Concrete Technology Notes
Concrete Technology Notes
Concrete Technology Notes
Definition of Concrete
Cement Powder
Cement + Water Cement Paste
Cement Paste + Fine Aggregate (FA) Mortar
Mortar + Coarse Aggregate (CA) Concrete
Definition of Cement
Air entrainment
Set accelerators
Set retarders
Water reducers
Definition of Yield
Yield is the volume of fresh concrete produced from known
quantities of component materials, generally expressed in cubic
yards or cubic meters.
Advantages of Concrete
Fire resistant
On-site fabrication
Aesthetic properties.
Low maintenance.
Limitations of Concrete
Low tensile strength
Low ductility
Volume instability
Low strength-to-weight ratio
Lightweight Concrete
High-Strength Concrete
Fiber-Reinforced Concrete
Heavyweight Concrete
Mass Concrete
Roller-Compacted Concrete
The History of Concrete
Cement has been around for at least 12 million years. When the earth itself was
undergoing intense geologic changes natural cement was being created. It was this
natural cement that humans first put to use. Eventually, they discovered how to make
cement from other materials.
Limestone rock is the principal raw material, the first step after
quarrying in the processes is the primary crushing. Mountains of
rock are fed through crushers capable of handling pieces as large
as an oil drum. The first crushing reduces the rock to a
maximum size of about 15 cm (6 po). The rock then goes to
secondary crushers or hammer mills for reduction to about 7.5
cm or smaller.
3. Pyro processing
The raw material is heated to exceeding 1,450 °C (2,700 degrees
F) in huge cylindrical steel rotary kilns lined with special
firebrick. Kilns are frequently as much as 3.7 M (12 pi) in
diameter, large enough to accommodate an automobile and
longer in many instances than the height of a 40-story building.
Kilns are mounted with the axis inclined slightly from the
horizontal. The finely ground raw material or the slurry is fed
into the higher end. At the lower end is a roaring blast of flame,
produced by precisely controlled burning of powdered coal, oil
or gas under forced draft.
4. Burning and cooling
As the material moves through the kiln, certain elements are
driven off in the form of gases. The remaining elements unite to
form a new substance with new physical and chemical
characteristics. The new substance, called clinker, is formed in
pieces about the size of marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the lower end of the kiln and
generally is brought down to handling temperature in various
types of coolers. The heated air from the coolers is returned to
the kilns, a process that saves fuel and increases burning
efficiency.
Reactive Compounds
C3S (tricalcium silicate)
C2S (dicalcium silicate)
C3A (tricalcium aluminate)
CSH2 (gypsm)
C4AF (tetra-calcium alumino ferrite)
Cement Chemistry
In cement chemistry, the individual oxides and clincker
compounds are expressed by their abbreviations
Short Hand Notation
C (CaO, calcium oxide)
A (Al2O3, alumina)
S (SiO2, silica)
S (SO3, sulfate)
H (H20, water)
Reactive Compounds
C3S (tricalcium silicate)
C2S (dicalcium silicate)
C3A (tricalcium aluminate)
CSH2 (gypsm)
C4AF (tetra-calcium alumino ferrite)
Compounds of Portland Cement
Other Compounds
Magnesium Oxide, MgO
Advantages of Pozzolans
Improved Workability
Economy
Fineness
rate of hydration
rate of setting
rate of hardening
durability (ASR)
rate of carbonation during storage
cost
rate of gypsum addition
bleeding
Some waters that are not fit for drinking may be suitable
for concrete making provided that they satisfy the
acceptance criteria laid by ASTM C 94 (Tables 3.1)
Impurity Effects
Sea Water
Acid Waters
Alkaline Waters
Wash Waters
Wash waters may be reused as mixing water in
concrete if they satisfy the limits in Tables 3.1 and
3.2
Industrial Wastewaters
Industrial wastewaters may be used as mixing water
in concrete as long as they only cause a very small
reduction in compressive strength, generally not
greater than 10 % to 15 %.
Wastewaters from paint factories, coke plants, and
chemical and galvanizing plants may contain
harmful impurities. Thus such wastewaters should
not be used as mixing water without testing.
Sanitary Sewage
Aggregates Types
GRAVEL
Normal Weight
Light Weight
Heavy Weight
Classification
Coarse Aggregate (CA)
Size: 4.75 mm (3/16 in.) to 50 mm (2 in.) (retained on
No. 4 sieve)
Fine Aggregate (FA)
Size: <4.75 mm; >75 m (0.003 in.) (retained on No.
