Module-3

Traffic Design and Visual aids

Importance of intersection design

 An intersection is the general area where two or more road joins or cross, within which are included
the roadway and roadside facilities for traffic movements in that area.
 At the intersection there are through, turning and crossing traffic and this traffic may be
handled in different ways depending on the type of intersection and design.

 Intersection problems are unavoidable except in case of expressways or freeways systems

where such problems are avoided by providing ‘grade separated intersection and controlled
accesses.

 The efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity of road system very much
depends on the planning and design of the intersection.

Various forms of intersection

There are different possible forms of intersection

 General guidelines and from the point of view of traffic operation and safety, it is desirable
to plan and design the road intersection with two way traffic such that intersecting legs do not
exceed four.

Classification of intersection
Intersection may be classified into two broad groups
1. Intersection at grade
2. Grade separated intersection
 I. Intersection at grade
 An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level.
 The traffic manoeuvres like merging, diverging and crossing are involved in the intersection at
grade

 The intersections at grade are further classified into following categories viz.
1. Un-channelized intersection
2. Channelized intersection
3. Rotary intersection
4. Signalized intersection

Requirements of intersection at grade

All the roads intersection which meets at about the same level allowing the traffic manoeuvres
like merging, diverging and crossing and weaving called intersection at grade.

The basic requirements of intersection at grade are:

1. At intersection the area of conflict should be as small as possible.
2. The relative speed and particularly the angle of approach of vehicles should be small.
3. Sudden change of the path should be avoided.
4. Adequate visibility should be available for vehicle approaching the intersection.
5. Geometric feature like turning radius and width of pavement should be adequately provided.

6. Proper sign should be provided on road approaching intersection to warn drivers.

7. Good lighting at night is desirable.

1. Un-channelized intersection
 In Un-channelized intersection, the entire intersection is paved and there is absolutely no
restriction to the vehicles to use any part of intersection.

 Un-channelized or paved intersection are the lowest class of intersection, easiest to

construct in the field, but most complex in traffic operations resulting in large conflicts
area and more number of accidents, unless controlled by traffic signals or police.

 This type of intersections may be adopted only on road intersection with very low traffic
volume.

 As the traffic volume increases, the intersection will have to be upgraded to a higher category
such as channelized intersection or signalized intersection.

 With no additional pavement width for turning movements is provided, it is called plain
intersection.

 When the pavement width for turning widened at the intersection area by traffic lane or more it
is known as flared intersection.
 2. Channelized intersection
 Channelized intersection is achieved by introducing island into the intersection area in
order to channelize the flow is appropriate streams.

 The channelizing island also reduces the total c o n f l i c t area available in the Un-
Channelized intersection.

 The size and shape of the channelizing islands are so designed so as to control and regulate the
approach angle and relative speed of vehicles.

 The radius of entrance and exit curves and the area are suitably designed to
accommodate the channelizing islands of proper size and shape.

The function of channelizing intersection

 Channelize the turning traffic into appropriate path.
 Control the angle of approach of vehicles coming from the different legs.
 Reduce the relative speed.
 Decrease the conflicts area at the intersection.
Advantages of channelizing intersection

 Vehicles are regulated and guided through definite paths.

 Angle of merging streams decreases the relative speed and causes minimum disruption.

 Major and minor conflict areas within the intersection can be considerably decreased.

 Speed control is established over vehicles entering the intersections.

 Refuge islands can be provided for pedestrians within the intersection area.

 Provide proper place for installation of traffic signs and other traffic control devices.

3. Rotary Intersection (Roundabout)

 A rotary intersection is an enlarged road intersection where all converging vehicles are
forced to move round a large central island in one direction (clock wise direction).
 In a rotary, the crossing of vehicle prevented by allowing all the vehicles to merge into
the traffic streams around the rotary and then to diverge out to the desired radiating
road.
 Crossing conflicts are eliminated and converted into weaving aspects.

 Weaving is the combined movement of a merging and diverging of traffic streams moving in
the same streams.
 Weaving g length is defined as the length of a section of a rotary in which weaving occurs.
Advantages of Rotary Intersections

 The main objective of providing a rotary are eliminate the necessity of stopping even for
cross streams of vehicles and to reduce the area of conflict.

 All traffic including those turning right or going straight across the rotary have equal opportunity
as those turning left.

 An orderly & regimented traffic flow is provided by rotary one-way movement.

 Normally, all traffic proceeds simultaneously & continuously at fairly uniform, though low
speed. Frequent stopping & starting are avoided.

 All turns can be made with ease, although little extra travel distance is required for all
movements except left turns.

 A rotary is especially suited for intersections legs, and /or where there are right- turning
movements.

 For moderate traffic, rotaries are self-governing & need no control by police or traffic signals.

 The possible number of accidents and severity of accidents are quite low because of low relative
speed.

 It can be constructed with advantage when the number of intersecting roads is between four and
seven.
Disadvantages of Rotary Intersections

 A rotary requires more land & may not be feasible in many built-up locations.

 Where pedestrian traffic is large, a rotary by itself is not sufficient to control traffic & has to be
supplemented by traffic police.
 When used on high speed roads, rotaries require extremely large size.

