Propulsion

Marine Engineering:
Propulsion
F912 34
E Learning Course For SQA
F912 34 (Marine Engineering:
Propulsion)
Contents
Introductory Module: ........................................................................ 6
Task 1 – Reading the Unit:.............................................................. 6
Higher National Unit specification ................................................ 7
So what does it tell us ? ............................................................... 12
Course Structure ......................................................................... 13
Recommended further reading. ..................................................... 14
Conclusion .................................................................................. 15
MODULE 1 - PROPULSION LAYOUTS.................................................. 16
SHAFTING AND PROPULSION ........................................................ 16
Engine Configurations ................................................................ 16
Power to Weight Ratio ............................................................... 17
Redundancy Of Propulsion Equipment ............................................ 18
Components Of The Shaft Line ...................................................... 26
Thrust Shaft. ............................................................................... 26
Thrust Block Purpose and Operation ............................................... 26
Shaft Bearings............................................................................. 30
Stern Tube .................................................................................. 33
Sterntube Seals ........................................................................... 33
Typical Questions......................................................................... 34
MODULE 2 - Internal Combustion Engines ........................................ 35
Internal Combustion Engines. ........................................................ 37
Four Stroke Cycles ....................................................................... 40
Two Stroke Cycles ...................................................................... 45
Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles ............................. 47
Engine Configurations .................................................................. 48
ENGINE COMPONENTS ................................................................. 52
Crankcase Explosions ................................................................... 72
Crankcase Relief valves ............................................................. 73
Oil Mist Detectors...................................................................... 74
Scavenge Fires (Crosshead Engines Only) ............................... 74
Fuel Injection .............................................................................. 76
Fuel injection pumps .................................................................... 77
MODULE 3 - Steam Boilers .............................................................. 89
1 Fire-Tube, Smoke-Tube or Tank Type .......................................... 90
2. Water-Tube type .................................................................... 90
WATER TUBE BOILERS ................................................................. 93
BOILER MOUNTINGS............................................................. 96
Gauge Glasses .......................................................................... 97
Remote Reading Level Indicators ................................................ 99
Pressure Gauge Connections ...................................................... 99
Low Water Alarms ..................................................................... 99
Safety Valves ........................................................................... 99
BOILER COMBUSTION ................................................................ 101
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS .............................................. 103
Feed Systems............................................................................ 110
Open Feed System (Auxiliary Steam Boilers) .............................. 110
Closed Feed System (Steam Propulsion Boilers) .......................... 114
Boiler Water Treatment .............................................................. 121
Questions ................................................................................. 127
MODULE - 4 Steam Turbines .......................................................... 130
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION .......................................................... 135
The Impulse Turbine: ................................................................. 139
Nozzles: ................................................................................ 140
Nozzle Control Valves: ............................................................. 141
Diaphragms ........................................................................... 141
The Reaction Turbine: ................................................................ 142
Gland Steam System ............................................................... 144
Sliding Feet ............................................................................ 145
Flexible Couplings ................................................................... 145
Safety Trips .............................................................................. 145
The Requirement For Gearing ...................................................... 146
Lubricating Oil System................................................................ 148
Emergency Features ........................................................... 149
MODULE 5 – Gas Turbines ............................................................. 151
Basic Principles .......................................................................... 151
Basic Parts ................................................................................ 151
Power Transmission Systems ...................................................... 154
Gas Turbine - Engine Systems ..................................................... 155
Regeneration. ......................................................................... 157
The LM 2500 Gas Turbine Engine ................................................. 158
Module 6 - Operations ................................................................... 160
Diesel Engines ........................................................................... 160
BOILER OPERATION ................................................................... 162
Boiler Start Sequence .............................................................. 163
Sootblowing ........................................................................... 165
Steam Turbines ......................................................................... 166
Gas Turbines ............................................................................. 168
Typical Questions....................................................................... 170
MODULE 7 - Maintenance .............................................................. 171
Breakdown or failure maintenance ........................................ 171
Planned Maintenance .......................................................... 172
Periodic Planned Maintenance ................................................... 172
Condition Based Maintenance ............................................ 173
Planned Maintenance System ................................................... 175
Module 8 - Systems ...................................................................... 184
Diesel Engine cooling systems. .................................................... 187
High Temperature Fresh Water system. ..................................... 187
Diesel Engine Lubricating Systems. .............................................. 191
Bearing or Main Lubrication System ......................................... 191
Fuel System for Main Diesel Propulsion Engines ............................. 196
Starting System ........................................................................ 203
Diesel Engine Air Start System .................................................... 209
Conclusion:.................................................................................. 212
Introductory Module:
This Unit – Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) F91234 is designed for

people who intend to progress a career in the field of Marine Engineering.
It is an “Underpinning” Unit , being the basis for more detailed study later
on..
The Unit in itself does NOT attain the level required for MCA STCW 95
examinations, but is intended to be a starter unit for further study.
Task 1 – Reading the Unit:
It is always a good idea to know what we are supposed to be doing and

how we intend to do it. For this reason the first task in this e-learning
course is to READ THE UNIT.
Also available on line in .pdf form, from:
www.sqa.org.uk/files/hn/F91234.pdf
the unit is reproduced below.

Higher National Unit specification
General information for centres
Unit title: Marine Engineering: Propulsion
Unit code: F912 34
Unit purpose: The Unit is designed to develop studies in marine propulsion plant and
examine its ancillary equipment. It will also permit the candidate to diagnose the
operational problems associated with plant types and ensure its effective maintenance. This
Unit is designed to provide the underpinning knowledge to enable candidates to acquire the
standards of competency for officers in charge of an engineering watch under the STCW 95
Convention.
On completion of the Unit the candidate should be able to:
1 Explain marine propulsion plant and ancillary equipment.
2 Explain the operational procedures, operational problems and maintenance of marine

propulsion plant.
Credit points and level: 1 HN credit(s) at SCQF level 7: (8 SCQF credit points at SCQF level
7*)
*SCQF credit points are used to allocate credit to qualifications in the Scottish Credit and
Qualifications Framework (SCQF). Each qualification in the Framework is allocated a number
of SCQF credit points at an SCQF level. There are 12 SCQF levels, ranging from Access 1 to
Doctorates.
Recommended prior knowledge and skills: Candidates should have completed the NQ Unit
Marine Engineering Practice: An Introduction at SCQF level 5. Candidates could also have
had some relevant industrial experience within a marine environment.
Core Skills: There are opportunities to develop the Core Skills of Communication,
Information and Communication Technology and Problem Solving in this Unit, although
there is no automatic certification of Core Skills or Core Skills components.
Context for delivery: If this Unit is delivered as part of a Group Award, it is recommended
that it should be taught and assessed within the subject area of the Group Award to which it
contributes.
Assessment: The assessment for Outcomes 1 could be a single question paper of 6
questions which will be answered under supervised closed-book conditions in one hour.
Outcome 2 can be a question paper of three questions to be answered under supervised

closed-book conditions in 30 minutes. Alternatively the candidate can show competency by
simulating the start-up/shut down procedures of a propulsion plant, to be followed by
diagnosing a normal operating problem within 30 minutes and then produce a report of the
maintenance procedures to be followed to resolve the problem.
HN Unit (F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 2
Higher National Unit specification: statement of standards
Unit code: F912 34
Assessment should be conducted under supervised and controlled conditions.
The sections of the Unit stating the Outcomes, Knowledge and/or Skills, and Evidence
Requirements are mandatory.
Where evidence for Outcomes is assessed on a sample basis, the whole of the content listed
in the Knowledge and/or Skills section must be taught and available for assessment.
Candidates should not know in advance the items on which they will be assessed and
different items should be sampled on each assessment occasion.
Outcome 1
Explain marine propulsion plant and ancillary equipment.
Knowledge and/or Skills
• Types of marine propulsion plant • Construction of marine propulsion

