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INC Study Guide

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INC Study Guide

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Robert Bailey

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© 2019 University of South Africa

All rights reserved

Printed and published by the

University of South Africa,
Muckleneuk, Pretoria

INC3701/1/2020–2022

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CONTENTS

General introduction to the study guide (iv)

Learning unit 1: The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education 1
Learning unit 2: Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education 17
Learning unit 3: Principles of inclusive education to achieve quality education for
all learners 29
Learning unit 4: Diverse ways of learning 37
Learning unit 5: Assess the needs of learners in order to determine the required
level of support 61
Learning unit 6: Create an enabling inclusive learning environment 73

INC3701/1/2020–2022 (iii)
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO
THE STUDY GUIDE

In this module, INCLUSIVE EDUCATION (GENERIC), you will be

introduced to the notion and philosophy of Inclusive Education, relevant policies
with regard to Inclusive Education. Principles of Inclusive Education when applied
into context to contribute to the achievement of a quality education for all learners.
Classify diverse ways of learning, assess the needs of learners in order to determine
the required level of support and create an enabling inclusive learning environment.
This is done in order to prepare you as a teacher who will not be threatened by
diversity, work comfortably and effectively in your classroom.

The purpose of this module

The purpose of the module is to build the capacity of teachers in inclusive
educational settings. Individuals will be able to provide educational support,
understand and address barriers to learning in inclusive educational settings and to
deal with issues of curriculum adaptations. The agenda of Inclusive Education is
equality and success for all; therefore, it serves as a vehicle that could equip
teachers with the necessary skills and attitudes to work in a diverse classroom. This
module prepares teachers to work in mix-ability/inclusive educational settings. It
also provides access to learning for teachers to specialise in Inclusive education.

Recommended Books for this Module

Phasha, N. & Condy, J. (Eds.) 2016. Inclusive education: An African perspective. Cape
Town: Oxford University Press.

(iv)
General introduction to the study guide

The following icons will be found throughout the study guide

The arrow is used to highlight the learning outcomes of the specific lear-
ning unit. This is what you should be able to do after completing the
learning unit in question.
The question mark asks you to think about a certain question or statement
in the light of your existing knowledge and to make notes on your
thoughts for future reference.
The pencil indicates a written activity. This activity serves as a self-evalua-
tion of your progress and your insight into the work. These answers are
not submitted as part of any assignment, but are used to help you in your
own studies.
The hand entails activities or case studies where writing is not involved.
Think of the hand as if it is forcing you to stop and think and do
something.

As a BEd student, you will have the most meaningful learning experiences if you
work through the whole study guide very carefully and complete all the activities
systematically on your way. This will give you a hands-on experience of the
systematic way in which a professional or teacher should work.
You are advised to write your notes on a note pad and keep them filed
systematically per learning unit in a box file for later use. Also ensure that you use a
heading at the beginning of each set of notes that you make, linking your notes to
that section and the page number where that activity is to be found in the study
guide. By being an active student as indicated at various points throughout the
study guide, you will optimise your chances of success and empower yourself as
well. Be disciplined and study regularly, preferably on a daily basis.

Please take note of the following learning outcomes and assess-

ment criteria for this module:

Specific outcome 1
Discuss the notion and philosophy of Inclusive Education
Assessment criteria:
1. Inclusive Education is defined.
2. Ideas embedded in the philosophy of Inclusive Education are discussed in re-
lation to African ways of life (collectivism, interdependence, Ubuntu and
communalism).

INC3701/1 (v)
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY GUIDE

Specific outcome 2
Explain relevant policies with regard to Inclusive Education
Assessment criteria
1. South African educational policies that address inclusive education are
discussed.
2. International treaties that deal with Inclusive Education are described, and so
is their contribution towards the adoption of inclusion in education and
society.
3. The role of Inclusive Education in nation building and the promotion of soci-
al cohesion are explained.

Specific outcome 3
Describe how the principles of Inclusive Education when applied in context
can contribute to the achievement of quality education for all learners
Assessment criteria
1. The term ‘quality education’ is defined in context.
2. Strategies to achieve quality education through the implementation of Inclu-
sive Education are described.
3. Inclusive education as practised in context is assessed.

Specific outcome 4
Classify diverse ways of learning
1. Different learning strengths are identified.
2. Common developmental milestones for learning are explained.
3. Support to develop strengths is designed.
4. Diverse and culturally sensitive methods of identifying needs are explored.

Specific outcome 5
Assess the needs of learners in order to determine the required level of
support
1. The purpose of assessment is explained in terms of the initial identification of
potential strengths and barriers.
2. Emerging trends in assessment of barriers to learning are introduced.
3. Appropriate and culturally sensitive tools and methods are identified and se-
lected in consultation with the relevant stakeholders.
4. Learners are screened for early identification of barriers experienced with a
view to consider appropriate intervention.
5. The needs of the individual, as concerns age, socio-economic standing, history,
family is analysed during the screening process.

(vi)
General introduction to the study guide

Specific outcome 6
Create an enabling inclusive learning environment
Assessment criteria
1. The importance of optimal involvement of the learner is understood in the
context of inclusivity.
2. Curriculum is adapted/modified to facilitate accessibility to learning.
3. Individual learning programmes are devised to ensure inclusion in various
settings.
4. A variety of internal and external support structures are used to enhance ac-
cessibility to learning and to create an inclusive learning environment.
5. The need for further intervention is discussed with the learner and other rele-
vant people.

INC3701/1 (vii)
LEARNING UNIT 1
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education

Learningunit1

CONTENTS

1.1 INTRODUCTION 2
1.2 DEFINITION OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 2
1.3 THEORIES UNDERPINNING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 5
1.3.1 Critical Theory 5
1.3.2 African Philosophies 7
1.3.3 Social Constructivism 10
1.4 EPISTEMOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION 12
1.4.1 Essentialist Epistemology 12
1.4.2 Social Constructivist Epistemology 12
1.4.3 Rights-Based Epistemology 13
1.5 CASE STUDY ON INCLUSION 13
1.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 14
1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 14

INC3701/1 1
LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 1

When you have completed Learning unit 1, you should be able to:
● Define Inclusive Education.
● Discuss the ideas embedded in the philosophy of Inclusive Education in relation to Afri-
can ways of life (collectivism, interdependence, Ubuntu and communalism).

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will focus on theoretical assumptions in inclusive education,
epistemological standpoints in response to theoretical assumptions and academic
defense of epistemological standpoints.

1.2 DEFINITION OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

In this module, we begin our discussion by presenting some definitions of inclusion.
It is important to note that there is no single universally accepted definition of
inclusion. This is attributed to the conceptual difficulties in defining the philosophy,
including what counts as evidence of its practice and model practice (Florian, 2012).
Consider the following definitions of inclusion.
“Inclusion is about community. Inclusion is more than a placement or a service. It
is about creating shared spaces, bringing people together, and giving them a voice.
Inclusion is a dynamic process. It takes place within a living classroom community
that continually changes, according to its members, their interests, and their needs”
(Exchange Everyday, 13 December 2016).
“Emanating from the social model of disability, which put the emphasis on
disabling social barriers rather than individual deficits, inclusive education refers to
the restructuring of social and, by implication, educational settings in order to meet
the needs of all learners irrespective of their diverse biographical, developmental
and learning trajectories. Inclusive education constitutes a radical paradigm shift
and by no means should be considered as a linear progression from a special needs
discourse” (Liasidou, 2012:5).
Inclusion and participation are essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment
and exercise of human rights. Within the field of education, this is reflected in the
development of strategies that seek to bring about a genuine equalization of
opportunity. The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children
should learn together, wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or
differences they may have. Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the
diverse needs of their students, accommodating both different styles and rates of
learning and ensuring quality education to all through appropriate curricula,
organizational arrangements, teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships
with their communities. There should be a continuum of support and services to
match the continuum of special needs encountered in every school. Within
inclusive schools, children with special educational needs should receive whatever
extra support they may require to ensure their effective education. Inclusive
schooling is the most effective means for building solidarity between children with
special needs and their peers. Assignment of children to special schools – or special

2
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

classes or sections within a school on a permanent basis – should be the exception,

to be recommended only in those infrequent cases where it is clearly demonstrated
that education in regular class rooms is incapable of meeting a child’s educational
or social needs or when it is required for the welfare of the child or that of other
children (Salamanca Statement, UNESCO, 1994:10–11).
The essential components of inclusion include quality, equity and equitable (i)
access, (ii) participation, (iii) support and achievement of all learners regardless of
their individual differences in the community of the mainstream school classroom
community. Such differences can stem from disability, language, and preference.
Inclusion recognises every learner as an equally valued member of the mainstream
school community. Inclusive classrooms are essential as they can provide a
supportive environment in which all learners grow and learn. Inclusion promotes
learning, development and acceptance (Lindsay, Proulx, Scott & Thomson, 2014).
Research evidence illustrates that learners who experience, as well as learners who
do not experience barriers to learning, who are fully included demonstrate higher
levels of engagement in social interaction, give and receive higher levels of social
support, have a more extensive social network and have more advanced
educational goals compared to their counterparts in segregated settings.
According to Hewitt (2005), inclusive educational settings offer all learners the
following benefits:
● Equal opportunities to develop social skills, communication skills, academic
skills, positive behaviours, and coping skills that cannot easily be replicated in
special education settings.
● The chance to learn how to learn alongside their typically developing peers.
● The best preparation for real life.
● Social inclusion.
● Increased access to the general education curriculum and quality instruction, lea-
ding to better developmental outcomes.
● Opportunities for developing communication skills within a natural setting.
● Increased opportunities for using positive behaviours.
● Exposure to academic content and opportunities to actively engage in learning.
● More interaction with peers.
Teachers’ attitudes towards the inclusion of learners with diverse needs in
mainstream classes is an integral component in the creation of an inclusive
classroom. Teachers serve as role models for both typically and atypically
developing learners, who model the attitudes and behaviours of adults. Therefore,
accommodating the needs of learners who experience barriers to learning is vital as
they are at greater risk of marginalisation, exclusion and bullying. In order to realise
successful and effective inclusion, teachers must possess a good understanding of
external and internal barriers to learning and be prepared to respond to all learners’
individual needs.
Inclusive education is a policy priority as encapsulated in international and
Southern African legal framework including the Salamanca Statement and

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LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Framework for Action on Special Needs (UNESCO, 1994), and the White Paper 6
on Special Needs Education: Building an Inclusive Education and Training System,
2001. As a result, many learners with special needs or who experience barriers to
learning, are being enrolled in mainstream schools. The Consolidated Report on
the Implementation of Inclusive Education however, revealed that many learners
are still experiencing exclusion (Department of Basic Education, 2015).

STOP AND REFLECT!

What are the implications of Inclusive Education for my classroom practice?

To summarise, inclusion is about increasing the participation of learners in and

reducing their exclusion from the cultures, curricula, and communities of local
schools. It involves restructuring the cultures, policies and practices in schools so
that they respond to the diversity of learners. Inclusion is concerned with the
learning and participation of all learners vulnerable to exclusionary pressures, not
only those with disabilities or those categorised as experiencing barriers to learning
and development. It is concerned with improving schools for staff as well as
learners. Inclusion is about acknowledging that all learners have a right to education
in their local community. Diversity is not viewed as a problem to overcome, but as
a rich resource to support the learning of all. Inclusion is concerned with fostering
mutually sustaining relationships between schools and communities. Inclusion in
education is one aspect of inclusion in society.
Inclusive education can be viewed as an ongoing process aimed at providing quality
education for all while respecting diversity and the diverse needs, interests,
characteristics and learning expectations of the learners and communities,
eliminating all forms of discrimination (UNESCO, 2009:126). Historical, social,
cultural and financial reasons inform the internationalisation of inclusive education.
Inclusive education questions the broader aims of education, the purposes of
schools, the nature of the curriculum, and approaches to assessment and schools’
accommodation to diversity (Pantic & Florian, 2015). Derived from the principle
of equity, which, if recognized, would contribute to a democratic society, inclusive
education is a fundamental human right. Underlying inclusive education is the
conviction that there is no clear demarcation between characteristics of learners
with and without unique needs. Similarly, there is no support for the contention
that specific categories of learners learn differently. Thus, overall there is no
justification for separate provisions for learners with and without unique needs.
Resultantly, a unitary education system dedicated to providing quality education for
all learners underpins inclusive education. Nevertheless, there are various service
delivery models in inclusive education. These include mainstream schools, full-
service schools and special schools, which stem from various factors including the
level and intensity of support needs of learners.

STOP AND REFLECT!

How inclusive am I? Do I believe that it is my responsibility to accommodate the needs of all
my learners?

4
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

The characterisation, purpose and form of inclusive education reflect the

relationships among the social, political, economic, cultural and historical contexts
across countries. There are various international perspectives on inclusive education.
This includes the perspective that it extends beyond special needs arising from
disabilities and includes consideration of other sources of disadvantage,
marginalisation and exclusion such as poverty, gender, ethnicity, language and
geographic isolation. The complex interrelationships among these factors and their
interactions with disability need to be a focus of attention. It is therefore important
to understand the perspectives of inclusive education. This is the focus of this
module.
Let us take a closer look at some of the theories underpinning inclusive education.

1.3 THEORIES UNDERPINNING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

In this section, we will learn more about the theories underpinning inclusive
education. This will include Critical Theory, African Philosophies and Social
Constructivism.

1.3.1 Critical Theory

Several theories including critical theory underpin inclusive education. Critical
theory critiques the prevailing view of society. It critiques social structure and
group culture and criticizes social injustice, racial oppression, discrimination and
other social contradictions (Miles & Singal, 2009). Critical theorists include
Foucault and Freire (1972). In inclusive education, critical theory examines how
educational systems can successfully and effectively provide education to all people.
Through the critical theory lens, in inclusive education, every learner has the right
to access education and every learner has different strengths and weaknesses.
Among other issues, critical theory interrogates awareness of peace, isolation,
labelling, bullying and discrimination in schools.
Critical Disability Studies symbolises a change from disability and disablement to
“ableism”. In this way it strives to empower the powerless and transform prevailing
social injustices and inequalities (Ashby, 2008:30) as well as discrimination and
social exclusion (Hughes, 2015:38). Moreover it has implications for teaching
strategies.
The prevailing medical model of disability frames non-normative embodiments as
individual deficiencies demanding prevention, cure, medication and remediation
(Hutcheon, 2015:12). While the medical model describes disability as deviancy
from normal development or a disease that causes “difficulty” or “affects”
individuals, the social model describes disability in terms of “the social barriers,
restrictions and/or oppressions” that disabled people experience (Hughes, 2015:4).
In addition, the medical model obligates individuals with disabilities to “get better”,
through treatments and therapy. Conversely, the social model views society as liable
for accepting and accommodating disabled people who are entitled to equal
opportunities to participate in society.

INC3701/1 5
LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Dudley-Marling and Gurn (2010:4) in their book ‘The Myth of the Normal Curve’,
contend that “to be considered outside the boundaries of normal has consequences.
In Western cultures difference has long been equated with deviance, and people
who are deemed to be different have faced marginalization and discrimination – or
worse.”
In contrast to the medical model, Disabilities Studies situates disability as a social,
cultural and political phenomenon that can be questioned (Ashby, 2008:28).
Disability Studies began as a grassroots rights movement during the 1960s,
stressing human rights for disabled persons as a minority group as well as to
contest the outdated socio-cultural construction of disability as deficit (Ashby,
2008:29; Garland-Thomson, 2013:916; Hutcheon, 2015:12). Moreover Disability
Studies celebrates human diversity since “it’s normal to be different” (Dudley-
Marling & Gurn, 2010:4; Kim 2012:536), and disability is common and universal
(Garland-Thomson, 2013:924). According to Goodley (2013:14), “Disability is the
space from which to think through a host of political, theoretical and practical
issues that are relevant to all”.

Key Principles of Critical Theory

● Every learner has the right to access to education.
● Challenge social injustices and inequalities.
● Celebrates human diversity.
● Promotes human rights for persons with disabilities.
● Promotes peace by striving to eliminate isolation, labelling, bullying and discri-
mination in schools and society.
Complete Activity 1.1 on Critical Theory and Inclusive Education, below.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Critical Theory and Inclusive Education
1. Critically discuss the key principles in critical theory

........................................................................................................................................

6
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

2. Critically evaluate the implementation of the key principles of critical theory in inclusive
education in your country

........................................................................................................................................

3. Discuss, giving practical examples, how you would implement the key principles of cri-
tical theory in your inclusive classroom

........................................................................................................................................

1.3.2 African Philosophies

In addition to critical theory, you need to incorporate African philosophies in
understanding inclusive education issues. African philosophies are reactionary to
schools of thought that promote colonial supremacy. The theories on African
philosophies provide you with another lens on issues that influence inclusive
education. Such issues include cultural heritage, belief systems and values that
influence the way learners learn. You are required to read work on inclusive
education on African philosophical values. These values include interdependence,

INC3701/1 7
LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

communalism, humanness, respect, and equal value of uniqueness of individual

learners.