 Traffic turning right has to travel a little extra distance.

 A rotary requires many warning & directional signs for safety.

 The central island & entrances & exists must be well lighted at night. These tend to make it
costly.

 In places where there is mixed traffic and large number of cyclists and pedestrians, the design of
rotary becomes too elaborate and operation and control of traffic also become complex.

 When there are more than seven intersecting roads, rotaries are unsuitable.

Guidelines for Selecting a Rotary Type of Intersection

Following are the factor decide the selection of a rotary in a road crossing

1. Traffic volume

2. Direction of turning of traffic

3. Availability of other junctions nearby

4. Locality

1. Traffic volume

 A rotary can be selected, where the volumes entering from the various roads of the
intersection are approximately equal.

 A rotary can handle efficiently about 3 0 0 0 veh/hr entering from all intersecting
angles.
 Normally, the lowest traffic volume for which rotary treatment should be
considered is about 500 veh/hr.
2. Direction of turning traffic

 Rotaries are the best method of intersection in locations where the proportions of
right turning traffic at a junction is high.
3. Availability of other junctions nearby

 A rotary junction is suitable; where there are other road junctions are nearby that
 there would be insufficient road length for the formation of queues.
4. Locality

 Rotaries are only suitable for high traffic and these could be a good choice for
moderately busy intersections in urban and sub urban areas and also sometimes rural
areas.

 It is a good choice when there are more than four approaches to the junction.

Rotary Design Elements

a. Shape of Rotary
Rotary Island may be classified based on the shape of island structure and are as fallows
1. Circular island
2. Square island (with round edges)
3. Elliptical island (with round edges)
4. Rectangular rotary (with round edges)
5. Complex rotary (with approaches)
The shape and position of the rotary island depends on various factor such as number and the
direction of intersecting road and traffic flow pattern

1. Circular island

 A circular island is suitable for the intersection; where roads are equal importance
intersect at approximately equal angels and carry approximately equal volume of
traffic.

2. Square island (with round edges)

 Square rotary is a modified form of circular rotary and it is composed of four

straight roads (or four larger radius roads) forming four sides of a square
 A square rotary is shown in fig.
  It is suitable for predominantly straight flow.

3. Elliptical island (with round edges)

 Elliptical or elongated rotaries are provided to favor through the traffic, to suit the geometry
of the intersecting roads, or to provide a longer weaving length.

4. Rectangular rotary (with round edges)

 Rectangular rotaries are not provided in high speed roads and the land requirement
for rectangular rotary are high
 For some special cases rectangular rotaries are located.

5. Complex rotary (with approaches)

 The complex rotary is designed by an existence of a large number of approaches. The

layout of a tangent type roundabout shown in fig.
b. Design speed

 It governs various elements such as radii and weaving lengths.

 The IRC has recommended that the design speed of 40 KMPH for rotaries in rural
areas and about 30 KMPH (generally 32 KMPH) for rotaries in urban areas.
c. Radius at Entry

 The radius at entry is determined by the design speed, super elevation and coefficient of
friction.
𝑉2
R=
127𝑓

Where, f = coefficient of friction.

V = Design speed, Kmph

R = Radius of curve at the entry of the rotary
 IRC suggested 20 to 35m for 40Kmph and 15-20m for 30kmph. f value 0.43 for 40kmph
and 0.47 for 30kmph.

d. Radius at exit
 The exit radius should be higher than the radius of Rotary Island so that it favours a higher
speed by drivers.
 The general practice is to keep the radius of exit curves 1.5 to 2 times the radius of
the entry curves.
 Radius of curve at exit = 1.5 to 2 times × radius of curve at entrance
 In curve of rotary at the exit point centrifugal ratio, P/W = 02. To 0.4

e. Radius of the central island

 In practice the radius of the central island may be kept slightly larger than that of the curve
at entry. It is governed by rotary design speed.
  The value of 1.33 times the radius of entry curve is probably adequate for this purpose.
 Radius of central island = 1.33 times × radius of curve at entrance

f. Entry and Exit angles

 The entry angle should be 60° if possible.

 The exit angle should be 30° if possible.
 The exit angle should be small, even tangential.

g. Weaving angle and weaving lengths

 For smooth flow of traffic, the weaving angle should be small but not less than 150.

 The weaving length determines the ease with which the traffic can merge and diverge.

 The weaving length is decided on the basis of factors such as width of weaving section, the
average width of entry, total traffic and proportion of weaving traffic.

 Twice the values given below can serve as the upper limit.
Minimum length of weaving section
Design speed, Kmph Minimum weaving length, m
40 45
30 30

h. Width of Carriageway At Entry And Exit

 Width of Carriageway at Entry and Exit of a rotary is governed by the movement of traffic
entering and leaving the rotary.

 Minimum width of carriage way of 5m, with provision for extra widening due to
curvature may be provided for entrance and exit.

