ACADEMIA Letters

LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective

structural contribution in unpaved roads using Light
Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and
back-calculation according to AASHTO93 Guide
Jose Julian Rivera, LEMaC Center for Road Research UTN FRLP – CIC PBA,
National University of Technology (Argentina)

Abstract
The use of Light Weight Deflectometer in flexible pavement structural designs is increas-
ing. They are offered under 2 typologies; with or without geophones to set the deflection bowl.
Light Weight Deflectometer with geophones allows to apply mechanistic analysis directly, but
without geophones not.
For this reason, the LEMaC Center for Road Research UTN FRLP - CIC PBA (Argentina)
analyzes this problem through a research project; their results allow the use of Light Weight
Deflectometer without geophones in pavement design using the AASHTO93 Guide.
This “short report”, as allowed by the Letters Academy, presents a summary of the tasks
performed and the work procedure developed. No section of conclusions and exhaustive an-
tecedents and studies of the models presented are included, due to the limit imposed on the
number of words for these “short reports”. This information can be consulted in the “Cor-
relation model for the use of modulus back-calculation on LWD measurements” (Rivera &
Alderete, 2012).
Keywords: Low Traffic Roads, Light Weight Deflectometer, AASHTO93 Guide, Back-
calculation, Pavements
Introduction and background
Standard multilayer flexible structural packages are common in paving roads with low

Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
1
traffic volumes.
When designing it, the engineer considers that is applied on different subgrades. In ad-
dition, depending on the associated hydraulic project, there are levels of the pavement that
determine subgrade cut, profiling or fill, originating different structural responses.
The solution adopted is to establish a “calculation response” that is exceeded by a given
number of the points analyzed (to give safety), indicating a percentile greater than 50%, with
a higher initial investment (AASHTO, 1993).
Other aspects also condition the designer. One of them is that although a typology is
established for the sub-bases and bases, a tolerance is specified in their compaction, resulting
in a new range of structural contribution values on site.
By this, the engineer takes safety decisions, designing oversized structural packages to
most of the roads of a particular paving program, with the corresponding economic implica-
tions.
The solution to this is obtained by modifying the way in which these tasks are contracted,
specifying a typical pavement up to the finished base level and different alternatives of separate
bearing layer (surface treatment, asphalt layer in 5 cm or 7 cm, etc.) that are expeditiously
assigned in each section by back-calculation, with the response of the particular subgrade
presents and the real structural contribution on the finished bases, reducing costs.
As on-site AASHTO93 Guide implies the use of the Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
to this task, and this aspect is not economically justifiable, the use of LWDs with geophones
has been implemented (ICENOGLE & KABIR, 2013), with plate diameters and masses that
allow simulating the semi-axle load (40 KN) (Figure 1).
Figure 1. LWD with geophones (https://exins.com.co/Exploraci%C3%B3n-indirecta/)
But these devices are significantly more expensive than versions without geophones (Fig-
ure 2). For this reason, some researchers seek to use the latter through calibration constants,
as Fleming et al. (2002), with a coefficient of 1.031 between FWD and LWD that has R2 of
0.6.
Figure 2. LWD without geophones (https://terratest-lwd.com)
Other studies have determined that the modulus with the LWD is between 0.65 and 1.60
times the modulus with FWD (Van Gurp et al., 2000). Combined studies between the USDA
Forest Service, the US Army ERDC Cold Regions Laboratory, the New Hampshire DOT
and the University of Maine, on low-traffic roads, have arrived at R2 of 0.7 (Kestler et al.,
2004). Nazzal (2003) obtains better results, with a correlation of 0.94 with a coefficient of
0,97 between FWD and LWD.
In all cases, a single correlation coefficient is sought. But in reality, when having different
dynamic loads between FWD and LWD, different deviating tensors σd would be exerted,

Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
2
which are related to the modular response in a not necessarily proportional way. Therefore, in
materials with relations Mr versus σd with different types and curvature, it would correspond
to use different correlation constants (Rivera et al., 2012). The aforementioned means that it is
more appropriate to think in a correlation between both determinations with variables models
and not with a constant.
Because LWD without geophones does not allow the measurement of the deflection bowl,
necessary to apply the back-calculation models, an adaptation in its use related to the correla-
tion models are implemented; arrive at this procedure and models are the goals of the LEMaC
research and development project that gives rise to this publication.
Methodology and Results
The methodology foresees, on test sections with different subgrade and bases, the use of
LWD equipment without geophone to carry out deflection measurements. These deflections
are correlated with the results of virtual deflections with FWD equipment. The virtual deflec-
tions with FWD are simulated by elastic layer theory, from the results of samples tested to
obtain resilient modulus in the laboratory.
It is then necessary, access to roads up to the base level, with different constituent mate-
rials and on subgrades of different characteristics. As the LEMaC has been responsible for
the controls and accessories on paving in the city of La Plata (Argentina), an agreement is
generated with its Municipality to include in its paving programs 12 test sections, that allow
the instrumentation of the tasks planned (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Analysis of the test sections (self-made)
LWDs with geophones use a single stroke load and the measurement of deformations at
different distances with the geophones. A different way of working is designed for LWDs
without geophones. A loading stroke is first generated on the surface of the finished base.
Then the base is removed to the subgrade. Finally, a new loading stroke is performed at that
level, considering that the modular response is not disturbed in this way.
Through these steps, a deflection on the base and a LWD resilient modulus of the sub-
grade are recorded. These values can be correlated to determine, for the back-calculation, the
combined modulus of the existing structure Ep and the resilient modulus of the subgrade that
would virtually be achieved with a FWD, respectively.
It should be noted that a two-layer package (subgrade and base) is contemplated through
the methodology to be complemented as a three-layer package with the asphaltic layer. It is to
be understood there, and throughout this document, that the “base layer” may consist of one
or more layers.
In summary, the study methodology includes:
· Selection of road sections with the combination of subgrade and bases of diverse struc-

Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
3
tural contribution.
· Realization on the finished bases of the analysis with LWD to determine the deflection
on the base.
· Determination of the density and humidity of the base, and removal in 0.5 m by 0.5 m.
· Determination with LWD of Mr.
· Determination of the density and humidity of the subgrade and taking of a sample.
· Re-molding of subgrade and base samples with measured moisture and density.
· Determination of the constitutive equations of the base and subgrade samples taken.
· Inclusion of the constitutive equations in the elastic layer model, simulation of the 40
KN load, and Mr and deflection obtainable with FWD determination.
· Obtaining the correlation models.
For the development of the correlation models, the results shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5
are obtained, in which the maximum R2 for the masses of 10 kg and 15 kg provided with the
equipment are observed, being its optimal range of useful modules from 15 to 70 MPa and
from 70 to 120 MPa, respectively.
Figure 4. Graph coefficient versus d0 for the mass of 10 kg (left) and 15 kg (right) (self-
made)
Figure 5. Graph coefficient versus Mr for the mass of 10 kg (left) and 15 kg (right) (self-
made)
Conclusions
As a conclusion of this work, there is Procedure LEMaC-DE01 / 16 that shows and applies
the developed models. This procedure is observed at the end of this document, after the images
corresponding to the Figures.

References
AASHTO, “Guide for design of pavement structures 1993”, American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, ISBN 1-56051-055-2, USA, 1993.

FLEMING, P.R., LAMBERT, J.P., ROGERS, C.D.F. & FROST, M.W. “In-Situ assessment
of stiffness modulus for highway foundation during construction”. Loughborough Univer-
sity, Loughborough, UK, 2002.

ICENOGLE, P. & KABIR, S., “Evaluation of non-destructive technologies for construction

quality control of HMA and PCC in Louisiana”, Louisiana Transportation Research Cen-
ter, FHWA/LA.12/493, USA, 2013.

Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
4
 KESTLER, M., EATON, R., BERG, R., STEINERT, B., SMITH, C., ALDRICH, C. &
HUMPHREY D. “Handheld in-situ testing devices for estimating the stiffness of trails
and low volume roads”. Transportation System Workshop, Ft. Lauderdale, USA, 2004.

LEMaC, “Guía de metodologías y procedimientos para uso vial desarrollados en el LEMaC

– Centro de Investigaciones Viales (edición 2019)”, Editorial edUTecNe (ISBN 978-987-
4998-27-9), Facultad Regional La Plata, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, Argentina.
2019.

NAZZAL, M.D. “Field Evaluation of In-Situ Test Technology for QC/QA During Construc-
tion of Pavement Layers and Embankments”. M.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University,
Baton Rouge LA, USA, 2003.

RIVERA, J. & ALDERETE, N., “Correlation model for the use of modulus backcalcula-
tion on LWD measurements”, in Seventh International Conference on Maintenance and
Rehabilitation of Pavements and Technological Control, No. 00031, New Zealand, 2012.

RIVERA, J.J., BRIZUELA, L.G., ALDERETE, N. & VILLANUEVA, M.R. “Avances en el

desarrollo de la metodología para valoración por retrocálculo de capas no ligadas medi-
ante la utilización del Light Weight Deflectometer” (T014). XVI Congreso Argentino de
Vialidad y Tránsito (ISBN 978-987-28682-0-8), Argentina, 2012.

VAN GURP, C., GROENENDIJK J. & BEUVING E. “Experience with various types of
foundation tests”. 5th Int. Symp. on Unbound Aggregates in Roads (UNBAR 5), USA,
2000.

Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
5
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
6
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
7
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
8
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
9
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
10
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
11
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
12
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
13
Academia Letters, June 2021 ©2021 by the author — Open Access — Distributed under CC BY 4.0

Corresponding Author: Jose Julian Rivera, josejulianriveralp@gmail.com

Citation: Rivera, J.J. (2021). LEMaC-DE01/16: Methodology for determining effective structural contribution
in unpaved roads using Light Weight Deflectometer (LWD) without geophones and back-calculation according
to AASHTO93 Guide. Academia Letters, Article 1036. https://doi.org/10.20935/AL1036.
14