• Layout of marine propulsion plant plant
• Operating principles of marine • Ancillary Systems
propulsion plant • Boiler feed water densities
Evidence Requirements
Candidates will need to provide evidence to demonstrate knowledge and/or skills for a type
of marine propulsion plant (Marine Diesel Engines, Marine Boilers, Marine Steam Turbines,
Marine Gas Turbines and Diesel-Electrical Drives).
Candidates should with reference to a type of propulsion plant:
Draw the layout of one propulsion plant
Explain the operating principles of one propulsion plant
Explain with the aid of a sketch the construction of one propulsion plant
Explain 2 ancillary systems from:
— Lubricating oil systems
— Cooling water systems
— Starting and control systems
— Fuel systems
Candidates should be asked on each assessment occasion to:
Explain boiler feed water systems and densities for steam plant.
Evidence should be generated under controlled conditions.
Assessment Guidelines
Evidence could be assessed using an assessment instrument composed of six structured questions.
This assessment may last for one hour. HN Unit
(F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 3
Higher National Unit specification: statement of standards (cont)
Outcome 2
Explain the operational procedures, operational problems and maintenance of marine propulsion
plant.
Knowledge and/or Skills
• Types of marine propulsion plant

• Starting plant
• Stopping plant
• Fault recognition
• Maintenance procedures
Evidence Requirements
Candidates will need to provide evidence to demonstrate their knowledge and/or skills for a type of
marine propulsion plant (Marine Diesel Engines, Marine Boilers, Marine Steam Turbines, Marine
Gas Turbines and Diesel-Electrical Drives).
Candidates should for one type of marine propulsion plant:
Explain the sequence of starting plant including freedom of movement, and control of fuel,
temperature, and speed.
Explain the sequence of stopping plant including slow cool down.
Explain a fault associated with one type of marine plant.

Explain 2 maintenance procedures associated with marine propulsion plant
Evidence should be generated under controlled conditions.
Assessment Guidelines
The assessment could be a single question paper consisting of three structured questions.
Alternatively, candidates can use a simulator to demonstrate their knowledge of the start up and
shutdown procedures. The candidate could diagnose a fault and explain the maintenance
procedure to resolve the problem. This report should be generated under the conditions outlined
within the Evidence Requirements.
The assessment of this Outcome may last for one hour.
HN Unit (F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 4
Administrative Information
Unit code: F912 34
Superclass category: XQ
Original date of publication: August 2010
Version: 01
History of changes:
Version Description of change Date

So what does it tell us ?
You should have completed the Marine Engineering Practice Unit before
attempting this unit.
OR – have some previous experience in the field of Marine Engineering.
Although not specified as an entry requirement for this unit , English and
Mathematics at Key Skills Level 2 are the level required for further
progression.
The Unit covers the basics of Steam, Diesel, Diesel Electric and Gas
Turbine Propulsion.
Principles of Operation
Basic Layout and Construction Details
Operation and Maintenance
To help keep things in a logical order, the course is divided into Modules, each
Module will lead into the next and at the end of each Module will be a set of
worked Typical Questions so you can get the feel of the level of the questions
and the level of the answer required.
After the worked examples will be some non-worked questions which you can
attempt on your own.
This is an e-learning course NOT a textbook, so keep to the order in which the
Modules are presented.
You should also keep your own notes, as you practice sketches, answers etc.
You may also wish to highlight text in the document for your own quick
reference later on.
Course Structure
The Unit F912 34 requires the following topics to be covered:
Types of marine propulsion plant
Layout of marine propulsion plant
Operating principles of marine propulsion plant
Construction of marine propulsion plant
Ancillary Systems
Boiler feed water densities
Types of marine propulsion plant
Starting plant
Stopping plant
Fault recognition
Maintenance procedures
The exams themselves must be sat under controlled conditions at a marine

college, but there will be adequate material within the e-learning course to
prepare you for the exams.
The course will include a “Mock” exam with feedback so that learners can
familiarised themselves with the exam structure, and the way it will be marked.
Recommended further reading.
As you are probably aware by now, the Internet is a tremendous source of

information on Marine Engineering, so below are a couple of Websites which are
at about the right level for this course.
http://www.marineengineering.org.uk/
A very good general marine engineering website for motor, steam and
auxiliaries
http://www.dieselduck.ca/machine/index.html
Website dedicated to marine diesel engines and their operation.
http://www.steamesteem.com/
Website dedicated to marine steam, old and new.
If you do NOT have Internet access – don’t worry . This e-learning course is a
stand-alone resource and is sufficient to prepare you for the exams.
In addition, the following books although above the level we are aiming
to achieve, are useful as reference or additional material.
Introduction To Marine Engineering
D.A. Taylor 1996 Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
ISBN 0 7506 2530 9
Reeds Volume 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge For Marine Engineers
Reeds Marine Engineering Series 2008 ISBN 0 71366 7362
Reeds Volume 12 Motor Engineering Knowledge For Marine Engineers
Reeds Marine Engineering Series 2008 ISBN 1 40817 5996

Conclusion
From the Unit Specification we can see that the Assessment Criteria are
clearly defined but broad enough to cover the whole syllabus.
There are TWO Outcomes, both of which have to be passed at 50% to

achieve an overall pass in this Unit.
The examinations can NOT be sat as part of the e-learning course but
must take place in an approved centre under examination conditions.
!
THIS IS IMPORTANT !!
o Have you read and understood the Unit Specification ?
o Do you know what the Assessment Criteria are ?
o Do you know how many examinations there are ?
o Do you know how long each examination is ?
o Do you know what the pass mark is ?
Please check that you can answer “YES” to these questions