Carriageway width of the Radius of entry (m) Width of carriageway at

approaching road entry and exit (m)
7 m (2 lane) 6.5
10.5 m (3 lane) 7.0
25-35 m
14 m (4 lane) 8.0
21 m (6 lane) 13
7 m (2 lane) 7
10.5 m (3 lane) 7.5
15-25 m
14 m (4 lane) 10
21 m (6 lane) 15
 i. Width of Rotary Carriageway

Width of Rotary Carriageway consists of 2 groups

1. Width of weaving section

2. Width of non-weaving section

1. Width of weaving section

 The width of the weaving section of rotary should be one traffic lane width (equal to

3.5 m) wider than the main entry width.

 Width of weaving section,

𝑒1+𝑒2
W= + 3.5
2

Where,
e1 = width of entry, m
e2 = width of non-weaving section, m
2. Width of non-weaving section
 The width of non-weaving section of the rotary should be equal to the widest single
entry into the rotary and generally it should be less than the width of the weaving
section.
j. Grades
 Gradient should not exceed 2 %. (For extraordinary condition, gradient is provided).

k. Sight distance
 Sight distance for the speed of about 30 KMPH to 40KMPH should be vary from 30-
45 m.
l. Capacity of rotary intersection
 Capacity of rotary is directly determined by the capacity of the weaving section.
 The capacity of weaving section is determined by geometric layout, including entrances
and exits, and percentage of weaving traffic.
 The Transport and Road research laboratory (U.K) recommends the following
formula.
𝑒 𝑝
280𝑤(1+ )(1− )
𝑤 3
Qp = 𝑤
1+
𝑙
Where,
Qp = practical capacity of the weaving section of the rotary in passenger car units.
W= width of the weaving section in meters (within the range of 6-18m)
E = avg. entry width of the rotary in meters = (e1+e2)/2
 L= length of the weaving section between the ends of the channelization islands in meters.

P = proportion of weaving traffic, i.e. Ratio of sum of crossing streams to the total traffic
on the weaving section. = (b+c)/(a+b+c+d)

a = left turning traffic moving along left extreme lane

d = right turning traffic moving along right extreme lane

b = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards right while entering the rotary

c = crossing/weaving traffic turning towards left while leaving the rotary

4. Signalized intersections
 Intersections at grade that are controlled by traffic signals are called signalized intersections.
 The main objectives of signal control in intersections at grade are to
i. prevent traffic conflicts
ii. Reduce accidents
iii. Minimize overall delay
iv. Economies on time spent by police personnel on traffic control.
 II. Grade separated intersection (interchanges)
 Grade separated intersection (interchanges) are the arrangements of taking one road over (or
under) the road by means of a bridges.
 These separations are also called as flyover junction.

 Grade separated intersection generally higher cost and cause less delays and hazard to the crossing traffic

 It is superior to intersection at grade from point of view of traffic safety, operation and capacity.

 In case of Grade separated intersection without ramps, a bridge structure is used to reduce the
conflict areas.

 Transfer of routes at grade separation are provided by interchange facilities consisting of

interchange ramps.

 Interchange ramps are classified as

i. Direct: It involves diverging to right side and merging from right both manoeuvres involve
conflict through traffic and it is not free from conflict.

ii. Semi-direct: It allows diverging to left but merging is from right side thus merging
manoeuvres from right side causes conflict through traffic.

iii. Indirect: It allows diverging to the left and merging from left. Both manoeuvres are
simple and least hazardous and free from major conflicts and distance is more.

Types of Grade – Separated Intersection

Basically two types are met with:

1. Grade – Separated intersections without interchange.

2. Grade – Separated intersections with interchange.

Interchange is a system whereby facility is provided for movement of traffic between two or
more roadways at different levels in the grade separated junction. A structure without interchange
is an over bridge or underpass or flyover, whereby the traffic at different levels moves separately
without a provision for an interchange between them.
The different forms of a grade-separated junction can be considered under the number of legs the
intersection serves. Thus the interchanges can be classified as three-leg & multi leg, & these in
turn can be sub-divided into various types as below:
 Three –leg interchange
1. T interchange

2. Y interchange
3. A partial rotary interchange

 Four leg interchange

1. Diamond interchange

2. Half clover leaf interchange

 3. Clover leaf interchange

4. Directional interchange

5. Rotary interchange.

 Multi – leg interchange

1. Rotary interchange.

Four way interchange

 This type of interchanges includes the Diamond and cloverleaf interchanges.
 Cloverleaf is used at the junctions of high speed traffic and heavy volume traffic.
 It require larger area of land.
Following are the two methods of cloverleaf interchange
1. Half cloverleaf interchange
2. Full cloverleaf interchange

Half cloverleaf interchange

 When major road crosses minor road (of less than 3) it is possible to provide a half
cloverleaf interchange.

 There are two types of designs are given in the following figure.

Full cloverleaf interchange

 The cloverleaf interchange is a four leg interchange with a single structure and very
popular.

 It is used when high volume and high speed facilities intersect each other.
Advantages of cloverleaf
 Through traffic on both sides.
 Only one structure is required.

 Left turning traffic has direct path.

 It is very simple to use and does not confuse the driver.
Disadvantages of cloverleaf
 Relatively large area is required.
 The carriageway area required is also higher than a rotary interchange.
 The waving capacity is limited to about 1200 PCUs/ hr.
 The U-turns are long and operationally difficult.
 Right turning traffic has to travel extra distance.
 Loop design speed have to be low and speed above 50 KMPH are likely to
increase the cost.

