynamic resource which you can
use to guide yourself as you perform the rest of the writing tasks.
Guideline-IV (Learn the types of your possible readers.)

Learn the types of your possible readers:
Phantom Readers
Future Readers
Complex Readers
a. Phantom Readers
In some situations, most important readers may be hidden from you. Written communications
addressed to one person are used by others. These real but unnamed readers are called phantom
readers.
Phantom readers are real but unnamed readers who use communication addressed to others. For
example, you might have written your document for the decision makers in your company but
they pass your material on to advisors .You did not know while writing that your material was
going to be read by these advisors. In this case, the advisors would be called phantom readers.
b. Future Readers
While identifying your readers, you should keep in mind the possibility that your communication
may be used weeks, months or even years from now. The readers who will be reading your
document/s in future are your future readers.
c. Complex Readers
Complex readers are the readers consisting of diverse groups with widely varying backgrounds
and responsibilities, each with a different agenda, each with a different way of functioning and
communicating.
Guideline-V (Fill in a sample worksheet that should be kept in mind when defining
objectives.)
Defining Objectives
a. Overall Purpose
These are the questions to consider while trying to find out the overall purpose of your
document:
What are you writing?

What prompts you to write?
What outcome do you desire?
b. Reader’s Profile
Following questions are important to consider for knowing a reader:
Who is the primary reader?

What is the reader’s relationship to you?
What are your reader’s job title and responsibilities?
Who else might read your communication?
How familiar is the reader with your communication?
How familiar is the reader with your specialty?
Does your reader have certain communication preferences?
c. Reader’s Information Needs

Consider the following questions for evaluating the readers information needs:
What are the key questions your reader will ask while reading?
How will your reader search for answers?
d. Reader’s use of the information provided

Following questions are important to consider the readers’ use of the information we provide
them with:
How will the reader use the information you provide?

What will be their points of comparison?
Also, try to determine how the information you provide will affect the reader/s and the
organization.
e. Reader’s Attitude
The following questions should be considered to judge the reader/s attitude:
What is the reader’s attitude towards your subject?
What is the reader’s attitude towards you?
Sample Worksheet to Define Objectives

a. Overall Purpose
What are you writing?
A proposal that our Software Company, Adam Soft, should assign the international projects to
most reliable engineers.
What prompts you to write?

I think this way we would complete foreign projects promptly and build the company’s
credibility.
What outcome do you desire?

I would like the new method to be put to effect as soon as possible.
b. Reader’s Profile
Who is the primary reader?
Ms. Zahra Saeed
What is the reader’s relationship to you?

We see each other daily but still have a formal relationship.
What are your reader’s job title and responsibilities?

She is the Head of the project assignment committee for Adam Soft.
Who else might read your communication?

Mr. Omair Hafeez, Mr. Khawaja Usman and Miss Zahra’s chief assistants may read it.
How familiar is the reader with your communication?

She is the head of the present system of assigning. She has used the current system for 3 years.
She doesn’t know that I am proposing an alternative.
How familiar is the reader with your specialty?

Very familiar
Does your reader have communication preferences?

She likes all the communication to be “business like”.
c. Reader’s Information Needs

Following are the questions related to the readers information needs:
What are the key questions Ms. Zahra will ask while reading?
What would I have to do differently?
How will Ms.Zahra search for answers?
How exactly would the new system work?
What makes you think that something is wrong with the present system?
What will be the criteria for selecting an appropriate engineer for this particular project?
d. Reader’s use of the information provided

You have to think how ms. Zahra will use the information you provide. Attempt to determine
how the information you provide will affect her and the organization.
e. Reader’s Attitude
What is the reader’s attitude towards your subject? She is not in favor of the new system;
she thinks that it will create competition among the new employers.
What is the reader’s attitude towards you? She thinks of me as a novice.
*Revision of Guideline-V
Identifying the Readers by Role
Decision Makers
Advisors
Implementers
Identifying the Readers by Type
Phantom Readers
Future Readers
Appropriateness
Because a reader's knowledge or experience determines the level of comprehension of a

technical material, appropriateness is largely determined by your audience. For example, a fact
expressed in a mathematical equation may not be effective in a report addressed to a managerial
audience.
All technical writing should also be appropriate to the specific institutional context that
motivated its creation. It should not only serve the writer's and the reader's purposes but also
conform to the goals and conventions of the institution in which it exists. Institutional goals and
conventions are sometimes clear and explicit. For example, in large companies, the specific goals
of various documents, as well as the preferred form and style, are often described in the company
correspondence and style manuals.
Although the context is not always clearly delineated, it always can be worked out. Research
reports should conform to the general goals and specific conventions of the scientific or technical
community in which they are created.
Style Guidelines
Style guides are widely used in the professions and in organizations to achieve a uniform
document look by identifying the formal requirements for s document’s appearance. They are
task-oriented documents in the sense that they provide definite instructions for preparing a
document.
In the style guides, instructions are generally provided for numerous document elements
including most of the following:
Page formats (title page and sample page with headers or footers)
Numbering systems (page, graphics, sections)
Headings and subheadings
Graphics elements
Usage
Punctuation and mechanics
Document packaging
For many documents, it is a good idea to identify a standard of style, so that you may achieve a
consistency of style. Consistency is important, not only because it genuinely improves the
reader's ability to understand your material, but also because it gives the reader confidence in
your ability to assert control over any detail.
LESSON 7
ACCURACY, CLARITY, CONCISENESS AND COHERENCE
Outline
In this lesson, you will learn the importance of the following in effective communication:
Accuracy
o Document Accuracy
o Stylistic Accuracy
o Technical Accuracy
Clarity
• Structural Clarity
• Stylistic Clarity
• Contextual Clarity
Conciseness
Coherence
o Paragraph Development: Strategies to Develop Coherent Paragraph
• exemplification
• analysis
• comparison and contrast
• definition
• enumeration
• description
Characteristics of Effective Technical Communication

A good technical communication is:
accurate
clear
concise
coherent
appropriate
In the prose of science and technology, these qualities are sometimes difficult to achieve. Not
only do science and technology depend heavily on specialized concepts and terminologies, but
they also make extensive use of numbers and graphics. Consider the example given below:
Example
The flow of electrical current can induce the migration of impurities or other defects through the
bulk of a solid. This process is called electro migration. In simple electro migration, the force on
the defect is thought to have two components. The first component is the force created by direct
interaction between the effective charge of the defect and the electric field that drives the current.
The second component, called the "wind force," is the force caused by the scattering of electrons
at the defect.
(--J.A. Stroscio and D.M. Eigler, "Atomic and Molecular Manipulation with the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope," Science)
The preceding example is accurate in two ways. It is stylistically accurate in its precise use of
language. It is technically accurate in its use of specialized terms- technical terms-such as electro
migration, charge, electric field, and scattering whose meanings are based in the context of a
technical discipline.
Both kinds of accuracy, i.e., accuracy of phrasing and accuracy of technical concept are of
foremost importance in technical and professional writing. The example is also clear because it
is written in simple and direct sentences. Although the technical context is the highly specialized
realm of theoretical and applied nanotechnology, the sentence syntax, that is, word order--is
restrained and structurally very simple.
Part of this clarity is achieved by the rhetorical device of defining a term, electro migration. The
example is concise in its use of minimum words to express the basic idea of electro migration. It
is not wordy, and it does not digress from the point being made. The example is coherent
because it develops its subject matter in an easy-to-follow line of thinking. The sentences are
further linked by referents such as "this process”, “the first component and the second
component."
Finally, the example is appropriate to its purpose of presenting a general description of the
process of electro migration, and to its audience, educated readers of Science, who are not
necessarily experts in the field of nanotechnology.
What is accuracy and why is it important?

1. Accuracy
Cultivate accuracy in your writing. Accuracy, which is the careful conforming to truth or fact,
has three main aspects:
Document Accuracy
Stylistic Accuracy
Technical Accuracy
What is document Accuracy and why is it important?

Document Accuracy
Document accuracy refers to the proper coverage of your topics in appropriate detail. Often an
accurate document needs to focus clearly on a problem.
Document accuracy is generally cultivated by a clear problem statement and by a preliminary

outline. These writing tools help you focus your writing effort by reducing your data in a way
that solves a theoretical or practical problem.
What is Stylistic Accuracy and why is it important?

Stylistic Accuracy
Stylistic accuracy concerns the careful use of language to express meaning. Accurate language
requires the careful use of paragraph and sentence structure and word choice to describe and
analyze your topics effectively. As a writer, you gain command of accuracy by studying the
elements of style and by learning to apply those elements to your drafting, revising, editing, and
proofreading. Stylistic accuracy is also a matter of using words precisely.
What is technical accuracy and why is it important?

Technical Accuracy
Technical accuracy requires stylistic accuracy but is not based solely on it. The effective
document in science and technology must be grounded in a technically accurate understanding
and representation of the subject.
Technical accuracy depends on the writer's conceptual mastery of the subject and its vocabulary,
as well as on his or her ability to analyze and shape data with a minimum of distortion. In science
and technology, enormous creative energy is given to mastering this technical aspect of subject
development.
What is Clarity and why is it important?

2. Clarity
Strive for clarity in your writing. Clarity, which refers to ease of understanding, is a special
problem in technical and professional writing.
Specialized languages, mathematically detailed analyses, and complex conceptual schemes can
make technical subjects hard to grasp even when prepared by skilled writers and read by expert
readers.
You can increase the clarity of your material by securing the following:
• Structural Clarity
• Stylistic Clarity
• Contextual Clarity
What is Structural Clarity and why is it important?

Structural Clarity
At the level of the whole document, you can promote structural clarity thus making it easy for
the reader to get the large picture. Use abstracts and other forecasting strategies such as
introductions that state the purpose and scope of the document.
How can you promote structural clarity?

Table of contents, problem statements, and even strategic repetition also promote structural
clarity. Graphs and tables, effectively designed and placed, help focus and clarify information.
Descriptive titles and frequent subject headings guide readers and help keep the large picture in
focus.
What is meant by Stylistic Clarity and why is it important?

Stylistic Clarity
Stylistic clarity is promoted by simple and direct language. Simplicity in language is obtained
with directly worded sentences. Using simple sentences and avoiding overloaded sentences &
excessive normalization also contribute to clarity.
Word choice is a factor in stylistic clarity: use simple language wherever possible to counteract
the abstract, highly specialized terms of science and technology.
What is meant by Contextual Clarity?

Contextual Clarity
Contextual clarity, in which the importance, authorization, and implications of your work are
made available, also contributes to ease of understanding. All work has a context and your
readers want to understand what the context of your document is:
• What prompts you to write?

• What is your purpose?
• Whose preceded work has influenced yours?
• What is the organizational and intellectual context of your problem?
You answer those questions in introductions and problem statements and in your citations and
other references.
What is ‘Conciseness’ and why is it important?

3. Conciseness
Learn the strategies of conciseness. Conciseness has a special value in technical fields. Writers
are often tempted to include everything that could be relevant to their subject, rather than merely
everything that is relevant to the communication task at hand.
The concise document is a piece of writing that conveys only the needed material. At the level of
the whole document, conciseness is helped mostly by focus and the narrowing of document
scope to a manageable problem and response.
Preparing a clear introduction and developing a detailed outline are two strategies that give you
control over document length and scope. Identify and eliminate material that is not necessary to
support your claims. Look for sections including appendixes that are not essential to your work.
Graphics are powerful aids to conciseness because they cut down on the amount of prose
necessary to describe objects and processes, summarize data, and demonstrate relationships.
How do you make your document more concise?

Conciseness requires careful revising. Become familiar with the strategies for reducing
wordiness. Look for ways of cutting useless words, sentences, and sections from the document.
What is coherence and why is it important?