before continuing.
MODULE 1 - PROPULSION LAYOUTS
SHAFTING AND PROPULSION
Engine Configurations
The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine has previously been the favoured main
propulsive power unit for most types of merchant vessels. As the price of oil
rose, developments in the design of these engines allowed them to bum the
poorer residual fuels. This combined with major improvements in turbocharger
design and waste heat recovery, raised their efficiency and power output, so
they were able to supercede the steam turbine plants which operated at much
lower efficiencies.
In recent years , the medium speed trunk piston 4 stroke engine has become
the preferred option for some types of large vessels. Re-designed to operate on
the cheaper grades of Residual Fuel Oil (RFO), the medium speed engine is
available in both straight and Vee configurations. The Vee configuration gives
an even higher Power to Weight Ratio, and is an option NOT available in slow
speed engines.
The requirement for low propeller revs for optimum efficiency means that in all
but the smallest installations, some means of reducing the medium speed revs
to approx 80 to 120 rpm at the propeller was required. This meant the use of
gearboxes which added to the weight and complexity of the installation.
The requirement for complex gearing installations has been removed by the
use of diesel-electric installations , often using a “Power Station” concept where
several alternators can provide power to thrusters, azipods and conventional
propeller installations.
o the almost universal choice for the machinery of most medium to

large cargo ships is a slow speed diesel engine;
o medium speed geared diesels are the general choice for smaller
cargo ships, ferries, tugs and supply boats;
o large cruise liners are frequently fitted with diesel electric
installations as are many specialist vessels such fishery research
and oceanographic vessels.
Gas turbines and/or high speed diesels are the choice for vessels where the
need for a high power/weight ratio is all important. At one time this would
have referred mostly to warships, but modern cruise ships and fast passenger
ferries are increasingly likely to use gas turbines.
Power to Weight Ratio

This is the ratio of the power output of the installation to the weight of the
installation.
Approximate values for each of the main types of engine being as

follows:
o Slow speed diesels: 22 to 28 kW/tonne

o Medium Speed Diesels 50-100 kW/tonne;
o (vee engines tend to be lighter and in-line engines tend to be heavier)
o High speed diesels: 250-330 kW/tonne
o Gas turbines: 1000 kW/tonne
Slow Speed Diesel Engine Driven Ships
o The main engine is a slow speed crosshead diesel engine

o The generators are medium speed Trunk piston Diesel Engines.
Medium Speed Diesel Driven Ships
o All medium speed engines

o Controllable Pitch Propellers
o Alternatively may be Diesel Electric
o Electrically powered Thrusters may be used for Dynamic Positioning.
Redundancy Of Propulsion Equipment
In the case of a slow speed diesel engine, if the main engine (The only main
engine) suffers a mechanical failure, then the ship is without propulsive power.
For this reason, many vessels, and certainly passenger vessels, are fitted with
multiple propulsion systems, arranged so that a failure in one system will not
affect the other(s).
The transmission system on a ship transmits power from the engine to the
propeller. The system is made up of shafts, bearings and finally the propeller.
The thrust from the propeller is transferred to the ship through the transmission
system.
This may be :
o Conventional Single Screw

o Conventional Twin Screw
o Multiple geared Input
o Diesel Electric
o Azipods
For all the above except azipods, the different items in the system include the
thrust shaft, one or more intermediate shafts and the tail shaft.
These shafts are supported by the thrust block, intermediate bearings and the
stern-tube bearing.
A sealing arrangement is provided at either end of the tail-shaft with the

propeller completing the arrangement.
In modern shipping therefore, there are many propulsion layouts, the actual
layout being decided by the priorities of the shipowner.
Slow Speed Direct Coupled Diesel Engine
A conventional commercial vessel of above 15,000 tonnes is most likely to be
driven by a single slow speed 2 stroke engine directly coupled to the propeller.
The slow speed self-reversing marine crosshead diesel engine is the most
popular form of propulsion for ocean going cargo vessels.
Advantages:
o Can burn the lowest grade of fuel - Heavy Fuel Oil

o Very Efficient - Over 50%, with waste heat recovery
Disadvantages
o Large, heavy plant for the power produced.

o Only one main engine – No back up propulsion
Medium Speed Propulsion
The configurations for medium speed diesel engines are many and varied. Since
the running speed of a medium speed diesel engine is 250 rpm to 1000 rpm ,
this speed does NOT match the optimum speed for the propeller which for
merchant vessels is in the range 80rpm to 120 rpm.
For this reason a single reduction gearbox has to be used.
Although this is a disadvantage, it does allow for multiple engines to be

coupled to the same shaft , using the same gearbox and clutches to engage,
disengage the engines as required.
Advantages:
o Multiple Engines gives backup for safety.

o Higher power to weight ratio, more flexible layout.
Disadvantages
o Multiple engines – more maintenance required.

o Not as efficient as a slow speed installation.
Steam Turbine Propulsion
Steam Turbine propulsion is now very unusual for merchant ships due to the
size, weight and complexity of the plant.
At the present time steam turbines in civilian shipping use are only found in
some older V.L.C.C.s (Very Large Crude Carriers) and in some modern L.N.G.
(Liquified Natural Gas) Carriers
ADVANTAGES
o Low vibration, low maintenance, low NOx production.

o Readily modified to burn “Dual Fuel” i.e. Heavy Fuel Oil or L.N.G.
DISADVANTAGES
o Big, heavy complicated plant.

o Inefficient, Efficiencies currently “stuck” at 35 to 40%
Diesel Electric Propulsion
In the system shown above, the use of multiple switchboards with connecting
breakers (Bus Tie Breakers) allows several configurations of drive pods, prime
movers and switchboards, this allows power to be routed in various ways to
achieve safety and the most economical cruising mode.
The use of gas turbines and diesel engines is becoming increasingly common,
especially on cruise liners
Originally used by military navies, it allows economical cruising or high power

high speed as required.
ADVANTAGES
o Multiple Prime Movers means that they can run at optimum speed
(most engines are most efficient at close to full load) while allowing
a range of ship cruising speeds.
o Multiple engines mean they can be positioned in various engine
rooms or compartments, giving increased safety to the ship.
o Multiple redundancy means the ship is unlikely to lose all propulsion
in the event of a single mechanical failure.
Azipod Propulsion
A relatively new idea for merchant vessel propulsion, the basic idea is similar to
diesel-electric propulsion, but instead of electric motors driving shafts and
propellers in the conventional way, the electric motors and propellers are
housed in pods outside the hull which can be rotated to steer the ship.
ADVANTAGES
o Mutliple engines and drives - Added Safety

o No Steering Gear Required
o Azipods can also act as side thrusters – Increased manouverability
DISADVANTAGES
o Complex and Expensive Plant