 The capacity of the loop is also limited. A capacity of 300-1200 veh/ hr is almost limit.
Diamond interchange

Type of interchange Approximate area of land required (in acres)

Diamond 7

fly-over 10

Trumpet 12

Half cloverleaf 18

 This is the most common type of interchange in the urban areas and the crossing of
major- minor roads.

 It can be designed for relatively narrow Right of way from the major roads.

 When two parallel cross streets are to be connected with a main road, split
diamond interchange may be provided.

 Diamond interchanges are more suitable to intersections of major and minor roads.
 It consists of bridge with four one-way ramps.
  The requirement of this interchange is generally less than the area required for
cloverleaf system.

Advantages of grade separation

 The roads are separated at two levels, there is no crossing conflict. Hence it provides the
highest road safety to the vehicles at junctions.
 It reduces the problem of traffic congestion during peak hours.
 It can increases the convenience and comfort to the users.

 It permits the large volume of traffic to move easily and smoothly at the running or
design speed.

Disadvantages of grade separation

 It is very costly to construct and to maintain.
 It requires considerably area of land.
 In plain or flat terrain, it may introduce undesirable crests and rags in the vertical
alignment.

Pedestrian facilities
1. Footways
For safety of pedestrian, separate footways should be provided alongside of carriageway of urban
streets. They should be provided on either side of the road and should preferably be raised above the
general carriageway level. To attract full use by pedestrians, they should be properly surfaced or
paved. They should be sloped adequately to drain away the rain water cross falls within the range of
1 in 40 to 1 in 30 are satisfactory.
The width of footpaths as per current U.K practice as shown in table
 Capacity of footpath as per recommended IRC are given in table

2. Pedestrian bridges and subways

The flow should not normally exceed 20 persons per 300 mm width per minute on level or up
to 1 in 20 gradient and 14 persons per 300 mm width per minute on stairs or ramps steeper
than slope of 1 in 20. A dead width of 0.75 m is usually allowed adjoining any display windows in
sub-ways.

Design criteria for separate cycle tracks

Segregation of cycle tracks promotes safety. In view of large number if cyclist on the streets of
Indian towns and cities, it is desirable that separate cycle tracks be provided wherever feasible.

General considerations for the design of separate cycle tracks are:

1. Preferably cycle tracks should be provided on both sides of the roads.

2. They should be separate from the main carriageway be a verge or berm, which should be
preferably 0.5-1.0 m wide.

3. Cycle tracks should be constructed and maintained with care and should have good riding
qualities. Black topped and concrete surfaces provide smooth riding qualities, whereas
WBM and earthen tracks are not inviting for the cyclists to ride upon.
4. The tracks should be clear from obstructions such as hedges, ditches trees roots, kerbs etc.
by at least 0.5 m.

Traffic signals

 Traffic signals are automatic traffic control devices which could alternatively direct the traffic to

stop and proceed at intersections using red and green traffic lights as per pre-determined time settings.

 The main requirements of traffic signal are

i. Draw attention of the road users

ii. Enable road users to understand the meaning of light signal

iii. Provide sufficient time to respond

 iv. Ensure minimum waste of time

Definitions and notations

A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are discussed below:
1. Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
2. Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full cycle
of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of green for one approach till
the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
3. Interval: It indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of intervals -
change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates
the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach. Clearance interval is
also called all red is included after each yellow interval indicating a period during which all
signal faces show red and is used for clearing the vehicles in the intersection.
4. Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.
5. Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
6. Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non-convicting movements are assigned into each phase. It allows a
set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of movements
start.
7. Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the driver
of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the signal
(usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here before he moves.
8. Saturation flow: It is a very traffic performance measure of the maximum rate of flow of traffic.
It is used extensively in signalized intersection control and design. Saturation flow describes
the number of passenger car units (pcu) in a dense flow of traffic for a specific intersection
lane group. In other words, if an intersection’s approach signal were to stay green for an entire
hour and the flow of traffic through this intersection were as dense as could be expected,
the saturation flow rate would be the amount of passenger car units that passed through
this intersection during that hour.

Advantages of traffic signals

 Provide orderly movement of traffic at the intersection.
 The quality of traffic flow is improved and all the vehicles move at approximate same speed.
 Reduction in accidents due to conflict.
  Traffic handling capacity is highest among types of intersection at grade.
 Pedestrians can cross the road safely at signalized intersections.
 When signal system is properly coordinated, there is reasonable speed along the major road traffic.
 It works out to be more economical compared to manual control.

Disadvantages of traffic signals

 The rear end collision may increase.
 Improper design and location of signals lead to violations of the control system.
 Failure of traffic signals due to electric power failure or any other defect may cause confusion
to road users.
 The variation in vehicle arrivals on the approach roads may cause increase in waiting time on
one of the roads.

Warrants in the signals:

The IRC has laid down the following warrants; one or more must be met with before signals can be
installed.

Warrant 1: Minimum vehicular volume: the traffic volume on the major street for each of
any 8 hours of an average day should be equal to the values given below.

Warrant 2: Interruption of continuous traffic: the traffic volume on the major street and the
higher volume minor street for each of any 8 hours of an average day should be equal to the
values given below.