4. Coherence
Look for ways to improve the coherence of your writing. Coherence is the quality of hanging
together, of providing the reader an easily followed path.
Writers promote coherence by making their material logically and stylistically consistent and by
organizing and expressing their ideas in specific patterns. Efforts to emphasize the relationships
among the elements of a document strengthen its impact. Coherence can dramatically improve
the reader's ability to understand your material by promoting its flow or readability. Coherence is
especially valued in technical communication and writing because of the inherent complexity of
the subjects.
At the level of the whole document, coherence helps to provide the larger picture in which the
connections among the parts of the document are made clear by the writer. Give readers a
roadmap to help them anticipate the content of your work. Abstracts, clear titles, introductions,
and problem statements all promote coherence by linking various parts of a piece of writing.
Paragraph Development: Strategies to Develop Coherent Paragraph

The paragraph is one of the most powerful instruments of coherence. By organizing material into
a topic sentence and supporting sentences, paragraphs pull together material and emphasize
various forms of conceptual development. Paragraph development is achieved partly through the
specific strategies of:
enumeration
exemplification
comparison and contrast
analysis
definition
description
All of the above furnish distinct approaches to developing ideas. Transitional devices also
operate at the paragraph level to provide links among sentences and paragraphs.
a. Enumeration
Use enumeration in paragraphs when you want to itemize or list a set of topics or a series of
some kind. Enumeration is a powerful way to establish a series of observations and to emphasize
each element.
In the following paragraph, the items are enumerated in a series of itemized recommendations.
Have your blood cholesterol measured if you have never had it done. Finger-prick tests at health
fairs and other public places are generally fairly accurate, especially if they are offered by a
hospital or other reputable health group. When you know your “number,” follow these
guidelines: If your cholesterol is under 200 mg/dl, maintain a healthy lifestyle-- including eating
a low-fat diet, getting regular exercise, maintaining a healthy body weight, and not smoking--and
get another test within five years.
If your cholesterol is between 200 and 239 mg/dl, have a second test performed and average the
results. If that number falls in the same range, and if you do have any form of cardiovascular
disease, change your diet to improve your cholesterol. In addition, eliminate any other risk
factors you have and get tested again in about one year. If your cholesterol is 240 mg/dl or more,
your physician should order a more detailed cholesterol analysis and recommend therapy based
on the results. You should begin a cholesterol-improving diet immediately.
b. Exemplification
Exemplification refers to the use of anecdotes or examples to bolster your argument or whatever
you are writing about. Use exemplification paragraphs to provide instances that clarify your topic
statement.
In the following paragraph, the topic sentence is supported in examples that illustrate, support,
and clarify the main point.
Vitamins and minerals can be added to enrich (replace nutrients lost in processing) or fortify
(add nutrients not normally present) foods to improve their nutritional quality. Bread sand cereals
are usually enriched with some B vitamins and iron. Common examples of fortification include
the addition of vitamin D to milk, vitamin A to margarine, vitamin C to fruit drinks, calcium to
orange juice, and iodine to table salt.
(--P. Insel and W. Roth, Core Concepts in Health)
c. Comparison and Contrast

Use comparison and contrast to develop a topic by examining its similarities or dissimilarities to
another thing, process, or state. Comparison emphasizes the similarities, contrast, the differences.
A paragraph may use both comparison and contrast.
In the following example, two kinds of electrical cable are compared. The aim here is to convey
the superiority of A over B for two categories of performance.
Coaxial vs. Fiber-Optic Cable: Comparative Cable-Length Performances

For a number of critical performance characteristics, fiber-optic cable offers considerable
advantages over standard coaxial cables. The most obvious distinction between the two is the
great bandwidth-distance capacity of fibers. The high-frequency capacity of coaxial cables
decreases rapidly with increased length, but the bandwidth of a commercial fiber-optic system
will remain constant with length. A commercial fiber-optic system like that of Artel remains
constant for a bandwidth over a distance of 4, 000 ft, while three different sizes of coaxial cable
rapidly drop in less than half the distance.
(--Artel Communications Corporation, "Fiber Optics in RGB Color Computer Graphics
Communications," Application Note CG-1)
Use Transitional Words and Phrases

Use transitional words and phrases to clarify and smooth the movement from idea to idea.
Compare the following paragraphs:
Weak
Reducing drag in an aerospace vehicle is an important design consideration with financial and
operational consequences. Poorly designed rocket fuselage scan triples fuel and launch costs.
Drag increases stress on the key joints. This proposed project will develop a model to reduce
aerodynamic drag on the RX100.
Improved
Reducing drag in an aerospace vehicle is an important design consideration. For example, poorly
designed rocket fuselages can triple fuel and launch costs. Moreover, drag increases stress on the
key joints. Therefore, this proposed project will develop a model to reduce aerodynamic rag on
the RX100.
LESSON 8
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION-I
Outline
In this lecture, you will learn the following seven C’s of effective communication:
Completeness
Guidelines to secure Completeness in your writing:
o Provide all necessary information.

o Answer all questions asked.
o Give something extra, only when desired.
Credibility
Conciseness
Guidelines to secure Conciseness in your writing:
o Eliminate wordy expressions

o Include only relevant material
o Avoid unnecessary repetition
To compose a written or oral message, you must apply certain communication principles. These
are called the seven C’s of effective communication. Following are the seven C's of effective
communication:
1. Completeness
2. Conciseness
3. Consideration
4. Concreteness
5. Clarity
6. Courtesy
7. Correctness
The seven C’s apply to both written and oral communication. Although, this lesson discusses
these principles on a sentence level, yet they are applicable to all forms of communication. To
some extent, the principles overlap because they are based on a common concern for the
audience, whether the audience consists of listeners or readers.
1. Completeness
Your message is complete when it contains all the facts readers or listeners need for the reaction
you desire. Communication senders need to assess their message from the eyes of the receivers
to be sure they have included all the relevant information.
Benefits of Completeness
Complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results. They do a better job at building
goodwill. Communication that seems inconsequential can become very important if information
it contains is complete and effective.
Guidelines to secure Completeness in your writing
Provide all necessary information.

Answer all questions asked.
Give something extra, only when desired.
a. Provide all the necessary information

Answer the five Ws that make the message clear.
Who
What
When
Where
Why
Example
When requesting merchandise, make sure:
What do you want?

When do you need it?
To whom and where is it to be sent?
And how would the payment be made?
b. Answer all the questions asked

Look for questions. Some may appear buried within a paragraph. Locate them and answer them
precisely.
A colleague or a prospective customer’s reactions to an incomplete answer are likely to be

unfavorable. The customer may think that the respondent is careless or purposely trying to
conceal a weak spot. In general “omissions cast suspicions” whether you are answering an
inquiry about your product or recommending a former employee to a new job.
If you have no information on a particular question, say so clearly. If you have unfavorable
information in answer to certain questions, handle your reply with both tact and honesty.
Example
In one instance, a software distributor when replying to a customer’s letter answered only four of
the seven questions. The original questions had somewhat hidden and buried five long
paragraphs so the respondent apparently overlooked them. The reply was incomplete and
unfriendly and caused the distributor to lose business.
Sometimes before you can answer a question, you need certain specific information from the
inquirer. If so, it is a good idea to list the needed details on a reply form that the inquirer can fill
out and return to you. In this way, both your answer and that of your respondent will be
complete.
c. Give something extra when desired

Use your good judgment in offering additional material if sender’s message was incomplete. But
the words ‘when desirable’ are essential. You must take great care not to waste the reader’s time
with superfluous information.
2. Credibility
Credibility of the communicator has been systematically analyzed over the years, often as
relating to the speaker. Several classic but still relevant studies suggest that five decisions are
made regarding a communication source.
Competence
Character
Composure
Sociability
Extroversion
Competence: Does the audience perceive the message sender as communicating honestly?
Character: Does the sender of the message know his or her message?
Composure: Does the sender give the impression of being cool, calm, and collected?
Sociability: Does the sender come across as a likable individual?
Extroversion: Does the source exhibit outgoing tendencies rather than timidity?
Example
You are the president of a community welfare center, and receive the following message.
I'm new to the city and would like to consider joining your welfare center. As I will be visiting
the center within the next month, would you please tell me where the next meeting will be held?
If you answered only this question, your letter would be incomplete. You should have added
information about a welcome message, information about parking space, date, day, and time of
meeting. Your message will then have something extra that the reader really needs and
appreciates.
Examples
Fax 1: Incomplete Question
Please fax me the in return departures from Lahore to Karachi on 8th May.
In reply to the above fax you would have to “give something extra”, as to times of day, airline
flying that route, costs, and departure & arrival times.
Fax 2: Incomplete Question

How come my request for an interview letter didn’t receive a response?
When was the letter sent?

Who sent it?
To whom was it sent?
In other words, responding to Fax 2 would require a return letter or a fax seeking answers to the
above questions.
Conciseness
Conciseness is saying what you want to say in the fewest possible words without sacrificing the
other C qualities. A concise message saves time and expense for both the sender and the receiver.
It increases emphasis in the message. It shows respect for the recipient by not cluttering them
with unnecessary information.
To achieve conciseness, observe the following suggestions:
Eliminate wordy expressions.

Include only relevant material.
Avoid unnecessary repetition.
a. Eliminate wordy expressions

Use single-word substitutes instead of phrases whenever possible without changing
meaning.
Wordy: At this time

Concise: Now
Wordy: Due to the fact that
Concise: because
Wordy: have need for
Concise: Need
Wordy: In due course
Concise: Soon
Omit trite and unnecessary expressions

Wordy: Please be advised that your admission statement has been received.
Concise: Your admission statement has been received.
Replace wordy conventional statements with concise ones

Wordy: Please find attached the list you requested.
Concise: The list you requested is attached.
Wordy: Such refreshing comments are few and far between.

Concise: Such refreshing comments are scarce.
Avoid overusing empty phrases

Wordy: There are four rules that should be observed.
Concise: Four rules must be observed.
Wordy: It was known by Mr... Usman that we must reduce the size of our inventory.
Concise: Mr... Usman knew that we must reduce our inventory.
Omit “which” and “that” clause wherever possible

Wordy: She bought desks that are of the executive type.
Concise: She bought executive type desks.
Wordy: The receipt that is enclosed documents your purchase.

Concise: The enclosed receipt documents your purchase.
Eliminate unnecessary prepositional phrase

Wordy: The issue of most relevance is teamwork.
Concise: The most relevant issue is teamwork.
Wordy: In most cases, the date of the inquiry is indicated in the upper right corner.
Concise: The policy date is in the upper right corner.
Limit your passive voice

Wordy: The total balance due will be found on Page 2 of this report.
Concise: The balance due is on page 2 of this report.
Wordy: The reports are to be submitted by employees prior to 5:00 p.m., at which time they will
be received by Ali.
Concise: Please submit your reports to Ali by 5:00 p.m.
b. Include only relevant material
Stick to the purpose of the message.

Delete irrelevant words and rambling sentences.
Omit information obvious to the reader.
Avoid long introductions, unnecessary explanations, pompous words, and gushy
politeness.
Get to the important point, tactfully and concisely.
Example
Wordy: We hereby wish to let you know that our company is pleased with the confidence you
have reposed in us.
Concise: We appreciate your confidence.
c. Avoid unnecessary repetition

Unnecessary repetition leads to dullness.
Use short names when you have mentioned the long one once.
For Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital, use ‘Shaukat Khanum’ or simply the Hospital.
Use initials instead of repeating long names.

Instead of using Pakistan International Airlines, use PIA.
Cut out needless repetition of phrases or sentences.
Sometimes it is good to combine two or even three sentences using subordinate clauses or
phrases.
Example
Following is the body of a letter from a business executive in a Company for 5 years.
“Will you ship us some time, anytime during the month of October would be fine, or even
November if you are rushed (November would suit us just as well, in fact a little bit better) 300
of the regular Dell Computers.
Thank you in advance for sending these along in parcel post, and not in express, as express is too
expensive.”
Concise Version of the Letter

Please ship parcel post, 300 Dell Computers before the end of November.
LESSON 9
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION II
Outline
In this lesson, you will learn the following seven C’s of effective communication:
Consideration
Ways to secure consideration are:
o Focus on ‘you’ Instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’.
o Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver.
o Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
Concreteness
Guidelines to compose concrete & convincing messages:
o Use specific facts and figures.
o Put action in your verbs.
o Choose vivid, image-building words.
Consideration
Consideration means preparing every message with the message receiver in mind. Consideration
is very important in effective communication. It shows that you understand your audience, which
goes a long way to get your desired result. Consideration simply means you show empathy in
your communication style. Along with understanding your audience, you should also:
Not lose your temper
Not accuse
Not charge them without facts
In business communication, there are three specific ways to indicate consideration:

Focus on ‘you’ Instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’.
Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver.
Emphasize positive & pleasant facts.
1. Focus on ‘you’ Instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’

To create considerate, audience-oriented messages, focus on how message receivers will benefit,
what they will receive, and what they want or need to know. In some cases this can be
accomplished by emphasis; you may downplay your own feelings to make a point.
Example
We-attitude: I am delighted to announce that we have extended our office hours to make
shopping more convenient.
You-attitude: You will be able to shop evenings with the extended office hours.
The use of ‘you’ in negative situations can be avoided by employing passive voice, making the
receiver part of the group.
2. Show audience benefit or interest in the receiver

Readers may react positively when benefits are shown to them. Whenever possible and true,
show your receivers will benefit from whatever the message asks or announces. Benefits must
meet the recipient's needs, address their concerns, or offer them rewards.
3. Emphasize positive and pleasant facts

Another way to show consideration is to emphasize pleasant and positive facts. This means
stressing what can be done instead of what cannot be done. Also, you must focus on words your
recipient considers favorable.
Example
In the following opening of a letter, the negative words you would rather not have at all are
underlined.
We regret that, since you closed your account, your name is missing from our long list of
satisfied customers. We sincerely hope that due to the best efforts of our fine staff, there were no
occasions on which you felt we failed to serve you properly.
Concreteness
Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and
general. Often it means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary-based) rather than
connotative words.
The benefits to business professionals of using concrete facts and figures are:
Your receivers know exactly what is desired. When you supply specifics for the reader, you
increase the likelihood that your message will be interpreted the way you intended. The
following guidelines will help you compose concrete and convincing messages.
Use specific facts and figures.