(i) The Concept of Ubuntu

The isiXhosa proverb, Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu: a person is a person through their
relationship with others. In other words, I am because we are.
● Ubuntu is regarded as key to all African values.
● Ubuntu is central to the African philosophy of humanism, or human dignity.
● It involves collective personhood and collective morality (Sotuku & Duku,
2016).
● A human being finds true expression through his or her relationships with other
human beings. This connects the individual to the collective.
● Ubuntu is also viewed as a theory of leadership, that promotes supportiveness,
cooperation and solidarity.

(ii) Elements of Ubuntu and Principles of African Philosophy

Sotuku & Duku (2016) have identified the following elements of Ubuntu, which
are central to the principles of African Philosophy:
● Ubuntu values humanness, justice, personhood and morality, as well as diversity
and respect for human dignity.
● Ubuntu values interdependence and dependence – “It takes a village to raise a
child.” – requiring supportiveness, cooperation, and solidarity within the
community.
● Ubuntu promotes a spirit of interconnectedness, social cohesion, respect and
dignity, collectivism and solidarity, communal enterprise and legitimate leader-
ship. This is closely linked to the promotion of shared values. Teachers should
therefore promote friendliness and harmony in their classrooms, and reconcilia-
tion rather than confrontation.
● Ubuntu facilitates a spirit of compassion, hospitality and sharing especially to-
wards strangers. However, sharing is not limited to material things, as it includes
knowledge and skills.

Consider the African saying:

“When there is peace in an individual, there is peace in a family. When there is
peace in a family, there is peace in the community. When there is peace in the
community, there is peace in the nation and ultimately in the world.”

ACTIVITY 1.2
African Philosophies and inclusive education
1. Critically discuss the key principles of African Philosophies.

........................................................................................................................................

8
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

........................................................................................................................................

2. Critically evaluate the implementation of the key principles of African Philosophies in

inclusive education in your country.

........................................................................................................................................

3. Discuss, giving practical examples, how you would implement the key principles of Af-
rican Philosophies in your inclusive classroom.

........................................................................................................................................

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LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

1.3.3 Social Constructivism

Vygotsky founded social constructivism in 1931. Social constructivism views
disability as a social construct, deployed against minorities and social
marginalisation (Rodina, 2007). It shifts perceptions about disability from a
biological and deficit perspective to a social construct perspective. The zone of
proximal development, social interaction and scaffolding underpin social-cultural
and historical theory of social constructivism.
These concepts reveal how disability can be managed through classroom practices
that are responsive to the needs of individual leaners. Social constructivism views
disability as a developmental process instead of a static condition (Vygotsky, 1931).
Social constructivism advocates for adjustment of the school system to create
enabling, healthy learning climates and environments for each learner. Such
adjustment can be realised through institutionalisation of policy, legislation and
pedagogical practices that guarantees full access, participation and achievement for
all in the community mainstream school education system. Every learner will be
afforded a space for growth, thriving and glowing through dynamic, flexible,
enriched, meaningful and relevant activities.
Social Constructivist Theory is an extension of constructivism into social settings.
Groups construct knowledge for one another, collaboratively. In this way they
create shared artifacts with shared meanings. When one is immersed within a
culture in this way, one is learning all the time about how to be a part of that
culture. We construct knowledge socially through interaction with one another.
Who we are and what we know has been shaped by our experiences and
interactions. As we interact with others, learning occurs as our schemata
incorporates new knowledge. In this way, our perspectives and behaviour is
influenced (Norwich, 2013).

(i) Developmental model: individual development in social context

The following section delineates the theoretical framework and underlying models
related to development in general and social-emotional development in particular.
Various theoretical frameworks have been articulated that emphasise the mutual
reciprocity between the learner and the environment. Theories of human
development such as the ecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) or the socio-
historical theory (Vygotsky, 1978) developed from the notion that cognition,
motivation or emotions are constructed through social interactions. In other words,
what an individual perceives and learns is an integral part of the immediate context
as well as related contexts, and of the socio-historical histories influence current
interactions and ways of understanding.

(ii) Key Principles of Social Constructivism

The key principles of social constructivism include:
● Culture and context influence learning.
● The pedagogic approach of active learning.
● Learners construct knowledge from their experiences.

10
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

● Learners learn most effectively by doing – they therefore require hands-on,

concrete experiences with a wide variety of interesting activities and materials.
● Learners should be encouraged to explore and experiment.
● Learners should be encouraged to ask and answer questions.

ACTIVITY 1.3
Social constructivism and inclusive education
1. Critically analyse the key principles of social constructivism

........................................................................................................................................

2. Critically evaluate the implementation of the key principles of social constructivism in

inclusive education in your country

........................................................................................................................................

3. Discuss, giving practical examples, how you would implement the key principles in in
social constructivism in your inclusive classroom

........................................................................................................................................

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........................................................................................................................................

1.4 EPISTEMOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS OF INCLUSIVE

EDUCATION
Epistemology is a philosophical concept targeted at shaping convictions about
knowledge and reality. It includes the ways in which knowledge is acquired and
validated. The epistemological foundations of inclusive education, thus, constitute
the different philosophical conceptions that have informed its history and
development. Epistemology is specifically, the thinking behind inclusive education
hence special attention is afforded to the epistemic features that underpin the
growth of special education. Since the history of inclusion is a controversial topic, a
deconstruction of the epistemologies that have existed throughout its history is
needed for a firm understanding of it. The evolving of inclusive education from
institutionalisation through normalization, mainstreaming and integration to
current-day advocacy for inclusion is informed by the way in which society has
constructed knowledge in relation to education. Only three epistemological
perspectives particularly essentialist epistemology (Gary & Loxley, 2001); social
constructivist epistemology (Vygotsky, 1931; Wolfensberger, 1972) and rights-
based epistemology (UNESCO, 1994) that have informed the different
conceptualisation of inclusive education are examined. Let’s take a closer look at
each one of these epistemologies

1.4.1 Essentialist Epistemology

The essentialist epistemology is also known as the deficit or medical approach. The
essentialist epistemology locates children’s differences and disabilities within their
individual pathology. Historically, people with disabilities were viewed as
constituting social threat and the human species needed to be purified of them.
Society needed protection from people with disabilities and people with disabilities
equally needed protection from society. Since people with disabilities required some
custodial care, the emergence of special schools began in the 15th century.
Essentialist epistemology resulted in escalation of institutionalisation.
Institutionalisation emphasised exclusion from the development of a unique
national character and employability for all.

1.4.2 Social Constructivist Epistemology

Social constructivist epistemology interprets and presents disability as socially
contrived construction, deployed against minorities and enforcing social
marginalisation. Based on Vygotsky’s (1931) theoretical perspective, there was a
shift in perceptions about disability from a biological and deficit view to the view
of disability as a mere social construction. Institutionalisation was questioned in the

12
The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

late 1950s because of its removal of people with disabilities from the cultural
contexts to which they belonged rightly. This ushered in concepts of normalization,
mainstreaming and integration. These concepts that entailed the steady progression
towards inclusive philosophy embody ways of establishment and/or maintenance
of personal behaviours and characteristics that are as culturally normative as
possible (Rodina, 2007). Normalisation in education means maximisation of the
use of the regular schools system and minimisation of separate facilities. It gave rise
to the concept of integration.

1.4.3 Rights-Based Epistemology

Rights-based epistemology views education as a basic right for all regardless of
background, colour, gender, ethnicity, disability or social status. It evidenced a
fundamental shift in paradigm from an earlier conception of inclusion that was
limited to including all people with different categories of disabilities to a wider
definition embracive of diversity. Such a conception differed from normalisation
which failed to take into consideration individual differences in society and the
diversity of educational, vocational and other opportunities that are available to all
people in the adult world.
Several international policies and legislation including the Salamanca Statement and
Framework for Action on Special Needs Education (UNESCO, 1994) which are
entrenched in elimination of exclusive practices for children and youth with special
needs emanating from social, economic, psychological and physical conditions.

1.5 CASE STUDY ON INCLUSION

Carefully read the case study below and answer the questions that follow.

Mrs. Chuene has been teaching for nearly twenty years. She regards herself as a
committed and skilled teacher. Jabu has recently been placed in her class. He is
withdrawn and appears to be struggling to adjust to his new environment. He
previously attended a special school but his parents did not observe any progress,
and believe that he is able to learn with appropriate support. He is able to read
and do Mathematics but struggles with group work activities. Mrs. Chuene’s col-
league overheard her saying that she does not agree that Jabu should have been
mainstreamed.

Do you agree/disagree? Motivate your response.

.............................................................................................................................................

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LEARNING UNIT 1 THE NOTION AND PHILOSOPHY OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

What insight does this provide on Mrs. Chuene’s attitude towards inclusion?
.............................................................................................................................................

.............................................................................................................................................

1.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

1.6.1 Critically discuss the theoretical assumptions underpinning inclusive
education.
1.6.2 Critically analyse the different epistemologies informing different theoretical
assumptions in inclusive education.

1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we learnt about the theoretical assumptions underpinning
inclusive education, theoretical standpoints in response to the theoretical
assumptions and defending epistemological standpoints in academically acceptable
manner. This deepened and widened our understanding of the historical, social and
cultural contexts of inclusive education. Unit 2 will focus on international and
national policies and legislation informing inclusive education.

REFERENCES
Michel Foucault and Paulo Freire: Freire, P. (1972). Pedagogy of the Oppressed.
Middlesex: Penguin.
Rodina, K. (2007). The impact of Vygotsky’s cultural-historical concept of disability
in inclusive pre-school education in Russia. In: B. Siebert (Ed). Integrative Pada-
gogik und kulturhistorische Theorie. Frankfurt: Peter Lang Verlang.
Vygotsky, L. (1931). The collective as a factor in the development of the abnormal
child. In: R.W. Rieber & A.S. Carton (Eds). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky.
New York: Springer, pp. 191–209.
Miles, S. & Singal, N. (2009). The Education for All and inclusive education debate:
Conflict, contradiction or opportunity. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
14(1): 1–15.
Pantic, N. & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and soci-
al justice. Educational Inquiry, 6(3), 331–351.
The Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabili-
ties (United Nations, 1993).
United Nations. (1948). The Universal Declaration on Human Rights, Adopted by
the General Assembly on 10 December 1948.
United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. Ratified by General
Assembly Resolution 44/25, 20 November 1989.
World Declaration on Education for All (Jomtien, 1990).

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The Notion and Philosophy of Inclusive Education Learning unit 1

Pantic, N., & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and so-
cial justice. Education Inquiry, 6(3), 331–351.
Florian, L. (2012). Preparing teachers to work in diverse classrooms: key lessons for
the professional development of teacher educators from Scotland’s Inclusive
Practice Project. Journal of Teacher Education, 63(4), 275–285.
Liasidou, A. (2012). Inclusive Education, Politics and Policymaking. Continuum Internati-
onal Publishing Group. London
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs
Education. Paris: UNESCO.
Lindsay, S., Proulx, M., Scott, H., & Thompson, N. (2013). Exploring elementary
school teachers’ strategies for including children with autism spectrum disor-
der in mainstream classroom classes. International Journal of Inclusive Education,
18(2), 101–122.
Hewitt, S. (2005). Specialist Support Approaches to Autism Spectrum Disorder Students in
Mainstream Settings. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
Department of Basic Education. (2015). Consolidated Report on the Implementation of In-
clusive Education. Pretoria: DBE.
Norwich, B. (2013). Addressing tensions and dilemmas in inclusive education: Li-
ving with uncertainty. Routledge: London.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiment in nature and de-
sign. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gary, T., & Loxley, A. (2001). Deconstructing special education and constructing inclusion.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Wolfensberger, W. (1972). Normalization: The principle of normalization in human services.
Toronto: National Institute on Mental Retardation.
Goodley, D. (2013). Dis/entangling critical disability studies. Disability and Society, 28
(5), 631–644.
Hughes, B. (2015). Disabled people as counterfeit citizens: The politics of resent-
ment past and present. Disability and Society, 30(7), 991–1004.

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LEARNING UNIT 2
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive
education

Learningunit2

CONTENTS

2.1 INTRODUCTION 18
2.2 SOUTH AFRICAN POLICIES AND STATEMENTS ON INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION 19
2.3 SALAMANCA STATEMENT AND FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION ON
SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION (UNESCO 1994) 21
2.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS
WITH DISABILITIES (UNITED NATIONS 2006) 22
2.5 OTHER KEY INTERNATIONAL POLICIES AND LEGISLATION ON
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 23
2.6 STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING HUMAN RIGHTS IN INCLUSIVE
EDUCATION SETTINGS 24
2.7 ROLE OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN NATION BUILDING AND THE
PROMOTION OF SOCIAL COHESION 24
2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 25
2.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 26

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LEARNING UNIT 2 RELEVANT POLICIES WITH REGARD TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 2

When you have completed Learning unit 2, you should be able to
● discuss South African educational policies that deal with inclusive education
● describe international treaties that deal with inclusive education, and how they contribute
towards the adoption of inclusion in education and society
● explain the role of inclusive education in nation building and the promotion of social
cohesion

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 1 you learnt about fundamental human rights, which inform the most
compelling rationale for inclusive education. The human rights movement was
born as a result of the imperative to value and treat everyone equally and according
to individuality, including needs, interests, characteristics and ability (Norwich,
2013). Embedded within the context of the United Nations’ promotion of
“education for all”, inclusive education is enshrined in several international human
rights policies and legislation, including charters, conventions, treaties, declarations,
statements and agreements.
In this learning unit, you will learn more about South African educational policies
that deal with inclusive education. Various international treaties that deal with
inclusive education will be explained so that you understand how they contribute
towards the adoption of inclusion in education and society. In addition, you will
gain insight into the role of inclusive education in nation building and the
promotion of social cohesion.
Inclusive education is hinged on the premise that children with or without
disabilities and those vulnerable to marginalisation and exclusion have the same
rights to educational opportunities within their existing mainstream school
education arrangements (Liasdou, 2012). Segregated education is perceived as
potentially violating the rights of children to appropriate inclusive education in
their own locality and interferes with their capacity to benefit from future
educational opportunities. Inclusive education is derived from the principle of
equity which would significantly contribute to a democratic society if recognised
(Norwich, 2013). It is entrenched in eliminating social exclusion and promoting a
diversity of opportunity for children globally, with a particular thrust upon issues
such as social class, religion, ethnicity, ability and gender (Norwich, 2013). A unitary
education system embedded in quality education for all children informs the
inclusive school education agenda as there is no clear demarcation between
characteristics of children with and without disabilities and there is no support for
the contention that specific categories of learners learn differently; therefore
separate provisions for these learners cannot be justified (Norwich, 2013). Human
rights policies and legislation underpinning inclusive education are the focus of this
module. Let’s take a closer look at some of the international human rights policies
and legislation underpinning inclusive education.

18
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education Learning unit 2

2.2 SOUTH AFRICAN POLICIES AND STATEMENTS ON

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
This module focuses mainly on South African policies related to inclusive
education. Refer back to module 1 for more coverage on international policies and
legislation on inclusive education.
● The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations
2006) directs how, in terms of article 24, there will be zero rejection of learners
on the basis of their disability. It further puts in place measures for how reaso-
nable accommodation can be provided in a fully inclusive education system
which makes it possible for every child with a disability to have access to an in-
clusive, quality and free primary education and secondary education on an equal
basis with others in the communities in which they live.
● The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations
2006), specifically article 24
● The Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations 1989), specifically
article 23
● Education White Paper 6 on Special Needs Education: Building an Inclusive
Education and Training System (Department of Education 2001) outlines how
discriminatory practices and imbalances of the past can be corrected and the
principles of inclusion promoted by focusing on “overcoming barriers in the
system that prevent it from meeting the full range of learning needs”.
● The Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SIAS) Policy (Depart-
ment of Education 2014) specifically aims to identify (1) the barriers to learning
experienced, (2) the support needs that arise from barriers experienced and (3)
support programmes that need to be in place to address the impact of the bar-
riers to the learning process.
● Constitution of South Africa of 1996 (South Africa 1996)
● South African Schools Act 84 of 1996 (South Africa 1996)
● Education White Paper 5 on Early Childhood Development (Department of
Education 2001a)
● Children’s Act 38 of 2005 (South Africa 2005)
● National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (CAPS), Gr R–12 (De-
partment of Education 2011)
● HIV and AIDS in Education Policy (Department of Education 1999)
● Integrated School Health Policy (Department of Education 2012)
● The Care and Support for Teaching and Learning (CSTL) Programme (Depart-
ment of Education 2008)
● School Nutrition Policy (Department of Education 2013b)
● Minimum Uniform Norms and Standards for Public School Infrastructure (De-
partment of Education 2013a)
● Mental Health Care Act 17 of 2002 (South Africa 2002)
● Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000 (South Africa 2000)
● Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act (PEPUDA
or the Equality Act) 4 of 2000 (South Africa 2000a)

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LEARNING UNIT 2 RELEVANT POLICIES WITH REGARD TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Teachers are confronted by many challenges in teaching and managing social and
behavioural development while ensuring academic success for all learners. Recent
research has found that learners with diverse needs are far more likely to be socially
excluded at school compared to their peers (DBE, 2015). This has serious
implications for you as a teacher and your crucial role of promoting inclusion.
We acknowledge that the inclusion of children with diverse learning needs is one of
the most complex and poorly understood areas of education. Moreover, many
schools and teachers are struggling to meet the needs of learners with disabilities.
Classroom teachers in particular face many challenges educating learners with
disabilities alongside their typically developing peers. It is therefore important to
understand the range of teaching strategies used to successfully include children
with disabilities within mainstream classes. This is the focus of this module.