Warrant 3: Minimum pedestrian volume: for each of any 8 hours of an average day the following
traffic volume must exist:

i. On the major street, 600 or more vehicles per hour enter the intersection (both
approach) or where there is a raised median island 1.2 m or more in width, 1000 or
more vehicles per hour(both direction) enter the intersection.

ii. During the same 8 hours as in (i) above, there are 150 or more pedestrians per hour on the
highest volume cross-walk crossing the major street.

Warrant 4: The accident experience warrant is satisfied when:

i. Five or more reported accidents, of types susceptible of correction by traffic signal control
have occurred within a period of 12 months, each accident involving personal injury or
property damage to an apparent extent of Rs.2000 or more.

Warrant 5: Combinations of warrants when no signal warrant is satisfied, but the two or
more warrants of 1, 2 or 3 above are satisfied to the extent of 80 percent or more of the stated
volume.
Types of traffic signals

a) Traffic control signals

i. Fixed time signals

ii. Vehicle actuated signals (Traffic actuated signals)

b) Pedestrian signals

c) Special traffic signals

a. Traffic control signals

 They have three colored lights which glow facing each direction of traffic flow namely

red, amber and green.

 The red light is meant for stop, green light for go and amber or yellow light allows clearance

time for vehicles which enter the intersection area by the end of green time to clear off

the intersection before changeover to red signal light.

i. Fixed time signals

 It keeps repeating the same set of signal phases and the signal cycle time that has been set

in the signal controller.

 It functions satisfactorily at locations where there is no significant variation in traffic flow

on different approach roads.

 These are simplest and cheapest type of automatic traffic signals which are electrically operated.

 The main drawback of this method is the traffic on the cross road have to wait at red phase

even there is no traffic on the main road.

Advantages

 Simple in construction.

 Relatively inexpensive.

 Most successfully used in linked system requiring fixed cycle length.

Disadvantages

 Inflexible and cause available delay.

 Require careful setting.

ii. Vehicle actuated signals (Traffic actuated signals)

 In this timing of phase and cycle are changed according to the traffic demand.

 The green phase may be extended upto a certain period of time for allowing few more vehicles

to clear off the intersection with the help of detectors installed at the approaches on the basis
 of demand and pre-determined programming.

 These are very costly to be installed at all intersections.

Advantages

 Flexible and able to adjust to changing traffic conditions automatically.

 Delay is minimum.

 Maximum capacity is achieved.

Disadvantages

 Require costly equipments such as detectors.

 Cannot provide signal co-ordination.

Difference between Fixed time signals and Vehicle actuated signals

Fixed time signals Vehicle actuated signals

1. Green duration and cycle lengths are of 1. Green period and cycle length vary to
fixed duration. the actual demand.

2. Relatively inexpensive. 2. Expensive.

3. Inflexible and causes avoidable delay. 3. Flexible and reduces delay.

4. Don’t require careful setting. 4. Require careful setting.

5. Unable to adjust to changing traffic 5. Able to adjust to changing traffic

conditions automatically conditions automatically

b. Pedestrian signals

 It may be installed at the intersections controlled by traffic signals to enable the pedestrians to

Safely cross the specified roads.

 Pedestrians signals and their timings are interlinked to operate along with traffic control signals.

c. Special traffic signals

 It may be installed at certain locations in order to warn the traffic of certain situations.

 At flashing red signals, the drivers of vehicles shall stop before entering the nearest cross walks

at intersections and flashing yellow signals are meant to drivers may proceed with caution.
Methods of designing traffic signals
1. Trial cycle method
2. Approximate method
3. Webster’s method
4. IRC guidelines method.

Trial cycle method:

1. The 15 minutes traffic counts n1 and n2 on the road 1 and 2 are noted during the
design peak hour flow.

2. Some suitable trial cycle C1 seconds is assumed and the number of the assumed cycles in the
15 minutes is found to be (15 x 60)/ C1 equal to 900/ C1.

3. Assuming an average time head way of 2.5 sec, the green periods G1 and G2 of roads
1 and 2 are calculated
4. Determine the green time G1 = ( 2.5 n1 C1 )/900 and G2 = ( 2.5 n2 C2 )/900
5. The amber periods A1 and A2 are either calculated or assumed suitably (3 to 4 sec) and the
trial cycle is calculated, C 1 = (G1+G2+A1+A2) sec.

6. If the calculated C1 is approximate to assumed C1, this cycle length is accepted as the design
cycle.

Approximate method:
1. Based on pedestrian walking speed of 1.2 m per second and the road way width of each
approach road, the minimum time for the pedestrian to cross each road is also calculated.
2. Total pedestrian crossing time is taken as minimum pedestrian crossing time + initial interval
for pedestrians to start crossing, which should not be less than 7 sec and during this
period when the pedestrians will be crossing the road, the traffic signal shall indicate
red or stop.
3. The red signal time is also equal to the minimum green time + amber time for the
traffic of the cross road.

4. The actual green time needed for the road with higher traffic is than increased in proportion
to the ratio of approach volumes of the two roads in vehicles per hour per lane.