The illustrations above show the layout of the azipods. Each pod would also
have water leakage alarms and arrangements for pumping out minor leakage.
This system uses steerable propellers mounted in “Pods” under the ship’s hull.
Obviously seals are still required to keep the water out, and the main
advantage of the Azipod system is the multiple redundancy of both propulsion
and steering.
The system also allows great flexibility of prime movers, allowing multiple
generators driven by diesel engines, gas turbines or a combination of both to
power multiple electrical switchboards.
The power for the Azipods is then supplied from the switchboards making total
propulsion and steering failure due to a single fault virtually impossible.
This system is increasingly used on cruise liners and ferries, where passenger
safety is paramount.
The Azipod system requires two sets of seal to maintain watertight integrity.
One set of seals is on the service tube to allow pod direction to be rotated by
the steering head.
The other set is on the shaft to allow rotation of the propeller by the variable
speed thyristor controlled motor.
The service tube carries the power supply cables to the motor, instrumentation,
and a bilge alarm and suction tube.
The pod control system is complex and allows steering of the ship to be carried
out conventionally or for individual pods to be steered separately as thrusters.
Components Of The Shaft Line
Thrust Shaft.
The thrust shaft consists of length of shafting with integral flanges, at either
end, so that it can be connected to the engine or gearbox shaft and the
intermediate shafting.
A thrust collar is also incorporated into the shaft to absorb the thrust.
The thrust shaft is incorporated into the thrust block on installations which have
a separate thrust block, though in slow speed diesel engine modern practice,
the thrust block will be incorporated in the engine and no external thrust block
will be fitted.
Thrust Block Purpose and Operation
Purpose:
The purpose of the thrust block on a ship is to transmit the force

produced by the rotating propeller through the housing hold-down
bolts into the ship’s structure.
The structure under the thrust block is reinforced with steel plates and I beams
above and inside the double bottom tanks or cofferdams.
The thrust block is arranged so that the Torque and rotation produced by the
Prime Mover (The engine installation) is transmitted along the shaft and rotates
the propeller, the propeller in turn produces thrust which is transmitted back
along the shaft.
The thrust block is where this thrust is transmitted to the ship structure,
propelling the ship through the water.
The thrust block consists of a housing which contains a number of wedge-

shaped white metalled pads which are free to tilt against a collar machined
integral with the shaft. The pads are arranged in a rigid steel backing ring
which , in turn is fixed to the steel casting or fabrication which makes up the
body of the thrust block.
The pads are prevented from overheating and premature wear by a fluid wedge
of oil between them and the collar, the oil supply being hydrodynamic - self
pressurized due to the rotation of the shaft. A scraper arrangement on the shaft
collar transfers oil into the pad areas to ensure adequate lubrication. It is this
oil wedge, formed by the rotation of the shaft, which transmits the thrust from
the shaft collar to the pads, no metal to metal contact takes place.
There is an oil reservoir in the bottom of the housing which may contain an oil
cooling coil through which water is circulated.
Diagram of a shaft line including Tail Shaft, Intermediate Shaft and Thrust Shaft.
Shaft Bearings.
Purpose:
To support the weight of the shaft
To provide alignment for the shaft.
There are two types of shaft bearings, the aftermost tunnel bearing and
the intermediate shaft bearings.
The aftermost tunnel bearing is fitted with top and bottom bearing shells
to counteract the propeller weight and take the vertical upward thrust at
the forward end of the tail-shaft.
The other intermediate shaft bearings only support the weight of the shaft
and as such have only lower half bearing shells.
The shaft bearings may have their lower journal bearing bushes replaced
by pivoting pads, which are able to carry higher loads and retain an oil
wedge for lubrication.
Lubrication is provided by an oil bath in the lower half of the casing. An oil
thrower ring, bolted to the shaft, dips into the oil and carries it around the
shaft as it rotates.
Cooling of the lubricating oil and bearing is achieved by circulating water

through a tube cooler in the bottom of the bearing casing.
The shaft bearings will be fitted with:
o Oil Sight Glass

o Local Temperature Gauge
o Remote Temperature Indicator/Alarm
o Cooling Coil may be fitted
Stern Tube
Purpose:
To support the weight of the propeller.
The stern tube bearing is a long bearing set in the stern frame of the
vessel. It supports the overhanging load produced by the considerable
weight of the propeller.
Sterntube Seals
Purpose
Outer Seals
To prevent Sea Water entering the stern tube
To prevent Stern Tube Lub oil leaking out into the sea.
Inner Seals:
To prevent Stern Tube Lub oil leaking out into machinery space
or shaft tunnel.
Originally, stern tube bearings were sea water lubricated and cooled.
Nowadays, it is more common for special seals to be fitted at the

outboard and inboard ends of the tailshaft, and the stern tube to be
lubricated and cooled by oil.
Older designs, usually associated with sea water lubricated stern

bearings, made use of a conventional stuffing box and gland at the after
bulkhead. Oil-lubricated stern bearings use either lip or radial face seals
or a combination of the two.
o Seals at the outer (propeller) end of the stern tube , keep the
water out,and the oil in.
o At the inner end the seals prevent the oil from leaking out of
the stern tube bearing.
In modern practice the vast majority of stern tube bearings are oil
lubricated.
Typical Questions
1. Draw a main engine layout for a slow speed marine

crosshead engine showing clearly the shafting components
between it and the propeller.
2. Explain the purpose of the following items in a shaft line:
Thrust Block
Stern Tube
Shaft Bearing
Inner Stern Tube Seals
Outer Stern Tube Seals
3. Draw a basic layout for a cross compounded marine steam

turbine main propulsion installation.
4. Draw a basic layout for a main propulsion system

incorporating TWO medium speed diesel engines driving ONE
propeller shaft
o Can you name and briefly describe the function of the items
in a shaft line ?
o Can you draw and label at least one propulsion layout ?
Please check that you can answer “YES” to these

questions before continuing.
Example Question.
Q.1 DRAW A SIMPLE LINE DIAGRAM OF A MAIN PROPULSION PLANT FOR

YOUR VESSEL. THE DRAWING SHOULD INCLUDE THE MAIN ENGINE, SHAFT
LINE, STERN TUBE BEARING AND PLUMMER BLOCK’S. APPROPRIATE
ENGINE SPEED. THE POSITION OF THE THRUST BLOCK SHOULD BE SHOWN.
(15 MARKS TOTAL) OUT COME 1:1
• This is a real question from a previous exam.
• You will only have TEN MINUTES to answer it.
• The drawing below is laid out on the page to give the biggest drawing area
available.
• You are allowed to put drawings sideways on the page.
• It is a chopped down version of the drawing in this set of notes, but does
include labels showing the stern tube support bearing and plummer blocks.
• It also has labels stating the type of engine
• This drawing is not the neatest in the world but has all the information
required and is of an acceptable standard.
Propulsion - Page 35 of 214

MODULE 2 - Internal Combustion
Engines
Marine propulsion plant has one function – to turn the chemical energy in
FUEL into mechanical energy to propel the ship.
As mentioned previously this can be carried out in different ways.
Internal Combustion Piston Engine

Steam Turbine Plant
Gas Turbine Plant
By Far The Most Common Is The Internal Combustion Engine.
Internal Combustion Engines.
Before the Internal Combustion Engine came the “External Combustion

Engine” – that is, the reciprocating steam engine or steam turbine.
Obviously such an engine needed a boiler where the fuel was burnt before
the steam produced was fed into the steam engine.
The Internal Combustion Engine burns the fuel inside the cylinder itself ,
producing a compact powerful engine which is “self contained” when
compared to the older steam engine.