READ
Read the policies and complete the activities that follow:
● Assessment policy in the general education and training band, Grades R to 9 and ABET,
No R1718, National Education Policy Act 27 of 1996
● Curriculum adaptation guidelines of the revised national curriculum statement, June
2005, national Department of Education (these are draft guidelines)
● Government Notice 19640, December 1998, Regulation Gazette 6397
● Quality Education for All – overcoming barriers to learning and development, Final
NCSNET/NCESS report (Department of Education, Pretoria: Government Printer, 1997),
Education White Paper 6 (http:www.polity.org.za)
● SA Schools Act of 84 1996 (http:www.polity.org.za)
● White Paper on an Integrated National Disability Strategy (Disability Desk, State Presi-
dent’s Office, Union Building, Pretoria, November 1997)

As you read, pay special attention to

● human rights principles in South African policies and statements on inclusive education
● implementation of human rights principles in South African policies and statements on
inclusive education in your classroom
● implementation of human rights principles in South African policies and statements on
inclusive education in your country

Make your own notes and summaries as you read.

ACTIVITY 2.1
Implementation of policies on inclusive education
1. Critically analyse the progress of the implementation of policies and legislation on in-
clusive education in South Africa or any other country of your choice. Provide a critical
analysis of the policies related to inclusive education. Why do you think that many
countries, including South Africa, are failing to implement these policies?

........................................................................................................................................

20
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education Learning unit 2

........................................................................................................................................

2. If you were a policy-maker, how would you enhance the implementation of inclusive
education? (Pay specific attention to teachers’ capacity to implement inclusive tea-
ching strategies.)

........................................................................................................................................

...................................................................................................................................................

2.3 SALAMANCA STATEMENT AND FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION

ON SPECIAL NEEDS EDUCATION (UNESCO 1994)
Arguably the single most fundamental international document in inclusive
education is the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs
Education (Norwich, 2013). The statement is entrenched in a rights-based
perspective on education. Despite the statement’s use of the term “special needs”,
from the outset, it asserts its commitment to (UNESCO 1994: vii) reaffirming
the right to education of every individual, as enshrined in the 1948 Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, and renewing the pledge made by the world
community at the 1990 World Conference on Education for All to ensure the
right for all, regardless of individual differences
In the section on Guidelines for Action at the National Level, the statement
acknowledges that (UNESCO 1994:21) most of the required changes
do not relate exclusively to children with special educational needs. They are
part of a wider reform of education needed to improve its quality and relevan-
ce and promote higher levels of learning achievement by all
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education
(UNESCO 1994) urges governments of the world to
● give the highest policy and budgetary priority to improve education systems to
enable them to include all children regardless of individual differences or
difficulties
● adopt, as a matter of policy, the principle of inclusive education
The statement posits that “regular schools with an inclusive orientation are the
most effective means of combatting discriminatory attitudes, creating welcoming
communities, building an inclusive society, and achieving education for all”

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LEARNING UNIT 2 RELEVANT POLICIES WITH REGARD TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

(UNESCO 1994:ix). It reiterates that regular schools provide an effective education

for the majority of children and improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of
the entire education system.

READ
Salamanca Statement 1994 (http://www.unesco.org)

http://www.weac.org/resource/june96/speced.htm

http://www.id21.org/education

http://uneso.org/education/efa (for the Dakar framework and Salamanca document and any
other UNESCO programme.)

As you read, pay special attention to

● aspects of human rights in the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Spe-
cial Needs Education
● implementation of aspects of human rights in the Salamanca Statement and Framework
for Action on Special Needs Education in your inclusive classroom
● implementation of aspects of human rights in the Salamanca Statement and Framework
for Action on Special Needs Education in your country

Make your own notes and summaries as you read.

2.4 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF

PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES (UNITED NATIONS 2006)
In December 2006, the International Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities published its most recent version in which it noted that only 45 of its
192 member states had specific legislation protecting the rights of persons with
disabilities. This first convention of the new millennium had set out to motivate the
passing and enactment of laws and policies upon all its member states in favour of
people with disabilities, with the aim of including them in daily life and
simultaneously providing equal access to education services for everyone
(Hutcheon, 2015). The convention was adapted to have a concrete impact on the
lives of people with disabilities by ensuring that the enacted laws were not only put
into policy but, more essentially, were implemented, thus reiterating the trend
towards inclusivity within the international world.
The International Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is centred
upon the instigation of a significant shift in paradigm from medical models (seeing
the causation and location of disability within the individual) to a social model
(seeing the problem with society and the barriers it creates for people with
disabilities) (Blanton, Pugach & Florian 2011). It seeks to promote the notion of
educational inclusion, alongside a recognition that countries worldwide need to be
proactive in identifying what they can and should adapt their services to be
accommodating of the needs of children with disabilities. The International
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006)
articulates the role of government in providing inclusive education for all learners,
at all levels of the education system. It also mandates the responsibility for
education with the government in order to ensure that:

22
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education Learning unit 2

● people with disabilities are not excluded from the mainstream of education as a
result of their disability
● people with disabilities can access education on the same basis as their peers in
their own community
● reasonable accommodation support is provided to facilitate this access
● support is available within the mainstream to facilitate effective teaching and
learning
● effective individualised support is available to maximise social, emotional and
academic progress that is consistent with the goals of inclusion
You need to read more on the International Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities (United Nations 2006).

READ
www.un.org/disabilities

www.ohchr.org

Consider the following:

● the implementation of human rights principles in the International Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) in your inclusive classroom
● the implementation of human rights principles in the International Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006) in your country

As you read, pay special attention to human rights principles in the International Convention
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (United Nations 2006).

Make your own notes and summaries as you read.

2.5 OTHER KEY INTERNATIONAL POLICIES AND LEGISLATION

ON INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
There are several other key international policies and legislation on inclusive
education.
● Universal Declaration of Human Rights (United Nations 1948)

Article 26 states that everyone has the right to education. Education must be free,
at least in the elementary and fundamental stages.

● Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations 1989)

This instigated the first legally binding international agreements to address the full
range of human rights, inclusive of civil, cultural, economic, political and social
rights for children. The convention arose after world leaders’ decision that children
required a special convention just for themselves because individuals under 18
years of age often need special care and protection that adults do not need. Article
28 entails the right to education: All children have the right to a primary education,
which should be free and in line with Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Wealthy countries should help poorer
countries achieve this right. Article 29 deals with the goals of education: Children’s

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LEARNING UNIT 2 RELEVANT POLICIES WITH REGARD TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

education should develop each child’s personality, talents and abilities to the fullest.
According to the convention, the basic human rights that children everywhere
should have include the right to survival, an opportunity to develop to the fullest,
protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation and full participation in
family, cultural and social life. Alongside these principles are the four core
principles: non-discrimination, a devotion to the best interest of the child, the right
to life, survival and development and respect for the views of the child.

● Word Declaration on Education for All (United Nations 1990)

Article 3 states that basic education should be provided to all children, youth and
adults. To this end, basic education services of quality should be expanded and
consistent measures must be taken to reduce disparities. For basic education to be
equitable, all children, youth and adults must be given the opportunity to achieve
and maintain an acceptable level of learning.

● Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disabi-

lities (United Nations 1993)
As a result of debate and discussion by international member states with the United
Nations, a total of 22 standard rules were established in order to provide a
benchmark for policy-making and covering the entitlement and accessibility of
people with disability in society. Rule 6 provides that states should recognise the
principle of equal primary, secondary and tertiary educational opportunities for
children, youth and adults in integrated settings. They should ensure that the
education of persons with disabilities is an integral part of the education system.
This is premised on the social model of disability and the recent orthodoxy of a
paradigm shift towards inclusive education.

2.6 STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING HUMAN RIGHTS IN

INCLUSIVE EDUCATION SETTINGS
Although different groups in different contexts conceptualise inclusive education
differently, there are, nevertheless, some common strategies that have been
established to promote human rights in inclusive education settings. These include
(European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education 2009)
● widening participation to increase educational opportunities for all learners
● education and training in inclusive education for all teachers
● organising cultures and ethos that promote inclusion
● support structures organised in order to promote inclusion
● flexible resourcing systems that promote inclusion
● policies and legislation that promote inclusion

2.7 ROLE OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN NATION BUILDING AND

THE PROMOTION OF SOCIAL COHESION
Inclusive education promotes quality education for all. All learners have the right to
access to quality education. Social cohesion is a desired outcome of schooling. The
development of a comprehensive system of education for social cohesion,

24
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education Learning unit 2

democracy and peace requires nations to embrace all levels of education and make
education available to all its citizens. In other words, the state and a range of other
education stakeholders should work together to provide formal, non-formal and
informal education opportunities for its citizens. Through the collaborative efforts
of educators, families, intergovernmental and non-intergovernmental organisations
(NGOs), a culture of social cohesion and democracy should be advanced. This also
requires the following:
● Education should be accessible for all citizens, not only for children and youth.
● Education and the world of work should be viewed as a complementary process,
which operates throughout the lifespan of an individual.
● Full-time, part-time and own-time education programmes should be developed
in every sector of education and be afforded equal status.
● Education should be viewed as a social process covering all learning that occurs
both in and outside the school.
● The right to learn should be assured to every individual, without any discrimina-
tion and with full equality of opportunity.
● All learners should receive all the support and facilities to be successful.
● The non-formal sector, which has been neglected in the past, should be devel-
oped and blended with the formal sector in an integrated fashion to create a
new system of education.
● The creation of a knowledge-based quality education system, economy and de-
mocratic inclusive society are prerequisites for nation building. In this way,
inclusive education also promotes social justice for all citizens by acknowledging
that
– all learners can learn and require support to reach their full potential
– inclusion is about increasing the participation of learners in and reducing
their exclusion from the cultures, curricula and communities of local schools
– the cultures, policies and practices must be restructured in schools so that
they respond to the diversity of learners
– the learning and participation of all learners vulnerable to exclusionary pres-
sures are included, not only those with impairments or those categorised as
experiencing barriers to learning and development
– inclusion is about recognising and respecting the differences between all lear-
ners and building on the similarities
– inclusion is about supporting all learners, educators and the system as a
whole so that the full range of learning needs can be met
– the focus is on teaching and learning actors, with the emphasis on the devel-
opment of good teaching strategies that will be of benefit to all learners
– inclusion focuses on overcoming barriers in the system that prevent it from
meeting the full range of learning needs

2.8 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

2.8.1 Discuss the aspects of human rights related to inclusive education in interna-
tional policies and legislation.

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LEARNING UNIT 2 RELEVANT POLICIES WITH REGARD TO INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

2.8.2 Critically analyse South African policies and statements on inclusive educa-
tion and one other country.
2.8.3 Discuss, giving practical examples, strategies for promoting human rights
within inclusive settings in your country.

2.9 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, you learnt about international policies and legislation on
inclusive education. We discussed aspects of human rights on inclusive education in
international policies and legislation, South African policies and statements on
inclusive education and strategies of promoting human rights within inclusive
settings. Unit 3 will focus on how the principles of inclusive education, when
applied in context, can contribute to the achievement of quality education for all
learners.

REFERENCES
Blanton, L.P., Pugach, M.C., & Florian, L. (2011). Preparing general education teachers to
improve outcomes for students with disabilities. AACTE/NCLD policy brief retrie-
ved from www.aacte.org.
Department of Education. (1999). HIV and AIDS in Education Policy. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2001a). Education White Paper 5 on Early Childhood Devel-
opment. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2001b). Education White Paper 6 on Special Needs Educa-
tion: Building an Inclusive Education and Training System. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2008). The Care and Support for Teaching and Learning Pro-
gramme. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2011). National Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement
Grade R–12. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2012). Integrated School Health Policy. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2013a). Minimum Uniform Norms and Standards for Public
School Infrastructure. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2013b). School Nutrition Policy. Pretoria.
Department of Education. (2014). Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SI-
AS) Policy. Pretoria.
European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education. (2009). Key Princi-
ples for Promoting Quality in Inclusive Education – Recommendations for Policy Makers.
Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Development in Special Needs
Education.
South Africa. (1996a). Constitution of the Republic of South Africa. Pretoria.
South Africa. (1996b). South African Schools Act 84 of 1996. Pretoria.
South Africa. (2000a). Promotion of Access to Information Act 2 of 2000. Pretoria.
South Africa. (2000b). Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act
4. Pretoria.
South Africa. (2001). Children’s Act 38 of 2001. Pretoria.
South Africa. (2002). Mental Health Care Act 17 of 2002. Pretoria.
United Nations. (1948). Universal Declaration of Human Rights. New York.

26
Relevant policies with regard to inclusive education Learning unit 2

United Nations. (1989). Convention on the Rights of the Child. New York.
United Nations. (1990). World Declaration on Education for All. New York.
United Nations. (2006). Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. New York.

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LEARNING UNIT 3
Principles of inclusive education to achieve quality
education for all learners

Learningunit3

CONTENTS

3.1 INTRODUCTION 30
3.2 WHAT IS QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL LEARNERS? 32
3.3 PROVISION OF QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL 33
3.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY 34
3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 36

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LEARNING UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION TO ACHIEVE QUALITY
EDUCATION FOR ALL LEARNERS

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 3

When you have completed Learning unit 3, you should be able to
● discuss the principles of Inclusive Education
● define the term “quality education” in context
● describe strategies to achieve quality education through the implementation of inclusive
education
● assess inclusive education as practised in context

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In units 1 and 2 you learnt about the philosophy of inclusive education and
relevant policies that encourage schools to practise inclusive education. In unit 3
you will learn more about how the principles of inclusive education can be applied
to achieve quality education for all learners. The foundation of improving people’s
lives is providing them with quality education. The provision of quality education is
at the heart of the SDGs. Goal 4 talks about ensuring inclusive quality education
for all and promoting lifelong learning. The international objective of inclusive
education is to provide quality education and to give equal access to education to
all learners, regardless of their characteristics.

ACTIVITY 3.1
The most significant principles of inclusive education are discussed in the White Paper 6:
Special Needs Education – Building an Inclusive Education and Training System, 2001.
Read and answer the following questions:

The following are principles of inclusive education. Indicate whether you agree or disagree
with each one:
● acknowledging that all children and youth can learn and all children and youth need
support
● acknowledging that specifically trained teachers at special schools teach children who
experience barriers to learning
● enabling education structures, systems and learning methodologies to meet the needs
of all learners
● acknowledging and respecting the differences in learners, whether due to age, gender,
ethnicity, language, class, disability, HIV or other infectious disease
● accepting that learners are the same and teachers can use one method of teaching;
therefore the performance of learners in the classroom improves
● broader than formal schooling and acknowledging that learning also occurs in the home
and community and within formal and informal settings and structures
● changing attitudes, behaviour, teaching methods, curricula and the environment to meet
the needs of all learners
● maximising the participation of all learners in the culture and the curriculum of educatio-
nal institutions and uncovering and minimising barriers to learning

In addition to the principles as stated in the EWP6, the European Agency for
Development in Special Needs Education (2009) proposed key principles in
promoting quality education:

30
Principles of inclusive education to achieve quality education for all learners Learning unit 3

1. Widening participation to increase educational opportunity for all learners

The aim of inclusive education is to widen access to education and to promote full
participation and opportunities for all learners, including those who are vulnerable
to exclusion to realise their potential. It is therefore the role of teachers to deal with
an increasing diversity of learners’ needs within their schools and classrooms and
has to prepare and adapt the curriculum in such a way that the needs of all learners
are sufficiently met. Participation should be promoted so that all learners are
engaged in learning activities that are meaningful to them (European Agency for
Development in Special Needs Education, 2009). This simply means that the
teachers’ attitudes should also be positive in order to involve and promote
participation of all learners.

2. Education and training in inclusive education for all teachers

For teachers to work effectively in an inclusive education settings, they need to
have appropriate knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. All teachers should be
prepared to work in inclusive education whilst in their initial training and then have
access to further, in-service training later in their careers. This will ensure that they
develop the knowledge and skills to enhance their inclusive practices.

3. Organisational culture and ethos that promotes inclusion

Within any educational institution, a shared culture and ethos based on positive
attitudes towards welcoming a diversity of learners in classrooms and meeting
diverse needs in education is crucial. It is therefore important to involve different
people including parents, teachers, educational staff and the local community. The
vision and mission of the institutions need to consider inclusivity in education,
meaning that there need to be accountability and responsibility for meeting a
diverse range of needs.

4. Support structures organised to promote inclusion

Every education institution should have a support structure to address barriers to
learning and responding to diverse learning needs. According to the European
Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2009), support structures
that promote inclusive education are composed of a range of different specialist
services, organisations and resource centres as well as professionals. For example,
support structures can consist of stakeholders from different departments such as
education, health, social services and safety and security.

ACTIVITY 3.2
● a) Design a school’s vision and mission that promotes inclusion.
b) As a teacher, explain how you can establish a support structure for your school in
ensuring inclusivity. Also explain the different roles

Schools are required to take responsibility for inclusive education practices which
works well in their context for their specific learners. According to UNESCO
(1994:6), inclusive education systems should be developed in such a way that they

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LEARNING UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION TO ACHIEVE QUALITY
EDUCATION FOR ALL LEARNERS

accommodate all children, regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, emotional,

linguistic or other conditions. This should include diverse learner populations such
as: those with disabilities, gifted children, street and working children, children
from remote or nomadic populations, children from linguistic, ethnic or cultural
minorities and children from other disadvantaged or marginalised areas or groups.
These impact hugely on schools and teachers to change from a traditional way of
teaching to consider all the principles of inclusive education in teaching and
learning spaces.

