6.

Crop voyage in India and world

Description of Indian civilization and agriculture by travelers from
China, Europe and USA

Indus valley civilization: Allchins, relying on Lambrick, who, according to them, had
personal knowledge of Sind, describe as follows how crops were grown in the riverain tract
of the Indus. "The principal food grains, that is wheat and barley, would have been grown as
spring (rabi) crops: that is to say, sown at the end of the inundation upon land which had
been submerged by spill from the river or one of its natural flood channels, and reaped in
March or April. The Greek writers highly praised the fertility of Indian soil and favourable
climate condition describing the principal agricultural products of the land. The Greek writers
also affirm that India has a double rainfall and the Indians generally gather two harvests. -
Megasthenes witnesses - the sowing of wheat in early, winter rains and of rice, 'bosporum',
sesamum and millets in the summer solstice (Diodorus, II, 36). Megasthenes adds further to
the winter crops, viz., "wheat, barley, pulse and other esculent fruits unknown to us".
The Chinese pilgrim Hsieun Tsang who arrived at the monastic University of
Nalanda in 630 A.D. mentioned the gardening as: "The temple arose into the mists and the
shrine halls stood
high above the clouds . . . streams of blue water wound through the parks; green lotus flowers
sparkled among the blossoms of sandal trees and a mango grove spread outside the
enclosure."
Protection of cultivators: Sher Shah had genuine concern for the peasantry and safety of
their crops. One of the regulations made by Sher shah was this: That his victorious standards
should cause no injury to the cultivations of the people; and when he marched he personally
examined into the state of the cultivation, and stationed horsemen round it to prevent people
from trespassing on any one`s field. As regards the peasantry and their condition, there is
reliable evidence in the observations of the European travellers who travelled in India in the
seventeenth century. Evidence of the structure of the Mughal gardens and plants grown in
them is in the Persian classics illustrated during the reign of Akbar. Among them is Diwan-i-
Anwari, a collection of poems by the Persian poet Anwari, who flourished in the latter part of
twelfth century. It contains some excellent paintings on gardens and gardening. Abu-l-Fazl
mentions three kinds of sugarcane, viz. paunda, black and ordinary. Abu-l-Fazl provides a
list of twenty-one fragrant flowering plants along with the colour of their flowers and the
season of flowering in the AiniAkbari. Terry, an English traveler, writes, ‗The country was
abounding with musk-melons. One could also find water-melons, pomegranates, lemons,
oranges, dates, figs, grapes, coconut, plantains, mangoes, pineapples, pears, apples, etc.‘
Terry also mentions the use of coffee by some people. He writes, ‗Many religious people
drank a ―wholesome liquor‖ which they called coffee. Black seeds were boiled in water,
which also become black. It altered the taste of water very little. It quickened the spirit and
cleansed the blood.

Francois Bernier: Of the European travelers who come to India during the Mughal rule, the
most intelligent and learned was Francois Bernier a Frenchman. Bernier gives a vivid
description of Bengal its landscape people and its plant and animals products. With extensive
fields of rice, sugar, corn, three or four sorts of vegetables, mustured, seasems for oils and
small mulberry trees two or three feet (61 to 91 cm) in height, for the food of silk worms.

Meadows Taylor states ―The Bahmanis constructed irrigation works in the eastern
provinces, which incidentally did good to the peasantry while primarily securing the crown
revenue. Vincent Smith points out that those items to their credit weigh lightly against the
wholesale devastation wrought by their credit weight lightly against the wholesale
devastation wrought by their wars, massacres, and burnings. Their rule was harsh and showed
little regard for the welfare of Hindu peasants, who were seldom allowed to retain the fruits
of their labour much more than would suffice to keep body and soul together.

Herodotus (484-425 BC) the father of history reported in his writings that the wild Indian
(cotton) trees possessed in their fruits fleeces, superseding those of sheep in beauty and
excellence from which the natives used to weave cloth. Herodotus further wrote that ―trees
which grow wild in India and the fruit of which bear wool exceeding in beauty and fineness
that of sheep wool Indians make their clothes with this tree wool‖. Some traveller writers
fabricated stories of a lamb sitting inside the fruit. Marco Pola, a Venetian, who traveled
widely throughout the Asia in AD 1290 said that the coast of Coromandel (Madras, India)
produced the finest and most beautiful cotton in the world. Indian cloth, particularly the
Dacca muslin was renowned all over the world and has been described as ‗webs of woven
wind‘ by oriental poets. It was so fine that it could hardly be felt in the hands. It is said that
when such muslins were laid on the grass to bleach and the dew had fallen, it was no longer
visible. A whole garment made from it could be drawn through a wedding ring of medium
size. There is also the often repeated tale of Moghul princes who put on seven layers of
muslin and still the contours of her body were so visible that she had to be admonisher by her
father, Muhamed Bin Thuklak.