200 sieve)
Mass concrete may contain up to 150-mm ( 6
in.)
coarse aggregate.
2
5
Note: Study well pages 132, 133 and 134 in the text
book for more details.
Shape:
Round - loosing edges and corners.
Angular - well defined edges and corners.
Elongated- when length is considerably larger than
the other two dimensions.
Flaky or flat- when thickness is small relative to two
other dimensions.
Surface Texture
The degree to which the aggregate surface is
smooth or rough- (based on visual judgement).
Depends on: rock hardness, grain size, porosity,
previous exposure.
Aggregate shape and texture affect the workability of
fresh concrete through their influence on cement paste
requirements.
Durability of Aggregates
Absorption levels
Definition
A material other than water, aggregates and
hydraulic cement that is used as an ingredient in
concrete or mortar and is added to the batch
immediately before or during its mixing (ASTM
C125).
Mineral admixtures:
There are finely divided solids to improve workability,
durability, or provide additional cementing properties. (i.e.
slags, silica fume, fly ash, and pozzolans).
It's been determined that the optimum air content for frost
protection is about 9% by volume of the mortar fraction.
With respect to the concrete volume, the air content should
be in the range of 4-8% by volume. The concrete normally
has entrained air, the admixture increases the total volume
of the air voids by 3-4% of the concrete volume.
Chemical Admixtures
Water-Reducing Admixtures
These admixtures lower the water required to attain a given
slump, thus lowering the w/c ratio. This will:
Improve the strength
Improve the water tightness
Improve durability.
Alternately it may be used to maintain the same w/c ratio but
increase workability for difficult placement.
Composition
Three General Categories
1. salts and derivatives of lignosulfonates.
2. salts and derivatives of hydroxycarboxylic acids.
3. polymeric materials.
Superplasticizers
These are linear polymers containing sulfonic acid
groups.
Two major commercial formulations
1. sulfonated melamine-formaldehyde condensate; and
2. naphthalene sulfonate-formaldehyde condensate
Retarding Admixtures
Generaly used for:
1. offset effects of high temperature which can
decrease setting time.
2. avoid complications when unavoidable delays may
occur between mixing and placing.
3. Resist cracking of recently poured concrete due to
form deflection during successive pours.
The retarders slow the rate of early hydration of C3S
by extending the length of the dormant period. They
also tend to retard the hydration of C3A phases.
Accelerating Admixtures
General
These are used to increase the rate of strength gain of
the concrete.
Technical Data
Sikament 686 is a high range water reducer utilizing Sika’s ViscoCrete Technology. It’s unique formulation is based on
MSDS
polycarboxylate technology. Sikament 686 meets the requirements for ASTM C-494 Types A and F.
Sikament 711
Technical Data
Sikament 711 is a high range water reducing and superplasticizing admixturefor use in concretes and mortars formulated
to provide superior finishability. It is based on Sika’s patented ‘ViscoCrete’ polycarboxylate polymer technology. Sikament
711 meets the requirements for ASTM C-494 Types A and F.
Technical Data
Sika ViscoCrete 2100 is a high range water reducing and superplasticizing admixture utilizing Sika’s ‘ViscoCrete’
MSDS
polycarboxylate polymer technology. Sika ViscoCrete 2100 meets the requirements for ASTM C-494 Types A and F.
Technical Data
Sika ViscoCrete 2110 is a high range water reducer and superplasticizer utilizing Sika’s ViscoCrete’ polycarboxylate
MSDS
polymer technology. Sika ViscoCrete 2110 meets the requirements for ASTMC-494 Types A and F and AASHTO M-194
Types A and F.
Technical Data
Sika ViscoCrete 4100 is a high range water reducing and superplasticizing admixture utilizing Sika's 'ViscoCrete'
MSDS
polycarboxylate polymer technology. Sika ViscoCrete 4100 meets the requirements for ASTMC-494 Types A and F.
Technical Data
Sika ViscoCrete 6100 is a high range water reducing and superplasticizing admixture utilizing Sika’s ‘ViscoCrete’
MSDS
polycarboxylate polymer technology. Sika ViscoCrete 6100 meets the requirements for ASTMC-494 Types A and F.
Chapter 6
2.Mixing:
The objective of mixing which is done either by rotation
or stirring, is to coat the surface of all the aggregate
particles with cement paste, and to blend all the
ingredients of concrete to a uniform mass.