3.2 WHAT IS QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL LEARNERS?

ACTIVITY 3.3
Below are statements on quality education. Indicate whether each statement is true
or false.
● When people get quality education, they can break the cycle of poverty.
● Education helps to reduce inequalities.
● Education helps people to live more healthy and sustainable lives.
● It fosters tolerance between people.
● It contributes to more societies that are peaceful.
● When people get quality education, they can get better jobs and have better lives.

The endorsement of inclusive education in most policies in South Africa is

evidence that the South African government is committed to the idea of providing
equal education to all learners. The most significant policy is the White Paper 6
(Department of Education 2001). This policy clearly specifies the agenda to
provide and facilitate quality education to all learners, regardless of their
characteristics. Provision of quality education refers to how education responds to
the needs of individual learners, the community and the world at large. Learners
should feel safe and respected and be able to develop a sense of community in their
learning spaces. To provide quality education to all learners, the teacher needs to
model a positive attitude towards inclusion. Teachers who plan their lessons well in
advance send out a positive message to the learners that it is important to consider
the task of teaching and learning seriously in order to achieve the acquired
outcomes.
Quality education includes child-centred pedagogy, outcomes that cover knowledge,
skills and attitudes that are linked to national goals for education, positive
participation in society and environments that are healthy, safe, protective and
gender sensitive and that provide adequate resources and facilities for all children
(UNICEF 2000). Teachers that acquire skills and knowledge related to inclusive
practices and demonstrate accepting attitudes are able to enhance quality education
to all learners.
According to the Education for All (EFA) Global Monitoring Report (UNESCO
2005), quality education should be structured in such a way that it encourages
children to reach their full potential in terms of cognitive, emotional and creative
capacities. As a teacher, you are responsible for making your classroom a safe space
for learners where they are encouraged to reach their full potential, regardless of

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Principles of inclusive education to achieve quality education for all learners Learning unit 3

their characteristics. A classroom should be a place where a wide range of learning

needs are met, differences are celebrated and values and responsibilities are
practised. Learners ask questions freely, accept challenges, demonstrate a high level
of self-esteem and understand the value of working and living together (Canada
South Africa Teacher Development Project (CSATDP), 2005).

ACTIVITY 3.4
Consider the UNICEF and EFA definitions of quality education as outlined above.
● Which strategies can a teacher use to ensure that learners achieve quality education?
● Discuss the qualities that are important for you to possess in order to provide quality
education for all.

3.3 PROVISION OF QUALITY EDUCATION FOR ALL

Provision of quality education for all in is essential because as a teacher, you have
the privilege of working with these learners. During schooling, learners, develop as
total human beings, that is, physically, emotionally, intellectually, socially, spiritually
and linguistically. It is therefore the responsibility of a teacher to nurture them in all
the aspects of their development. Inclusive education requires you to be able to
understand and teach all learners and know how best to teach them so that they
learn to the best of their ability. If you acquire knowledge and skills related to
inclusive practices and demonstrate accepting attitudes, you will be more likely to
provide quality education, social justice, a healthy environment and uphold human
rights that will minimise the barriers to learning and development for learners who
experience difficulties.

STOP AND REFLECT!

Think of the school that you went to for teaching practice or any school that you attended.
● Was the provision of quality education for all noticeable?
● Were all the learners treated equally? Provide reasons for your answer.

Changing attitudes
Providing quality education for all becomes an issue related to everyone’s beliefs,
values and attitudes about inclusive education, change and teaching learners who
have diverse needs. Assumptions, beliefs and attitudes are directly linked to your
practice in class, actions and decision-making. If your attitude is positive and you
embrace inclusivity, you can be instrumental in modelling inclusive practices and
provide equal education to all learners, regardless of their diverse needs.
Read the following dialogue between three teachers, who are discussing the
provision of quality education at the school:
Ms Sekoele: I have 50 learners in my class; it is not possible to give them quality
education that the White Paper 6 Policy promotes.
Mr Smith: What is this quality education you are talking about?

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LEARNING UNIT 3 PRINCIPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION TO ACHIEVE QUALITY
EDUCATION FOR ALL LEARNERS

Ms Gante: Quality education refers to how education responds to the needs of

individual learners, the community and the world at large.
Mr Smith: I have been teaching for 25 years now, I have a lot of experience and I
know that providing quality education is impossible and a farfetched dream.
Ms Sekoele: With 50 learners in my class, how will I be able to respond to the
needs of all learners? The department is expecting a lot from us.
Mr Smith: I am left with two years before I retire. The new teachers who come
after me will provide that quality education; I will teach the way I have been
teaching for the past 25 years.

STOP AND REFLECT

If teachers are negative towards inclusive education, it will be difficult for them to provide
quality education to all learners. One of the greatest barriers to inclusion is negative
attitudes. Suppose your principal has requested you to address this issue in 15 minutes in
the staff meeting. Consider the dialogue between the above teachers and structure your talk
according to the following:
● The reasons behind providing quality education for all learners
● Knowledge and skills of the teacher in providing quality education to learners
● What would you do differently if you were Ms Sekoele?
● Do you agree with Mr Smith’s sentiments? Provide reasons for your response.

3.4 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITY

By engaging in self-reflection as a teacher, you can develop your own confidence
and improve your teaching. Here you need to think about your role as a teacher in
relation to what is happening in your class. If you are able to identify your strengths
and weaknesses, you will be able to make some improvements where you are
lacking and be able to teach in an inclusive classroom.
3.4.1 Identify areas of your personal teaching style that are strong and that you
can build on.
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Principles of inclusive education to achieve quality education for all learners Learning unit 3

3.4.2 Identify areas of your teaching style that are weak and that you wish to im-
prove on.
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3.4.3 How can you motivate other teachers who have a negative attitude towards
inclusive education?
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3.4.4 What is your understanding of providing quality education to all learners?
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3.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we focused on principles of inclusive education and how the
principles can be applied to achieve quality education for all learners. In spite of the
many challenges teachers face in being effective, most teachers are committed and
enthusiastic professionals who are aiming to provide quality education for all
learners. In Learning unit 4, you will learn more about diverse ways of learning.

REFERENCES
Canada South Africa Teacher Development Project (CSATDP). (2005). Towards in-
clusive classrooms: An educator’s guide. Nelspruit: Mpumalanga Department of
Education.
Department of Education. (2001). Education White Paper 6: Special Needs Educa-
tion – Building an Inclusive Education and Training System. Pretoria.
UNESCO. (1994). The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special
Needs Education. Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO. (2005). Guidelines for Inclusion. Ensuring Access for All. Paris.
UNICEF. (2000). Defining Quality Education, Working Paper Series, Education
Section, Programme Division. https://www.unicef.org/education/files/Qua-
lityEducation.PDF. [Accessed 2 March 2018].

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LEARNING UNIT 4
Diverse ways of learning

Learningunit4

CONTENTS

4.1 INTRODUCTION 38
4.2 NEURODIVERSITY 38
4.3 IDENTIFYING LEARNING STRENGTHS 39
4.3.1 Advantages of Multiple Intelligences (MI) 40
4.3.2 Qualities associated with the different intelligences 43
4.3.3 Using observation to identify strengths 44
4.3.4 Learning styles 44
4.4 COMMON DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES FOR LEARNING 45
4.4.1 Principles guiding the teacher’s use of the developmental milestones 50
4.5 DESIGN SUPPORT TO DEVELOP STRENGTHS 51
4.6 DIVERSE AND CULTURALLY SENSITIVE METHODS OF IDENTIFYING
NEEDS 53
4.6.1 Anti-bias approach 53
4.6.2 Check list for learning strengths and needs 54
4.7 CASE STUDY 57
4.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 58
4.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES 58
4.10 ONLINE RESOURCES 59

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LEARNING UNIT 4 DIVERSE WAYS OF LEARNING

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 4

When you have completed Learning unit 4, you should be able to:
● explain common developmental milestones for learning.
● identify different learning strengths.
● design support to develop strengths.
● explore diverse and culturally sensitive methods of identifying needs.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Providing support for learners to achieve their learning potential is a key
requirement of inclusive education (Department of Education, 2001). This requires
you to understand that learners learn in many different ways. You should therefore
know your learners very well, particularly how each learner learns most effectively.
This will enable you to accommodate your learners’ individual strengths and needs.
In this unit, we will guide you to (i) explain the common developmental milestones
for learning, (ii) identify your learners’ diverse learning strengths, (iii) design
support to further develop your learners’ strengths, and (iv) explore diverse and
culturally sensitive methods of identifying needs.

4.2 NEURODIVERSITY
Neurodiversity may be defined as “the variation and differences in neurological
structure and function that exist among human beings, especially when viewed as
being normal and natural rather than pathological” (Dictionary. com, 2017).
Neurological differences such as Dyslexia, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,
Dyscalculia, Autistic Spectrum and Tourette Syndrome are viewed as the result of
normal, natural variation in the human genome (Psychology Today, 2017).
Instead of teaching learners about their barriers to learning, a neurodiversity-based
approach would teach them about the value of human variation and neurological
diversity (Armstrong, 2017). Teachers should teach learners about how the human
brain works, how the environment shapes brain structure and function
(neuroplasticity), how brain power can be used to its maximum, and how a growth
mindset improves performance. Applied to education, neurodiversity focuses on
the following:
● Learners’ strengths, talents, abilities and interests should be assessed.
● Teachers should build on strengths and use them to overcome challenges.
● Learners who experience barriers to learning are viewed as part of the natural
human variation of all human brains.
● The goal of education is to develop human potential.
● Learners are guided to maximise their strengths and minimise their weaknesses.
Armstrong (2017) stresses that teachers should help learners to value their diverse
brains using growth mindset, neuroplasticity, and “brain forest” metaphors.

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

“A brain forest metaphor, allows us to speak to students about the beauty of di-
versity, about how nutrients grow plants in the brain forest, and about the
resilience of the brain forest to regrow itself even after suffering substantial da-
mage” (Armstrong, 2017).

In actively striving to create an inclusive education and training system, we should

remember that existing research on expectations and the influence of words and
labels on our attitudes and behaviors clearly illustrate that positive expectations
improve academic outcomes for all learners. Furthermore, bullying decreases when
learners perceive neurodiverse peers in a more positive way. In addition, the
seamless inclusion of neurodiverse learners into mainstream classrooms is more
likely to succeed if regular classroom teachers regard these learners entering their
classes as assets rather than burdens.

4.3 IDENTIFYING LEARNING STRENGTHS

Every learner has his or her own strengths, interests and preferences. Table 4.1
present various strengths that learners can demonstrate which determines different
learning styles. Knowing a learner’s individual strengths, interests and preferences
enables teachers to use these to enhance learning. Every learner has strengths and
abilities. Learners’ strengths are relative to their overall achievement. This means
that learners do not have to show mastery of a skill for it to be a strength. However,
a strength is an area of learning that the learner shows he or she has more control
over, or more understanding of, than the other aspects of their learning. Areas to
focus attention on will be those that the learner shows less or little control or
mastery of.

Table 4.1
Strengths that could be identified in learners
Knowledgeable Persistent Optimistic
Healthy Focused Responsible
Enthusiastic Cooperative Self-confident
Adaptable Creative Friendly
Organised Trustworthy Balanced
Articulate Honest Energetic
Competitive Artistic Witty
Considerate Sympathetic Courageous
Observant Cheerful Skilled
Careful Intelligent Persuasive
Imaginative Unbiased Computer savvy
Practical Open-minded

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The following section presents multiple intelligences that teachers should consider
when planning and presenting content in their classes to cater for diverse learners.

Multiple Intelligences
Multiple Intelligences (MI) is a theory of learning developed by Howard Gardner.
When we think about learner diversity, we may define diversity in terms of ethnicity,
economic conditions, or gender. However, there are other considerations when it
comes to diversity, such as the visual or auditory abilities or the disposition of the
learner that can influence his or her learning. One important aspect of diversity is
recognising that a learner could have several ways in which he or she learns best.
MI has radically influenced our understanding of how each person learns
differently. Gardner suggested that the brain has many capacities for learning that
he called intelligences. The eight MIs identified by Gardner are:
1. Linguistic: the heightened capacity for using words and language.
2. Mathematical/Logical: the enhanced capacity for numerical or logical
patterns.
3. Naturalistic: the capacity of understanding of nature or biology well.
4. Spatial: heightened abilities and manipulation of the visual-spatial.
5. Bodily/Kinesthetic: the well-developed skill of physical movement.
6. Musical: the enhanced capacity to discern rhythm and patterns.
7. Interpersonal: the heightened ability to understand and respond to others.
8. Intrapersonal: understanding of one’s own emotional strengths.
These intelligences could be identified in all learners. However, each learner usually
excels in only one or two. If teachers can determine the intelligences (enhanced
abilities) in each learner and then teach to those enhanced abilities, the learner
would learn better.

4.3.1 Advantages of Multiple Intelligences (MI)

● Makes the curriculum more understandable to learners.
● Motivates learners to learn more effectively.
● Enhances learners’ connection with what they are learning.
● Encourages learners and teachers to enjoy a more active learning approach.
Research suggests that, when teachers develop learning activities, they need to keep
in mind that each learner will have a different experience because each learns
differently. Most learners may learn well with a direct instruction (DI) approach,
but more learn better with a MI approach because it helps all learners learn in the
way they learn best (Adcock, 2014:52).
Study Table 4.2 below, on Howard Gardner’s eight intelligences. You will notice
that learners with each type of intelligence have specific skills and may follow
specific career options in the future.

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

Table 4.2
Howard Gardner’s Eight Intelligences
Type of
intelligence Children’s skills include Career options
Logical- Problem solving, Analyse pro- engineers, scientists, econo-
mathematical blems, Detect patterns, mists, accountants, detectives,
Mathematical calculations, Scien- bankers or computer
tific reasoning and deduction programmers
Linguistic Writing, interacting through writers, journalists, poets,
words and language orators and comedians, tea-
chers or lawyers
Spatial-Visual Visual and spatial imagination, engineers, architects, artists,
Visual images sculptors, sailors, photogra-
phers or strategic people
Bodily- Use body skilfully, accurate actors, dancers, surgeons,
kinaesthetic movements, dancing, acting and athletes, anthropologists, bio-
using the skill for solving logists, geologists, physical
problems education teachers, physical
therapists or sign-language
interpreters
Musical Compose and play music, Aware- musicians, sound engineers,
ness, appreciation and use of acoustic engineers, compo-
sound, Recognition of tonal and sers, DJs, entertainers,
rhythmic patterns, Understands environment and noise ana-
relationship between sound and lysts, music producers,
feeling musical instrument repair
specialists, musical perfor-
mers or singers
Naturalistic Recognize and categorize plants, agriculture, horticulture, ar-
animals and other objects in chaeology, volcanology,
nature ornithology, oceanography,
geology, botany, biology, eco-
logy, astronomy, zoology,
palaeontology, meteorology
or forensic science
Existential Sensitivity and capacity to tackle psychologists, social workers,
deep questions about human motivational speakers, human
existence e.g. What is the mea- resources workers, indepen-
ning of life? dent business, ministry,
philosopher, theoretical sci-
entist or psychiatrist

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Table 4.2
Howard Gardner’s Eight Intelligences
Type of
intelligence Children’s skills include Career options
Interpersonal Detect and respond appropriate- advertising professionals,
and ly to the moods, motivations and coaches and mentors, coun-
desires of others; sellors, educators, HR
professionals or mediators
Intrapersonal Self-aware and in tune with inner
feelings, values, beliefs and thin-
king processes
Source: Clasquin-Johnson, 2017

By employing MI as a teaching and learning strategy, teachers embrace and

celebrate diversity. Learners should be encouraged to learn and enjoy a range of
intelligences. MI has helped us to appreciate our individual differences. In particular,
it enhanced our understanding that we are all different and we learn differently.
What matters is that we solve problems, not how they are solved (Hoerr, 2015).
Understanding MI and how it contributes towards a learner’s capabilities, is a useful
tool in developing every learner’s love of learning and problem-solving abilities. If
teachers can identify every learner’s strengths, while also providing him or her with
more ways to learn, they will make academic learning more enjoyable, and equip
their learners with skills that they will need to be successful in school and all their
future endeavours.

STOP AND REFLECT!

What are the implications of Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences for effectively
engaging all my learners in an inclusive classroom?
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Complete Activity 4.1 on the application of Multiple Intelligence Theory in

inclusive classrooms, below.

ACTIVITY 4.1
Application of Multiple Intelligence Theory in Inclusive Classrooms
1. Select any three of Gardner’s intelligences and design a lesson that demonstrates
how you would accommodate learners with different strengths in your classroom.

........................................................................................................................................

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

........................................................................................................................................

2. How would you ensure that all your learners participate actively in the lesson you de-
signed, above?

........................................................................................................................................

