Republic of the Philippines

Eastern Visayas State University-Tacloban City

Tacloban City

MODULE 2

in

EDA 213

(ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS)

by: MARK CORNELIUS B. FIGUEROA

I. OVERVIEW

This module introduces the concept of Probability and its essence to Engineering Data Analysis. The discussion is
divided into three chapters.

Chapter 2 is about Probability and the essential lessons to be learned such as Sample Spaces, Relationship Between
Events, and Counting Rules. Chapter 3 is about Random Variables and Probability Distributions. Chapter 4 is about
Joint Probability Distribution.

After the students finished all the discussions, their main task is to answer all the given problem sets. The student
must submit their answers on the scheduled deadline via email, courier, or any other mode of submission. The
submitted answers include solutions and illustrations to the problem sets.

II. TOPIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

CO1: Apply statistical methods in the analysis of data.

III. PRE-ACTIVITY
Before proceeding to the Discussions in this Module, you will be given problem sets to be answered. These problems
shall give you a glimpse on what the introduction to photogrammetry is all about.

Problem Sets:

1. How many letter A’s are found in the word, “NAKAKAPAGPABAGABAG”?

2. In how many ways you can Travel from Tacloban to Cebu?

Using the Letters in the English Alphabet, Liza choose (A, B, C, D, and M), Kathryn choose (L, D, W, C, and E),
and Miles choose (K, E, H, J, and W).
3. What are the Letters that are chosen by the three girls?
4. What are the common letters that were chosen by Liza and Kathryn?
5. What are the common letters that were chosen by Miles and Kathryn?

You are requested to solve these problems, get a separate paper for your solutions and write your answers in the
spaces provided below;

Answers:

1. _____________________
2. _____________________
3. _____________________
4. _____________________
5. _____________________

IV. SELF-ASSESSMENT
In the Pre-Activity part, you were given problem sets that maybe you have encountered in your previous
mathematics, physics, and surveying subjects. In the spaces provided below kindly write your agreement to the
statement using the given following scales: 5-Advanced, 4-Proficient, 3-Approaching Proficiency, 2-Developing, and
1-Beginning.
Problem 1: ____________ Problem 3: ____________ Problem 5: ____________
Problem 2: ____________ Problem 4: ____________

Kindly write your comments (if any):

_______________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________ .
V. DISCUSSIONS
CHAPTER II. PROBABILITY

2.1. SAMPLE SPACE AND RELATIONSHIPS AMONG EVENTS

What is a Sample space?

The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical experiment is called the Sample Space and is represented by
the symbol S. Each outcome in a sample space is called an element or a member of the sample space, or
simply a sample point.

Sample Space, S can be written as:

S = { H, T }, (in case of a tossed coin)
S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }, (in case of a tossed die)

What is an event, COMPLEMENT, INTERSECTION, & UNION of an event?

An event is a subset of a sample space.
The complement of an event A with respect to S is the subset of all elements of S that are not in A. This is
denoted by this symbol A’.
The intersection of two events A & B, denoted by the symbol A ∩ B, is the event containing all elements that
are common to A & B.
The union of the two events A & B, denoted by the symbol A U B, the event containing all the elements that
belong to A or B or both.

Sample Problem:

1. If ࠀ t t t t t , ࠀ t t , and ࠀ t t t t , find the ff:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e. ( 香䁨

2. An engineering professor conducted a survey regarding the favorite subjects of the students. The
following data were gathered: 60 students like the subject Algebra, 50 like the subject Calculus, and 45
likes the subject Physics. Thirty students like both Algebra and Calculus subjects, 25 students like both
Calculus and Physics subjects, 20 students like both Algebra and Physics subjects. Only 15 students like
all the three subjects. How many students were surveyed?
2.2. COUNTING RULES USEFUL IN PROBABILITY

2.2.1. Multiplication Rule

If an operation can be performed in ways, and if for each of these ways a second operation can be
performed in ways, then the two operations can be performed together in ways.
If = 3 and = 3, then, total number of ways will be = ࠀt

Figure 1. Typical Tree Diagram

Sample Problem:
In how many ways you can win in a 6/45 PCSO Lotto?

2.2.2. Permutation
Permutation refers to an arrangement of objects in a definite order.
The Permutation of n different things taken r at a time is:
t ࠀ
t

The Permutation of n different things taken q are alike, r are alike, so on:
ࠀ

For Cyclical Permutation: ࠀ t

Sample Problem:
1. How many permutations can be made out of the letters in the word GEOMATICS taken 3 at a time?