Mixing time:
The optimum mixing time depends on the type and size
of mixer, on the speed of rotation, and on the quality of
blending of ingredients during charging the mixer.
Concretes made with rounded gravels need less mixing
time than those made with angular aggregates.
Mixers:-
The usual type of mixer is a batch mixer, which means
that one batch of concrete is mixed and discharged
before any more materials are put into the mixer.
Mixing methods:-
There are several ways in which concrete from central
batching plants can be handled.
4. Pumping:-
Nowadays, large quantities of concrete can be transported
by means of pumping through pipelines over quite large
distances which are not accessible by other means. (up to
450m horizontally and 150m vertically).
General Notes:-
Pumping distances:
5. Placing:-
As far as placing is concerned, the main objective is to
deposit the concrete as close as possible to its final
position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete
can be fully compacted.
Special placement:
In this section, casting in lifts, slip forming, preplaced
aggregate, shorcreting, tremie concreting and underwater
placement will be covered.
1. Casting in lifts:
Deep placement should be cast in successive
horizontal layers or lifts.
2. Slip forming:
It is a continuous process of placing and
compacting low workability concrete.
Both horizontal and vertical slip forming is
possible, vertical slip forming is lower, requiring
formwork until sufficient strength has been
gained to support the new concrete and the form
above.
It is used in the construction of silos, chimneys,
monolithic tunnel linings, and high-rise
construction.
This arrangement will decrease the construction
time as there is no need for stripping and re-
setting.
Slip forms are in general built up of sections
which could be raised or lowered by the help of
jacks or screws.
This is done by means of arranging guiding rails
as which steel rods or pipes, well braced together
to carry the forms continuously in the required
direction.
Surfaces of forms (internal) are to be oiled before
concreting to prevent sticking or dragging of
concrete during moving the forms.
3. Preplaced aggregates:
5. Tremie Placing:
6. Underwater placement:
6. Compacting:
o Concrete should be worked to eliminate the voids
and entrapped air to consolidate the concrete into
the corners of the forms and around the
reinforcing steel.
o Nowadays, compacting or consolidating concrete
is done by vibration proper vibration allows the
use of stiffer mixes, leads to better consolidation,
and gives a better finish.
o With the use of vibration as a compaction
method, slump as little as one-third of those
consolidated by hand can be used.
o Vibration is needed for proper compaction of
concrete with less than 5cm slump.
o Over consolidation brings excess paste to the
surface, leading to extra bleeding, and causes
loss of entrained air.
o The time of vibration for proper consolidation is
about
Chapter 6: Concrete Construction Practices
Mixing
Transportation
Placement of Concrete
Chapter 7: Properties of Fresh Concrete
BLEEDING
A layer of water (~ 2 % or more of total depth of
concrete) accumulates on surface, later this
water evaporates or re-absorbed into concrete.
Methods of reducing segregation and bleed and
their effects
Chapter 7: Properties of Fresh Concrete
(cont.)
Admixtures.
This factor will be explained later
B) Curing
Curing; protection of concrete from moisture loss
from as soon after placing as possible, and for the
first few days of hardening
Curing methods
Spraying or ponding surface of concrete with
water
Admixtures.
This factor will be explained later
B) Curing
Curing; protection of concrete from moisture loss
from as soon after placing as possible, and for the
first few days of hardening
Curing methods
Spraying or ponding surface of concrete with
water
Objective
To determine the most economical and practical
combination of readily available materials to produce
a concrete that will satisfy the performance
requirements under particular conditions of use.
A
c
B1.5( w / c )
Slump
Type of Construction
(mm) (inches)
Reinforced foundation
25 - 75 1-3
walls and footings
Plain footings, caissons
25 - 75 1-3
and substructure walls
Beams and reinforced
25 - 100 1-4
walls
Building columns 25 - 100 1-4
Pavements and slabs 25 - 75 1-3
Mass concrete 25 - 50 1-2
Mixing Water Quantity in kg/m3 (lb/yd3) for the listed Nominal Maximum
Aggregate Size
9.5 mm 19 mm 37.5
12.5 mm 25 mm 50 mm 75 mm 100 mm
Slump (0.375
(0.5 in.)
(0.75
(1 in.)
mm
(2 in.) (3 in.) (4 in.)
in.) in.) (1.5 in.)
Non-Air-Entrained
Then once the volumes are know the weights of each ingredient
can be calculated from the specific gravities.