4.3.2 Qualities associated with the different intelligences

There are eight intelligences and eight ways to solve problems. Knowing what they
are is a good place to begin to develop individual strengths. Study the diagram
below on the eight intelligence. Take careful note of each intelligence’s strength in
relation to how problem solving occurs.

Source: www.parenttoolkit.com

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According to the diagram of multiple intelligences, above, learners who possess

visual-spatial intelligence are ‘picture smart’ since they have strong visual memories
and think ‘in pictures’. Learners who learn through their senses are bodily-
kinesthetic learners and regarded as ‘body smart’. Learners who have strong
interpersonal skills are ‘people smart’. In contrast, intrapersonal learners are ‘self-
smart’. ‘Nature smart’ learners learn best through exploring their natural
environment and are naturalistic. “Word smart’ learners have extensive vocabularies
are called verbal-linguistic learners. Musical learners are ‘music-smart’ and logical-
mathematical learners are ‘logic-smart’.

STOP AND REFLECT!

What kind of learner are you?

4.3.3 Using observation to identify strengths

Teachers are strongly encouraged to use observation to enable them to identify
their learners’ individual strengths. This information should inform the
development of an Individual Learner Profile, as outlined below.

Learner’s name ………………………………….

Date …………………………………

Strengths Challenges (Needs)

Note: Remember to include all the domains (areas) of development in the learner’s
profile, i.e. his or her physical, social, emotional and cognitive strengths and
challenges.

4.3.4 Learning styles

We all learn through our senses. We obtain information from a variety of modalities.
Our preferred modalities are our learning styles. Learners are often more successful
when they receive input in their preferred learning style (visual, auditory, tactile,
kinesthetic, etc.). It is important to help each learner become aware of his or her
learning style and to provide appropriate input to enhance learning. Learners who
are aware of how they best receive input can choose appropriate materials and
settings to work in as part of their plan of study. Teachers who pay attention to
student learning styles offer choices in how learners receive input and demonstrate

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

their learning. The Kolb Learning Style Inventory recognises learners’ individual
learning preferences, while encourages them to expand and apply their learning
strengths.
There are four phases in the learning process:
a. Experiencing relates to learning from experiences, and being sensitive to fee-
lings and people.
b. Reflecting involves reserving judgement, taking perspectives, for more
meaning.
c. Thinking logically and analysing ideas, planning systematically and using
concepts.
d. Acting and demonstrating an ability to get things done, taking risks and influ-
encing others.
Study the diagram below, on Learning Styles.

According to the diagram above on learning styles, learners learn in different ways.
For example, a visual learner learns most effectively through visual learning and
teaching resource materials such as pictures, charts and graphs. An aural learner
learns most effectively through their sense of hearing and therefore prefer to listen
to aural presentations, rather than view and read texts. A kinesthetic learner uses all
his or her senses to engage in learning and learns most effectively through concrete,
hands-on learning experiences.

4.4 COMMON DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONES FOR LEARNING

In this module, we will focus specifically on the universal or common
developmental milestones for learning. What is most important is that learners
should be developed in all domains of development – socially, emotionally,
cognitively (including language) as well as physically. This is referred to as holistic
development. Teachers should consciously strive for holistic development across all
the domains of development, not only cognitive development.

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Teachers should use the common developmental milestones as a very flexible

guideline to assess ‘typical’ development. In addition, teachers should bear in mind
that ‘typical’ or expected development varies tremendously. A wide range of factors
including personality, family circumstances, exposure to learning opportunities,
motivation, socio-economic and cultural factors influence the pace at which
individual learners reach the developmental milestones. The following tables show
the common developmental milestones.

Common Developmental Milestones

Table 4.3
5–6 year old (Early Childhood Development)
Social Development ● Strives to be like peers.
● Eager to please peers and adults.
● Learners are sometimes demanding and sometimes
very cooperative.
Emotional ● Increasingly able to follow rules.
Development ● Enjoys singing, dancing and dramatisation.
● Shows sympathy for others.
● Is aware of gender.
● Knows the difference between fantasy and reality.
● Is more independent.
Cognitive & Language ● Speaks clearly.
Development ● Tells a simple story using full sentences.
● Uses future tense, for example, “We are going
camping.”
● Knows name and address.
● Counts up to 10.
● Draws a person with at least 6 body parts.
● Prints letters and numbers.
● Copies geometric shapes.
● Familiar with everyday objects, e.g. money and food.
Physical Development ● Stands on one foot for 10 seconds.
● Hops and skips without losing balance.
● Can do a somersault.
● Uses a fork and spoon and sometimes a table knife.
● Uses the toilet independently.
● Swings and climbs.
Adapted from Clasquin-Johnson, 2017

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

Table 4.4
6–9 year old (Primary school)
Social Development ● Stronger interest in spending time with friends.
● Show interest in rules and rituals.
● Some understanding of rules.
● Enjoy working cooperatively.
● Enjoy meeting new people and visiting new places.
● Tests and measures self against peers.
● Sensitive towards others’ reactions.
● Eager for peer approval and acceptance.
● Show politeness towards adults.
● Begin to enjoy team games (by 8 years).
● By 8–9 years begins to understand others’ point of
view.
Emotional ● Strong desire to perform well and do things
Development correctly.
● Often ambivalent (mixed feelings).
● Find criticism difficult to handle.
● Can be very judgmental and critical of self and
others.
● Begin to be more responsible.
● Have a growing sense of justice and fairness.
Cognitive Development ● Tells a connected story about a picture, explaining
relationships between objects and events.
● Relate detailed accounts of events, including some
that have occurred in the past.
● Able to use complex and compound sentences.
● Few lapses in grammatical constrictions like tenses,
pronouns or plurals.
● Reads with ease and writes simple compositions.
● Engage in complex conversations.
● Have well-developed sense of time and number
concepts.
● Follow complex directions.
● Likely to reverse printed letters such as b and d.
● Enjoy planning and building.
● Problem solving abilities rapidly increases, have
longer attention spans.
● Demonstrate difference between left and right.
● Understand time and the days of the week.
● View things as black and right, right or wrong, won-
derful or terrible.
Language Development ● Extensive receptive and expressive vocabularies.
● Ability to express himself/herself

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Table 4.4
6–9 year old (Primary school)
● Speech is completely intelligible and socially useful
● Speech is socially appropriate
Physical Development ● High energy level.
● Increasing physical competence.
● Eye-hand coordination improves.
● Skilled use of small tools and scissors.
● Enjoy testing the limits of their bodies.
● Have a good sense of balance.
● Have a healthy appetite.
● Repeatedly practise new skills to master them.
● Able to work fast.
● Able to throw and catch a ball.
● Enjoy swimming and climbing.
● Begin to engage in team sports.
Source: Adapted from Clasquin-Johnson, 2017

Table 4.5
9–13 years Intermediate and Senior phase
Physical Milestones ● Height and weight change quickly
● Uneven development in agility, balance, strength
and flexibility
● Need more rest since so much energy is being used
for growing
● May be more mature physically than cognitively or
emotionally
● Physical changes due to puberty
● Girls tend to develop earlier than boys.
Cognitive Milestones ● Question things; don’t take everything at face value
● Start to understand concepts like power and
influence
● Problem-solving and thinking skills develop
● Pay more attention to decision making and to orga-
nizing ideas, time and things.
● Think about how current actions affect the future
● Memorize information more easily
● Use flexible thinking, such as checking work and
changing approaches as needed
● Develop a worldview, including a basic set of values
● Want to contribute and make money
Language Milestones ● Use metaphors, slang and different ways of
speaking

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

Table 4.5
9–13 years Intermediate and Senior phase
● Language skills typically develop quickly.
● Interested in having discussions, debates and
arguments
● Pay more attention to body language, tone of voi-
ce and other non-verbal language cues
Social and Emotional ● Bow to peer pressure to be like others
Milestones ● Have experiences with bullying
● Sensitive to other people’s opinions and reactions
● Develop a sense of pride in accomplishments and
an awareness of challenges
● Keep secrets
● Have awareness of what is appropriate to say in dif-
ferent situations

HIGH SCHOOL
Table 4.6
14–18 years Senior to FET phase l
Physical Milestones ● Have a big appetite
● Need more sleep; may be sleepy in class
● Are clumsy and uncoordinated because of growing
so quickly
● Have the hand-eye coordination to learn to drive
Cognitive Milestones ● Show an increasing ability to reason, make educated
guesses and sort fact from fiction
● Start thinking more abstractly, comparing what is to
what could be
● Think about and come up with ways to deal with
imaginary situations
● Begin to set their own goals for the future
● Take other opinions into account but make their
own decisions
● Understand the consequences of actions, not just
today, but also in a more far-reaching way
● Develop a strong sense of right and wrong; make
decisions based on following their conscience
Social and Emotional 14-year-olds
Milestones ● Can recognize personal strengths and weaknesses
● Are embarrassed by family and parents
● Are eager to be accepted by peers and to have many
friends

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Table 4.6
14–18 years Senior to FET phase l

15-year-olds
● Don’t want to talk as much; are argumentative
● Appreciate siblings more than parents
● Narrow down to a few close friends
● May start dating
● Analyze their own feelings and try to find the cause
of them

16- to 18-Year-Olds
● Start relating to family better
● Begin to see parents as real people
● Develop a better sense of who they are and what
positive things they can contribute to friendships
and other relationships
● Spend lot of time with friends
● Are able to voice emotions (both negative and
positive)
● Try to find solutions to conflicts

4.4.1 Principles guiding the teacher’s use of the developmental

milestones
Teachers are advised to follow the principles below when applying the
developmental milestones in relation to teaching, learning and assessment. You will
notice that the very few learners will ‘tick all the boxes’. In other words, very few
learners will attain all the developmental milestones on schedule. For this reason,
teachers should always apply the developmental milestones in a flexible manner.
Moreover, teachers need to employ repeated assessment to ensure that their
assessment results are accurate and reliable.
● Flexibility: The developmental milestones are universally applicable. In other
words, they provide a guideline to the knowledge and skills that all learners
across the world are expected to know and be able to do at specific ages or sta-
ges of development. Since there are many factors that influence learning,
including nutrition, family background or exposure to learning opportunities,
teachers should always apply the developmental milestones in a flexible manner.
● Repeated assessment: Teachers should assess their learners repeatedly (on at
least three separate occasions in different contexts) to ensure that their findings
are reliable and valid. A single assessment is not reliable as the learner may be
strongly influenced by the specific conditions under which the assessment oc-
curred, e. g. the time of day, state of health and well-being or context of the
assessment.

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

● Anti-bias approach:An anti-bias approach recognises the importance of cultu-

ral and linguistic fairness, when conducting assessment. Different cultural
norms and practices influence learning. For example, while some cultures value
and actively promote assertive skills, others regard assertive skills in young child-
ren as inappropriate and disrespectful towards authority. While some cultures
encourage questioning, others do not. It is therefore essential that teachers un-
derstand how cultural norms influence learning.

4.5 DESIGN SUPPORT TO DEVELOP STRENGTHS

Inclusive education recognises that all learners require support to develop to their
full potential. Rather than taking strengths for granted, these should be utilised to
enhance learning. The origins of a strengths-based approach, particularly character
strengths, can be traced to positive psychology (Niemiec, Shogren & Wehmeyer,
2017). This has assists to classify and build on positive traits that reflect universal
capacities for thinking, feeling, and behaving in ways that benefit oneself and others,
and enhance valued life outcomes.
Research has established the role of character strengths in understanding people
and in promoting positive outcomes, including well-being, achievement, and
leadership. A study was designed to identify positive personality characteristics,
organise them into a conceptual framework, and create valid instruments to assess
them. Table 4.8 classifies strengths according to 24 character strengths organised
into six overarching virtues (i. e., wisdom, courage, humanity, justice, temperance,
and transcendence) that researchers have suggested are universal across time and
cultures.
Table 4.8
Character Strengths
Wisdom creativity, curiosity, judgment, love of learning, perspective
Courage bravery, perseverance, honesty, zest
Humanity love, kindness, social intelligence
Justice teamwork, fairness, leadership
Temperance forgiveness, humility, prudence, self-regulation
Transcendence appreciation of beauty and excellence, gratitude, humour,
spirituality
Adapted from VIA Institute on Character

The Character Strengths and Virtues could be applied to learners with severe
intellectual and developmental barriers to learning by:
● In the disability field, there have been shifts from deficit-based models that fo-
cused on identifying limitations in functioning to strengths-based approaches
that recognise that individuals who experience barriers to learning have personal
competencies that need to be understood and leveraged to guide supports
planning.

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LEARNING UNIT 4 DIVERSE WAYS OF LEARNING

● Planning should recognise current strengths, preferences, and interests.

● Strengths must be used to develop meaningful IEP and transition goals infor-
med by strengths based assessment tools.
● A support programme should be driven by a strengths perspective that presu-
mes competence and designs supports according to an individual’s strengths,
interests, preferences, and life goals.
● Learners should be assisted to understand their strengths and to use them fully.
In Learning unit 6, you will be guided to develop an Individual Educational Plan
(IEP) for your learners, based on their individual learner profiles. The key point to
remember is that teachers should consciously plan and design support for develop
their learners’ strengths. As previously mentioned, the purpose is to use learners’
strengths to address their challenges.

Strategies to develop strengths

Inclusive Education is about belonging, having a sense of worth and making
choices (Gordon & Browne, 2011). Once you have identified your learners’
strengths and have developed an IEP for each learner, you can proceed to develop
practical strategies to develop their strengths further. As previously mentioned, you
are not ignoring learners’ challenges (needs). Instead, you are using their strengths
to address their challenges (needs). Since parents and families are a crucial part of
this process, they should be included in planning and implementing the learner’s
individualised programme.
Specific strategies could include:
● Use the learner’s special interests when planning activities. This will enhance the
learner’s motivation to actively participate in and complete the activities.
● Create a rich learning environment that fosters learning through active participa-
tion, inclusion and achievement for all. Remember that a well-planned learning
environment allows learners to explore as they interact with one another and
growth towards independence.
● Consider learners’ developmental levels and ensure that every learner experien-
ces success at the end of each activity.
● Recognize achievements and praise the learner. Such positive reinforcement will
motivate further learning and enhance the learner’s confidence and self-esteem.
● Encourage the learner to demonstrate and even teach his or her skill to others.
By actively encouraging learners to share their skills with their peers, teachers
support a diversity of learning approaches.
● Gradually increase the complexity of assessment tasks.
● Allow learners to solve their own problems and do not intervene too early if
they experience challenges.
● Use play and games as a medium for learning. It is vital that learners should en-
joy their learning experiences.
● Provide sufficient time for learners to explore, manipulate, experiments and
master skills.

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

● Make your expectations clear and be consistent. It is essential for learners to

know exactly what you expect from them. Staff should be consistent by setting
common goals for each learner and reinforcing them consistently.
● Allow learners to take risks within limits, and let them feel that it is safe to make
mistakes. All learners learn most effectively from their own experiences. Let
learners know that it is inevitable that they will sometimes make mistakes and
that these constitute learning opportunities if they deal with them positively.
● Provide feedback on all learning and encourage learners to take pride in their
accomplishments.

4.6 DIVERSE AND CULTURALLY SENSITIVE METHODS OF

IDENTIFYING NEEDS
Classrooms are becoming increasingly diverse learning environment since learners
have a rich variety of cultures, languages, religions, abilities and developmental
needs. Once again, you need to remember that learners’ needs should also be
included in their Individual Support Plan. In this section, we will discuss how to
identify learning needs using diverse and culturally sensitive methods.

4.6.1 Anti-bias approach

An anti-bias approach avoids stereotyping learners. In addition, teachers should
express an inclusive attitude towards their learners. When planning for teaching,
learning and assessment, teachers should be flexible so that they incorporate
culturally relevant experiences in the curriculum. Modifying and differentiating the
curriculum will then promote success for all learners.
Moreover, Gordon and Browne (2011:289) stress the importance of viewing each
learner as unique, deserving of respect, and as part of a family and community.
Each learner also has the right to achieve his or her full potential and develop a
positive self-esteem. Learners should be encouraged to appreciate one another’s
uniqueness, and similarities as well as differences.
An anti-bias curriculum encourages learners to:
● Explore the similarities and differences that inform individual and group
identities.
● Develop skills for identifying and countering the harmful effects of bias on
themselves and others.
Teachers are strongly encouraged to use the physical and interpersonal
environment to understand one another’s culture better. However, it is essential to
avoid a ‘tourist curriculum’, which only provides superficial exposure to culture,
detached from learners’ experiences and daily lives. Equally important is avoiding
patronizing or exaggerating trivial, isolated or exotic differences (Gordon &
Browne, 2011:290).

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Common values that teachers should express in Inclusive Foundation Phase

classrooms:
● Every learner matters.
● Diversity is valuable and peaceful.
● The curriculum, environment and learning opportunities are derived from the
learners, learning activities, and the teacher’s awareness of the developmental
needs and learning styles of the group, as well as societal events.
Learners’ develop a sense of identity and attitudes concerning race, gender and
ability at an early age. We also need to remember that the prevalence of
discrimination in society adversely affects our learners. It is our responsibility as
teachers to be positive role models for inclusive attitudes and behaviours in our
daily interactions with all our learners.

4.6.2 Check list for learning strengths and needs

When you assess your learners according to the common developmental milestones,
you should take careful not of their learning needs. In addition, you could adapt the
check list, below to assess individual learners’ strengths and needs.