2. How many permutations can be made out of the letters in the word GEOINFORMATICS?

3. How many ways can 7 people be seated at a round table?

2.2.3. Combination
Combination refers to an arrangement of objects in a without definite order.
The Combination of n different things taken r at a time is:
t ࠀ
t

The Combination of n object taken one, two, three, … n at a time is:

ࠀ t

Sample Problem:
1. How many ways can you draw 3 QUEENs and 2 KINGs from a deck of 52 cards?

2. How many ways can you invite any one or more of your five friends to your birthday party?
2.3. PROBABILITY
Probability refers to the likelihood of the occurrence of an event resulting from such a statistical experiment
is evaluated by means of real numbers.
For a single event:
ܾ ܽ
ܾܽ ࠀ
ܾ ܾ ܽ ܾ

If an event can happen in h ways and can fail in f ways, the probability, p that the event will happen is:
ࠀ
t

The probability, q that the event will fail is:

ࠀ
t
Therefore, t ࠀ .

For Dependent and Independent Events:

ࠀ

For Mutually Exclusive Events:

ࠀ t t t

For Probability that an event can occur exactly r times in n trials:

t
t 香 ࠀ t

Where p is the probability that the event will happen and q is the probability that the event will fail.
For the ”at least one” Condition:
ࠀ t

Where Q is the probability that the event will fail.

Sample Problems:
1. A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least 1 head occurs?

2. A statistic class for engineers consists of 25 industrial, 10 mechanical, 10 electrical, and 8 civil
engineering students. If a person is randomly selected by the instructor to answer a question,
a. find the probability that the student chosen is an industrial engineering major
b. find the probability that the student chosen is a civil engineering or an electrical engineering
major.
3. In a poker hand consisting of 5 cards, find the probability of holding 2 aces and 3 jacks.

4. What is the probability of getting a total of 7 or 11 when a pair of fair dice is tossed?

5. If the probabilities that an automobile mechanic will service 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8 or more cars on any given
workday are, respectively, 0.12, 0.19, 0.28, 0.24, 0.10, and 0.07, what is the probability that he will
service at least 5 cars on his next day at work?
Activity 2: Problem Sets in Probability
Instructions:
Kindly answer the following problems with neat and complete solutions.
Submit your answers on or before November 4, 2020 at your convenience.

1. Consider the sample space ࠀ m t ܾ t ܾ / t ܾ ܾ tܾ ܾ t ‫ ݑ‬/ t and the

events
ࠀ t ܾ t
ࠀ ܾ t ܾ / t ܾ ܾ
ࠀ ‫ ݑ‬/
List the elements of the sets corresponding to the following events:
a.
b.
c. 䁨香 䁨
d. 䁨 䁨
e.
䁨 䁨
f.

2. If an experiment consists of throwing a die and then drawing a letter at random from the English Alphabet, how
many points are there in the sample space?

3. How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally qualified recent graduates for openings in an
accounting firm?

4. How many permutations can be made out of the letters of the word ENGINEERING?

5. In how many ways can 5 people line up to pay their electronic bills if two particular persons refuse to follow each
other?

6. How many ways can a committee of five may be selected from an organization with 35 members?

7. A bag contains 3 white and 5 black balls. If two balls are drawn in succession without replacement, what is the
probability that both balls are black?

8. Throw a coin five times. What is the probability of getting three heads and two tails?

9. A two-digit number is chosen randomly. What is the probability that it is divisible by 7?

10. In a class of 40 students, 27 students like Calculus and 25 Students like Geometry.
a. How many students liked both Calculus and Geometry?
b. How many students liked Calculus?
c. How many students liked Geometry?

For more information and concerns:

Kindly text 09674326935, or email me at mark.figueroa@evsu.edu.ph, or send a pm in my messenger account.
Stay Safe and God Bless…
CHAPTER III. RANDOM VARIABLES AND PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS

3.1. Concept of a Random Variable

A random variable is a function that associates a real number with each element in the sample space. If a
sample space contains a finite number of possibilities or unending sequence with as many elements as there
are whole numbers, it is called a discrete sample space. If a sample space contains a finite number of
possibilities equal to the number of points on a line segment, it is called a continuous sample space.