The Internal Combustion Cycle
In order to continue working, an internal combustion engine has to return

to some initial condition before the process can begin again.
This process is called the cycle and is usually considered to consist of 4

separate parts.
Suck Induction
Squeeze Compression
Bang Ignition
Blow Exhaust
The column on the left (above) is not the “Official” way of describing the
cycle, but is a useful way of remembering the sequence of events which
take place during the cycle.
This is true for all Internal Combustion engines, but the means with which
the cycle is achieved vary depending on the type of engine.
Example:
Car Engine - A car engine may be a Diesel Engine, or it may be a Spark

Ignition Engine : These are 2 different cycles.
The cycle may take place in one engine revolution or two engine
revolutions – so the engines may be further subdivided into 2 Stroke (1
complete engine revolution) and 4 Stroke (2 complete engine revolutions)
The diesel engine is a type of internal combustion engine which ignites

the fuel by injecting it into hot, high-pressure air in a combustion
chamber.

In common with all internal combustion engines the diesel engine
operates with a fixed sequence of events, which may be achieved either
in four strokes or two strokes, a stroke being the travel of the piston
between its extreme points. Each stroke is accomplished in half a
revolution of the crankshaft.
The diesel engine is therefore a compression ignition engine, and in

marine use will run on fuel with a Flash Point of above 60 C. (SOLAS
Chapter II-2)
In addition to this, there are various other divisions into which the marine
diesel can be placed.
4 Stroke Medium Speed
2 Stroke Slow Speed
Summary:
The regulations require that all internal combustion engines in

enclosed machinery spaces use fuel with a Flash Point of more
than 60o C
This means that all such internal combuston engine operate

on the Compression Ignition (Diesel Cycle)
Diesel Engines can further be divided into Two Stroke and

Four Stroke Engines.
Large , slow speed ,marine diesel engines are invariably Two

Stroke engines, and in addition are Crosshead engines.
Modern small marine diesel engines are invariably 4 Stroke

Trunk Piston engines.

Four Stroke Cycles
This cycle is used in medium speed engines, where a complete cycle of

engine operation requires two revolutions.
This cycle can be split up into the 4 different strokes, which make up the
2 revolutions.
Stroke 1 is the Induction stroke, where a fresh charge of air is drawn

into the cylinder through the open inlet valve by the movement of the
piston. This also helps expel the exhaust gases and is referred to as
scavenging.
Stroke 2 is the Compression stroke, where the air charge is

compressed. This is so the temperature and pressure at the end of
compression is sufficient to enable combustion of the fuel, which occurs at
the end of the compression stroke, i.e. around T.D.C.
Stroke 3 is the Power stroke, where the hot-gases caused by the

compression stroke ignites the fuel. The fuel is injected 'early' i.e. before
the piston reaches TDC, so that it can reach its burning temperature as
the piston passes over TDC and pushes the piston down the cylinder.
Stroke 4 is the exhaust stroke, where the products of combustion are

expelled from the cylinder through the open exhaust valve or ports.

The actual timing of the valves will vary from manufacturer to
manufacturer, and also depends on variables such as Design Charge Air
Pressure.
The injection timing will depend on fuel quality.
Above is a sketch of a FOUR STROKE cycle shown as ONE CYCLE which, of

course takes 2 REVOLUTIONS or FOUR STROKES of the piston.
T.D.C. means Top Dead Centre where the piston is at the top of its travel.
B.D.C. means Bottom Dead Centre where the piston is at the bottom of
its travel.

Typical medium speed 4 stroke medium speed in-
line trunk piston engine.

Two Stroke Cycles
In the 2 Stroke cycle, the same functions are carried out as for the 4
stroke cycle ( Induction, Compression, Ignition, Exhaust) , but only 1
revolution, or 2 strokes, is available to carry this out.
Obviously this requires reducing the crank angle designated for each
function, with a reduction in scavenging efficiency.

Slow Speed 2 Stroke Crosshead Diesel Engine

Comparison of two-stroke and four-stroke cycles
The main difference between the two cycles is the power developed.
The two-stroke cycle engine, with one working or power stroke every
revolution, will, theoretically, develop twice the power of a four-stroke
engine of the same swept volume.
Inefficient scavenging however and other losses, reduce the power

advantage to about 1.8.
For a particular engine power the two-stroke engine will be considerably

lighter—an important consideration for ships.
Nor does the two-stroke engine require the complicated valve operating
mechanism of the four-stroke.
The four-stroke engine however can operate efficiently at high speeds

which offsets its power disadvantage
Each type of engine has its applications which on board ship have resulted
in the slow speed (i.e. 80— 100 rev/min) main propulsion diesel
operating on the two-stroke cycle. At this low speed the engine
requires no reduction gearbox between it and the propeller.
The four-stroke engine (usually rotating at medium speed, between 250

and 1000 rev/ min) is used for auxiliaries such as alternators and
sometimes for main propulsion with a gearbox to provide a propeller
speed of between 80 and 100 rev/min.
The introduction of diesel-electric propulsion has brought the 4 stroke

medium speed diesel to the fore, since it allows multi-engine setups to
operate without the need for elaborate shafting and gearbox systems.

Engine Configurations
The Two Stroke Crosshead Engine has previously been the favoured main
propulsive power unit for most types of merchant vessels. As the price of
oil rose, developments in the design of these engines allowed them to
bum the poorer residual fuels. This combined with major improvements in
turbocharger design and waste heat recovery, raised their efficiency and
power output, so they were able to supercede the steam turbine plants
which operated at much lower efficiencies.
In recent years , the medium speed trunk piston 4 stroke engine has
become the preferred option for some types of large vessels. Re-designed
to operate on the cheaper grades of Residual Fuel Oil (RFO), the medium
speed engine is available in both straight and Vee configurations. The Vee
configuration gives an even higher Power to Weight Ratio, and is an
option NOT available in slow speed engines.
The requirement for low propeller revs for optimum efficiency means that
in all but the smallest installations, some means of reducing the medium
speed revs to approx 80 to 100 rpm at the propeller was required. This
meant the use of gearboxes which added to the weight and complexity of
the installation.
The requirement for complex gearing installations has been removed by

the use of diesel-electric installations , often using a “Power Station”
concept where several alternators can provide power to thrusters, azipods
and conventional propeller installations.
the almost universal choice for the machinery of most medium to

large cargo ships is a slow speed diesel engine;
medium speed geared diesels are the general choice for smaller
cargo ships, ferries, tugs and supply boats;
large cruise liners are frequently fitted with diesel electric

installations as are many specialist vessels such fishery research
and oceanographic vessels.
Gas turbines and/or high speed diesels are the choice for vessels
where the need for a high power/weight ratio is all important. At one time
this would have referred mostly to warships, but modern cruise ships and
fast passenger ferries are increasingly likely to use gas turbines.

Typical Questions
1) Explain , with the aid of sketches if necessary, the principle on

which a FOUR STROKE Diesel engine operates.
2) Explain how a TWO Stroke diesel engine operates.
o Could you explain a compression ignition cycle ?
o Could you describe ,with the aid of sketch , a two or four

stroke diesel cycle ?
Please check that you can answer “YES” to these

questions before continuing.