Table 4.9
Check list for learning strengths and needs

Check list for strengths and weaknesses for _______________________:

Date: Age: Grade:

Please answer yes/no to left of statement, as it relates to the learner in question.

Comprehension:
− Interested in listening to stories, audio tapes, songs and a variety of listening
activities
− Takes good notes
− Experiences difficulty distinguishing between similar sounds
− Experiences difficulty following directions, especially when it’s more than one
at a time
− Doesn’t enjoy participating in class discussions and rarely raises his/her hand
to respond
− Unable to follow oral discussion and take notes

Oral Language:
− Strong articulation skills
− Uses voice intonation and good expression
− Expanding vocabulary
− Difficulty with oral language uses lots of interjections and hesitations (umm,
uh, well...), weak verbal expression

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

Table 4.9
Check list for learning strengths and needs
− Grammar skills are quite weak
− Forgets a lot of words and can’t often remember what he/she was going to
say

Reading: Ability to re-tell what was just read and predicts what may hap-
pen based on what has happened
− Confuses words and letters
− Often loses place when reading, requires finger tracking
− Difficulty when silent reading, needs to mouth words or whisper when
reading
− Doesn’t enjoy reading
− Reluctant Reader
− Reading is slow and deliberate
− Lots of word substitutions, omissions and invented words
− Cannot skim or scan for pertinent information

Written Work:
− Written ideas follow a logical sequence
− Ideas are clearly written and expressed
− Rarely enjoys writing and responds negatively to written activities
− Written work is rarely legible
− Experiences difficulty when copying instructions from the board, orally or
chart paper
− Rarely completes written assignments
− Written work is poorly organized and difficult to follow
− Punctuation and grammar is weak and often missing
− Written ideas lack cohesion
− Written work is often difficult to understand
− Spelling is weak
− Letters and/or words are often reversed

Mathematics:
− Rarely sequences numbers, equations and formulas appropriately
− Unable to perform ‘mental math’
− Computations are usually inaccurate
− Many careless errors, often chooses the wrong operation
− Difficulty understanding mathematical concepts
− Rarely uses mathematical terms appropriately both orally and in written work
− Does not remember the math facts (although today, many children aren’t
committing the math facts to memory)
− Cannot do mathematical word problems

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Table 4.9
Check list for learning strengths and needs
Motor Skills:
− Is often clumsy and accident prone
− Has weak coordination
− Awkward gait
− Weak fine motor skills (evidenced in art, written work, copy etc.)
− Holds pencils, pens, crayons, scissors inappropriately – too hard or not hard
enough
− Exhibits weak large motor coordination during gym and recess (falls or trips
frequently

Social Skills:
− Has a difficult time establishing friends or has friends that are younger
− Rarely accepted by peers
− Argues with peers
− Doesn’t accept responsibility well
− Avoids peer contact and is often ridiculed or involved in ridiculing
− Demands instant gratification, seeks a great deal of attention
− Doesn’t like to follow routines and rules
− Prone to tantrums

Behavior Skills:
− Average activity, not over or under active
− Usually on time
− Often is hyperactive
− Rarely completes tasks in the allotted time
− Often acts out in the classroom and doesn’t follow routines and rules
− Can be extremely moody and acts impulsively
− Very disorganized
− Inattentive and distractible
− Does not get along well with peers
− Decision making skills are weak and is often late or absent
− Easily frustrated
Adapted from Casale, 2009

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

4.7 CASE STUDY

Read the case study below on Jason’s strengths and needs and then discuss how
you will address them in your teaching.

Jason exhibits the following strengths:

Extensive receptive and expressive vocabularies.
He reasons uncontrollably
Speech is completely intelligible and socially useful.
Able to use complex and compound sentences.
Reads with ease and writes simple compositions.
Has a well-developed sense of time and number concepts.
He is very sensitive to remarks about him
Follows complex directions.
Enjoys planning and building.
Good problem solving ability.
Longer attention span.

Despite the strengths above, Jason is experiencing the following challenges:

Jason does not cooperate in group situations.
Jason is not interested in friends.

I will accommodate Jason’s strengths and needs in the following ways.

.............................................................................................................................................

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4.8 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we learnt more about how to identify different learning
strengths, the common developmental milestones for learning, how to design
support to develop learners’ strengths and the importance of employing diverse
and culturally sensitive methods of identifying needs.
In the next learning unit, we will learn more about assessing the needs of learners
in order to determine the required level of support.

4.9 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

REFLECT AND ASSESS YOURSELF:
● Designing support according to learners’ strengths and needs
1. Select a learner and carefully observe his/her strengths and needs. Write them down
in the space provided below.
Strengths

........................................................................................................................................

Needs

........................................................................................................................................

2. Describe three (3) practical support strategies you will employ to use the learner’s
strengths to address his or her challenges (needs).

........................................................................................................................................

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Diverse ways of learning Learning unit 4

4.10 ONLINE RESOURCES

Learning Styles Chart http://www2.fiu.edu/~keysj/LearningStylesChart.pdf. This
online chart gives learning style descriptions as well as strategies to enhance
learning for each of the following learning styles: visual, aural, reading/writing, and
kinesthetic. It also gives a list of resources for each learning style that may be
helpful for improving one’s study skills.
Index of Learning Styles Questionnaire http://www.engr.ncsu.edu/learningstyles/
ilsweb. html. This instrument is an online questionnaire designed to assess a
person’s preferred learning styles on four dimensions: active/reflective, sensing/
intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global. This inventory is free for the
personal use of individuals and teachers who want to use it with their students.
Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligences http://www. ldpride. net/learningstyles.
MI. htm. This site provides definitions and information relating to learning styles
and Multiple Intelligence (MI). It also provides practical tips on how to use your
learning styles to enhance your learning experience. You may take an online
learning styles assessment. However, you must pay to see the results.
Multiple Intelligences Assessment http://www. literacyworks. org/mi/assessment/
findyourstrengths.html . This assessment will help you find out which intelligences
are strongest for you. Teachers can use this with their students to find out which
intelligences they use the most. This site also provides strategies for each of the
different areas.

REFERENCES
Adcock, P.K. (2014) The Longevity of Multiple Intelligence Theory in Education:
Impact of Educational Reforms. The Delta Kappa Gamma Bulletin.
Armstrong, T. (2017) Neurodiversity: The future of special education? Educational
Leadership, April 2017.
Casale, K. 2009. Check list for Strengths and Needs when Planning for Educational
Goals! Boston: MitoAction.org.
Clasquin-Johnson, M.G. (2017) Who is the young children, in Evans, R., Meier, C.,
& Marais, P. Introducing Children’s Literature: A Guide to the South African
Classroom. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Dictionary. com (2017) Definition of neurodiversity. http://www. dictionary. com/
browse/neurodiversity
Hoerr, T. (2015) How to Boost Learning: Tap into Your Child’s Natural Strengths.
http://www. parenttoolkit. com/health-and-wellness/news/how-to-boost-
learning-tap-into-your-child-s-natural-strengths Accessed 2017/10/13.
Psychology Today. (2017) What is neurodiversity? https://www. psychologytoday.
com/blog/my-life-aspergers/.../what-is-neurodiversity

LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 5

When you have completed Learning unit 5, you should be able to:
● Explain the purpose of assessment in terms of the initial identification of potential
strengths and barriers.
● Introduce emerging trends in assessment of barriers to learning.
● Identify and select appropriate and culturally sensitive tools and methods in consultation
with the relevant stakeholders.
● Screen learners for early identification of barriers experienced with a view to consider
appropriate intervention.
● Analyse the needs of the individual, as concerns age, socio-economic standing, history,
family during the screening process.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The identification of learning barriers in learners becomes a crucial step towards
addressing their needs because they can all learn and they all require support (DoE,
2001). This unit will therefore focus on identifying, and assessing the needs of
learners in order to determine the required level of support, this is very important
for all teachers. The needs of diverse learners in the classroom cannot be met in the
same way. Therefore the Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SAIS) policy
in South Africa was designed to provide the framework for the standardization of
the procedures to identify, assess and provide programmes for all learners who
require additional support to enhance their participation and inclusion in schools
(DBE, 2014). The aim of this policy is to ensure that teachers and schools
understand and respond appropriately to the needs of diverse learners.

5.2 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT FOR INCLUSIVITY

The importance of assessment for inclusivity cannot be underestimated as no
further form of intervention or support can be possible for the learner. This is a
most important starting point, as it constitutes the process by which we develop an
understanding of the individual, his abilities and learning needs. Needless to say,
without understanding what is important to a person, and what his particular
problems are, there can be no meaningful intervention. Again, the importance of
assessing learners is to prevent further difficulties that can be experienced by
learners at a later stage in their academic careers. The earlier a child with barriers is
identified the sooner intervention strategies that suit the learner can be
implemented. In South Africa, one of the policies that support Inclusive Education
is the Screening, Identification, Assessment, and Support (SIAS) (2014). This
policy aims to respond to diverse needs of learners in schools.

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Assess the needs of learners in order to determine the required level of Learning unit 5
support

Read the chapters and articles below, available on your recommended

book chapters.
● S.M. Molosiwa & P Monyatsi in N Phasha & J Condy (2017). Inclusive Edu-
cation, An African Perspective. Assessment for inclusion. pp 264–290.
● R Davin & J Sethusha in R Davin (2013). Handbook for Grade R Teaching,
Assessment: Getting to know the Grade R learner. pp 57–88.
● F Mahlo & J Condy in N Phasha & J Condy (2017). Inclusive Education, An
African Perspective. Learning support in inclusive settings. pp 170–190.

Articles
● R Bourke & M Mentis (2014). An assessment framework for inclusive educa-
tion: integrating assessment approaches. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy
& Practice.21:383–397.
As you read the article, pay special attention to:
The practical application of assessment in inclusive education.
Make your own notes and summaries as you read.

STOP AND THINK!

What is assessment?

According to the National Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment and

Support policy (SIAS) (DoE, 2014) education assessment can be defined as “the
process of identifying, gathering and interpreting information. The core purposes
of assessment are to promote effective teaching and learning (DoE, 2014).

5.2.1 The principles of assessment

The SIAS policy (2014) identify principles of assessment as follows:
● The assessment in this section does not refer to assessment of learners’ scholas-
tic achievement, but to determine barriers to learning, level of functioning to
determine the type and level of support required by the learners
● Educators, parents and learners need to be centrally involved in the process.
● Assessment procedures need to be guided by the principles of respect for all
concerned.
● The purpose should be clear and open.
● It needs to be appropriate and relevant to the realities and context of the person
or institution concerned.
● It should be fair, bias-free, and sensitive to gender, race, cultural background
and disabilities.
● It needs to identify barriers to learning with the purpose of improving the tea-
ching and learning process.
● It needs to be a continuous process built into the teaching and learning process.
● It needs to be multidimensional or systemic in nature, located within the frame-
work of barriers at the individual (learner and educator), curriculum, institution,
and family, community and social contextual levels.

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LEARNING UNIT 5 ASSESS THE NEEDS OF LEARNERS IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE
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● The different levels of the system that are involved in the assessment process,
for example Institutional level support team (ILST)/ school based support team
(SBST)s and district based support team (DBST)s, need to cooperate closely to
ensure that assessment processes are carried out smoothly.
● Assessment practices should be manageable and timewise.
● These practices need to be flexible enough to include various approaches and to
draw from various perspectives.
● Assessment results should be clearly, accurately and regularly documented and
communicated to those affected.
Read the following and answer the questions:
DoE. 2014. Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support, (SIAS) Policy.
Government Printers, Pretoria.
● Discuss the principles of assessment in an inclusive context.
● Discuss the purpose of the SIAS policy.
● Discuss the stages of the SIAS protocol.
● What is the role of the District Based Support Team (DBST)?
● What is the role of the School Based Support Team (SBST)?
● What are the roles of parents and caregivers in assessment?
● Discuss the following descriptors for determining the level and nature of sup-
port provision:
– High level of support
– Low level of support
– Moderate level of support

5.3 PROCESS OF SCREENING, IDENTIFICATION AND SUPPORT

(SIAS)
The SIAS process is implemented at different levels of the system. Each level has a
different focus of intervention (DoE, 2014). Diagram 1 explains the SIAS process
(DoE, 2014).

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support

FIGURE 5.1
SIAS process for individual learners

Stage 1: The initial screening guided by the learner profile

The teacher must screen all children at admission as well as in the beginning of
each phase and record their findings in the Learner Profile (LP) included in this
Policy as Annexure A. This Learner Profile will replace all learner profile forms
currently being used by Provincial Education Departments and will be captured in
the Learner Unit Record Individual Tracking (LURITS) System.
The following documents and reports could be used to gather applicable
information:
● Admission form
● Road to Health Booklet (especially for Grade R and Foundation Phase levels)
● Integrated School Health Programme reports
● Year-end school reports (included in the Learner Profile)
● Reports from parents, professionals and other relevant stakeholders
● The report(s) of the teacher(s) currently involved with the learner.

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Areas in the Learner Profile marked with an asterisk will indicate when the teacher
should complete the Support Needs Assessment 1 form (SNA1).

Stage 2: Identifying and addressing barriers to learning and development

Stage 2: at school level
When a learner has been identified through the initial screening or at risk (as
pointed out in the Learner Profile) it is the responsibility of the teacher to assume
the role of a case manager, driving and coordinating the support process.
The parent/caregiver and the learner (from the age of 12 as far as possible) must
be involved throughout in the decision-making process of the SIAS. The teacher
will be guided by the SIAS forms, starting with the completion of the SNA1. The
teacher captures the following information in the SNA1 in collaboration with the
parent/caregiver:
● The areas of concern
● An inventory of the strengths and needs of the learners across a broad spectrum
of areas is put together
● On the basis of the information gathered, an individual support plan is formula-
ted to support the learner, and a review date is set. Such plans should be
reviewed at least once a term
● If the support given by the teacher proves to be ineffective, he/she will involve
the SBST by making an appointment and presenting the needs of the learner to
the team for discussion
The SNA 2 form guides the School-Based Support Team when a learner is referred
to them:
● A review is done of the teacher’s identification of barriers and the interventions
applied.
● A plan of action through which the teacher/school could strengthen the sup-
port (with the help of in-house specialists and/or teachers who have a wide
range of experience) is formulated.
● The support plan is captured and put into action. It must have a review date on
which progress (or lack of progress) will be discussed. On the review date, the
plan is adjusted and the SBST may decide that a higher level of support is nee-
ded in which case the District-based Support Team (DBST) is asked to assist.
Such plans should be reviewed at least once a term.
In some cases where direct referral is required to ensure the safety of a learner who
is vulnerable to abuse, deviation from the standard procedure is permitted.

Stage 3: Identifying and addressing barriers to learning at a district level

The SNA3 form guides the DBST in their intervention strategy to:
● review the action plan of the teacher and SBST and use the Guidelines for Sup-
port, the Table to rate the level of support needed and the Check list to help
determine the decision on how support is to be provided to the learner. The
DBST puts a further plan of action together for the learner and/or school,

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based on the information available. The plan will spell out a suitable support
package and include:
– Planning and budgeting for additional support programmes determined in
SNA 3
– Resource and support-service allocation to school and learner
– Training, counselling and mentoring of teachers and parents/legal caregivers
– Monitoring support provision
– Using the various tools attached as Annexures to the SIAS to help carry out
their decisions (see the appendixes at the end of this module).
Table 5.1 describes the responsibilities with regards to the SNA forms for health
professionals, teacher, school health team, SBST and DBST (DoE, 2014).

TABLE 5.1
Responsibilities with regards to the SNA forms of health professionals, teachers,
school health teams, SBST and DBST

Forms Filled in for whom? Filled in by whom?

Road to Health Card For all learners Health Professionals
Reports from Health For learners who have an School Health Team
Screening (ISHP) indication of vulnerability
and need to access health
and learning support
interventions
Learner Profile All learners Class teacher (The class tea-
cher captures all relevant
information from other
screening processes onto the
Learner Profile)
Support-Needs As- For learners Class teacher or teacher who
sessment Form 1 ● for whom additional is tasked to be the case ma-
(SNA1) support must be put in nager supported by the SBST
place from the outset,
e.g. learners with dis-
abilities (see also the
Health and Disability
Form)
● who are identified in
the course of teaching
and learning as having
additional support
needs to be indicated
via the Learner Profile

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LEARNING UNIT 5 ASSESS THE NEEDS OF LEARNERS IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE
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Forms Filled in for whom? Filled in by whom?