3.2. For Discrete Random Variables

The set of ordered pairs ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬香香 is a probability function, probability mass function, or probability
distribution of the discrete random variable of X if, for each possible outcome x,
1. ‫ݑ‬香 t
2. ‫ݑ‬
‫ݑ‬ ࠀ
3. ࠀ ‫ݑ ࠀ ݑ‬香

Sample Problem:
A shipment of 20 similar laptop computers to retail outlet contains 3 that are defective. If a school makes a
random purchase of 2 of these computers, find the probability distribution for the number of defectives.

3.2.1. Cumulative Distribution Function for a Discrete Random Variable

The cumulative distribution function ‫ݑ‬香 of a discrete random variable with probability distribution ‫ݑ‬香
is:
‫ࠀ ݑ‬ ‫ܾ ݑ ܾ ࠀ ݑ‬香 t for t ‫ݑ‬ .
Sample Problem:
Make a probability distribution of the Sample Problem of 3.2.
3.3. For Continuous Random Variables
The function ‫ݑ‬香 is a probability density function (pdf) for the continuous random variable , defined over
the set real numbers, if:
1. ‫ݑ‬ , for all ‫ݑ‬ .
2. t ‫ ࠀݑ ݑ‬.
3. ࠀ ‫ݑ ݑ‬

Sample Problem:
Suppose that the error in the reaction temperature, in , for a controlled laboratory experiment is a
continuous random variable having the probability density function
‫ݑ‬
‫ࠀ ݑ‬ t t ‫ݑ‬ t
t ܽ
a. Verify that ‫ݑ‬香 is a density function.
b. Find

3.3.1. Cumulative Distribution for a Continuous Random Variables

The cumulative distribution function ‫ݑ‬香 of a continuous random variable with density function ‫ݑ‬香 is:
‫ݑ‬
‫ࠀ ݑ‬ ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t ܾ ܾ, for t ‫ݑ‬ .

Sample Problem:
For the density function of the Sample Problem of 3.3, find ‫ݑ‬香, and use it to evaluate 香.
Activity 3: Problem Sets in Random Variables and Probability Distributions
Instructions:
Kindly answer the following problems with neat and complete solutions.
Submit your answers on or before November 18, 2020 by any means at your convenience.

Problem 1. (6 Points) Classify the following random variables as Discrete or Continuous:

____________ X: the number of automobile accidents per year in Virginia
____________ Y: the length of time to play 18 holes of golf.
____________ M: the amount of milk produced yearly by a particular cow.
____________ N: the number of eggs laid each month by a hen.
____________ P: the number of building permits issued each month in a certain city.
____________ Q: the weight of grain produced per acre.

Problem 2. Let W be a random variable giving the number of heads minus the number of tails in three tosses of a
coin. List the elements of the sample space S for the three tosses of the coin and to each sample point assign a value
w of W.

Problem 3. Determine the value of c so that each of the following functions can serve as a probability distribution of
the discrete random variable X:
a) ‫ ݑ ࠀ ݑ‬t t t for ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t t t t (5 Points)
b) ‫ࠀ ݑ‬ ‫ݑ‬ t‫ݑ‬
t for ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t t (5 Points)

Problem 4. The total number of hours, measured in units of 100 hours, that a family runs a vacuum cleaner over a
period of one year is a continuous variable X that has the density function
‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ t
‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ t
t ܽ
Find the probability that over a period of one year, a family runs their vacuum cleaner
a) Less than 120 hours; (5 Points)
b) Between 50 and 100 hours. (5 Points)

Problem 5. The proportion of people who respond to a certain mail-order solicitation is a continuous random
variable X that has the density function

‫ݑ‬t 香
‫ࠀ ݑ‬ t ‫ݑ‬
t ܽ
a) Show that ࠀ . (5 Points)
b) Find the probability that more than ¼ but fewer than ½ of the people contacted will respond to this type of
solicitation. (5 Points)

For more information and concerns:

Kindly text 09674326935, or email me at mark.figueroa@evsu.edu.ph, or send a pm in my messenger account.
Stay Safe and God Bless…
CHAPTER IV. JOINT PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
4.1. For Discrete Random Variables
The function ‫ݑ‬t 香 is a joint probability distribution or probability mass function of the discrete random
variables X and Y if:
1. ‫ݑ‬t 香 for all ‫ݑ‬t t
2. ‫ݑ‬
‫ݑ‬t 香ࠀ
3. ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t ࠀ ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t
For any region A in the ‫ ݑ‬plane, t ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t .