Example Question
With reference to a slow speed marine crosshead diesel engine:
State the purpose of each of the following:
a) Tie Bolt
b) Bedplate
c) Main Bearing
d) Bottom End Bearing
e) Crosshead and Guides (15 Marks)
• You will have about ten minutes to answer this question, which amounts to
TWO MINUTES for each part. It is reasonable to assume that each part is
worth 3 MARKS.
• The answer below was produced in ten minutes.
• It answer all parts of the question and clearly indicates which part is being
answered.
• Part (e) is shorter than it should be because the person writing it ran out of
time and rather than get bogged down in one question, went on to the next
one.
• Any time left at the end of the exam can be used to add to previous
answers.
• Use all the time you are given – even if just reading through your answers to
check you have answered as much as you can.
SQA – ND - Basic Vessel Systems – Diesel Engines 1 Page 50 of 214

STRUCTURE AND TRANSMISSION
COMPONENTS OF DIESEL
ENGINES
ENGINE COMPONENTS
Bedplate:
Slow Speed Crosshead Engine
Purpose:
To support and give rigidity to the rest of the engine structure.
(Remember that slow speed diesel engines are a built-up structure)
The bedplate generally consists of longitudinal box sections with transverse girders
and stiffeners welded together.
The transverse girders have steel castings welded in the centre to form the main
bearing housing.
The bedplate itself is therefore described as fabricated , a combination of the cast

steel transverse sections and welded box sections being used to give the structure
the required rigidity.
Where the engine is to be fitted., the ships structure must be designed and
reinforced to rigidly support the weight of the engine and the forces generated
during operation. To distribute the stresses the reinforcing of the structure must
extend over a wider area than that of the engine.
The engine is aligned with chocks and bolted to the tank tops. The chocks are
carefully arranged to support and align the engine.
Provision may be included for the thrust block in large direct drive engines.

Medium Speed Trunk Piston Engine
It is no longer usual practice to have a bedplate for these engines. Instead the
whole engine casting is given enough rigidity to support itself and the combustion
loads.
MEDIUM SPEED ENGINE FRAME
The casting for a modern “Vee” configuration medium speed 4 Stroke diesel
engine.
The casting is the whole support structure for the engine and includes the cooling
spaces for the liners to be inserted, cross members for the main bearings,
camshaft bearing suppports etc.
In this photograph the liners can be seen already in place, with the cylinder head
holding down bolts ready to take the cylinder heads.
The crankshaft has already been fitted and the coupling flange can be seen on the
left, ready to take the flywheel.

“A” Frames: (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)
The “A” Frames are bolted to the top of the bedplate at each transverse girder to
support the entablature and form the crankcase. The columns are of box girder
construction.
Entablature(Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)

The entablature is of rectangular box section divided by vertical stiffeners between
the cylinders, and at the bottom a horizontal plate separates the entablature from
the crankcase. Holes are cut in the vertical stiffeners to form an air space through
the whole length of the entablature. Provision is made to fit the cylinder liners and
a diaphragm gland.
Tie Rods: (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)

Purpose:
To transmit the gas loads from the cylinder covers to the bedplate.
To hold the engine structural components together vertically
Two bolts, one on each side of the crankshaft, are fitted at each transverse girder
and pass up through the bedplate, frames and entablature to the top of the
cylinder block, where they are tightened to hold the structure in compression.
Main Bearings:
Purpose:
To support the weight of the running gear and the crankshaft.
In slow speed engines the main bearings are fitted at each transverse girder and
at either end of the bedplate. They are normally white metal shell type bearings.
The top keep is fastened to the housing by studs, or hydraulic jack bolts.
In medium soeed engines, the main bearings are housed in transverse sections of
the main crankcase casting.
As the bearings are loaded by units on either side the wear rate may not be equal
and this wear is measured by taking crankshaft deflections.
Traditionally, main bearings were fitted from the top and rested in the bedplate, as
shown above. Modern main bearings for trunk piston engines are now almost
always fitted from the bottom (Underslung Bearing)
For large slow speed crosshead engines, the conventional approach is used and
the bearings are fitted into the bedplate from the top.

Typical Slow Speed Marine
Diesel Engine Main Bearing
Typical Medium Speed

Marine Diesel Engine Main
Bearing

Crankshaft
Purpose:
The crankshaft is the backbone of the engine and consists of a number of cranks
or throws, which are rotated by the forces transmitted through the bottom end
bearings. Each cylinder has one crank. which consists of a crankpin and two crank
webs. Journals connect the crankwebs together to form a continuous shaft and are
supported by the main bearings. The crank angles are set to give the required
firing order.
Crankshafts may be of the following types:
(a) Fully built- webs shnrnk onto journals end crarikp*ns (Large diesel engine)
(b) Semi..built:- webs and crank made as one unit and sbrrik on to journals
(medium speed and large diesel engines)
(c) One piece:- Cast or forged from one piece of material. (High speed).
Balance weights are sometimes fitted to the webs to reduce “OUT OF BALANCE’
forces which cause excessive vibration of the engine
Drive wheels or gears are also fitted to drive the camshaft etc.
Bottom End Bearings:

Purpose
To provide a location surface for the bottome end of the connecting rod
on the crankshaft journal
Bottom end or big end bearings transmit the gas load to the crankshaft. They are
normally shell type. As there is a continuous sliding motion between the crankpin
and the bearing sur3faces an oil wedge can be formed
Connecting Rod:
Purpose:
To connect the piston to the crankshaft , allowing combustion force to

exert torque on the crankshaft on the power stroke .
In crosshead engines the connecting rod is attached to the crosshead at the upper
end.
In trunk piston engines the connecting rod connects the piston directly to the
crankshaft

Crosshead: (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)
Purpose:
To act as a guide for the piston rod at the lower end, and transmit the
sideways forces to the engine structure
The crosshead transmits the gas load from the piston rod to the connecting rod.
The crosshead bearing is subject to a continuous downward force and the
connecting rod only moves over a limited angle.
The piston rod can either be connected so the crosshead by a flange bolted to a
flat on the pin or by a hole in the centre of the pin, which allows the rod to pass
through and is secured with a nut
Also fitted to the crosshead are the guide shoes (slippers) which fit into the engine
guides.
Crosshead Guides (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)

These are vertical sliding bearings that locate and align the crosshead over the
length of engine stroke. They are secured to the frames. Lubrication is achieved
from a bleed off from the crosshead
Piston Rod: (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)

The piston rod acts as the main strut to transmit the gas load to the crosshead and
its length depends on the length of engine stroke. It is flanged at the top to enable
it to be attached to the piston and is attached to the crosshead by a flange or nut
as stated previously. Oil coolant is transmitted through the piston rod to the piston
and also returns through the rod.
Piston Rod Gland: (Large Slow Speed Crosshead Engines)

Purpose:
To prevent contamination of the crankcase lubricating oil by the

residues of the fuel oil, liner wear etc.
diaphragm is fitted to isolate the crankcase from the lower end of the cylinder and
scavenge space. Where the piston rod passes through a gland is fitted. The gland
consists of sets of packing of three or four sections held by a garter spring, Nch
must be a good fit to the rod. Above these are scraper rings, which scrape the dirt
from the piston rod. Below the packing rings other scraper rings scrape off the
excess lubricating oil from the rod on the upward stroke.