Support-Needs As- For learners who have not School-Based Support Team
sessment Form 2 benefited enough from (SBST) in consultation with
(SNA 2) the teacher’s intervention the teacher and parents
and need additional sup-
port from the school’s
experienced and/or highly
qualified teachers and net-
work of service providers
Support-Needs As- For a learner who has not DBST/CBST, in consulta-
sessment Form 3 adequately benefited from tion with teacher(s) SBST
(SNA 3) the school-based support and parents
plan and where the SBST
has requested additional
support from the DBST.
Health and Disabili- For learners for whom ad- Health professionals as out-
ty Assessment Form ditional support must be lined in the form
put in place from the out- Submitted to SBST and
set, e.g. learners with DBST for information
disabilities or health
conditions
Forms 123–125 For learners who need a DBST in consultation with
specific support teacher(s) SBST and parents
intervention

5.4 DEVELOPMENT OF INDIVIDUAL LEARNING PROGRAMMES

TO ENSURE INCLUSION IN VARIOUS SETTING
Our curriculum planning should focus on three main elements which are: a
planned, progressive curriculum for the whole school that is in line with the
national curriculum and needs of our learners; Individual support plans (ISPs) and
educational programmes derived from structured assessment of the nature and
level of learners’ strengths and needs; and the integration of learners’ ISPs within
the curriculum of the school (Department of Education, 2013). Some of our
learners, because of the intensity of their support needs, will have ISPs that have
SMART goals that are in line with the national and school curriculum.
SMART stands for:
Specific – written in clear and non-confusing language
Measurable – can be easily described, assessed and evaluated
Achievable – realistic for the student
Relevant – meaningful for the student
Time-related – able to be achieved within a specific time-frame.

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Assess the needs of learners in order to determine the required level of Learning unit 5
support

The learners’ ISP should also include how performance goals, teaching strategies
and materials will be recorded as indicated in the example below.
ISP with performance goals, teaching strategies and materials

Annual objective
Mpho will read from one of the “Children’s Adventure Stories” books in class
with 95% accuracy, within the Grade 3 language class, by November 2018.
Performance goal 1 Review date Review comments
● Mpho will instantly recognise fre-
quently occurring words in class,
with 98% accuracy, by the end of 8
weeks.
● The words are: [list the words]

Performance goal 2
● Mpho will be able to decode words
when reading, using various strate-
gies, 95% of time when reading in
class, within 8 weeks
Teaching strategies
● Precision teaching methods, sight words on flashcards and reinforcement at
home
● Chart monitor in-task and playground behaviour
● Phonemic awareness training and phonological awareness training
● Reward
Materials/Resources/Games
● Games: word jumping game, word pop up game, Hangman
● ‘Phonological Awareness Training Programme’ (Wilson)
● ‘Sound Linkage’ (Hatcher)
Support services
● Mr Banda class teacher
● Learning support educator 2 x 30 minutes session per week
Parents
● Reinforce flashcards with first 100 words
● Paired reading 10 minutes every evening
Assessment strategy Write your own ideas here:

(Adapted from: Department of Education, 2013:34)

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The institutional level support team (ILST) has the responsibility of monitoring the
individual support which is provided to each learner, including parents/guardians
or caregivers.

5.5 SUPPORT STRUCTURES TO ENHANCE ACCESSIBILITY TO

LEARNING AND TO CREATE AN INCLUSIVE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT
In line with principles of inclusive education and training, it is acknowledged that
all learners can learn and need support permanently or temporarily. Planning and
implementing the curriculum in our schools is not always easy without support.
The support that we need include monitoring, guiding and advising one another on
what needs to be done. In addition to ‘professional support’, it is important to
recognise that support can also be provided by non-educators, like the SGB,
caregivers, families and peers. Support is not only about ‘services’ but also about
assistance that educators can offer to one another, or caregivers and families
through support groups. Learner support can be developed through peer support
in classes and peer counselling (‘buddy groups’) and out of classroom activities
(sports, hobbies, etc.) (Department of Basic Education, 2009:21).

STOP AND THINK!

What kind of support will learners with barriers to learning get from the learning support
educator (LSE), the school-based support team (SBST/ ILST), and district-based support
team (DBST)? Read section 7.1, 7.2 and 8 in the Guidelines for Full-service schools
(Department of Basic Education, 2009:21) for reference.

When and how do paraprofessionals such as therapists, psychologists, social workers, etc.
come in to offer support for learners with barriers to learning and development? Read
Chapter 7 of the Policy on SIAS (2014) for more information

One of the important roles of the teacher is to know the learners in your classroom,
if you know the learner you will be able to know the learners’ diverse needs and
cater for their needs appropriately. Learners are not the same, they will require
differentiated instruction depending on their learning styles and multiple
intelligences (refer to Learning unit 4), the purpose is to meet learners where they
are and to help them advance to the next step. This will guide the teacher in their
teaching, it is a cyclical-process, assessment, and instruction informs each other.
Assessment is a continuous, ongoing process that involves examining and
observing learners’ behaviors. This learning unit does not refer to assessment of
learner’s scholastic achievement, but it refers to assessment that determines barriers
to learning, level of functioning and participation to determine support needs. The
inclusion policy (DoE,2001) requires teachers to assess the needs of learners in
order to determine the required level of support. This policy recognizes the
diversity of learners in terms of their background, barriers to learning and
development that they experience.

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support

CASE STUDY
Ms Ford, a teacher at Siphakamile School, has 45 learners in her class. One of her learners,
Mary encounter barriers to learning because of a combination of factors, such as coming
from a disadvantaged background, being affected by HIV and AIDS, experiencing poverty,
hunger and lack of proper care and support at home. She wrote several notes to the parents
or caregivers to come to the school and discuss Mary’s situation, but she never received
any response. Furthermore, she has a physical and a cognitive disability that limits her
understanding of Maths and English. Ms Ford is frustrated and always complain that she is
not able to help Mary individually as she has many learners in her class.
● Identify the barriers that affect Mary.
● Which barriers do you think you can handle as a teacher?
● Which barriers do you think are beyond your control as a teacher? Can you think of stra-
tegies to assist Mary in barriers that are beyond your control?
● How will these barriers affect learning and teaching?

Support in an inclusive classroom can refer to a range of measures that assist

teachers to respond to the needs of learners who experience barriers to learning.
Support for learners with barriers to learning goes further than the changing of
individual lessons within the classroom context. A whole school approach is
needed, the school ethos, policies and practice needs to be reassessed in order to
meet the needs of the learners, staff and parents. “Support then must focus broadly
on the learning and teaching process by identifying and addressing learner, teacher
and institutional needs” (DoE, 2008)
The purpose of assessment is to determine learners’ strengths and weaknesses so
that teachers can improve instructions to provide more opportunities for learners’
cognitive growth and educational experience (Davin & Sethusha, 2013). The
purpose of assessment is to collect evidence of the learners’ abilities, to evaluate the
learners competence against prescribed outcomes, monitor progress of learners,
assist with identification of learners with barriers to learning, to inform
instructional planning, to evaluate effectiveness of teaching, provide feedback to
relevant stakeholders and it allows for informed decisions to be made.

ACTIVITY 5.1
Matome is 15 years old in Grade 9, he repeated grade 8. His teacher complains that he
does not hear well. Matome appears to be very dependent on his best friend, Tshepo during
class activities. Matome enjoys doing Mathematics activities but struggles to read and write,
he often complains of a sore throat and earache.

The following are Matome’s attempts to write sentences dictated by the teacher:

The pig cat sits on de mat

My moder bakes a cake
I haf fife finers on each han
● Identify possible barriers of Matome
● Which intervention strategies could be used to meet Matome’s needs.

5.6 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

5.6.1 What is your understanding of assessment in an inclusive setting?
5.6.2 Discuss the SIAS process

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5.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we focused on assessing the needs of learners in order to
determine the required level of support. It is no longer possible to use the same
methods when we assess the learners because they are diverse and they bring
different characteristics to the classroom. Therefore, the implementation of the
Screening, Identification, Assessment and Support (SAIS) policy in South Africa is a
necessity. If the teachers use the assessment procedures that are discussed in this
policy document, they will be able to assist many learners who are in need. When
learners are identified and supported early in the academic careers, the possibility of
future interventions is minimized. In Learning unit 6, we will learn more about
creating an enabling inclusive learning environment.

72
LEARNING UNIT 6
Create an enabling inclusive learning environment

Learningunit6

CONTENTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 74
6.2 OPTIMUM LEARNER INVOLVEMENT IN AN INCLUSIVE LEARNING
ENVIRONMENT 74
6.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM DIFFERENTIATION 75
6.3.1 The Significance of curriculum differentiation in classroom context 75
6.3.2 Factors that determine differentiation of the curriculum 76
6.3.3 Elements of the curriculum to be differentiated 77
6.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF THE CURRICULUM TO ENHANCE
ACCESSIBILITY TO LEARNING 86
6.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES 88
6.5.1 Additional strategies to create an inclusive learning environment 88
6.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 88

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LEARNING OUTCOMES FOR LEARNING UNIT 6

When you have completed Learning unit 6, you should be able to:
● Understand the importance of optimal involvement of the learner in the context of
inclusivity.
● Differentiate/ adapt/modify the curriculum to facilitate accessibility to learning.
● Devise individual learning programmes to ensure inclusion in various settings.
● Use a variety of internal and external support structures to enhance accessibility to lear-
ning and to create an inclusive learning environment.
● Discuss the need for further intervention with the learner and other relevant people.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this learning unit, we focus on how to create an enabling inclusive learning
environment. Although the processes towards creating an inclusive learning
environment encompass various aspects such as differentiation of learning
programmes, work schedules and lesson plans to accommodate all learners, in this
unit we will focus on creating an enabling inclusive learning environment mainly
looking at the importance of optimal involvement of the learner in the context of
inclusivity, adaptation or modification of the curriculum to facilitate accessibility to
learning, creation of individual learning programmes to ensure inclusion for learner
diversity and involvement of all stakeholders to enhance an enabling inclusive
learning environment. You will also realise that an inclusive learning environment
calls for respect of all learners irrespective of their gender, ability, socio-economic
background, ethnicity, cultural background and other aspects.

6.2 OPTIMUM LEARNER INVOLVEMENT IN AN INCLUSIVE

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
One of the key features of an inclusive curriculum incorporate its reflection on a
wide and plural interpretation of the demands and expectations of society, and to
uphold the provision of quality and equitable education for all learners. In
responding to the diversity of learner needs in the classroom, inclusive education
ensures differentiation in curriculum delivery to enable access to learning for all
learners. All schools are required to offer the same curriculum to learners while
simultaneously ensuring variations in mode of delivery and assessment processes to
accommodate all learners (Department of Basic Education, 2011:4). In an inclusive
education, the contribution of all learners is valued. Inclusive education is all about
recognizing and respecting the differences among all learners; builds on their
similarities; provide support systems to all learners, teachers and the system as a
whole so that all learning needs can be met. Inclusive education focuses on
overcoming and getting rid of the barriers in the system that prevent learners from
succeeding. It is an effort to make sure that diverse learners – those with disabilities,
different languages and cultures, different homes and family lives, different
interests and ways of learning – are exposed to teaching strategies that reach them
as individual learners (Department of Education, 2002:9).
The teacher is the key person responsible to care and provide support to learners
experiencing barriers to learning and development. The term “support” is used

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Create an enabling inclusive learning environment Learning unit 6

synonymously with the concept of “scaffolding”, referred to by Wood, Bruner and

Ross (1976) as the process whereby an adult assists a learner to learn effectively,
carry out learning tasks or achieve goals which would be beyond their unassisted
efforts. In your lesson plans, classroom organisation and management, you have an
obligation to ensure the creation of an inclusive learning environment. An inclusive
learning environment should enable all learners access the curriculum.
According to UNESCO ( 2014), curriculum is:
“what is learned and what is taught (context); how it is delivered (teaching-lear-
ning methods); how it is assessed (examples, tests and examinations); and the
resources used (e.g. books used to deliver and support teaching and learning”
As indicated in the previous sections, teachers are mandated to make sure that
learners receive the necessary support so that they can fully participate in school
activities. This could be achieved by teachers’ ability to differentiate the curriculum.
You need to note that when describing the concept “curriculum differentiation”,
many terms may surface. They include terms such as differentiated instructions,
curriculum adaptation and curriculum modification. In this study guide the term
“curriculum differentiation” is used because it is in line with current policies from
the DoE such as the National Strategy on Screening, Identification, Assessment
and Support (SIAS) (2008); Guidelines for Full-service Schools (2010) and
Guidelines for responding to learner diversity in the classroom (DBE, 2011).

6.3 WHAT IS CURRICULUM DIFFERENTIATION

Curriculum diffferentiation involves the modification of the learning environment,
teaching methodologies, teaching strategies and the content of the curriculum to
take into consideration the ability level, interests and background of a learner (DBE,
2011).

6.3.1 The Significance of curriculum differentiation in classroom context

● It is the most logical way to respond to learners’ diversity in their learning
environment
● It promotes the progress of each learner in a general curriculum
● It maximises learners’ growth and facilitates individuals’ success.
● It acknowledges that each learner learns differently
● It promote different learning styles during the learning process
● It ensures that learners participate actively in their learning where they are able
to apply what they have learnt.
● It enables all learners to experience success, prevents occurrence of learning
gaps among learners, provides opportunities for cognitive development,
● It reduces challenging behaviour in learners and is a means to make inclusion a
reality

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1. Why should teachers differentiate the school curriculum?

2. Which elements of the curriculum should be differentiated?

“Curriculum differentiation acknowledges that learners learn best when their

teachers effectively address variances in readiness level, interest, and learning
profile” (Tomlinson, 2010). In another article, Tomlinson (2004) mentions that it
also entails differentiating the content, process, product, and learning environment.
In other words, learners’ readiness, interest, and learning profile will determine
differentiation of the content, process, product and learning environment (Figure
6.1).

FIGURE 6.1
Differentiation process

Adapted from Ledwaba (2018)

6.3.2 Factors that determine differentiation of the curriculum

Readiness level, interests, and learning profiles are important and indispensable
factors in achieving curriculum differentiation. These three factors will now be
discussed in detail.

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Create an enabling inclusive learning environment Learning unit 6

(i) Readiness level

“Readiness level is a learner’s current proximity to specified knowledge,
understanding, and skills”. It is shaped by prior learning, life experiences, attitudes
towards schooling as well as cognitive and metacognitive proficiency Tomlinson
and Imbeau (2010:). It is derived from Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal
development (ZPD) which is the a point of required mastery where the child
cannot effectively function independently, but can succeed with scaffolding or
support.

(ii) Learners’ interest

Learners’ interest is “that which engages the attention, curiosity, and involvement
of a student” (Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010).

(iii) Learners’ profile

A learner’s profile provides information on the learner’s skills, likes, strengths,
preferences, personal characteristics, cultural, linguistic, experiential background
and challenges of the learners and their families (Salend, 2011).
After the discussion on factors that determines the differentiation of the
curriculum, we will now look at the elements of the curriculum to be differentiated
as presented in figure 6.1

6.3.3 Elements of the curriculum to be differentiated

(i) Differentiation of the content
Differentiation of the content refers to a teaching pedagogy whereby one concept
or topic is presented to the learners at various levels of complexity (Walton, 2013).
In this instance, the teacher provides learners with the same curricular areas but at
varying levels of difficulty (Salend, 2011). For example, during Life Skills or Life
orientation, learners who function at a high level can record the types and number
of vehicles that pass through an intersection per hour while the low-functioning
groups can draw a picture of what they saw at an intersection. Another example of
content differentiation is where a teacher allows learners with more ability to work
on the application of a concept, whereas learners who find the curriculum content
challenging may be working with definitions, comparisons or contrasts, or
summarisations of the same concepts.

(ii) Differentiation of the process

Process refers to techniques or instructional strategies that the teacher uses to
present information to the learners and how the learner makes sense of the content
(Tomlinson & Imbeau, 2010). This includes strategies such as small group
instruction, cooperative learning, demonstrations, using peers or adults to read
aloud to the learner as well as the use of multisensory approaches. For example, in
a history class, one learner might be unable to read the history textbook but can
arrive at the same understanding of the content by watching a video. Another

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strategy to differentiate the learning process, especially when the content is

challenging, is through peer tutoring where learners can work with each other to
improve their performance. Another strategy to differentiate the process is when
the teacher provide extra assistance outside classroom hours, and giving individual
feedback and encouragement on classroom performance. The teacher can again
divide the class into four ability groups or dividing them into mixed-ability groups,
in which learners with more experience help those with less experience (UNESCO,
2004).
In summary, differentiation of the process can include the following strategies:
● cooperative learning,
● peer tutoring,
● demonstrations,
● a multisensory approach,
Let us now discuss each strategy in detail

i) Cooperative learning
“In cooperative learning, students work with their peers to achieving a shared
academic goal rather than competing against or working separately from their
classmates” (Salend, 2011). In other words, learners work together in achieving a
common goal

STOP AND THINK!

1. According to your experience can corporative learning assist learners to achieve a
common goal? Elaborate your answer by providing an example.
2. How can learners be grouped together and how many learners can be in a group?
3. What are the benefits of cooperative learning?

It has always been a common African practice that learners are used to working in
groups and not as individuals. Landsberg and Mathews (2016) suggest that when
using this strategy, grouping of learners can be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
For instance, for a homogeneous group, learners with limited proficiency in
English can be grouped together and receive direct, face-to-face assistance from
the teacher to complete the task. Number of learners in a group will be determined
by the type of an activity as well as the availability of resources to be used. For
instance, the groups should be larger when materials are scarce, or when limited
time is available to complete the activities. If students are younger or inexperienced
with cooperative learning activities, the group size should be smaller.

ii) Peer tutoring or Peer buddies

Peer tutoring is one of the valuable resources that teachers should not overlook.
During cooperative learning, the teacher can assign a peer to assist learners who
have difficulties in understanding the content (Wood, 2009). It is important to
remember that no learners should ever be forced to assist other learners.