Development of New world crops

The encounter of America by Christopher Columbus in 1492 was the greatest event of
the late Middle Ages and is a convenient benchmark to date the beginning of the Modern Era.
Three great cultures coexisted in America, although they were unaware of each other: Aztec,
Mayan, and Incan. These were monumental civilizations similar in many respects to that in
ancient Egypt with enormous temples in the form of pyramids, pictorial writing, a system of
cities and government, a bewildering theology, magnificent art, and a developed agriculture.
These cultures also had a dark side—slavery, constant warfare, the offering of living human
hearts as sacrifice, and cannibalism. Ironically, Columbus, in searching for Asia, did discover
their descendants. However, much more valuable than gold and silver treasures were the new
crops from the New World that have continually enriched the bounty and cuisine of Europe
and the world. Important New World crops are presented (Table 1). We review the history
and images of New World crops with particular relevance to horticulture.

NEW WORLD CROPS

Grains and pseudograins
Various grains and pseudograins were domesticated in the New World, including
maize (Zea mays), amaranth (Amaranthus spp.), wild rice (Zizania palustris L.), and quinoa
(Chenopodium quinoa). Maize has become the most important world grain, surpassing wheat,
rice, sorghum, and millets. Maize is presently the principal source of animal feed, especially
for pigs and chickens, human food (e.g., cornbread, grits, sweet corn, tortillas, and popcorn),
as a source of sugars (corn sweetener), and now as a major source of energy (ethanol). Maize
was cultivated by Aztec, Mayan, and Incan farmers, and its production and use made settled
life and civilization possible. The significance of maize as a major staple among the native
people of the New World is evident in the deification of this crop and its popularity as a
common feature of ceramic pottery.
Legumes
New World legumes such as common bean, lima bean, and peanut (groundnut) were
destined to become important world food crops. The peanut, found in ceramics from the
Moche culture in Peru, was spread worldwide by European traders and became particularly
important in Africa after being brought there from Brazil. Phaseolus bean was vital to New
World agriculture for agronomic, nutritional, and culinary reasons. Beans and maize were
sown in the same hole and the two crops complemented each other. Maize acted as a support
for the climbing beans, and nitrogen-fixing bean as a result of rhizobium bacteria provided
this element to the soil. The mixture of beans and tortillas (maize pancakes) provide a
complete protein food that was the basis of Aztec and Mayan diets. It remains the basis of
Mexican cuisine to this day.
Cucurbits
The New World cucurbits, Cucurbita moschata, C. pepo, C. maxima (squashes and
pumpkins), and Sechium edule (chayote), were important crops of the indigenous population
and were grown for their fruit and seed. Representation of C. pepo can be found in Incan
ceramic pottery. The New World cucurbits became prominent in Renaissance herbals in the
16th century and the genre known as natura morta (still life) popular in the 17th and 18th
century.
Solanaceous fruit crops
Capsicum peppers and pepino, important food crops with ceremonial and medicinal
uses in pre-Columbian America, are represented in various indigenous ceramics. Because
Columbus was looking for black pepper, the discovery of the even more pungent fruits of
various species of Capsicum led to their immediate acceptance and popularity throughout the
world, particularly in Asia and China where they became an important part of their cuisine.
European herbal images of capsicum pepper are abundant and sculpted forms can be found
on the door of the Pisa Cathedral (Italy) along with tomato. Tomato fruit, because of its
resemblance to the poisonous Old World mandrake, was treated with skepticism but soon was
consumed raw and cooked to become an integral part of Italian cuisine, and now is one of the
most important fresh and processed world vegetables.
Root and tuber crops
Indigenous people in the New World domesticated a number of starchy vegetables,
including cassava, potato, and sweetpotato, that have become very important world crops.
There are numerous images of potato in pre- Columbian sculpture, and potato culture of the
Incas is illustrated in a calendar presented to the King of Spain in 1580. Potato has become
one of the 10 most important world food crops.
Fruit crops
There are various temperate, subtropical and tropical fruits in the New World that
have become valuable world crops and many such as various annonas, guava, jaboticaba, and
mamey that are still not fully used. Brambles. Rubus species are abundantly found across
North America with the blackberry (Rubus subg. Rubus), red raspberry, and black raspberry
(R. idaeus and R. occidentalis, respectively) being the most well known and most important
commercially. The seeds of cacao originating in the Amazon Basin were long prized in
Mesoamerica and the seeds once used as currency by the Aztecs; the fruits are a common
feature in pre-Columbian pottery. Ground fermented cocoa bean is the main source of
chocolate. The pulp surrounding the seed is delicious and remains to be commercially
exploited. The beverage xocolatl, a Nahuatl word meaning bitter water, was introduced to the
Spanish court in 1544 and soon became very popular in Europe when the hot chili flavoring
was replaced with sugar. Cactus fruits. The cactus family (Cactaceae) is confined to the New
World but has been distributed worldwide. Cacti have become important world crops for fruit
(cactus pear, pitaya), vegetables (cladodes), animal feed, and ornamentals. Pineapple.
Columbus in his second voyage of 1493 found domesticated pineapple on the island of
Guadeloupe, an island in the eastern Caribbean, and described it as pin˜a de India because of
its resemblance to a pinecone.
Papaya. This tropical fruit is now ubiquitous as a backyard tree in the tropics
worldwide and has become an important export in Brazil, Hawaii, Mexico, and Thailand.
Strawberry the small-fruited diploid was well known in Europe but the modern largefruited
octoploid strawberry (2n = 8x = 56) is derived from F. chiloensis and F. virginiana that
hybridized in France. Large whitefruited forms of F. chiloensis were found growing in Chile.