Put action in your verbs.
Choose vivid, image-building words.
1. Use Specific Facts and Figures

Whenever possible, use an exact, precise statement or a figure in place of a general word to make
your message more concrete. Consider the following example:
Vague, General & Indefinite: Student GMAT scores are higher.

Concrete & Precise: In 1996, the GMAT scores averaged 600; by 1117 they had risen to 610.
2. Put Action in Your Verbs

Verbs can activate other words and help make your sentences alive or vigorous. To have
dynamic sentences:
Use active rather than passive verbs.

Put action in your verbs.
a. Use Active Rather than Passive Verbs

Active verbs help make your sentences more specific, personal, concise, and emphatic.
Specific: "The dean decided" is more explicit than "A decision has been made."
Personal: "You will note" is both personal and specific; "It will be noted" is impersonal."
Concise: The passive voice requires more words and thus slows both writing and reading.
Compare "Figures show" with "It is shown by figures."
Emphatic: Passive verbs dull action. Compare "The students held a contest" with "A contest
was held by the students."
Sometimes, however, you may prefer the passive voice instead of the active, as in the
following situations:
When you want to avoid personal, blunt accusations or comments

Use Passive voice instead of active voice when you want to avoid personal blunt accusations:
‘The October check was not included’ is more tactful than ‘you failed to include....’
‘Attendance at the meeting is required.’ is less hard than ‘You must attend…’
When you want to stress the object of the action

"You are invited." is better than "We invite you."
When the doer is not important in the sentence

In "Three announcements were made before the meeting started," the emphasis is on the
announcements, not on who gave them.
b. Put Action in Verbs, Not in Nouns

Seven verbs—be, give, have, hold, make, put, and take—(in any tense) might be designated as
"deadly" when the action they introduce is hidden in a "quiet noun". The examples given below
show how each deadly verb with the noun and preposition (all underlined) can be changed to an
action verb that shortens the sentence.
Weak: Action hiding in a "Quiet" Noun
The function of this office is the collection of payments and the compilation of
statements.
Professor H. will give consideration to the report.
Improved: Action in the Verb
This office collects payments and compiles statements.

Professor H. will consider the report.
3. Choose vivid and image-building words

You can make your message forceful, vivid, and specific by using comparisons, sensory appeals,
figurative language, concrete nouns, and well-chosen adjectives.
Comparisons
Bland Image: This is a long letter.
More Vivid Image: This letter is three times as long as you said it would be.
Figurative Language
Literal: Her work in groups was exemplary.
More vivid & Figurative: She could be called the spark plug of the group.
LESSON 10
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION III
Outline
Clarity
Do’s and Don’ts of Clarity
Examples
Checklist
Courtesy
Do’s and Don’ts of Courtesy
Examples
Checklist
Clarity
Getting the meaning from your head accurately to the reader is the purpose of clarity.
Remember
Choose precise, concrete and familiar words. Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
Clarity is achieved through a balance between precise language and familiar language. When you
have the choice between a long word and a short word, choose the short and familiar word.
Golden Rule
When in doubt, use the more familiar words; audience will understand them better.
For example
You must use pay instead of remuneration and invoice instead of statement of payment.
Examples
Unfamiliar
After our perusal of pertinent data, the conclusion is that a lucrative market exists for subject
property.
Familiar
The data we studied show that your property is profitable and in high demand.
Although it is appropriate to use technical terms and business jargon in some professional
situations, avoid their use when the reader is not acquainted with the terminology.
Unfamiliar
Assessed Valuation
Familiar
Property value for tax purpose
A. Choose precise, concrete, and familiar words:

With the increased use of e-mail, there is the tendency to be concise. The danger is that you
must know the meaning of e-mail acronyms which aid conciseness. For instance, IMO means
in my opinion, FAQ means frequently asked questions etc.
B. Construct Effective Sentences and Paragraphs:

At the core of clarity is the sentence. Important characteristics to consider are:
A. Length
B. Unity
C. Coherence
D. Emphasis
A. Length
Try for an average sentence length of 17 to 20 words. When the sentence length increases, try
to chop it down into two sentences. Also if the sentences are too short then the resulting
language becomes overly simple and choppy.
B. Unity
In a sentence, unity means that you must have one main idea. In case of other ideas they must
be closely related. For example, ‘I like Sohail and Eiffel Tower is in Paris’ is obviously not a
unified sentence.
C. Coherence
In a coherent sentence the words are arranged so that the ideas clearly express the intended
meaning. Place the correct modifier as close as possible to the word it is supposed to modify.
In the examples which follow, notice that ‘unclear’ sentence conveys the wrong meaning.
Examples
Unclear
Being an excellent lawyer, I am sure that you can help us.
Clear
Being an excellent lawyer, you can surely help us.
Unclear
His report was about managers, broken down by age and gender.
Clear
His report focused on age and gender of managers.
Unclear
After planning 10,000 berry plants, the deer came into out botanist's farm and crushed them.
Clear
After our botanists had planted 10,000 berry plants, the deer came into the farm and crushed
them.
Emphasis
The quality that gives force to important parts of sentences and paragraphs is emphasis.
Most often put main ideas up front within a sentence. Writers must decide what needs emphasis,
and then decide the correct sentence structure.
Examples
Little emphasis
The airplane finally approached the speed of sound, and it became very difficult to control.
Better emphasis
As it approached the speed of sound, the airplane became very difficult to control.
Little emphasis
Candidates should be motivated and should have interest in dynamic and static testing of
material, and have those prerequisites and others.
Better emphasis
Prerequisites in candidates should include expertise in dynamic and static testing of material.
In addition to using the above methods of emphasis, the PCs of today allow different ways to
visually add emphasis to words.
Some of them include headings, tabulations, itemization, line charts, pie charts, italics,
indentation, colored capitals, or even wide or short margins.
Checklist
Choose as precise or as concrete a word as possible.
Select words that have high sense of appropriateness for the reader.
Opt for familiar words, the ones that are not pretenses.
Limit the average sentence from 17 to 20 words.
Insert no more than one main idea into a sentence.
Arrange words in a way that the main idea occurs early in a sentence.
Courtesy
Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude. It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertion
of ‘please’ and ‘thank you’; although, applying socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy.
Rather it is politeness that grows out of respect and concern for others. True courtesy involves
being aware not only of the perspectives of others but also their feelings. Knowing your audience
allows you to use statements of courtesy. Be aware of your message receiver.
Suggestions
Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative. Use expressions that show respect. Choose
nondiscriminatory expressions.
a) Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative

Though very few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are a common
cause of discourtesy. Sometimes, they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes
from negative personal attitudes etc.
Examples
Tactless, blunt
Stupid letter; I did not understand any of it.
More tactful
It’s my understanding…..
Tactless, Blunt
Clearly, you did not read my latest fax.
More Tactful
Sometimes my wording is not precise, let me try again.
Tactless, Blunt
I rewrote that letter three times; the point was clear.
More Tactful
I am sorry the point was not clear; here is another version.
b) Thoughtfulness and Appreciation

The traits help build good will.
Be generous in appreciating others’ good performances.
c) Use expressions that show respect:

No reader wants to receive a message that offends. Such expressions are expressed in two
groups:
Irritating expressions
Questionable humor
Omit irritating expressions

Following is a consensus list that includes a list of expressions that many people find
irritating:
o Contrary to your inference
o I do not agree with you.
o If you care
o I am sure you must realize
Omit questionable humor

o When in doubt as to the relevance of humor, leave it out.
o Laughter to one person is disgust for another; each of us has a different sense of
humor.
o Notice the difference between the 2 notes in the next example.
Example
Note 1, Offensive
Hey man, what’s this I hear about the good news? You sure pulled a fast one this past
weekend and then didn’t tell any of us about it.
Give my regards to the little lady. And wish her the best; she’ll need it.
More courteous
Warm congratulations on your wedding.
Well, you certainly took us by surprise. In fact, just a few of us suspected that you were
taking off to get married. But even though we didn’t hear about it until later, we wish you the
best.
Give our warm regards to the new partner.
d) Choose Non-discriminatory Expressions

o Sexists Terms:
Be careful about using the word ‘man’; this is a matter of concern especially in the
Western cultures compared to other cultures..
Use alternative expressions that are neutral in nature.
Example
Questionable
Freshman
More Desirable
Entering students, first year students
o Singular pronouns
English lacks a neuter pronoun signifying ‘he’ or ‘she’.
The trend to follow should be to avoid using ‘he’, ‘his’ or ‘him’ etc. One way to avoid using a
masculine pronoun for both genders is the use of ‘singular they’. Singular they is the use of they,
or its inflected or derivative forms, such as them, their, or themselves, to refer to a single person
or an antecedent that is grammatically singular. It typically occurs with an antecedent of
indeterminate gender, as in sentences such as:
"Everyone returned to their seats."

"Somebody left their umbrella in the office. Would they please collect it?"
"The patient should be told at the outset how much they will be required to pay."
"But a journalist should not be forced to reveal their sources."
Examples
Questionable
Anyone who comes to class late will get his grade reduced.
More desirable
Students who come to class late will get their grade reduced.
Questionable
Each customer will have the new changes noted on his bill.
More desirable
Customers will have the new changes noted on their bills.
Questionable
Our criteria are firm: he is to be a scholar; he is to be a good teacher.
More Desirable
Our criteria suggest that he or she should be a good scholar and a good teacher.
Questionable
You guys should all be concerned about the issue.
More Desirable
All men and women should be concerned about the issue.
Questionable
The executives may benefit from the stock options. He will ….
More Desirable
The executives may benefit from the stock options. Each executive will/ They will…
Questionable
Each manager has assigned parking space. He should park his car...
More Desirable
Each manager has assigned parking space. They should park their car/ He/she should park
his/her car…
o Names
While using names, treat each gender with respect. Use names in parallel form.
Example
Undesirable
Mudassir Ali and Sonia
Mrs. Ali and Mudassir
More desirable
Mudassir and Sonia Ali
Ms. Ali [she deserves this] and Mr. Ali
Checklist
Ask yourself: Does the communication has a sincere you-attitude? Has someone else had a
look at your statement if you have doubts about whether it’s tactful? Another opinion may
cause you to reconsider making a statement.
Be cautious in using humor in communication. Be careful in using discriminatory language,
thus being aware of gender, race, age, color, creed or ethnic origins.
LESSON 11
THE SEVEN C’S OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Outline
Correctness
Do’s and Don’ts of Correctness
Review of Seven C’s
Correctness
The following things are at the core of concreteness:
Grammar
Punctuation
Spelling
The term correctness applied to business messages also means the following characteristics:
o Use the right level of language.
o Check accuracy of figures, facts and words.
o Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.
Formal Writing
Formal writing is often associated with scholarly writing.
Examples
It includes Doctoral dissertations, scholarly articles, top-level government agreements, etc. The
style is unconventional, usually impersonal, and contains long and involved sentences.
Informal Writing
This style of writing is more common in business writing. An example is the communication via
e-mail, memos, etc.
More Less Formal

Formal
Participate Join
Procure Get
Utilize Use
Interrogate Question
Endeavor Try
For further studies, please visit the following links

http://ezinearticles.com/?The-Difference-Between-Formal-and-Informal-Writing&id=594208
http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-hw/bl-informal.htm
Reminder
• Avoid substandard language
Using incorrect words, incorrect grammar, and faulty pronunciation, all suggest the inability
to use good English.
Substandar More Appropriate

Ain’t Isn’t
Can’t hardly Can hardly
Aim at proving Aim to prove
Stoled Stolen
Check accuracy of figures, facts, and words

It is impossible to convey the meaning of the words precisely, through words, from the head
of the sender to the receiver, so it is highly significant to provide accurate facts and figures
and appropriate words.
Our goal is to be as precise as possible

A good check of data is to have another person read and comment on the validity of the
material.
Facts and Figures

o Verify your statistical data.
o Double check your totals.
o Avoid guessing at Laws that have an impact on you.
o Have someone else read your message if the topic involves data.
o Determine whether a fact has changed overtime.
Words that confuse

English language is constantly changing. Though dictionaries cannot always keep up with
rapid change, still they are the most useful resource for finding correct words.
Examples
a, an
Use a before consonant and consonant sounds or a long a sound. Use an before vowels or silent
h sounds.
Accept, Except
Accept is a verb that means receive.
Except is a verb that relates to omitting out or leaving out.
Between, Among
Between involves two people, among three or more.
Farther, Further
Farther is used to express more distance in space, further for distance in time, quality, or degree.
Biannually, Biennially
Biannually mean two times a year; biennially means every two years.
Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics

Be watchful that:
o All material relating to mechanics, word processing, and appearance is relevant.
o Pay careful attention to the mechanical part of every well-written document.
Revision of the Seven C’s of Effective Communication

Completeness
Conciseness
Consideration
Concreteness
Clarity
Courtesy
Correctness
Completeness
Your message is complete when it contains all the facts readers or listeners need for the reaction
you desire. Communication senders need to assess their message from eyes of the receivers to be
sure that they have included all the relevant information.
Benefits of Completeness
Complete messages are more likely to bring the desired results.
They do a better job at building goodwill.
Communication that seems inconsequential can become very important if information they
contain is complete and effective.
Keep the following guidelines in mind:

Provide all necessary information.
Answer all questions asked.
Give something extra, when desired.
Provide all the necessary information

Answer the five Ws that make the message clear.
Who
What
When
Where
Why
Example
When requesting merchandise, make sure of the following:
What do you want?
When do you need it?
To whom and where it is to be sent?
How would the payment be made?
Credibility
Credibility means, try to keep the trust of the audience intact.
Competence
Does the audience perceive the message sender as communicating with required competencies?
Character
Does the sender of the message know the worth of his or her message?
Composure
Does the sender give the impression of being calm and collected?
Sociability
Does the sender come across as a likable individual?
Extroversion
Does the source exhibit outgoing tendencies rather than timidity?
Example
You are the president of a Community welfare center, and receive the following message:
I'm new to the city and would like to consider joining your welfare center. As I will be visiting
the center within the next month, will you please tell me where the next meeting will be held?
If you answered only this question, your letter would be incomplete.
You should add information about a welcome message, information about parking space, date,
day, and time of meeting.
Your message will then have something extra that the reader really needs and appreciates.
Example
Fax 1, Incomplete Question: Please fax me the departures from Lahore to Karachi on 8th May.
In reply to the fax you would have to “give something extra”, as to times of the day, airline
flying route, costs, and departure & arrival times.
Consideration
Consideration means preparing every message with the message receiver in mind.
Don’t lose your temper.