Piston:
Purpose:
To compress the gas and to transmit the gas load to the piston rod
(Crosshead Engines)or connecting rod (Trunk Piston Engines).
In all but the smallest engines, the piston is a two part structure, with a jeat
resistant crown (top) bolted to a cast iron or cast steel skirt
Piston Crown
The piston crown must be able to withstand the high temperature of combustion,
and may be either oil or water-cooled. Piston rings are fined to the crown to sea]
the piston in the liner.
Piston Skirt
In crosshead engines using uniflow scavenge a short skirt may be fitted to

help stabilise the piston in the liner. Two stroke engines, operating with cross or
loop scavenging, require long skirts to cover the scavenge and exhaust ports in
the liner.
In the trunk piston engine, where there is no crosshead, the piston skirt is fined
with a gudgeon (top end bearing) and transmits the gas load from the piston to
the gudgeon. The skirt also acts as a guide for the piston in the liner in the
absence of crosshead guides.

Liner:
Purpose:
The liner forms the cylinder, in which the piston moves and must
have adequate strength to handle the internal gas loads.
The liner is fitted into the entablature and the flanged top is secured between the
cylinder head and the entablature or jacket
The bottom end is free to expand. Rubber “0” rings between the liner and
entablature seals the jacket cooling water space.
Scavenge ports are cast near the lower end and with loop or cross scavenging
exhaust ports arc also needed. Four-stroke engines do not require any ports as
inlet and exhaust valves are fitted in the cylinder heads.

The liner is fitted into the engine frame, surrounded by a cooling water space.
Tle liner is sealed with double “O” Ring arrangements
Additional cooling ores are drilled in the top section and cooling water then flows
to the cylinder head which is clamped down onto the liner by the cylinder head
bolts attached to the engine frame.

CYLINDER HEADS:
Purpose:
To acts as the top of the combustion space.
To house the valves necessary for the engine to operate.
The cylinder head forms the top of the combustion space and must have sufficient
strength to withstand the maximum gas pressure. Studs and nuts secure the
cylinder head (or cover) so that it is a gas tight fit on the liner flange. It must
support the valves required for engine operation (fuel, air start etc). The cylinder
cover is cooled by the jacket water system.

Cylinder Head Is a More Complex Structure

Water Cooled Via Cavities.
2 Inlet And 2 Exhaust Valves are Usual Except On The Smallest Engines.
Central Fuel Injector.
May Include Pockets For Relief Valve, Air Start Valve And Indicator Cock.
Valve Seats are shrunk Into The Cylinder Head.
Inlet And Exhaust Valves May Be Part Of The “Built” Cylinder Head.

Simplified 4 Stroke Engine Rocker Gear
Note the tappet adjuster for adjusting the clearance.

Tappet Clearances
Tappet clearance checks are an important maintenance routine on a 4 stroke

marine diesel engine and checking is usually carried out every 2000 hours of
running time.
The procedure is carried as follows :

o Carry out Risk Assessment
o Obtain permission to take the engine out of service.
o Isolate the engine from start air supply
o Isolate L.O. pump motor electrical supply
o Open indicator cocks and turn engine until it is at Top Dead Centre on the
compression stroke (inlet and exhaust valves shut)
o Check the rocker clearance by sliding a feeler gauge between the valve head
and the rocker arm. (Manufacturer often supplies a specific thickness feeler
gauge for this – one thickness for Inlet valves and one for Exhaust.
o If adjustment is required, slacken the tappet locknut, adjust the clearance by
rotating the tappet screw and lock the locknut.
o Carry this out for Inlet and Exhaust valves along the whole engine.
If tappet clearances are too large – Engine will be noisy and excessive shock
loads will be applied to the valves. Timing will also be affected.
If tappet clearances are too small – Valves may be held off their seats and the
engine will lose power/compression. Valves may burn out.
The tappet clearance for the Exhaust Valves is always larger than that for the Inlet
valves because they expand more due to the hot exhaust gas passing over the
valve spindle.
Most modern 4 stroke engine of any size have TWO Inlet Valves
And TWO Exhaust valves for more efficient scavenging.

PISTON AND CONNECTING ROD (TRUNK PISTON ENGINE)
In the trunk piston engine the piston is fitted with a gudgeon pin and transmits
the gas load from the piston to the connecting rod. The skirt also acts as a guide
for the piston in the liner.
The gudgeon pin is connected to the connecting rod (con rod) which transmits
the power from the combustion space to the crankshaft.
The top of the piston forms the one side of the combustion chamber.
Bottom end or big end bearings transmit the gas load to the crankshaft. They
are normally shell type bearings. As there is a continuous sliding motion between
the crankpin and the bearing surfaces an oil wedge will be formed.
The piston slides up and down in the liner (see below). In order for the piston to
remain mobile in the liner there must be a clearance between piston and liner.
The clearance is the difference between the inside diameter of the liner and the
outside diameter of the piston and must be maintained over the full working
temperature range of the engine.

The piston is fitted with piston rings which maintain a gas tight seal between
piston and liner. ,
SLOW SPEED CROSSHEAD

ENGINE PISTON
Oil cooled by a supply from the

crosshead.
Shorter than the 4 stroke piston,

since a “Skirt” is not required.
4 STROKE TRUNK PISTON

Connecting Rod and Crosshead (Slow Speed Diesel Engine)
The slow speed diesel engine does NOT have the piston connected directly to the
connecting rod. Instead, the connecting rod ends at a bearing constrained to move
vertically, to which the piston rod is also connected.
This reduces wear on the very large liner and piston, and allows a space (The
scavenge space) from which air can enter the engine.

EXHAUST VALVE (Slow Speed Crosshead Engine)
The exhaust valve is likely to be hydraulically operated and may have variable
timing.
Because the liner is not connected to the crankcase, cylinder lubricating oil must
be injected directly into the liner.
The scavenge space is separated from the crankcase by a diaphragm and the
piston rod is sealed by a stuffing box.
Stuffing Box (Crosshead Engines Only)
The stuffing box is a cartridge assembly inserted from the top of the crankcase. It
is split to enable it to be removed from the piston rod for overhaul.
The scraper segments are split into 4 sections and held together by garter springs.
It has 2 functions :
To scrape “Clean” crankcase oil off the piston rod and return it to the
crankcase.

To scrape dirty oil and carbon etc off the piston rod and drain it to a tank.