Ornamentals
The Americas have been the source of over 1000 garden plants. Various ornamentals
including dahlia, fuchsia, helianthus, and petunia have become very important in floriculture
and are now grown worldwide. Helianthus, the sunflower, has long been associated with
America as a food and medicinal plant and became an important ornamental and oilseed crop
in the 20th century. Industrial crops Four New World crops, cotton (Gossypium), Para´
rubber (Hevea brasiliensis), tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), and quinine (extracted from Cinchona
sp.), exploited by indigenous Americans were to have important effects on world history.
American cotton, derived from two species of Gossypium, G. hirsutum from Central America
and G. barbadense from Brazil, accounts for the majority of world cotton production as a
result of its longer, stronger fibers compared with Old World cottons. The resinous latex from
the tropical Amazonian tree H. brasiliensis is used for the production of rubber, which has
important uses in transportation, clothing, and the electrical industry. Rubber has become one
of the most vital industrial crops, but the industry is now concentrated in Southeast Asia,
particularly Malaysia.

Table 1. Selected crops indigenous to the New World.

New World crops Binomial New World origin
A Cereals and pseudo cereals
1 Amaranth Amaranthus spp. Mexico
2 Maize Zea mays Mesoamerica
3 Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa Andean highlands
4 Wild rice Zizania palustris Northern North America
B Legumes
Common bean Phaseolus vulgaris South America
Lima bean Phaseolus lunatus South America
Peanut Arachis hypogaea Brazilian–Paraguayan Center
C Cucurbits
Chayote Sechium edule Mexico, Central America
Pumpkin Cucurbita maxima South America
Squash Cucurbita moschata, C. pepo Mexico
D Solanaceous fruits
Capsicum peppers Capsicum annuum, C. bacattum, C. South America, northern Peru
chinenese, C. frutescens, C. pubescens
Ground cherry, Physalis peruviana, P. philadelphica Central America
husk tomato
Pepino Solanum muricatum Tropical America
Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Western South America,
domesticated in Mexico
E Roots and tubers
Cassava Manihot utilissima Brazil
Potato Solanum tuberosum Peru
Sweetpotato Ipomoea batatas Central America
F Fruits and nuts
Annona Annona cherimola Brazil
Avocado Persea americana Mesoamerica
Black raspberry Rubus occidentalis North America
Brazil nut Bertholletia excelsa Amazon
Blueberry Vaccinium corymbosum North America
Cacao Theobroma cacao Tropical America
Cactus Opuntia ficus-indica Mexico
Cashew Anacardium esculenta Brazil
Cranberry Vaccinium macrocarpon North America
Guava Psidium guajava Tropical America
Jaboticaba Myrciaria cauliflora South America
Mamey Mammea americana West Indies, northern
South America
Papaya Carica papaya Tropical America
Pineapple Ananas comosus Tropical South America
Pitaya Stenocereus spp. Mexico
Strawberry Fragaria chiloensis Pacific Coast, North
Fragaria virginiana and South America
Eastern, North America
 Soursop Annona muricata Peru–Ecuador
G Industrials
Cotton Gossypium hirsutum, G. barbadense Central America, Brazil
Quinine Cinchona calisaya Peru
Rubber Hevea brasiliensis Amazon
Tobacco Nicotiana rustica, N. tabacum Mexico, Central America
H Ornamentals
Dahlia Dahlia spp. Mesoamerica
Fuchsia Fuchsia triphylla Hispaniola; South America
Helianthus (sunflower) Helianthus annuus North America
Petunia Petunia spp. South America