5. Based on approach speed of the vehicles, the suitable clearance interval between green
and red period i,e. Amber periods are selected. The amber periods may be taken as 2, 3 or
4 seconds for low, medium and fast approach roads.

6. The cycle length so obtained is adjusted for the next higher five second interval; the extra
 time is than distributed to green timings in proportion to the traffic volumes.

7. The timings so obtained are installed in the controller and the operations are than
observed at the site during peak traffic hours; modifications in signal timings are
carried out if needed

Webster’s method:
1. In this method, optimum single cycle time (Co) corresponding to the least total delay
to the vehicles at the intersection (with signal) has been worked out. This is a rational method
and the field study for this method consists of the following.

a. The saturation flow ‘S’ per unit time

b. The normal flow, on its approach during the design hour
2. Based on the higher value on the normal flow and the ratio y1= q1/s1 and y2 = q2/s2 are
determined on the approach road 1 and approach road 2.
3. Saturation flow (S) rate is defined as the number of vehicles per hour that could cross the
line, if the signal remained green all the time. It is not practical to measure this quantity
directly, because the signal does not usually remains green for more than a minute or on
each cycle.

4. In case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to convert all the normal flow and saturation
flow values in terms of suitable PCU values which should be determined separately.

5. The saturation flow ‘S’ is to be calculated from the detailed field studies by counting
the number of vehicles in the traffic flow of compact flow, during the green phase and
the corresponding time intervals.

6. In the absence of data, the approximate value of the saturation flow is estimated by assuming
160 PCU per 0.3 m width of the approach. The normal flow of the traffic is also
determined on the approach roads from the field studies for the design period Optimum
cycle time, Co = (1.5L + 5)/(1-Y)
Where,
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = 2n+R
n = is the number of phases
R = all red time or red amber time; (all red time may also be provided for pedestrian crossing)
Y = y1 +y2
Here,
y1 = q1/s1 and y2 = q2/s2
Then,
G1 = y1(Co-L)/Y and G2 = y2(Co-L)/Y.
Design method as per IRC guidelines:
1. The pedestrian green time required for the major and minor roads are calculated
based on walking speed of 1.2 m per second and initial walk time of 7.0 sec. These
are the minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on the minor and major roads
respectively.
2. The green time required for the vehicular traffic on the major road is increased in proportion
to the traffic on the two approach roads.

3. The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 seconds each.
4. The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle is
determined for each lane of the approach road assuming that the first vehicle will
take 6.0 second and the subsequent vehicles or the PCU of the queue will be cleared
at a rate of 2.0 seconds. The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any of
the approaches is limited to 16 seconds.

5. The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using Webster’s formula. The saturation values
may be assumes as given below. And for width above 5.5 m the saturation flow may
be assumed as 525 PCU per hour per meter width. The lost time is calculated from the
amber time; inter green time and the initial delay of 4.0 sec for the first vehicle on
each leg.
6. The signal cycles time and the phases may be revised keeping in view the green time
required for clearing the vehicles and the optimum cycle length determined it steps 4
and 5 above.

Co-Ordinated Control of Signals:

Need: When it is desirable to reduce delays and avoid main traffic from having to stop at every
junction. When a signal indicates a stop aspect at a junction, a queue of vehicles is formed behind
the stop line. When the signal changes to green, the vehicles start to move in a stretch. If this
stretch is made to meet a green aspect at the next junction no delay is caused to the vehicles. This
principle of linking adjacent signals so as to secure maximum benefits to the flow of traffic is
called coordinated control of signals.

Objectives:
 To pass maximum rate of traffic without any halts.
 Keep minimum overall delay in traffic streams.
 To prevent the queue of vehicles at one intersection from extending and reaching the next
intersection.
Types of Coordinated Signal System:
1. Simultaneous system, also known as Synchronized system.
2. Alternate system or Limited progressive system.
3. Simple progressive system.
4. Flexible progressive system.

Simultaneous system: In this system all the signals along a given street always display the same
indication to the same traffic stream at the same time. The division of the cycle time is the same at
all intersections. A master controller is employed to keep the series of signals in step.
The disadvantages of this system are
 It is not conductive to give continuous movement of all vehicles.
 It encourages speeding of drivers between stops.
 The overall speed is often reduced.
 The division of cycle time is same at all intersections.

Alternate system: In this system consecutive signal installation along a given road show
contrary indications at the same time. This permits the vehicles to travel one block in half the cycle
length. This system operates efficiency where the blocks are of equal lengths. It also brings out a
certain measure of speed control since speeding drivers are stopped at each signal.
The disadvantages of this system are

 The green times for both main and side streets are equal, results inefficiency at
intersections.

 Where block lengths are unequal, the system is not well suited.

 Adjustments are difficult for changing the traffic conditions.

Simple progressive system: In this system the various signals along a street display green aspects in
accordance with a time schedule to permit as nearly as possible. Continuous operations of group of
vehicles along the street at a planned rate of motion.

Flexible progressive system: In this system the cycle time may vary and division at each signal
depending upon traffic. It is possible to introduce flashing or shutdown during off-peak hours. This
system is an improvement over the simple progressive system with the following provisions.

 It is possible to vary the cycle time and division at each signal depending upon traffic.

 It is possible to vary the offset, thus enabling two or more completely different plans.