Don’t accuse.
Don’t charge them without facts.
You should be foremost aware of their desires, problems, circumstances, emotions, and
probable reaction/s to your thoughts. Handle the matter from their point of view. This
thoughtful consideration is also called the ‘you-attitude’, the human touch or
understanding human nature.
Three specific ways to indicate consideration

Focus on ‘you’ instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’.
Using ‘you’ does help project you-attitude.
Overuse can lead to negative reaction.
Show the benefit or interest of the receiver.
Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
Focus on ‘you’ Instead of ‘I’ or ‘we’

To create considerate, audience-oriented messages, focus on how message receivers will benefit,
what they will receive, and what they want or need to know. In some cases, this can be
accomplished by emphasis; you may downplay your own feelings to make a point.
Concreteness
To communicate concretely means being specific, definite and vivid rather than vague and
general. Misunderstanding of words has produced tragedies both in war and in peace, in business
and non-business situations. Often it means using denotative (direct, explicit, often dictionary-
based) rather than connotative words.
Benefits of using concrete facts and figures

Your receivers know exactly what is desired. When you supply specifics for the reader/s, you
increase the likelihood that your message will be interpreted the way you intended.
The following guidelines should be followed to compose concrete, convincing messages:

Use specific and definite figures.
Use vivid image building words.
Use specific facts and figures

It is desirable to be precise and concrete both in written and oral technical communications.
Example
Vague: Students’ GMAT scores are higher.
Concrete: In 1996 the GMAT scores averaged 600, by 1997 they had risen to 610.
Clarity
Getting the meaning from your head accurately to the reader is the purpose of clarity.
Remember
Choose precise, concrete, and familiar words.
Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
Choose Precise, Concrete, and Familiar words

Clarity is achieved through a balance between precise language and familiar language. When you
have the choice between a long word and a short word, choose the short and familiar word.
Golden Rule
When in doubt, use the more familiar words; audience will understand them better.
For example
You must use pay instead of remuneration and invoice instead of statement of payment.
Example
Unfamiliar
After our perusal of pertinent data, the conclusion is that a lucrative market exists for subject
property.
Familiar
The data we studied show that your property is profitable and in high demand.
Courtesy
True courtesy involves being aware not only of the perspectives of others, but also their feelings.
Knowing your audience allows you to use statements of courtesy. Be aware of your message
receiver. Courtesy stems from a sincere you-attitude.
It is not merely politeness with mechanical insertion of ‘please’ and ‘thank you’; although,
applying socially accepted manners is a form of courtesy. Rather it is politeness that grows out of
respect and concern for others.
Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative

Though very few people are intentionally abrupt or blunt, these negative traits are a common
cause of discourtesy. Sometimes they stem from a mistaken idea of conciseness, sometimes from
negative personal attitudes, etc.
Example
Tactless, blunt
Stupid letter; I did not understand any of it.
More tactful
It’s my understanding…..
LESSON 12
PLANNING BUSINESS MESSAGES
Outline
Basic Tasks in the Message Composing Process
Guidelines for Planning Business Message
General and Specific Purposes of Business Message
Testing the Purpose of Message
Developing an Audience Profile
Analyzing the Needs of Audience
Selecting the Appropriate Medium or Channel
Composing of Business Message

The composition process helps you gain control over your message, and it is flexible, not a fixed
prescription of sequenced steps. The composition process can be viewed as ten separate stages
that fall into three simple categories:
A. Planning
B. Composing
C. Revising
A. Planning
o Define purpose
o Analyze audience
o Establish main idea
o Select channel and medium
B. Composing
o Organize the message
o Formulate the message
C. Revising
o Edit the message
o Rewrite the message
o Produce the message
o Proofread the message
Guidelines for Planning Business Message

Sharpening Your Skill
o Sharpening Your Skill (Overcoming the fear of Blank page)
o Use positive self-talk
o Know your purpose
o Visualize your audience
o Create a productive environment.
o Make an outline
o Just start
o Write the middle first
o Push obstacles aside
Technology
Technology affects the composing process. For example, Microsoft Word increases
productivity and effectiveness by streamlining the process.
Collaboration
In many organizations the final piece of writing is a team effort, with more than one writer
working on a document.
Scheduling
Allotting time properly is very important; especially, when time is short, carefully
schedule yourself and stick to it.
Defining your Purpose

The purpose of the document helps you decide how to precede, how to respond to the
audience, which information to focus on, and which channel or medium to use.
Why do you need to have clear purpose?

Example
Suppose your boss asks you to write a memo describing the company's policy on vacation
time. This is a fairly broad topic. What should you say? Knowing the purpose of your
message will help you make important decision about it.
Decide whether to proceed

Many business messages have little practical purpose and should not be composed at all.
They should be put on hold until you have a more practical purpose.
Respond to the audience

If you are not certain that your purpose in composing a message is compatible with the
audience's purpose, you are likely to deliver irrelevant material.
Focus on the content

If you include extra information in your message, you are likely to overload the audience.
Establish a channel and Medium

The choice of channel and medium has a direct influence on the purpose.
For example, writing a message for the whole department would most likely make you e-
mail it for ease of distribution.
Common Purpose of Business Message

Business messages have the following general purposes:
o Inform
o Persuade
o Collaborate
Specific Purpose
Beyond having a general purpose, your message might have a specific purpose. To determine the
specific purpose, think of how the audience's ideas or behavior should be affected by the
message.
Examples
General Purpose
o To inform
Specific Purpose
o To present last month's sales figures to the Vice President of marketing
General Purpose
o To persuade
Specific Purpose
o To convince the marketing director of the need to hire more Software Engineers
General Purpose
o To collaborate
Specific Purpose
o To help the personnel department develop a training program for new members of a
Software Team
How should you test your purpose?

Test your Purpose
o Is the purpose realistic?
o If your purpose involves a major/radical change, you better go slowly, as most people
resist change.
o Is it the right time?
o Timing matters a lot.
o An idea is more likely to win approval when the profits are up.
o Is the right person delivering the message?
o Some people have more leverage in an organization, and hence have a better shot at
getting the purpose achieved.
o Is the purpose acceptable to the organization?
o As a representative of your company, you are obligated to work for its goals.
Audience Analysis
Ask yourself some key questions about your audience:
o Who are they?

o What is their probable reaction to your message?
o How much do they already know about the subject?
o What is their relationship to you?
o Determine the Audience Size and Composition.
o Focus on the common interest of the Audience, but be alert to their individual concerns.
o Identify primary Audience.
o Try to identify the people who are most important to your purpose.
o Estimate the Audience's probable reaction.
o A gradual approach and plenty of evidence is required to win over a skeptical audience.
o Gauge the audience's level of understanding.
o If you and your audience share the same general background, you can assume that they
will understand the subject without any difficulty.
o Define your relationship with the Audience– are you communicating with people
inside or outside your organization?
o How much credibility do you have?
Satisfy your Audience's information needs

o What does the audience want to know?
o What does the audience need to know?
o Have I provided all the desired and necessary information?
o Is the information accurate?
o Have I emphasized the information of greatest interest?
o What does the audience want to know?
By restating a vague request in more specific terms, you can get the requester to define his or her
needs more precisely. Anticipate unstated questions. Include any additional information that
might be helpful, even though the reader didn’t specifically ask for it.
Test the completeness of your message by making sure it answers all the important questions:
Who?
What?
When?
Where?
Why?
How?
Is the information accurate?
Be sure that the information you provide is accurate and that the commitments you make can be
kept. Ask yourself: Have I emphasized the information of greatest interest?
Try to figure out what points will specifically interest your audience; then give these points the
most attention.
Make your Message easier to comprehend

Devices that make your message easier to comprehend include summaries, overviews, headings,
lists, enclosures, appendixes, handouts, charts, and graphs.
Establishing the Main Idea

The main idea is the 'hook' that sums up why a particular audience should do or think as you
suggest.
Use Brainstorming Techniques

o Storyteller's tour
o Random List
o FCR worksheet
o Journalistic Approach
o Question and Answer Chain
Limit the Scope

The main idea should be geared to the length of the message.
Select Appropriate Channel and Medium

Selecting the Appropriate Channel and Medium is very important.
The mediums could be:

o Oral
o Written
o Electronic
Oral medium
Oral medium is best when you want immediate feedback. You use this medium when your
message is relatively simple; you don’t need a permanent record; you can assemble audience
easily, and you want to encourage interaction.
Written medium
Written medium is best when you don’t need immediate feedback. Your message is detailed and
complex. You need a permanent record and are trying to reach an audience over a large distance.
It is best to use a written medium when you want to minimize the distortion while passing a
message from one person to another.
Electronic Message
Electronic Message is best when you don’t need immediate feedback, but you do need speed.
You don’t need a permanent record, but want to overcome time zone barriers. Use electronic
message when you want to minimize oral distortion.
LESSON 13
COMPOSING BUSINESS MESSAGES
Outline
Organizing your Message
Problems in the Process of Composing
Benefits of Well-Organized Message
o Ways to Achieve Good Organization
o Stating the Main idea
o Illustration with examples
Sequence with Organizational Patterns
o Direct Approach
o Indirect Approach
Formulating the Message
Organizing your Message

People simply don’t remember disassociated facts and figures; successful communicators rely on
organization to make their message meaningful. The question arises as to what does good
organization mean? Most disorganized communication suffers from problems with content.
Grouping Sequence Letter.
Problems
o Taking too long to get to the point: The writer of the letter took too long to get to the
point. She waited until the final paragraph to state her purpose.
o Including Irrelevant Material: No information should be introduced which has no
purpose.
o Getting ideas mixed up: The ideas should not be in the wrong place. A sequence should
be followed in which ideas are built upon previous ones.
o Leaving out necessary information: The prime focus should be including the information
required by the reader. Leaving out reader’s desired information would be highly
undesirable.
What does Good organization mean?