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Advantages of peer tutoring include:

● facilitating interaction between learners with various needs
● providing experiences related to caring and being cared for
● learners often communicate with one another using a different language from
that of the teacher, making their way of explaining information easier for their
peers to understand.

iii) Demonstration method

During the demonstration, learners watch how another person, an adult or
another peer, handles and completes tasks (De Witt, 2016). In other words, learners
learn or acquire knowledge through watching a teacher or another learner
performing an activity.

iv) Multisensory approach

Teaching strategies that address a variety of learning styles and preferences should
be a fundamental consideration when differentiating instruction. Learners learn
through many senses, and teachers need to use numerous modes to enhance oral
presentation and provide multisensory input for learners. For example, a teacher
can teach aspects such as letters or words using a combination of visual, auditory,
kinaesthetic and tactile modalities.

v) Differentiation of the product

Prior the discussion of the differentiation of the product, complete the following
activity

ACTIVITY 6.1
Differentiated Assessment

Read Guidelines for Responding to Learner Diversity in the Classroom (GRLD), Curriculum
Assessment Policy (CAPS) Grades R-12.What is the main purpose of assessment?
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

Discuss the key principles of assessment in a diverse classroom.

...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................

What is differentiated assessment?

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Product refers to the output through which learners demonstrate what they have
learnt (Fitzgerald, 2016). In other words, it which enables the teacher to determine
whether the teaching goal have been achieved. During the differentiation of the
product, teachers use various forms of assessment that allow learners to
demonstrate and apply what they have learnt and apply knowledge and skills after
significant instruction (Santangelo & Tomlinson, 2009). Differentiating the product
also:
● Encourages learners to demonstrate what they have learnt in various ways;
● Allows various working arrangements such as working alone or in groups;
● Encourages the use of various resources in preparation of the product;
● Allows the use of various assessment methods;
● Provides product assignment at varying degrees of difficulty, determined by the
learners’ readiness.
For example, the teacher cam use differentiate the product by using strategies such
as the use of multiple-choice questions, gap filling, taking advantage of open-ended
questions and open-book tests. Other forms of differentiating the products include
the use of group assessment activities, allowing assessment activities to be taken
orally as well as in written form, allowing extra time to complete the assessment
task, using aids and technology (DBE, 2011:14).
The following are regarded as fundamental principles of assessment in an inclusive
classroom:
● Learners should have access to the assessment that is suited to their needs.
● The assessment process should disadvantage no learner.
● Assessment should inform the teachers what the learner is able to do at a parti-
cular stage in their learning.
● Assessment should assist the teacher to determine what support needs of the
learner are.
● Teachers should develop different ways for the learners to demonstrate the
knowledge skills they have learnt.
● It should be authentic and integrated in the teaching and learning process.
● The curriculum is flexible to accommodate all learners.
Blooms taxonomy is an important tool to use in the classroom in order to reach
learners at various levels, if the teacher ask questions at different levels it
encourages learners to all participate.

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FIGURE 6.2
Bloom’s taxanomy adapted from Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching. https://.
www.flickr.com

Accessed 03/11/2017

When learners are identified early in their academic careers, specifically in the
Foundation Phase, teachers will be better positioned to render appropriate and
relevant support to them to ensure that they succeed. In an inclusive classroom
there will be learners with diverse needs, the teacher can be able to identify these
needs when learners first come in the classroom, for example a learner who is blind
will require a different approach of teaching than a learner who is able to see.
Sometimes the needs of learners are not easily identifiable like a learner who is
abused, it is the responsibility of a teacher to dig deeply to discover the barrier that
inhibits learners ability to learn. The teacher’s task is to assess each and every
learner who is unable to cope in class in order to provide appropriate support.
These are examples of how you can ask questions which are aligned to Bloom’s
taxanomy.

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FIGURE 6.3
Bloom’s prompts from www.pinterest.com

Bloom’s taxanomy is a useful tool to use in the classroom in order to reach learners
on various levels, it reflects a range of task difficulty. The taxanomy is structured in
such a way that learners are required to recall knowledge to harder tasks such as
evaluating an argument.

ACTIVITY 6.2
Applying Bloom’s taxanomy

Read Guidelines for Responding to Learner Diversity in the Classroom (GRLD), Curriculum
Assessment Policy (CAPS) Grades R-12.

Using your own topic design assessment that addresses the various levels of Bloom’s
taxanomy.

(iv) Differentiation of the learning environment

The learning environment does not only refer to the physical setting of the class
but also the emotional context in which learning occurs (Tomlinson & Imbeau,
2010). Learning environment is an essential step towards effective learning for all
learners. For example, teachers can organise the teaching and learning environment
by modifying the classroom setting to allow clear access to teaching boards and
other resources. The learning environment can also be modified to allow learners
to move freely between tables and groups. Differentiation of the learning
environment presents with the following characteristics:
● The teacher is responsive to the needs of all learners in all domains.
● All learners feel secure and safe, both physically and affectively.

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● The teacher provides each learner with the necessary support.

● Individual differences are welcomed and accepted.
● Learners learn to support and respect one another as learners.
● Both the teacher and learners share decisions about daily classroom routines,
management and classroom operation.
● Physical arrangements are flexible to meet the needs of each learner.
● A range of resources is available to support teaching and learning.
The physical factors include aspects like whether the classroom space is conducive
and neat, furniture has been well arranged, the noise level is controlled, the class
size has been planned for, classroom displays are visible and attractive, resources
are sufficient and concrete etc.

STOP AND REFLECT!

● Are you able to manage an overcrowded classroom?
● How do you do it? (E.g. grouping learners and facilitating their progress, attracting the
learner’s attention by using Power Point presentations/charts, Videos).
● Do you embrace all learners?
● Do you give learners exciting tasks?
● Are you able to manage learners with behavioural difficulties/learning difficulties (e. g.
ADHD, withdrawn/passive learners, aggressive or bullying behaviour)?

In an attempt to create an enabling inclusive learning environment, consider the

following:

Inclusive learning environment

● Classroom layout and organisation

The classroom layout is an important part of creation of an inclusive learning

environment. The classroom layout should be adapted to accommodate learner
diversity and for group work. The physical layout of the classroom includes factors
such as classroom spaces for moving around, classroom infrastructure,
arrangement of furniture, level of noise, class size, classroom displays and

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convenient location of particular resources for storage and use, possibilities for
peer support and possibility for provision of individual learner support by the
teacher. It is critical for teachers to consider these factors when trying to meet the
learning needs of their learners.

ACTIVITY 6.3
1. How would you use the above classroom layout ideas in your classroom to achieve
more effective teaching and learning?
2. Do you think co-operative learning is important for creation of an inclusive learning en-
vironment? Substantiate your answer.
3. Read a Case study of Brenda who was born blind. Refer to Guidelines for Responding
to Learner Diversity in the Classroom through CAPS (2011:8).
3.1 Which adaptations might be needed for Brenda and other learners with disabi-
lities regarding the physical layout of the classroom and school surrounding?
Consider the following:
– How and why should furniture be re-arranged?
– Which role should the teachers and Brenda’s fellow learners play to ensure
that she knows her way around the school and the classroom?
– How should the physical plant and school grounds be, to ensure complian-
ce with the specifications of the National School Infra-structure Norms,
2009, and the Environmental Access Guide, 2009? (Refer to Guidelines for
Full-service/Inclusive Schools, 2009:37).
– Which steps can be taken in an inclusive classroom to accommodate the
learner with visual impairment, hearing loss, physical impairments, and in-
tellectual barriers to learning, to create an enabling inclusive learning
environment for them? Refer to Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Lear-
ning (2010:87); Weeks, 2003.

Feedback on Activity 6.3

1. The layout will be important for possibilities of peer support and provision of
individual learner support by the teacher.
2. Yes. Co-operative learning is important because learners will be provided an
opportunity to:
– Interact with each other face-to-face
– Have equal opportunities for success
– Have individual accountability (each learner must be held responsible for
her own contribution to ensure participation).
– Practise and develop interpersonal skills and values (listen, take turns, en-
courage others, interrupt politely, etc.).
– Experience positive interdependence in that members have to work toge-
ther in order to get the result that is needed.

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3. A Case study of Brenda (Learner with visual impairment):

3.1
– Arrangement of furniture will be important to allow clear passage
to the desk and other facilities is of paramount importance for a
blind learner.
– Ensure the Brenda knows her way around the school and the class-
room, teachers and sighted pupils should lead one step ahead with
the visually impaired learner holding on to the guide’s elbow. Warn
them of obstacles such as steps and narrow doorways.
– Schools should have the necessary resources they need to create a
safe and accessible infrastructure for effective learning to take place
in the classroom and the broader school environment.
– In an inclusive class all relevant steps can be taken to accommodate
learners with various disabilities (Refer to relevant sources of infor-
mation as indicated above.)

● Creating a Psychosocial inclusive learning environment

Both psychosocial and physical aspects of the learning environment have an impact
on learners’ classroom experiences. In a large class, a hearing impaired child or
those who struggle to concentrate may experience barriers to learning because of
noise levels and seating arrangements. The teacher would have to observe and
adapt the curriculum to suit the needs of this learner (GRLD, 2011:7).
Creating a learning-friendly classroom implies enhancement of positive classroom
culture and general behaviour pattern to allow learning to take place. Unpredictable
behaviour and noise in the classroom can distress learners and become a barrier to
their learning. For the teacher to achieve a lively and ordered classroom culture that
support learning, specific attention should be given to the issue of discipline.

STOP AND THINK!

Some of the classroom behaviour and relationships between learners which the teacher
should reflect on are enlisted in the form of questions below:
● Do you keep in touch with your learners’ parents as far as possible, so that you can know
more about each learner and involve their parents in the learning?
● Do you observe learners who often disrupt the class or behave aggressively, and take
note of when or in what situations they do so?
● Do you use your knowledge of learners’ lives and learning backgrounds to consider why
they are misbehaving?
● Do you praise and encourage your learners’ positive efforts and good behaviour?
● Do you reward good behaviour in some way?
● Do you use a polite and friendly tone to learners – as a class, and as individuals?
● Do you use cooperative learning strategies regularly, so that learners get experience in
how to work together effectively?
● Do you teach learners how to resolve conflicts peacefully?

(Adapted from: Department of Education, 2013:131).

INC3701/1 85
LEARNING UNIT 6 CREATE AN ENABLING INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

To establish the genuineness of the psychosocial inclusive learning environment,

reflect on the following conditions.
Which conditions would you consider for an enabling and inclusive classroom?
Read the list of conditions below. Rank them in the order that you think are most
important for an inclusive learning environment. That is, which one must come
first, second, etc. Consider how each factor might help learners who experience
barriers to learning and why do you think so?

Conditions:
− The teacher gives steady encouragement.
− The learner learns through a language he/she feels comfortable using.
− Parents/caregivers support the learner and his/her learning.
− The teacher plans learning activities, as well as “chalk-and-talk” input.
− There are firm rules and steady routines in the classroom.
− The teacher knows all the learners: their names, backgrounds, personalities, and their
strengths and weaknesses.
− The teacher shows care and concern for all learners.
(Adapted from: Department of Education, 2013:127)

6.4 DIFFERENTIATION OF THE CURRICULUM TO ENHANCE

ACCESSIBILITY TO LEARNING
The curriculum we offer in our schools should consist of a set of planned learning
experiences, which meet the identified individual needs of our learners within the
framework of high expectations for all learners. The curriculum in an inclusive
learning environment should be adapted or modified to enhance accessibility to all
learners. An inclusive learning environment accommodates learners with barriers to
learning and development through creation of individual learning programmes
which are designed to ensure inclusion in the teaching and learning situation.
Inclusive education brings all students together in one classroom and community,
regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, and seeks to maximize their
potential through curriculum differentiation, multi-level teaching and group
learning. For you to ensure effective teaching and learning for all learners in the
classroom, it is important to consider how learning takes place. Your learners
should be able to engage actively with new learning content, for example, through
listening, seeing and touching. This implies that the curriculum content in your
lesson planning, teaching methodologies (process), assessment (product) and of
course the learning environment in a broader perspective, should be differentiated
to accommodate all the learners’ learning styles and interests.
(For more information, refer to section 4.1 of the Guidelines for Responding to Learner
Diversity in the Classroom through CAPS, 2011).

86
Create an enabling inclusive learning environment Learning unit 6

ACTIVITY 6.4
Read Guidelines for Responding to Learner Diversity in the classroom through the CAPS
(2011:4–15) in order to answer the following questions:

Look at each situation. It is an example of differentiated instruction for optimal participation

of all learners in an inclusive learning environment. Determine whether a statement
illustrates differentiation of the content, process, product; multi-level teaching, or scaffolding.
Explain your answer.
a. The teacher allows learners who finish the work early to read material of their own
choice.
b. The teacher uses a variety of activities from day to day: e.g. role-play, diagrams, mind-
maps, observation walk-about, writing personal reflections, etc.
c. In her assessment activity, the teacher works with the same content with all the lear-
ners. However, she assesses some learners against the relevant Assessment Criteria
for the previous grade, some against the AC at their own grade level and some against
the AC for the next grade.
d. Many tasks are broken up into distinct steps and smaller chunks to accommodate
learners with intellectual disabilities.
e. The teacher provides a vocabulary sheet with words and meanings before a reading
task. The words are grouped from minimum essential words through to more advan-
ced extension words.
f. The teacher sometimes gives restless learners with poor concentration a responsible
administration task to do (such as taking a message to another teacher) if they have fi-
nished a task step and can’t settle down to do the next step.

Feedback on Activity 6.4

a. The learners are getting free time instead of differentiated instruction.
b. Differentiating both content and process/multi-level teaching. The teacher is
addressing different learning styles from day to day through the varied
activities.
c. Differentiating/adapting content and product. Learners are made to target
the same Learning Outcome, but the teacher acknowledges that they are ach-
ieving it at different ability levels and aims to bring those at the lower level up
to the required level.
d. Adapting or differentiating the process (scaffolding). The strategy gives slower
learners a sense that they have achieved another step of the task. It helps to
pace their learning more manageably.
e. Differentiation of content and process. This is a teacher-friendly strategy for
supporting weaker readers but exposing all learners to all the vocabulary
levels.
f. Differentiating the process. This strategy allows learners with low concentra-
tion a sense of achievement at each step and helps to focus them usefully
when their concentration slips rather than letting them get distracted and
disruptive.
(Activity adapted from: Department of Education, 2013:111).

INC3701/1 87
LEARNING UNIT 6 CREATE AN ENABLING INCLUSIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

6.5 SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

a) Do you sometimes feel like it will be difficult for you to teach and support
learners with disabilities such as Autism, Down syndrome, intellectual disabili-
ties, etc.?
b) Besides what you have already learned in this learning unit, which other sug-
gestions can you come up with, regarding creation of an enabling inclusive
learning environment?

6.5.1 Additional strategies to create an inclusive learning environment

Additional sources of information that can help you come up with relevant answers
are the following:
● NGOs such as Autism South Africa (ASA) and South African Association for
Learning and Education Differences (SAALED).
● Down syndrome South Africa (DSSA).
These NGOs have a wide range of classroom-related literature. You may also read
Guidelines on Responding to Learner Diversity through the CAPS (2011). It has
rich information on how to teach and assess learners using differentiation and
adaptation of teaching content, method, assessment and learning environment.
Information in the box below is a brief summary of some of the suggestions on
how to improve your teaching in an inclusive setting:

Teachers should:
● Differentiate and adapt teaching content, process, and product as a way to
create an enabling inclusive learning environment.
● Use teaching experiences and activities relevant to learners’ strengths, needs,
level of functioning and interests.
● Make sure learners are involved in both individual and group activities.
● Use a range of learning environments that are clearly structured and accessible.
● Present learners with programmes of study that are broken down into small,
manageable steps against the framework of grade content.
● Encourage learners to be as independent as possible.
● Give learners opportunities to practise skills and apply these in a wide range
of situations.
● Recognise the uniqueness of each learner in context, ensuring that achieve-
ment is secured, recognised and celebrated.
(Strategies adapted from: Department of Education, 2013:28)

6.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, we focused on the importance of optimal involvement of the
learner in the context of inclusivity, adaptation or differentiation of the curriculum
to facilitate accessibility to learning, how to develop an individual support plan for
learners with barriers to learning, and various support structures in inclusive
settings.

88
Create an enabling inclusive learning environment Learning unit 6

We hope that you have found this module enriching and motivating to work with
the diverse learner population in inclusive learning situations. We wish you success
in your teaching career in inclusive education.

REFERENCES
Department of Education. 2005. Guidelines for Inclusive Learning Programmes. Republic
of South Africa. Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2009. Guidelines for Full-service/Inclusive Schools. Re-
public of South Africa. Basic Education.
Department of Basic Education. 2010. Guidelines for Inclusive Teaching and Learning.
Pretoria. www.thutong.org.za/Learningspaces/InclusiveEducation.aspx
Department of Basic Education. 2011. Guidelines for Responding to Learner Diversity in
the Classroom through CAPS. Pretoria. DBE. www. thutong. doe. gov. za/
InclusiveEducation
Department of Education. 2013. Training Programme: Guidelines for Full Service
/ Inclusive Schools. Facilitator’s Manual. Republic of South Africa. DBE.

INC3701/1 89

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