 It is possible to introduce flashing or shut down during off peak hours.

Traffic signs
Importance:
 Gives timely warning of hazardous situations.
 Helps in regulating the traffic by imparting messages to the drivers.

 Gives information to routes and directions.

General principles of traffic signing:
 Should be installed only by authority of law.

 Proper enforcement measures should be undertaken f o r better sense of respect towards

signs.
 Installed only after traffic engineering studies.
 Excessive use of signs should not be restored to.

 Meet the basic requirements. Such as, high visibility in night and day, letters and
symbols are adequate size and spacing, location at a conspicuous position to be able
to be seen by drivers.

Types of traffic signs:

a) Warning signs, also known as Danger signs or cautionary signs.
b) Regulatory signs.
1. Prohibitory signs.
2. Mandatory signs.
c) Information signs.
1. Indication signs.
2. Advance direction signs and direction signs.
3. Place and route identification signs.
Warning signs:
 Used when it is necessary to warn traffic of existing or potentially hazardous condition
on or adjacent to a highway.

 Helps in ensuring safety of traffic.

 It should kept minimum, because their unnecessary use tends to breed disrespect for
all signs.

 An equilateral triangle with one point upwards. The side of the triangle as per the IRC
standard is 900mm, for a standard size of 600 mm, for a reduced size. These signs have a
red border and the symbols indicated are black colour against a white background.

Prohibitory signs:
 These are a part of regulatory signs, and inform to highway users of traffic laws or
 regulations.

 Gives definite negative instructions prohibiting the motorists from making particular
operations.

 Movement prohibition; such as turns, entry, overtaking, one way traffic, etc.
 Waiting restriction signs; such as prohibited waiting, etc.

 Restriction on dimensions; such as weight or speed of vehicle.

 As per IRC standards these are circular shape, with a diameter of 0.6m of standard size,
and 0.4 m of reduced size. Red border. Background colour of white for speed control, blue
for waiting and parking. The symbols are black in colour for prohibitory signs and white in
colour for direction control signs.

Mandatory signs:
 These are a part of regulatory signs, and are intended to convey definite positive instructions.

 The two most important mandatory signs are the 1. STOP sign and 2. YIELD or GIVE
WAY sign.

 STOP sign: shape of octagon with a white border and red background, sides are 900 mm
standard size, and 600 mm reduced size. Used when

 Intersection of a less important road with a main road.

 Street entering a through highway.
 Unsignalised intersection
 Other intersections where a combination high speed, restricted view, serious
accident records, indicates a need for control by the stop sign.

 Should not be used for speed control, on expressways, at signalized intersections.

 GIVE WAY sign: downward pointing equilateral triangle having a red border and a white
background. Sides are 900 mm of standard size, and 600mm long of reduced size.

 Used when

 On a minor road at the entrance of intersection.

  On the entrance ramp to an expressway.
 Within an intersection with a divided highway.

 Should not be used to control the major flow of traffic at an intersection, on the
expressways, etc.

Information signs:
 These are intended to guide the motorist along streets and highways, to inform him of
intersecting routes, to direct him to cities, towns, villages and other important
destinations, to identify nearby rivers and streams, parks, forests and historical sites,
and generally to give him such information’s.

 Size of letter depends on type of signs, for advance direction signs on rural roads the letter
size may be 8 to 15 cm. In urban areas 8 to 10 cm. For overhead signs 20 to 25 cm, the
numerical slightly higher 25 to 30 cm.

Indication signs:
 They provide information of facilities such as hospital, filling station, telephone, eating
place, rest house, first aid post etc. Rectangular in shape as per IRC standards the size of
600 mm x 450 mm with a black symbol, against a white rectangle and blue background.

Advance direction signs and direction signs:

 Direction signs indicate the name of the place and are rectangular in shape,
terminating in the form of an arrow head

 Advance direction signs are necessary at intersections of roads. They are rectangular
in shape.

 Overhead signs are provided at locations where the following considerations exist
  Traffic volume at or near capacity.
 Complex interchange.
 Multi-lane exits.
 High speed traffic.
 Right exit ramps, etc.

Route identification signs:

 It consists of a shield painted on a rectangular plate 450 mm x 600 mm. The sign has a
yellow background and the lettering and border are in black

Route identification signs

VARIABLE MESSAGE SIGNS (VMS):

  Also known as Dynamic message signs (DMS).
 This displays information it can be changed whenever needed by means of remote control at
a location.

 Gives traveler information such as severe weather conditions, incident notification,

congestion, travel time between destinations.

 VMS display board uses high intensity LEDs, generally yellow in colour.

 The size of the letter is 380 to 400 mm.

Significant Roles of Traffic Control Personnel

Traffic Controller’s Responsibilities

Accredited traffic controllers have the following responsibilities

1. Safety of the traffic controller (self);

2. Safety of fellow workers;

3. Safety of motorists and other road users;

4. Enabling works at the site to be conducted safely by minimizing the

risk associated with traffic movement;
5. Maintaining traffic control in emergencies and other difficult
situations; and
6. Minimizing delays to traffic.