The subject and purpose are clear. All information is related to the subject and purpose. The
ideas are grouped and presented in a logical way. All necessary information is included.
Benefits of Well-Organized Message

Why does it matter to put information in any way and leave it to the reader to grasp the
information? By arranging the ideas in a logical and diplomatic way, you will increase the
chances of satisfying the audience’s needs.
Helping your audience understand the message

The main reason for being organized is to improve your chances that people will understand
exactly what you mean.
Good organization also helps you get your ideas across without upsetting the audience. Good
organization helps motivate the audience to accept your message.
Saving your Audience’s Time

Well organized messages are efficient. They only contain relevant information, so the audience
does not waste time with superfluous information.
Simplifying your Communication Tasks

Finally being well organized helps you compose your message more quickly and efficiently.
Before you start to write, organize your message in a way that it is easy for readers to
comprehend.
Letter
Computer Time
556 Seventh Avenue, N.W.
Mason City, Iowa50401
(515) 979-8870
September 17, 1995
Ms. Jill Sunders

Boswell & Sons
Route 7, Hancock Highway
Clear Lake, IA 50401
Dear Ms. Saunders:
Thank you for letting us know about your experience with the Olympic disk drive that you
bought last November. It’s important that we learn of unusual problems with the equipment we
stock.
As you know, regularly priced equipment returned to Computer time within 30 days is covered
by the unconditional refund that has been our tradition for 22 years. Your machine, however, is
still covered by the manufacturer’s warranty. Your needs will receive immediate attention if you
write to
Mr. George Bander
Olympic Systems
P.O. Box 7761, Terminal Annex
Los Angeles, CA 90010
From experience, I know that the people at Olympic truly care about having satisfied customers.
We, too, value your business, Ms. Saunders. Please don’t miss our Tax Days sale in April, which
will feature more of the low prices and high-quality equipment that you’ve come to rely on.
Sincerely,
Linda Davis
Customer Service
Ways to Achieve Good Organization

To organize a message, first group the ideas and then put them in sequence. In business, deciding
what to say is more important than deciding how to say it. Define and group ideas, an outline or
a schematic diagram will help you visualize the relationship among the parts of a message. Start
with the main idea. State the major points. Illustrate with evidence.
Start with the Main Idea

The main idea is the starting point for constructing an outline. It is all about:
o What you want your audience to do or think?
o Why they should do so?
State the Major points

The main idea should be supported by three to five major points. The breakdown of the Main
idea into major points and major points into evidences is best represented with an organization
chart.
Organization Chart
Illustrate with Evidence

Each major point should be supported with enough specific evidence to be convincing, but not so
much that it becomes boring.
Establish Sequence with Organizational Patterns

You have two options after you have defined and grouped your ideas:
o Direct Approach
o Indirect Approach
Direct Approach (deductive)

It means putting the main idea first followed by evidence. Direct requests get straight to the point
because the audience usually wants to respond. For routine Good-News and Goodwill messages,
direct approach is effective that will please the reader or will cause no particular reaction.
o Direct Request Format

The letter begins with the main idea. The mid-section makes a request and provides essential
details. In closing, the letter refers to the main point and states the desired action.
o Routine, Good-News and Goodwill message format

The letter begins with the good news. All necessary details are provided in the middle part.
This paragraph gives additional specifics. In closing, the letter refers to the main point and states
the desired action.
Persuasive Messages
Using the indirect approach gives you an opportunity to get your message across to a skeptical or
hostile audience.
o Persuasive Message Format

The letter begins with questions to catch the reader’s attention. The letter leads up to the main
point by arousing the reader’s interest. This section gives the reader a motive for complying with
the request. The letter closes with an appeal.
Indirect Approach (inductive)

To put the main idea later and evidences first, use direct order if the audience’s reaction is likely
to be positive and indirect order if it is likely to be negative. Short messages follow one of four
organizational plans, depending on the audience’s probable reaction.
o Bad-News Messages
If you have bad news, try to put it somewhere in the middle, cushioned by other more positive
ideas.
o Bad-News Message Format

The letter begins with a neutral statement that provides a transmission to the refusal. The
midsection explains the reason for refusal and then states the bad news. The writer takes care to
introduce a positive thought. The letter closes on a cordial note.
Longer Message
The organization of a longer message should reflect both the purpose of the message and the
audience’s probable reaction. When your purpose is to inform, the major points are based on a
natural order implied by the subject’s characteristics.
Organizational plan should depend on the reaction you anticipate

Your audience may respond in two ways to your material. If you expect your audience to agree
with you, use a structure that focuses attention on the conclusion. If you expect your audience to
be skeptical about your conclusions, use a structure that focuses on rationale that supports your
point of view.
Formulating your Message

Your first draft
Composition is the process of drafting your message; polishing it is a later step.
Your style and Tone

When composing the message, vary the style to create a tone that suits the occasion. Think about
the relationship you want to establish. Don’t be too familiar. Use humor only with great care.
Don’t flatter the other person. Don’t preach. Don’t brag. Be yourself.
Use the ‘you’ attitude

The’ you’ attitude is best implemented by expressing your message in terms of the audience’s
interests and needs.
Avoid using ‘you’ and ‘yours’ to excess when assigning the blame.
Example
Instead of this
To help us process in this order, we must ask for another copy of the requisition.
Use this
So that your order can be filled promptly, please send another copy of the requisition.
Instead of this
We prefer typewriter ribbons in three colors: black, blue, and green.
Use this
Take your pick of type writer ribbons in three colors: black, blue, and green.
Remember
The word ‘you’ does not always indicate a ‘you’ attitude, and the ‘you’ attitude can be displayed
without using the word ‘you’.
Examples
Instead of this
You should never use that kind of paper in the machine.
Use this
That kind of paper doesn’t work very well in the machine.
Instead of this
You need to make sure the staff follows instructions.
Use this
The staff may need guidance in the following instructions.
Emphasize the positive

Explain what you have done, what you can do, and what you will do – not what you haven’t
done, can’t do or won’t do.
When you are offering criticism or advice, focus on what the person can do to improve.
Instead of this
The problem with this department is a failure to control costs.
Use this
The performance of this department can be improved by tightening up cost controls.
Establish Credibility
Don’t make false promises. People are more likely to react positively to your message when they
have confidence in you.
Example
Instead of this
We hope this recommendation will be helpful.
Use this
We’re glad to make this recommendation.
Be Polite
Try to express facts in a kind and thoughtful manner. Use extra tact when writing and
communicating with higher-ups. Promptness is a form of courtesy.
Project the Company Image

Subordinate your own style to that of the company.
Revision
Identify the characteristics of a well-organized message. Explain why organization is important
to both the audience and the communicator. Break a main idea into subdivisions grouped under
logical categories. Arrange ideas in direct or indirect order depending on the audience’s possible
reaction. Compose a message using a style and tone that are appropriate to your subject, purpose,
audience, and format. Use the’ you’ attitude to interest the audience toward your message.
LESSON 14
REVISING BUSINESS MESSAGES
Outline
Editing your Message
Style and Readability
o Word Choice
Bias-free Language
o Types of Biases
Rewriting the Message
Effective Sentence
o Sentence Types
o Sentence Style
Design Element
Proof-reading the Message for Mechanics and Format
Editing your Message

o Content and Organization
o Stick to the point. Put the main idea in the first paragraph. In the middle, highlight the
key features of your stance.
o Eliminate redundancies.
Style and Readability

o Re-word to stress the’ you’ view point.
o Clarify the relationships among ideas through placement and combination of phrases.
o Moderate the excessive enthusiasm.
o Eliminate words that seem unfamiliar.
o Mechanics and format.
o To avoid confusion, spell out the abbreviated phrases.
Evaluate your Content and Organization

After a day or two, review the message for content and organization. Is there a good
balance between the generals and the specifics? Have you provided enough support?
Have you double checked the facts and figures?
Review your Style and Readability

Once satisfied with the structure, review style and readability. Readability depends on word
choice, sentence length, sentence structure, and physical appearance.
Access your word choice

The two key aspects of word choice are:
o Correctness
o Effectiveness
If in doubt, check it out!
Example
Instead of: “The data on our market share is consistent from region to region”
Use
The data on our market share are consistent from region to region.
Plain English
Plain English is close to spoken English and can be more easily understood.
Functional words and Content words

Functional words include:
o Conjunctions
o Prepositions
o Articles
o Pronouns
Functional words express relationships among content words.
Example
Some objective observers of the biscuit market give Rio the edge in quality, but Gala is lauded
for superior distribution.
(The content words are in italics)
Connotation and Denotations

Content words have both a denotative (dictionary) meaning and a connotative (associative)
meaning.
Example
1. I have uncovered some interesting dirt on that Police officer.
2. My land has fertile and dark dirt.
Both sentences use dirt but in different connotations.
Abstraction and Concreteness

The more abstract a word, the more it is removed from the tangible, objective world of things
that can be perceived with sense.
Words that Communicate

o Strong Words
Verbs and Nouns are more concrete than adverbs and adjectives.
Examples
Avoid Weak Words Use Strong Phrases

Wealthy businessman Tycoon
Business prosperity Boom
Hard times Slump
o Familiar Words
You will communicate best with the words that are familiar to your reader. At the same time
keep in mind: words familiar to one reader might be unfamiliar to another.
Examples
o Short words
Short words are usually more vivid than long ones and improve the readability of a document.
o Camouflaged Verbs
Turning verbs into nouns and adjectives weakens your writing.
Watch for endings like -ion, -tion, -ing, -ment, -ant, -ent, -ance and –ency.
Examples
Bias-Free Language
Avoid biased language that might offend the audience. Some of common biases are:
o Cultural Bias
o Gender Bias
o Racial and Ethnic Bias
o Disability Bias
Examples of Gender Bias
Unacceptable Preferable
Mankind Humanity, human-kind
Man-made Artificial, synthetic
Manpower Work force, human energy
Examples of Racial and Ethnic Bias
Example of Disability Bias
Rewriting your Message

As you edit your message, you will find yourself rewriting:
o Passages
o Sentences
Or
o Even whole section
Create Effective Sentence

Every sentence contains a subject (noun or noun equivalent) and a predicate (verb and related
word).
Types of Sentence
To give your sentence variety, use the three types of sentences:
o Simple
o Compound
o Complex
A Simple Sentence
A simple sentence has a single subject and a single predicate.
Profits have increased in the past year.
Subject is in bold and predicate is underlined.
A Compound Sentence
A compound sentence expresses two or more independent but related thoughts.
Wage rates have declined by five percent, and employee turnover has been high.
A Complex Sentence
A complex sentence expresses one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
Although you may question Ali’s abilities, you must admit that his morals are strong.
o Avoid Passive Sentences like sales were increased by 32% last month.
o Use Active Sentences like sales improved by 32% last month.
Less Emphatic
We are cutting the price to stimulate demand.
More Emphatic
To stimulate the demand, we are cutting the price.
Sentence Style
Break long sentences into shorter ones to improve readability. Active sentences are stronger than
passive ones. Use passive sentences to soften bad news, and to put yourself in the background or
to create an impersonal tone.
Eliminate Unnecessary Words and Phrases

Be on the lookout for:
o Inefficient phrases
o Redundancies
o Unnecessary relative pronouns and articles
Example
Confusing
The project manager told the engineer last week the specifications were changed.
Clear
The project manager told the engineer last week that the specifications were changed.
Emphasize Key Thoughts

Emphasize parts of a sentence by:
o Examples
o Giving them more space
o Putting them at the beginning or the end of the sentence
o Making them the subject of the sentence
Develop Coherent Paragraphs

Paragraphs are functional units that revolve around a single thought. Elements of a paragraph
are:
o Topic sentence
o Related sentences
o Transitional elements
Five Ways to Develop a Paragraph

o Illustrations
o Comparisons and contrasts
o Cause and effect
o Classifications
o Problems and solutions
Producing your Document

Written documents require decisions about design elements. Design elements include white
space – free of art text and art work. Margins and line justifications – left justified and rugged
right gives the document an open feeling.
Design Elements
o Headings and Captions – headings help the reader quickly identify the content.
o Type Face – refers to the physical design of the letters.
o Type Styles – avoid using type styles that slow your readers down.
Examples of type face are as follows:
o Serif Typeface
Times Roman is often used for text. Helvetica is often used for headings.
TIMES ROMAN IS HARDER TO READ
IN ALL CAPS.
o Sans-Serif Typeface
Helvetica is often used for headings.
HELVETICA IS A CLEANER FACE
EVEN IN ALL CAPS.
Design Decisions
For effective designs pay attention to:
o Consistency
o Balance
o Restraint
o Detail
Proofreading your Document

Credibility is affected by your lack of attention to detail and format. Use grammar and spell
checkers wisely.
Recap
Today we learned to edit messages for content, organizational style, and readability, hence
choosing the most correct and most effective words to make the point, rewriting the sentences to
clarify the relationships among the ideas, and to make our writing interesting. We also identified
the elements of paragraph thus choosing the best design for written documents, rewriting
paragraphs using the appropriate development techniques, and proofreading message for
mechanics and format.
LESSON 15
MEMORANDUMS, MEETING DOCUMENTS AND PROPOSALS
Outline
Memorandum
o Sample of Business Memo
Minutes of Meeting
o Types of Meeting Minutes
Proposal
o General Structure of Business Proposal
Memorandum
Memorandum is brief, informal report used to establish a record. Memos generalize the
communication process by transmitting the message from one or more authors to one or more
recipients. E-mail messages typically take the form of memoranda.
Memoranda are written for numerous internal purposes—for example, to request information, to
make announcements, to outline policies, and to transmit meeting minutes.
The Memorandum Body

Generally, the topics of the memorandum are organized in order of importance, with the key
statements first, and the details further on. The memorandum should normally begin with a brief
summary statement, in one or two sentences, identifying the key topic and the scope of the
memorandum.
Sample Memo Format / Template

TO:
FROM:
DATE:
SUBJECT:
First Sentence
Reason for the memo
Second Sentence - Main Body
Any Instruction or information
Closing Sentence
What is required of the reader e.g. confirmation, answers or feedback
Meeting Documents
Use meeting documents as tools to encourage productive and efficient meetings. The two
principal meeting documents are the agenda, which tells participants about the topics that will be
discussed at the meeting, and minutes, which record what actually occurred.
Agenda
An agenda is a simple list of topics to be discussed (in order of listing), along with the names of
individuals who have agreed to lead discussion of those topics. An agenda helps focus a meeting
on the core topics, allows you to control the pace and flow of a meeting, and identify important
items to be acted upon. Meetings without published agendas generally seem unfocused and
unproductive.
Example
Development Team Agenda
1. Report by Mr. Hamid on investigation of possible security software
2. Report by Ms. Sara on development of database prototypes
3. Discussion of possible hardware platforms
4. Review of deadlines for project
5. Agenda for next meeting
Minutes
Minutes, also known as protocols, are the written record of meetings, particularly of Boards of
Directors and/or Shareholders of corporations, kept by the secretary of the corporation or
organization. They often give an overview of the structure of the meeting, starting with a list of
those present, a statement of the various issues before the participants, and each of their
responses thereto. They are often created at the moment of the hearing by a typist or court
recorder at the meeting, who may record the meeting in shorthand, and then prepare the minutes
and issue them to the participants afterwards. Alternatively, the meeting may be audio recorded
or notes taken, and the minutes prepared later. However, it is often important for the minutes to
be brief and concentrate on material issues rather than being a verbatim report, so the minute-
taker should have sufficient understanding of the subject matter to achieve this goal. The minutes
of certain entities, such as a corporate board of directors, must be kept and are important legal
documents.
Types of Minutes of Meeting