CROPS – INDIGENOUS AND INTRODUCED - HISTORY OF RICE, SUGARCANE

AND COTTON
Since time immemorial, cereals, particularly wheat, rice, and maize are considered to
be life sustaining crops for humans. Even in future these crops will play a pivotal role in food
security system of several nations across the world. The utilization of cereals as food and
feed, and for industrial purpose is around 1792 million out of which wheat, rice, and coarse
grains contribute nearly 35.4%, 20.8%, and 53.7% respectively. In the past fifty years the
world has witnessed structural change in cereal economics: Long run trend towards wheat
and rice and to some extent for maize, while replacement of coarse grain crops occurred.
Developing countries achieved higher growth in production and consumption and at the same
time recorded rise in deficits. Rapid expansion of cereals as feed in developing countries and
increased share of cereals in world trade.
Rice
Rice is the most important tropical cereal and supplies a quarter of the entire caloric
intake of the human race. About 90% of its area and consumption is in South and Southeast
Asia, which support a major part of the world population. Rice belongs to the genus Oryza
and there are two main cultigens, i.e., sativa in Asia and glaberrima in Africa. Rice is a semi
aquatic graminaceous crop having great deiversity as it is grown in complex range of
environments, i.e., from uplands at altitude of 3000 m to rainfed lowland irrigated, tidal
swamp, and deepwater areas. Besides these two species, aquatic rice species, i.e., Zizania
aquatica and Z. palustris, are endemic to North America, where it is the staple food of
Indians.
Origin
The place of major diversity where rice might have domesticated is roughly the east
west belt along the Himalayas and adjoining Asia mainland (from Assam, Bangladesh,
Burma, Thailand, southern China, and northeren Vietnam). The archaeological evidence
suggests that Asian rice culture was established around 7000 years ago. In India carbonized
grains excavated from Hastinapur (New Delhi) suggest that it was in cultivation during 1100-
800 BC.
Evolutionary history
The evidences from diverse disciplines including biosystematic and paleogeology
suggest that the genus Oryza arose from a common ancestor. The evolutionary path was from
wild perennial to wild annual to cultivated annual, and the closely related wild relatives
contributed differentiation of two cultigens. In oryza sativa, the evolution of different
geographical races, i.e., japonica, javanica, and indica (the latter forming aman, aus, and
indica types in the Ganges belt) took place assisted strongly by human selecton. There is
general agreement that in both Asia and Africa elongation and floating ability in two
cultigens was derived from their wild relatives. In rice, change might have occurred in the
following sequence: Perennial->climatic stress->seasonal->human selection-> cultivated rice.
Agri-history of Cotton in India : An Overview
The antiquity of cotton in the Indian subcontinent has been traced to the 4th
millenium BC. The fabrics dated approximately 3000 BC , recovered from the Mohenjo-daro
excavations in Sind (Pakistan), were identified to have originated from cotton plants, closely
related to the Gossypium arboreum species. The lint-bearing species of the genus Gossypium,
the true cottons, are four, out of which the diploid (2n=26) species G. arboreum and G.
herbaceum are indigenous in Asia and Africa. The history of introduction into India of the
new world cottons (tetraploid species of G. hirsutum and G. barbadense with 2n=52) dates
back to the 18th century AD. By the last decade of the 20th century, India had gained a pride
of place in the global cotton statistics with the largest cropped area of 8.9 million in 1996-97,
growing the most diverse cultivars in terms of botanical species and composition, producing
the widest range of cotton fiber quality suitable for spinning 6‘s to 120‘s counts yarn, and
supporting the largest agrobased national industry of the country.
Origin of the indigenous cottons
The cotton textiles of the Harappan civilization (2300-1750BC) were produced by
sophisticated textile craftsmanship. Thus at the earliest agricultural levels yet discovered, true
cottons were already present in the Indian subcontinent. Wild and weedy types have been
found to be associated with primitive cultivated types in both the old world species of G.
herbaceum and G. arboreum. Species of G. herbaceum, have been found from the coastal
strip northwest of Karachi (Pakistan), through northern Baluchistan to south Yemen,
Ethiopia, and Sudan and even in West Africa south of the Sahara. Species of G. arboreum.
have been recorded by in Kathiawar, Gujarat, Khandesh, and the Deccan in India. It seems
likely that it was in Gujarat (India) or Sind (Pakistan) that G. arboreum cottons were first
brought into cultivation (Hutchinson, 1971). It may further be surmised that the
differentiation of the three perennial races of G. arboreum, namely burmanicum of
northeastern India, indicum of western India and the Penninsula, and sudanense of northern
Africa, ante-dated domestication and that each contributed separately to the cultivated cottons
in Asia and Africa.
Agri-history of cotton production development
Until the middle of the 18th century, only indigenous arboreum and herbaceum
varieties of cotton were grown in different regions of the country. Due to the human skills
and dexterity of the local artisans, very fine yarns were produced by them, from even the
short staple and coarse cottons grown in India. In 1788, the Governor General (at Calcutta)
was requested by London to encourage growth and improvement of Indian cottons to meet
the requirements of the Lancashire textile industry. The figures for exact area under
indigenous cottons and production in India during this period are not available, although it is
reported that the local production had stabilized by 1900AD.
Sugarcane
The origin of sugarcane was India. The species Saccharum officinarum was first
domesticated in India and the spread to other countries by Arab merchants. Evidences
revealed that 3000-7000 years ago, Atarna veda indicated that sugarcane originated from the
area Sakkaram and then later it was indicated as sakkra in Sanskirit. Earlier indications in
Kautilya Artha Sastra also mentioned about the cowdung sett treatment for sugarcane.