4.2. For Continuous Random Variables

The function ‫ݑ‬t 香 is a joint probability distribution or probability mass function of the continuous random
variables X and Y if:
1. ‫ݑ‬t 香 for all ‫ݑ‬t t
2. t t ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ ࠀ
3. t ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ t for any region A in the ‫ ݑ‬plane

4.3. Marginal Distributions

The marginal distributions of X alone and Y alone are:
/ ‫ࠀ ݑ‬ ‫ݑ‬t 香 ࠀ ‫ݑ‬
‫ݑ‬t 香
for the discrete case, and
/ ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬t and ࠀ t ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬
For the continuous case.

4.4. Conditional Distributions

Let X and Y be two variables, discrete or continuous. The conditional distribution of the random variable Y
given that ࠀ ‫ ݑ‬is:
‫ݑ‬t 香
‫ ࠀ ݑ‬/ ‫ݑ‬香 , provided / ‫ݑ‬ .

Similarly, the conditional distribution of given that ࠀ is:

‫ݑ‬t 香
‫ݑ‬ ࠀ 香
, provided 香 > 0.

4.5. Statistically Independent

Let X and Y be two variables, discrete or continuous, with joint probability distribution ‫ݑ‬t 香 and marginal
distributions / ‫ ݑ‬and t respectively. The random variables X and Y are said to be statistically
independent if and only if:

‫ݑ‬t ࠀ/ ‫ݑ‬ 香

for all ‫ݑ‬t within their range.

Let t t t be random variables, discrete or continuous, with joint probability distribution

‫ ݑ‬t ‫ ݑ‬t ‫ ݑ‬t t‫ ݑ‬and marginal distribution ‫ ݑ‬t ‫ ݑ‬, …, ‫ ݑ‬, respectively. The random variables
, t t are said to be mutually statistically independent if and only if

‫ ݑ‬t ‫ ݑ‬t ‫ ݑ‬t t‫ݑ‬ ࠀ ‫ݑ‬ ‫ݑ‬ ‫ݑ‬

for all ‫ ݑ‬t‫ ݑ‬t t‫ݑ‬ within their range.

Sample Problems:

1. Two ballpoint pens are selected at random from a box that contains 3 blue pens, 2 red pens, and 3 green pens. If
X is the number of blue pens selected and Y is the number of red pens selected, find
a) the joint probability function f xty t
b) P[ XtY A], where A is the region xty x t y
c) Show that the column and row totals of the joint probability function f xty give the marginal
distribution of X alone and of Y alone.
d) Find the conditional distribution of X, given that Y=1, and use it to determine P(X=0|Y=1).

2. A privately owned business operates both a drive-in facility and a walk-in facility. On a randomly selected day, let
X and Y, respectively, be the proportions of the time that the drive-in and the walk-in facilities are in use, and
suppose that the joint density function of these random variables is

‫ݑ‬t ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t t ‫ݑ‬ t t

t ܽ
a) Verify that t t
‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ ࠀ
b) Find t t where ࠀ ‫ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ t
t
c) Find / ‫ ݑ‬and for the joint density function.
Activity 4: Problem Sets in Joint Probability Distribution
Instructions:
Kindly answer the following problems with neat and complete solutions.
Submit your answers on or before December 2, 2020 by any means at your convenience.

Problem 1. Determine the value of c so that the given function represent joint probability distribution of the random
variables X and Y.
‫ݑ‬t ࠀ ‫ ݑ‬, for ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬t t t ࠀ t t .

Problem 2. Let X denote the reaction time, in seconds, to a certain stimulus and Y denote temperature in (⁰F) at
which a certain reaction starts to take place. Suppose that two random variables X and Y have the joint density

t‫ ݑ‬t ‫ݑ‬ t
‫ݑ‬t ࠀ
t ܽ

Find and t 香

Problem 3. From a sack containing 3 oranges, 2 apples, and 3 bananas, a random sample of 4 pieces of fruit is
selected. If X is the number of oranges and Y is the number of apples in the sample.
a) Find the joint probability distribution of X and Y.
b) t t where A is the region that is given by m ‫ݑ‬t 香 ‫ ݑ‬t .
c) Find the marginal distribution of X if ࠀ
d) Find the marginal distribution of Y if ‫ ࠀ ݑ‬.
e) Find [ ࠀ ࠀ ].

For more information and concerns:

Kindly text 09674326935, or email me at mark.figueroa@evsu.edu.ph, or send a pm in my messenger account.
Stay Safe and God Bless…