Minutes can be formal or informal. Formal minutes are often required by federal state, or local
law, by-laws, charters, or regulations. They are usually distributed to the members of the group
before the next meeting, and then approved (sometimes after being amended).
Sample of Meeting Minute

Please view the following links for the sample:
http://managementhelp.org/boards/minutes.htm
http://www.slideshare.net/arlene5162/sample-1175115
Proposals
A formal written document soliciting business and spelling out what will be delivered, the costs,
terms, conditions, and so forth.
The aim of a ‘business proposal’ is to establish a working relationship to make it happen. It's a
way of saying, "I have an idea, I can solve your problem. Let's make it happen together.” It also
persuades a potential customer to purchase goods or services, or to persuade your employer to
fund a project or to implement a program that you would like to launch. A proposal should
contain necessary information about the services and products offered. It would enable the
recipient of that proposal to decide whether to approve the project or not. Your proposal must
state WHAT you are proposing, HOW you plan to do it, WHEN you plan to do it, and HOW
MUCH it is going to cost.
Most organizations rely on successful proposal writing for their continued existence. You will
most likely spend a major part of your professional life writing proposals.
General Structure
Learn the basic structure of a proposal. Proposals share a general document architecture, which is
usually modified to suit specific circumstances.
The overall structure of a proposal can be broken down into following parts:
Proposal Structure
Front matter
Body
Introduction
Technical approach
Management requirements
Work plan
End matter
Front Matter
The front matter of a proposal includes the following components:
o Letter of transmittal
o Title page
o Summary
o Table of contents
o List of figures and tables
Body
In the introduction to a proposal, do the following:
o Identify the motivating need or problem.
o Develop the immediate context in which this problem has been highlighted.
In external proposals, be sure you are responding to the published need and motivation as
identified by the outside agency.
End Mater
o Bibliography
o Résumés
o Appendixes
For sample ‘Business Proposal’ templates, please view the following links
http://www.klariti.com/templates/Proposal-Template.shtml
http://www.scribd.com/doc/244716/sample-business-proposal
http://www.writinghelptools.com/proposal-sample.html
LESSON 16
LETTERS
Outline
Letters
Types of Letters
Format of Letters
Elements of Letters
Job Application Letters
Structure of Letters
Transmittal Letters
Letters
Business letters are formal letters used for business-to-business, business-to-client, or client-to-
business correspondence. There are a number of elements to a business letter. Letters are used to
communicate outside your organization. Whereas the memorandum is the primary vehicle for
communication within an organization, letters are often used to communicate to individuals
outside it, especially in formal and semiformal contexts.
Types of Letters
The following are some of the most common types of letters written by people in technical
fields:
Job application letters

Acceptance letters
Transmittal letters
Inquiry letters
Technical-information letters
Letters of recommendation
Format of Letter
If your organization has a specific style for business letters, follow that format. Otherwise,
follow the guidelines provided here. Business letters are commonly either full-block formatted,
with every line starting at the left margin and usually a business letterhead at the top of the page,
or modified-block, formatted with the heading and the closing aligned at the center of the page.
Elements of Letter
Business letters have the following elements:
Heading
Date
Recipient's address
Salutation
Body
Closing
End notations
Heading
If you are using letterhead stationery, include only the date two lines below the bottom of the
letterhead. Spell out the name of month.
Recipient's Address
Two to four lines below the date, place the following items:
The recipient's title (such as Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and full name (address a woman who does not
have a professional title as Ms. unless you know she prefers Miss or Mrs.; if the recipient
does not have a title and you are unsure of his or her gender, omit the title).
You need to include the following:
o The recipient's job title, if appropriate.

o The name of the company or institution, if appropriate.
o The full address, following the same format as for the address in the heading.
o The recipient's address is always aligned on the left margin.
Salutation
Place the salutation two lines below the recipient's address. The salutation begins with the
word Dear, continues with the recipient's title and last name, and ends with a colon.
Body
Start the letter two lines after the salutation. Body paragraphs should be single spaced with a
double space between paragraphs. Indenting the first line of each paragraph is acceptable but
is more informal than the unintended style.
Closing Phrase
Write a complimentary closing phrase two lines below the final body paragraph.
Yours truly, Sincerely, or Sincerely yours are common endings for professional letters.
Capitalize the first letter of the first word of your complimentary closing and end the
complimentary closing with a comma.
End Notations
At the bottom of the last page of a business letter, ‘End Notations’ may show who typed the
letter, whether any material is enclosed with the letter, and who is receiving a copy of the
letter.
Example
Enclosure: Article by Ali Bashir
Encl. (2)
Enc. (2)
Example
cc: Dr. Maria Aalam
Mr. Waleed Usman
Template of Business Letter
Your Phone Number

Your Email Address
Date
Contact Information
Name
Title
Company
Address
City, State, Zip Code
Salutation
Dear Mr./Ms. Last Name:
Body of Business Letter

Keep your letter simple and focused, so the purpose of your letter is clear.
The first paragraph of your business letter should provide an introduction to why you are writing.
Then, in the following paragraphs provide more information and details about your request.
The final paragraph should reiterate the reason you are writing and thank the reader for
reviewing your request. Single space your letter and justify your letter to the left. Leave a blank
line between each paragraph.
Complimentary Close
Respectfully yours,
Signature
Handwritten Signature (for a mailed letter)
Typed Signature
Job Application Letters

While writing a job application letter, identify a specific area of employment, summarize your
qualifications for the job, refer to an enclosed résumé, and request the next step of the application
process, usually an interview.
Application letters
Application letters are usually just one page and consist of three sections:
Front Matter
Body
End Matter
Front Matter
State that you are applying for a specific job title or field. Also mention the person who referred
you or told you about the job. If you learned of the job from an advertisement, mention that.
Body
Explain specifically why you are qualified for the job. Describe education, work experience, and
any other activity that display relevant talents, such as foreign-language proficiencies and
leadership or supervisory experience.
End Matter
Refer to your enclosed résumé and express your desire for an interview, stating when and where
you will be available for one. In addition, invite further inquiries, and state how you can be
contacted.
For sample ‘Job Application Letter’, please view the following link:
http://jobsearch.about.com/od/morejobletters/a/jobappletter.htm
Acceptance Letters
Letters accepting a job not only convey information, but also establish a contractual relationship
between you and the organization or person offering you the position.
Consequently, acceptance letters should accurately restate the key terms of employment.
Format
Begin the first paragraph by enthusiastically accepting the job. Be sure to state the exact title of
the job and the salary. The second paragraph usually discusses details about the position,
especially the date that you will begin work from.
For sample ‘Acceptance Letter’, please view the following link:

http://www.eduers.com/resume/Acceptance_Letters.htm
Transmittal Letters
A transmittal or cover letter accompanies a larger item, usually a document. The transmittal letter
provides the recipient with a specific context in which to place the larger document and
simultaneously gives the sender a permanent record of having sent the material.
For sample ‘Transmittal Letter’, please view the following link:

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/ce-trpt/pop9j.cfm
LESSON 17
LETTERS II
Outline
Letter of Inquiry
Sample of Inquiry Letter
Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda
References and Letters of Recommendation
Guidelines for Writing References
Guidelines for Writing Letters of recommendation
Letters of Inquiry
A letter of inquiry asks someone for specific information. In some cases, such as a request for
promotional material, the recipient will have a clear interest in responding to your letter.
In other cases, such as a request for specific information on a product, the recipient may or may
not be as motivated to respond quickly. Consequently, always make the tone of the letter friendly
and make it easy for the recipient to identify and provide the information you need.
Sample of Inquiry Letter

The following letter of inquiry is written by a computer programmer, requesting specific
information about an upcoming release of a software product.
Head:
Body:
Footer
Technical-Information Letters and Memoranda

Technical-information letters and memoranda are short documents that announce new technical
information, such as a software bug and its solution, or a new feature. Use the memorandum
format if the information is being sent inside an organization. Use the letter format if the
document will be sent to outside individuals.
Body
References and Letters of Recommendation

A letter of recommendation is a letter that makes a statement of support for a candidate. The
writer assesses the qualities, characteristics, and capabilities of the person being recommended in
terms of that individual’s ability to perform a particular task or function. Letters of
recommendation are typically related to employment, admissions to institutions of higher
education or scholarship eligibility.
References are an essential component of almost all admissions, grant, and employment
processes. Managers and other individuals in any selection process need evaluations from
individuals who have had long and close contact with applicants in order to assess accurately
their abilities and accomplishments.
The number of recommendations required by employers and universities usually ranges from one
to five, with three being the most common number.
Obtaining Letters of Recommendation

Make your candidacy as strong as possible by carefully soliciting references and letters of
recommendation. Letters of recommendation are extremely important in decisions to hire,
admit an individual, and to award a scholarship or grant.
General Guidelines for Requesting References or Letters of Recommendation

If possible, always ask one or two more persons than the minimum number you need.
Ask a range of persons who can testify to different abilities and accomplishments relevant to the
position or award.
If possible, ask someone in person to write a recommendation or to be a reference. If the

individual is far away, ask him or her by phone or through a written letter. Generally, unless you
know the person extremely well, do not ask someone to be a reference or write a letter of
recommendation through e-mail.
Guidelines for Written Letters of Recommendation

Generally, people give more weight to recommendations that contain a waiver of your right to
see the recommendation. Sometimes, however, it may be prudent not to waive your right to
review the recommendation, especially if you are unsure of the recommender's attitude toward
you or his writing ability.
Recommenders are busy people; give them all the necessary material at least three weeks before
the recommendation is due.
Writing Letters of Recommendation

Write letters of recommendation to provide relevant information and to present an individual
truthfully and positively.
Guidelines for Writing Letters of Recommendation

In most cases, agree to write a letter of recommendation only if you can honestly write a
supportive letter. If you cannot portray an individual positively, decline to write the
recommendation.
Ask for a current Résumé, and as complete a description as possible of the position or program to
which the person is applying. Assemble and review all other relevant information you may have
about the person you are recommending. It is often easy to overlook some important
accomplishment. In most cases, a letter of recommendation should consist of three or four
paragraphs and not be over one page in length.
For sample ‘Recommendation Letters’, please view the following link:

http://businessmajors.about.com/od/samplerecommendations/a/RecSample4.htm
http://www.eduers.com/images/sample-letter-of-recommendation.gif
LESSON 18
WRITING DIRECT REQUESTS
Outline
Organizing Direct Request Message
The Main Idea of Direct Request
Indicate your confidence that the request will be filled.
Provide a sufficient detail for the reader to be able to comply with your request.
Clarify complicated request with lists and tables.
Close with a courteous request for specific action.
Order Letters
Customer Letters
Requesting Claims and Adjustments
For Organizing Direct Requests

State the request or main idea
Give necessary details
Close with a cordial request for specific action
Direct Request
This approach works well when your request requires no special tact or persuasion.
Example
HKB’s store managers are certainly interested in helping Levi’s increase sales, just as
distributors are interested in filling the HKB order.
Main Idea of the Request

General rule for the first part of the direct request is not only to be understood but also to avoid
being misunderstood. Be aware of the difference between a polite request in question form
(which requires no question mark) and a question that is part of a request.
Example
Political Request in Question Form Question that is part of a request
Would you please help us determine Did Kate Kingsley demonstrate to work
whether Kate Kingsley is a suitable smoothly with client?
applicant for a position as landscape
designer.
Justification, Explanation and Details

In the middle section:
1. Call attention to how the reader will benefit from granting your request.
2. Give details of your request.
3. Ask the most important question first. Then ask related, more specific questions.
4. Use numbered list when you are requesting several items or answers.
Order Letter
An Order Letter is also known as a PO or purchase order letter. It begins the paper trail of a
specific purchase. The objective of an order letter is to provide the vendor with detailed
instructions for fulfilling an order.
Placing Orders
Order letters are like good mail order forms, although they also provide more room for
explaining special needs. When placing an order, you don’t need to excite your reader’s interest;
just state your needs clearly and directly.
Requesting Routine Information and Action

When making a routine request, ask yourself:
What do you want to know?
Why is it in the reader’s interest to help you?
Request to Company Insiders