Crops introduced by Britishers

Pseudo cereals Avena sativa (oat);Grain legumes Castanospermum australe (black bean),
Pisum sativum (pea); Fiber crops Gossypium barbadense (cotton);Vegetables Allium
tuberosum (leek), Asparagus racemosus (satawar), Beta vulgaris (beet root), Brassica
oleracea var. botrytis (cauliflower), Capsicum frutescens (sweet pepper), Cichorium intybus
(chicory), Cucurbita maxima (squash), Daucas carota (carrot, orange type), Lactuca sativa
(lettuce), Lycopersicon esculentum (tomato), Pisum sativum (sweet pea); Fruits Averrohoa
carambola (carambola), Carica papaya (papaya), Fragaria ananassa (strawberry), Garcinia
mangostana (mangosteen), Manihot esculenta (cassava), Malus pumila (apple), Prunus
armeniaca (apricot), Prunus avium (cherry), Prunus communis syn. P. domestica (plum),
Prunus persica (peach), pyrus communis (pear), Ribes rubrum (red currant) Medicinal
Cinchona officinalis (quinine), Origanum vulgare (majoram), aromatic plants Papaver
somniferum (opium poppy), Pelargonium capaitatium (Geranium), Salvia officinalis (sage),
Thymus vulgaris (thyme), Vanilla aromatica (vanilla)
Crops introduced from West and Central Asia by Mughals or Arabs
Allium cepa (onion), Allium sativum (garlic), Brassica rapa (turmip), Brassica oleracea var.
capitata (cabbage), Coriandrum sativum (coriander), Cucumis melo (sweet muskmelon),
Daucas carota (carrot, black & red type), Phoenix dactylifera (date palm), Pisum sativum
(pea), Syzygium aromaticum (clove), Vitis vinifera (grape)

Crops introduced by Spaniards

Phaseolus vulgaris (French bean)

Crops introduced from China

Aleurites fordii (tung-oil), Glycine max (soyabean), Eriobotrya japonica (loquat), Juglans
regia (walnut), Litchi chinensis (litchi), Sapium sebiferum (tallow-tree)

Crops introduced from Latin America

Hevea brasiliensis (Rubber), Ananas comosus (pineapple)

Crops introduced from Southeast Asia and Pacific islands

Arenga pinnata (sugar-palm), Artocarpus communis (breadfruit), Citrus decumanus
(pomelo), Citrus paradisi (grapefruit), Durio zibethinus (durian) and Metroxylon sagus (sago)
Some recent introductions
Humulus lupulus (hops), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Simarouba glauca (simarouba),
Cyphomandra betacea (tree tomato), Carya illinoensis (pecan nut), Corylus avellana (hazel
nut), Macadamia tetraphylla (macadamia nut), Parthenium argentatum (guayule), and Mentha
arvensis (spearmint, USA) Acacia senegal (Australia), Acacia mangium (Australia) and
Actinidia chinensis (kiwifruit, New Zealand)