Applications

When required by the volume of traffic or the conditions at the worksite, the
supervisor may arrange for traffic controllers to control the movement of traffic in the
following situations
1. On bituminous surfacing works being carried out under traffic;

2. Where one lane of a two-lane two-way road or bridge is closed (unless

traffic signal control is used);
3. Where any of the conditions for the creation of worksite speed limits
exists but such speed limits are not being adhered to;
4. Where blasting works are being carried out on or adjacent to trafficked
roads;
5. Where construction machinery regularly crosses or enters an existing
road;
 6. Where sight distance to the worksite is limited;

7. In emergencies;

When considering the volume of traffic, the following factors must be taken into account:
1. Safety of the workers at the site;

2. Safety of the public at the site;

3. The duration of work;

4. Site conditions and layout; and

5. Personnel available.

ROAD MARKINGS:
Road markings are used as a means of controlling and guiding traffic. They are highly
important on roads and intersections. They also serve to supplement the messages conveyed by
road signals and signs.

Types of road marking:

1) Carriage way marking
2) Object marking.

Carriage way marking:

1. Centre line.
2. Traffic lane lines.
3. No-overtaking zone markings.
4. Pavement edge lines.

5. Carriage way width reduction marking.

6. Obstruction approach markings.
7. Stop lines.
8. Pedestrian crossings.
9. Cyclist crossing.
10. Route direction arrows.
11. Word messages.
12. Marking at approaches ti intersection.
13. Parking space limits.
14. Bus stops.
Object marking:
1. Objects within the carriage way.
2. Kerb marking for visibility.

3. Kerb marking for parking restriction.

4. Objects adjacent to the carriage way.

Principles of longitudinal pavement markings:

 Solid lines are restrictive in nature and it is an offence tp cross or straddle such a line.

 Broken lines are restrictive in character and vehicle can cross such a line provided this can be
done with safety.

 When a combination of a solid line and broken line is used, where the traffic moves to
left, a vehicle should not cross the continuous line adjacent to and to the left of a
broken line on the right of the lane in which it is moving.

 Double lines indicate maximum restrictions.

Material and colour:

 Paint is used for marking hot applied thermoplastic paints, which are now a day’s specified
for roads. Improved night visibility is obtained by the use of minute glass beads
incorporated in the markings to produce a retro-reflective surface.

 Pre-fabricated sheet materials, glue down plastic strips, metal and plastic inserts and road
studs.

 White and yellow colors are used, the colors as per Indian standards are given in below
table.

Colour Uses

White All carriage way markings except those intended for parking

restrictions.
Yellow 1. Marking intended for parking restrictions

2. Continuous centre and barrier line markings

Alternate bands of white and Kerb and object marking.
black
Centre lines: It is provided to demarcate the centre of a carriageway and to separate traffic in
opposite directions.

Traffic lane lines: The division of carriage way into separate lanes for traffic travelling in the
same direction, thus promoting safety and ensuring maximum capacity. Traffic lane lines are broken
lines which permit lane changing with caution.
No Overtaking zone markings: These are provided on summit curves, horizontal curves and
elsewhere in two and three lane highways where overtaking and passing manoeuvres must be
prohibited. The combination lines of a double line the left hand element of which shall be a solid
barrier line. Right hand line is normal broken centre line.

Pavement edge lane: It is used to indicate the edges of carriage ways which have no kerbs. It
indicates to driver’s limits up to which they can drive safely. They are very useful in adverse weather
condition. Edge lines are in the form of a single continuous line placed out 15 cm from the edge.
The width of the line is 15-20 cm.

Carriage width reduction marking: Reduction in the carriage way width is made known by a
combination of carriage way markings and road signs.
Obstruction approach marking: It is necessary to guide traffic on the approach to fixed obstructions
within the carriageway. The marking must be designed to guide the traffic away from the obstruction.

Stop lines: Solid white lines provided transversely to the carriage way and used to indicate the
point behind which vehicles are required to stop in compliance with a STOP sign, traffic signal or
traffic police. The width of the stop line as per Indian standards is urban and sub- urban roads 20 cm
and for rural roads is 30 cm.

Pedestrian crossing: These are very important for pedestrian safety and to guide in proper way. Marked at
all intersections also provided at non-intersectional locations. As per Indian standards minimum width of
pedestrain crossing should be 2 m and maximum of 4 m.
Cyclist crossings: Cyclist crossings should have the same width as cycle tracks. They are marked by
means of 50 cm x50 cm at a centre to centre spacing of 100 cm.

Route direction arrows: Used to guide effectively the traffic in the correct direction and lanes.

Word messages: Used to convey information to guide, warn and regulate traffic. Some of the
common messages used are STOP, SLOW, SPEED 25 etc.

Marking at approaches to intersections: For orderly and guided traffic movement at

intersection, markings can be profitably employed. Markings at intersections can be a combination
of centre lines, turn markings, and stop lines, route direction arrows.

Parking space limits: The delineation of the parking space limits promotes more efficient
use of the parking spaces and helps in preventing encroachment on five hydrant zones, but
stops loading zones and locations where parking of vehicles will be undesirable.
Object marking:
Obstructions in the carriage way are marked by altering black and white strips, sloping down
at an angle of 450 towards the side of the obstruction on which traffic passes.