A request in memo form:
1. Provides a permanent record.
2. Saves time and question.
3. Tells precisely what is needed.
4. The Basic Request is stated at the beginning.
5. The next two paragraphs explain the problem that made the inquiry necessary.
6. The final paragraph requests action and, with a built-in Questionnaire, makes a response
day.
Example i.e. Memo

The Memo begins with the central question.
A little background information orients the reader.
The numbered questions focus on responses, so that they will be easier to tally.
Customer Services
It is the Department or function of an organization that responds to inquiries or complaints from
customers of that organization. Customers may communicate in person or via written
correspondence, toll telephone, etc.
Various techniques are used to generate correspondence back to the customer, including
checklists, form letters, typewritten letters, computer letters (fill-in type), or computer-generated
personalized letters. Typewritten letters are best for irate complaints or special situations.
Computer letters combine the benefits of personalization with the efficiencies of automation.
Customer service correspondence may be in letterhead or postcard format. Customer service is

an important part of the fulfillment function, ensuring that customers will buy again and/or
continue to be good customers.
Structure of Customer Letters

The opening paragraph states the reason for the letter. The frank request should arouse curiosity
and encourage a frank response. The request for action should be devised for uncovering trouble
without actually suggesting that there might be trouble. The actual request for action is left
unstated until the end so that it leaves an impression.
Claim
Legal demand or assertion by a claimant for compensation, payment, or reimbursement for a loss
under a contract, or an injury due to negligence.
Adjustments
It is the process of handling and settling claims or the amount requested by a policyholder or
claimant because of a loss or damage. Adjustment letter is written to offer brief description of the
cause of dissatisfaction and prepare the necessary action.
Adjustment letter is a letter in answer to a complaint letter. The answer may either be a refusal or
a grant.
Requesting Claims and Adjustments

Claims (Formal Complaints)
Adjustments (Claim Settlements)
You are entitled to request an adjustment whenever you receive a product or experience service
that doesn’t live up to the supplier’s standards.
For sample ‘Claim and Adjustment Letters’, please view the following links:
http://officewriting.com/tag/claim-letter/
http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/documents/business_writing/business_letter/adjustment_letter
/sample_adjustment_letterA.pdf
Credit Requests
It is the type of request for credit (oral or written) made in accordance with procedures
established or practices followed by the Creditor for the type of credit requested.
Making Routine Credit Requests

The first step in requesting credit is to get an application form. The second step is to supply the
necessary information. Order letters are often combined with a request for credit.
For sample ‘Routine Credit Requests’, please view the following link:
http://public.findlaw.com/consumer/le12_10_1.html
LESSON 19
WRITING ROUTINE, GOOD-NEWS AND GOODWILL MESSAGES
Outline
Organizing Positive Messages
a. Clear Statement of the Main Idea
b. Necessary Details
c. Courteous Close
Writing Positive Replies
Acknowledging Orders
Replies to Requests for Information and Action
a. When a Potential Sale is Involved
b. When No Potential Sale is Involved
Responding Favorably to Claims and Adjustment Requests
Handling Routine Credit Requests
a. Approving Credit
b. Credit References
Organizing Positive Messages

Whether written or oral, positive messages begin with a clear statement of the main idea, clarify
any necessary details and end with a courteous close.
a. Clear Statement of the Main Idea

Almost all business communication has two basic purposes:
To convey information
To produce in the audience a favorable (or at least accepting) attitude or response
The main idea is the single most important idea, concisely stated.
For example:
Instead of this Write this
I am pleased to inform you that after You’ve been selected to join our firm as a staff
deliberating the matter carefully, our personnel accountant, starting from March 20.
committee has recommended you for
appointment as a staff accountant.
b. Necessary Details
Your reason for communicating can usually be expressed in a sentence or two, but you will need
more spaces or time to explain your point completely so that your audience will have no
confusion or lingering doubt.
Necessary details:
Satisfy reader's information needs
Reinforce positive tone
Emphasize positive aspects of disappointing news
c. Courteous Close
Your message is most likely to succeed if your audience is left with the feeling that you have
their personal welfare in mind.
Courteous close:
Summarizes main point
Indicates what should happen next
Highlights reader’s benefit
Writing Positive Replies for Acknowledging Orders

Acknowledgements are appropriate for large orders, first orders, and orders that cannot be filled
right away. Acknowledgement letters are sent to a customer confirming the receipt of an order,
payment, or inquiry. It is frequently used in response to credit orders to encourage fast payment
or to offer an opportunity to increase the order.
Replies to Requests for Information and Action

To reply requests for information and action, you need to consider that person's opinion of your
company, your products, your department, and you yourself will be influenced by how promptly,
graciously, and thoroughly the request is handled. There are two types of requests for
information and action:
a. Requests from potential customers
Requests that do not involve a potential sale
a. When a Potential Sale is Involved

While answering requests that involved a potential sale, there are three main goals:
To respond to the inquiry and answer all questions
To encourage the future sale
To leave your reader with a good impression of you and your firm
b. When No Potential Sale is Involved

There are two essential goals when no sale is involved:
Responding to the request
Leaving a favorable impression of your company or fostering a good working
relationship
Responding Favorably to Claims and Adjustment Requests

You can build customer loyalty by responding favorably to routine claims. Favorable responses
to routine claims are known as adjustments. The following sequence is recommended while
giving a favorable response to a claim:
Reveal the good news in the first sentence of the letter
Explain the various circumstances under which the action has been taken
Don’t blame an individual or a specific department
Avoid lame excuses such as “Nobody’s perfect” or “Mistakes will happen”
End the letter on a pleasant note
Handling Routine Credit Requests

Handling routine credit requests is important because consumers often carry a wallet full of
plastic credit cards, and business of all sizes operates more smoothly because they can pay for
their purchases over time. There are two types of positive responses to routine credit requests:
Approving Credit
Credit References
Approving Credit
Credit approvals mark the beginning of a business relationship with a customer, so the goal is to
convey the necessary information while building good will. To approve the credit request use the
direct approach:
Open with good news that credit has been approved.
Explain credit arrangements using a positive tone.
Close by emphasizing the benefits of doing business with the firm (resale information
and sales promotion).
Credit References
A credit reference is the information, the name of an individual, or the name of an organization
that can provide details about an individual's past track record with credit. Credit references are
generally used to determine the credit worthiness of a person or individual. For example, if an
applicant's credit history indicates proper, timely payments on all outstanding obligations, a
lender may judge it more likely that the applicant will make timely payments on the requested
loan.
LESSON 20
WRITING BAD-NEWS MESSAGES
Outline
Organizing bad-news messages
Indirect Plan
a. A buffer
b. Reasons supporting the negative decision
c. A clear, diplomatic statement of the negative decision
d. A helpful, friendly, and positive close
Direct Plan
Conveying bad news about orders
Organizing Bad-News Messages

It’s important to realize that some people interpret being rejected as a personal failure; being
turned down for a job or for credit or even being rejected in less sensitive areas usually
complicate people’s lives. As with direct requests and routine, good-news, and goodwill
messages, bad-news messages are best communicated across cultures by using the tone,
organization, and other cultural conventions that your audience expects. In bad news messages,
your tone contributes to your message's effectiveness by supporting three specific goals:
Helping your audience to understand that your bad-news message represents a firm
decision
Helping your audience to understand that under the circumstances, your decision was fair
and reasonable
Helping your audience to remain disposed towards your business and possibly towards
you
With the right tone, you can make an unwelcome point while preserving your audience’s ego.
The two basic strategies to communicate bad news message are:
The indirect plan, which presents supporting data before the main idea
The direct plan, which presents the main idea before the supporting data
I. Indirect Plan
Instead of beginning a business message with a blunt ‘no’ which might restrain your audience
from reading or listening to your reasons, use the indirect plan to ease your audience into the part
of your message that demonstrates how fair-minded and eager you are to do business on some
other terms.
The indirect plan consists of four parts:

a. A buffer
b. Reasons supporting the negative decision
c. A clear, diplomatic statement of the negative decision
d. A helpful, friendly, and positive close
a. Buffer
The first step in using the indirect plan is to put the audience in an accepting mood by making a
neutral, non-controversial statement closely related to the point of the message. To compose your
buffer:
Avoid giving the impression that good news will follow.
Avoid saying ‘no’.
Avoid using a know-it-all tone. e.g. You should be aware that…
Avoid wordy and irrelevant phrases and sentences.
o We have received your letter.
o This email is in reply to your request.
o We are writing in response to your request .
Avoid apologizing.
Avoid writing a buffer that is too long.
b. Reasons
After composing the buffer, the reasons will follow naturally. You describe the more positive
points first then move on to less positive ones. You must provide enough detail for the audience
to understand your reasons, but be concise because a long round about explanation may make
your audience impatient. The paragraph states the reasons for refusal in a better way:
It provides enough detail to make the reason for the refusal logically acceptable.
It implies that the applicant is better off avoiding a program in which he or she would
probably fail, given the background of others who would be working alongside him or
her.
It doesn’t rest solely on company’s policy. A relevant policy exists but is presented as
logical rather than rigid.
It offers no apology for the decision .
It avoids negative personal expressions e.g. “You do not meet our requirements”.
c. The Bad News

When the bad news is a logical outcome of the reasons that come before it, the audience is
psychologically prepared to receive it. However, the audience may still react emotionally if the
bad news is handled carelessly. Here are some methods to convey bad news:
De-emphasize the Bad News.
o Minimize the space or time devoted to it.
o Subordinate it in a complex or compound sentence e.g. “My department is
already shorthanded, so I shall need all my staff for at least the next two months”.
o Embed it in the middle of a paragraph.
Do not overemphasize the positive.
Avoid blunt statements that are likely to cause pain and anger.
The following phrases are likely to offend and should be avoided:

Instead of Say this
1. We must deny 1. The position has been filled
2. We cannot afford to 2. Contact us again…
3. We must reject the proposal 3. We’ve accepted the proposal from
another builder
4. We must turn down 4. Please send your payment
Two other techniques are especially useful for saying ‘no’ as clearly but painlessly as possible.
First, using a conditional (if or when) statement that implies the audience could possibly have
received or might someday receive a favorable answer: “When you have more managerial
experience, you are welcome to re-apply.”
Second technique is to tell the audience what you did do, can do, or will do rather than what you
did not do, cannot do, or won’t do. You can say “We sell exclusively through retailers, and the
one nearest you that carries our merchandise is …” rather than “We are unable to serve you, so
please call your nearest dealer.”
d. Positive Close
After giving the bad news, your job is to end the message on a more upbeat note. Whatever type
of close you choose, follow these guidelines:
Don’t refer to or repeat the bad news.

Don’t apologize for the decision or reveal any doubt that the reasons will be accepted
(avoid statements such as “I trust our decision is satisfactory”).
Don’t urge additional communication unless you really want to discuss your decision
(avoid saying anything like “If you have further questions, please write”).
Don’t anticipate problems (avoid statements such as “Do you have further problems,
please let us know”).
Don’t include clichés that are insincere in view of the bad news (avoid saying “If we can
be of any help, please contact us”).
Don’t reveal any doubt that you will keep the person as a customer (avoid phrases such as
“We hope you will continue to do business with us”).
ii) Direct Plan

A bad news message organized on the direct plan starts with a clear statement of the bad news,
proceeds to the reasons for the decision, and ends with a courteous close.
Stating the bad news at the beginning has two potential advantages:
It makes a shorter message possible.
The audience needs less time to reach the main idea of the message, the bad news itself.
Conveying bad news about orders

For several reasons, business must sometimes convey bad news concerning orders:
To work toward an eventual sale along the lines of the original order
To keep instructions or additional information as clear as possible
To maintain an optimistic, confident tone so that your reader will not lose interest
When you must back-order for a customer, you have one of the two types of bad news to
convey.
You are able to send only part of the order.
You are able to send none of the order.
LESSON 21
WRITING PERSUASIVE MESSAGES

Outline
Motivating with Persuasive Messages
a. Needs and appeals
b. Emotion and logic
c. Credibility
d. Semantics
Organizing Persuasive Messages
Writing Persuasive Request for Action
Writing Sales Letters
Planning Sales Letters
a. Determine the main idea
b. Define the audience
c. Choose the approach and format
Motivating with Persuasive Messages

The persuasive message influences the audience by informing them and growing their
understanding – the audience is free to choose. Ethical business people inform customers about
the benefits of a product or an action so that customers can recognize how well that product or
action will fill a need, they truly have. Persuasive messages aim to influence audiences who are
inclined to resist, so they depend heavily on strategic planning.
Before writing a persuasive message, ask yourself certain questions i.e. what you are writing
about, who you are writing to, and what you want to happen as a result.
When writing persuasive messages, four things to keep in mind about your audience are:
a. Needs and appeals
b. Emotion and logic
c. Credibility
d. Semantics
a. Needs and Appeals

Everyone is not interested in economy or fair play. For instance, some people’s innermost needs
make appeals to status and greed. To accommodate these individual differences, analyze the
members of your audience and then construct a message that appeals to their needs.
b. Emotion and Logic

Emotional appeals call on human feelings and emotions; however, such an appeal must be subtle.
For instance, you can make use of the emotion surrounding certain words. The word ‘freedom’
evokes strong feelings, as do words success, prestige, compassion, free, value, and comfort. Such
words put your audience in a certain frame of mind and help them accept your message.
However, emotional appeals aren't necessarily effective by themselves. For most business
situations, the best use of emotion is working in tandem with logic. Even if your audience
reaches a conclusion based on emotions, they will look to you to provide logical support as well.
c. Credibility
The ways of gaining credibility are:
a. Being enthusiastic: Your excitement about the subject of your message can affect your
audience.
b. Being sincere: Your honesty, genuineness, good faith, and truthfulness help you focus
on your audience’s needs.
c. Being an expert: Your knowledge of your message’s subject area (or even of some
other area) helps you to give your audience the quality information, necessary to make a
decision.
d. Having good intentions: Your willingness to keep your audience’s best interest at heart
helps you create persuasive messages that are ethical.
e. Being trustworthy: Your honesty and dependability help you earn your audience’s
respect.
f. Establishing common ground. Your beliefs, attitudes, and background experiences that
are like those of your audience’s, help them identify with you.
d. Semantics
The words, you choose to state your message say much more than their dictionary definitions.
For instance, useful, beneficial, and advantageous may be considered synonyms, yet these three
words are not interchangeable.
Organizing persuasive messages

Persuasion requires the indirect approach. While framing a persuasive argument or message,
effective business people use the AIDA plan which has four phases:
a. Attention
b. Interest
c. Desire
d. Action
a. Attention
Your first objective is to encourage your audience to hear about your problem, idea, new
product—whatever your main idea is. Write a brief engaging opening sentence, with no
extravagant claims or irrelevant points and be sure to find some common ground on which to
build your case.
b. Interest
Explain the relevance of your message to your audience. Continue the theme you started with,
paint a more detailed picture with words.
c. Desire
Help audience members embrace your idea by explaining how the change will benefit them.
Reduce resistance by identifying and answering in advance any questions the audience might
have. If your idea is complex, you may need to explain how you would implement it. Back up
your claims in order to increase audience willingness to take the action that you suggest in the
next section. Just remember to make sure that all evidence is directly relevant to your point.
d. Action
Suggest the action you want readers to take. Make it more than a statement such as “Please
institute this program soon” or “Send me a refund.” This is the opportunity to remind readers of
the benefits of taking action. The secret of successful action phase is to make the action easy, so
if possible, give your readers a couple of options for responding, such as a toll-free number to
call and a website to visit.
Writing Persuasive Request for Action

In an organization, persuasive techniques are often required to get someone to change policies or
procedures, to spend money on new equipment and service to promote a person or to protect turf.
The attention-getting device for action, at the beginning of a persuasive request, usually shows
the reader that you know something about his or her concerns and that you have some reasons
for making such a request.
In this type of persuasive message, flattering comment about the reader is acceptable, especially
if it is sincere. You can give facts, explain benefits, and enhance your appeal in the interest and
desire sections. You need to convince your readers that helping you will serve to solve a
significant problem and close your message with a request for some specific action.
Writing Sales Letters

A sales letter is a document designed to generate sales. It persuades the reader to place an order;
to request additional information; or to lend support to the product, or service or cause being
offered. It influences the reader to take a specific action by making an offer--not an
announcement--to him. To sell, the sales letter must be specific, go to the right audience, appeal
to the reader’s needs, and it must be informative.
Sales letters are considered binding contracts, so avoid even implying offers or promises that you
can’t deliver. Making a false statement in a sales letter is fraud if the recipient can prove that:
You intended to deceive.
You made your statement regarding a fact (not an opinion or a speculation).
The recipient was justified in relying on your statement.
The recipient was damaged by your statement (in a legal sense).
Using a person’s name, photograph, or other identity in a sales letter without permission is
considered invasion of privacy – with some exceptions. Using a photo of the members of a local
softball team in a chamber of commerce mailer may be perfectly legal, if team members are
public figures in the community.
Planning Sales Letters

The three steps involved in planning a sales letter are similar to those involved in planning any
other persuasive message
a. Determine the main idea (in sales letters, it revolves around a selling point and related
benefits)
b. Define the audience
a. Determining Selling Points and Benefits

Selling points are the most attractive features of a product. Consumer’s benefits are the particular
advantages that buyers will realize from those features.
b. Defining the Audience

Marketers seek to define consumer in terms of:
Demographics: age, gender, occupation, income, and education
Psychographics: personality, attitudes, and lifestyle

Choose words that will not be misinterpreted.
Be sure you do not distort the truth.
Adopt the “you” attitude by showing your honest concern for audience’ needs and
interests.
LESSON 22
WRITING SHORT REPORTS
Outline
Reports
What Makes a Good Report
a. Accuracy
o Describe facts and Events in concrete terms
o Put the facts in perspective
o Give plenty of evidence for your conclusions
o Present only objective evidence and verifiable conclusions
o Keep your personal biases in check
b. The content shows writer’s good judgment
c. Responsive format, style and organization
o What subject does the report cover?
o Why is the report being prepared?
Short Report
Planning Short Reports
Short Report Format
Establishing a Basic Structure
Key Points to Cover
Organizing Informational Memos and Reports
Interim Progress Reports
New Business Proposal to an Outside Client
Developing Structural Class
Reports
Reports are documents which present focused, salient content to a specific audience. Reports are
often used to display the result of an experiment, investigation, or an inquiry. You may be
surprised that a variety of documents qualify as reports. The word report covers everything from
preprinted forms to brief, informal letters and memos to three-volume manuscripts. It should be
noted that reports are considered to be legal documents in the workplace and, thus, they need to
be precise, accurate and difficult to misinterpret.
What makes a good report?

Good reports have three things in common:
a. The information is accurate
b. The content shows writer’s good judgment
c. The format, style and organization respond to reader’s needs
a. Accuracy
The first thing, a business report must learn to do, is to tell the truth. To ensure accuracy:
Check the facts

Reduce distortion
Describe facts and Events in concrete terms

It’s better to say Sales have increased from Rs. 400,000 to Rs. 450,000 in two months rather than
Sales have sky rocketed.
Put the facts in perspective
If you tell your reader that the value of stock has doubled in three weeks, you are only giving a
partial picture. They will have a much better understanding, if you say the value of stock has
doubled in three weeks rising from Rs. 2 to Rs. 4 per share on the rumor of a potential merger.
Give plenty of evidence for your conclusions
Statements like we have to recognize the sales force or we are bound to lose market share may or
may not be true. Readers have no way of knowing unless you provide sufficient data to support
your claim.
Present only objective evidence and verifiable conclusions
Try to avoid drawing conclusions from less information and don’t assume that a preceding event
is a cause of what follows.
Example
If the sales decreased after a new advertising agency was contracted, it does not mean that the
agency is to blame. Other factors may have a role to play in this as well.
Keep your personal biases in check
Even if you have a personal bias towards the subject of the report, try to keep your feelings from
influencing your choice of words. Such biases not only offend but also obscure the facts and
provoke emotional responses.
b. Role of Content in writer’s good judgement

The content shows writer’s good judgment:
1. Getting the main idea at the beginning of the report
2. Seeing the facts
3. Receiving the whole story
4. Reading language they can understand
5. Learning something that will make their jobs easier
c. Responsive format, style and organization

Before writing you must decide:
Whether to use a letter, memo, or manuscript format
Whether to group your ideas one way or another
Whether to employ an informal style
o When making decisions about the format, style and organization of a report,
consider its:Origin
o Subject
o Timing
o Distribution
o Purpose
o Probable reception
What subject does the report cover?

The subject of a business report affects its format and vocabulary.
Example
An audit report would contain a lot more numbers, often in the forms of tables.
Why is the report being prepared?
Reports can be prepared for different purposes that can be:
a. Informational
Inform or instruct – present information
Reader sees the details of events, activities or conditions
No analysis of the situation, no conclusion and no recommendations
b. Analytical
Written to solve problems
Information is analyzed
Conclusions are drawn and recommendations are made
c. Persuasive
An extension of analytical reports: main focus is to sell an idea, a service, or product.
Short report
The short, informal, report is usually submitted in the form of a letter or memorandum. The short
report may range from short statement of facts, presented on a single page, to a longer
presentation taking several pages. It does not carry a cover, table of contents or any special
display. In style, short report is personal, informal and relaxed.
Planning Short Reports

When planning short reports, be sure to follow the report-writing customs that your audience
expects. Following three elements influence length and format of your report:
Audience
Purpose
Subject matter
Short Report Format

You may perceive the report in one of the following formats:
a. Preprinted form
This type of format is basically for ‘fill-in-the-blanks’ reports. It deals with routine information
which is often mainly numerical.
b. Letter
This format is used for reports that are directed to outsiders and contain five or fewer pages.
They follow the normal letter format.
c. Memo
This is the most common format for short informal reports within an organization. Memos have
four headings:
To
From
Date
Subject
d. Manuscript
For a formal approach, manuscripts range from a few pages to several hundred pages.
Establishing a Basic Structure

Choice of a structure involves three decisions:
o What to say?
o Direct or indirect
o Topical or logical organization
Key Points to Cover

Your report should answer audience’s key questions. What ideas would you include? When
deciding the content of your report, the first step is to put yourself in the audience position. What
are major questions that you think your audience has about the subject? Your objective is to
answer all those questions in an order that makes more sense.
Organizing Informational Memos and Reports

The purpose of informational report is to explain. When writing informational reports you do not
have to worry too much about reader’s reaction. To have clarity is the main objective of
informational report. Some informational reports are organized according to instructions,
supplied by the person requesting the information. Informational reports take many forms. The
examples that follow will give you an idea of typical organization and tone.
Interim Progress Reports

Interim progress reports give the customer an idea of the work that has been completed to date.
The style of such reports is more formal than internal reports. When writing interim reports, be
honest about the problems as well as the accomplishments.
New Business Proposal to an Outside Client

Proposals to outside clients attempt to get products, plans, or projects, accepted by outside
businesses or government clients. A simple formula followed by many professionals is:
here is my problem
here is the solution
here is what it will cost
Developing Structural Class

Four tools are particularly essential for giving readers an overall structure of your document and
for keeping them on track when they read:
a. The opening
b. Headings and lists
c. Smooth transitions
d. The ending
a. The Opening
A good opening accomplishes at least three things:

1. Introduces the subject of your report
2. Indicates why the subject is important
3. Gives the readers a preview of main ideas and the order in which they will be covered
b. Headings and lists

In order to help the reader find their way around a report quickly, a report is always divided into
clear sections with headings for example, Facts, Discussion, Findings, Costs, Limitations,
Advantages, and Conclusions. Usually, a numbering system is used too. The important thing is to
be clear and consistent.
c. Smooth transitions
Such phrases as “to continue the analysis”, “on the other hand” and “additional concept” are
another type of structural clue.
Additional Details: moreover, furthermore, in addition, besides, etc.
Causal Relationship - therefore, because, accordingly, thus, hence, etc.
d. The ending
Cite your sources to persuade the reader about your information-gathering reliability. These may
include interviews, articles, company records, surveys, your own observation, and so on.
Proofread your document carefully before sending it to the reader.

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Handouts 201

Business and Technical English

INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS & TECHNICAL

Introduction to Business & Technical Communication

Books & Materials

The Mayfield Handbook for Technical Writing

Module 1: Basics of Effective Technical and Business Communication

Importance of Business & Technical Communication

Writing is an important responsibility of mangers who have to communicate a wide

Writing at work differs from writing at school

• Think about what they want from you and why?

1. Readers create meaning.

Readers create Meaning

Readers’ responses are shaped by the situation

Readers react on a moment-to-moment basis

Effective oral communication is a combination of many skills:

outlining and planning

Formal and Informal Oral Reports

Oral presentations in a professional environment generally fall into two categories:

• Individual or Group Report

• To reinforce the attitudes, beliefs, and values an audience already holds

Preparation of the presentation

knowledge of the audience

personal appearance and grooming

a. Knowledge of the Audience

b. Knowledge of the Subject

c. Use of Time and Rehearsal

Delivering an Oral Presentation

Poise and Enthusiasm

a. Poise and Enthusiasm

hear what you say

Making a Formal Presentation

Voice - how you say it is as important as what you say.

the objectives of the talk

Making the Presentation

Using Visual Aids for Oral Presentations

Overhead projection transparencies (OHPs)

Writing your Resume

Altering your Audience’s Attitudes

Altering your employer’s attitudes

Helping your readers perform their tasks

What exactly does the person want to do?

Organizing your material

Drafting the Prose

Ordering your job experience

d. Evaluating & Revising

Writing for Experts

Audience’s Use of a Document

Strategies for Writing to Technicians

Keep introductions and background information brief.

Managers read technical and scientific documents for a variety of purposes:

To aid in making decisions

Audience’s General Use of Document

Defining your Communication Objectives

Purpose for writing documents

Points to keep in mind while writing a document

a. Explicit Purposes of a Document

Documents that provide information

Documents that give instructions