PISTON RINGS
Piston rings perform various functions necessary to the operation and continued
functioning of the engine.
Maintain compression in the combustion space. “COMPRESSION RINGS”
The main function of the topmost rings on the piston is to seal against an oil
film on the cylinder liner and maintain compression. For this purpose the
rings are pre-stressed to push outwards against the cylinder liner surface.
However, most of the sealing force is obtained from gas pressure pushing
against the inner surface of the ring.
Provide a thin film of oil to lubricate and seal the compression rings. “OIL
CONTROL RINGS”
This is the function of the oil control or “Oil Scraper” rings. The rings are
specially shaped and provided with drainage slots or holes so that while most
of the oil is scraped off the liner wall and returned to the sump, enough oil is
left on the liner to be evenly spread in a thin film.
This thin film then lubricates the liner and rings and provide a liquid seal to
ensure good compression.

Types Of Piston Rings
Piston rings are of two diferent types and perform two different functions.
Compression Rings.
As the name implies these rings provide the sealing required to produce the initial
compression and then hold the combustion pressure after ignition.
Oil Control (Oil Scraper) Rings.
These rings perform the function of lubricating the cylinder , piston ring and piston
contact surfaces to reduce friction, reduce wear and allow the piston rings to
develop an oil film and seal properly in the cylinder.
In a trunk piston engine their other function is to distribute the oil film on the liner
while scraping excess oil off and returning it the crankcase.
Crankcase Explosions
Under normal conditions the atmosphere in the crankcase when the engine is
running contains a large amount of relatively large oil droplets (200 microns),
which are formed by lubricating oil splashing from the bearings onto rotating
components, in warm air.
Because of the droplets small surface area to volume ratio, the possibility of
ignition by a heat source is very low.
Should overheating occur in the crankcase, say by failure of a bearing, then a hot
spot is formed. Here lubricating oil falling on to the bearing surface is vaporised
and in addition some is broken down to flammable gasses such as hydrogen and
acetylene, the vapour can then travel away from the hotspot where it will
condense.
The white mist will increase in size and density until the lower flammability limit is
exceeded, the resultant explosion can vary from relatively mild to severe , with
catastrophic damage to the engine and possible fatalities.
Following the initial explosion there is a drop in pressure in the crankcase and if
the initial explosion is not safely dealt with and damage to the crankcase closure

occurs, it is possible that air can be drawn in so creating the environment for a
second and possible larger explosion. The limiting factors for an explosion is the
supply of fuel and the supply of oxygen, the air can be drawn in by the slight
vacuum created by the primary explosion. The supply of fuel may be created by
the passage of the shockwave shattering the larger oil droplets into the small size
that can readily be ignited.
By regulation, non-return relief doors must be fitted to the crankcase in order to

relieve the pressure of the initial shockwave but prevent a rapid ingress of air.
Crankcase Relief valves

• Crankcases are to be provided with lightweight spring-loaded valves or
other quick-acting and self- closing devices, of an approved type, to relieve the
crankcases of pressure in the event of an internal explosion and to prevent any
inrush of air thereafter.

Oil Mist Detectors
Purpose: To detect and locate hot spots in the crankcase before serious
mechanical damage can occur through bearing failure. To eliminate the danger of
crankcase explosions.
Warning is both visual and audible on detection of hot spot.
Actions In The Event Of Oil Mist Detection

The consequences of a crankcase explosion are extremely serious and the greatest
possible caution in the actions taken should be exercised.
Should the oil mist detector activate an alarm condition, then personnel should
take steps to ascertain if the fault is real. They should initially have assumed that
it is, the bridge should be informed and the engines slowed if the oil mist detector
has not already done so. Should the bridge require manoeuvrability, and it is
essential that the engine be operated then consideration of evacuation of the
engine room should be made. Otherwise the engine should be stopped and turned
on gear until cooled.
Under no circumstances should any aperture be opened until the engine has
sufficiently cooled, this is taken as normal operating temperatures as an explosion
cannot occur when no part has a temperature above 270OC.
Once cooled the engine can be opened and ventilated (the crankcase is an
enclosed space).
An inspection should be made to locate the hotspot, the engine should not be run
until the fault has been rectified.
Scavenge Fires (Crosshead Engines Only)
Unlike crankcase explosions, which can occur on trunk or crosshead engine types,
scavenge fires can only occur on crosshead engines, which are always 2 stroke
engines.
If flakes of burning or glowing carbon deposits drop into the oil sludge at the
bottom of the scavenge air box,.this sludge can be ignited and, if very combustible
material is found here, serious damage can be done to the piston rod and the
scavenge air box walls.
Ignition of carbon deposits in the scavenge air box can be caused by:
o Prolonged blow - by
o Slow combustion in the cylinder owing to incorrect atomisation, or
misaligned fuel spray

o Blow back through the scavenge air ports, owing to an incorrectly adjusted
exhaust cam disc or large resistance in the exhaust system (back pressure)
o To keep the exhaust resistance low, heavy deposits must not be allowed to
collect on protective gratings, nozzle rings and turbine blades, and the back
pressure after the turbochargers must not exceed 350mm water column.
Warnings of Fire
A fire in the scavenge box manifests itself by; - An increase in the exhaust
temperature of the affected cylinder, The turbo chargers may surge. Smoke from
the turbochargers air inlet filter The sides of scavenge air box ‘being noticeably
hotter. lf the fire is violent, smoky exhaust and decreasing engine revolutions may
occur. Violent blow-by can cause smoke, sparks, and even flames, to be blown out
when the respective scavenge box drain cock is opened - therefore keep clear of
the line of ejection. Only on older engines, modern drains are usually enclosed and
led to a pressurised drain tank. A monitoring device in scavenges air space gives
an alarm at abnormal temperature increase approx. 120°c.
Measures to be Taken
Owing to the possible risk of a crankcase explosion, do not stand near the relief
valves - flames can suddenly be violently emitted.
1) Reduce to slow and ask bridge for permission to stop.
2) When the engine stop order is received, the engine and switch - off the auxiliary
blowers.
3) Stop the fuel oil supply
4) Stop the lube Oil supply
5) Put the scavenge air box fire extinguishing equipment into function.
After The Fire Is Extingushed

Do not open scavenge air box or crankcase doors before the site of the fire has
cooled down to under 100°c when opening, keep clear of possible fresh spurts of
flame.
6) Remove dry deposits and sludge from all the scavenge air boxes.
7) Clean the respective piston rods and cylinder liners, and inspect their surface
condition, alignment and whether distorted. If in order, coat with oil. Repeat the
checking and concentrate on the piston crown and skirt, while the engine is being
turned (cooling oil and water on).

8) If a piston caused the fire, and this piston cannot be overhauled at once. Try to
increase cylinder lubrication in case of sticking rings
Reduce the fuel pump index to reduce maximum cylinder pressure.
Fuel Injection
The purpose of the fuel injection system is to:-

o atomise the fuel.
o distribute the fuel in the cylinder.
o Begin and end fuel injection rapidly.
o Meter the quantity of fuel with the high degree of accuracy the engine
needs for varying loads and to maintain this quantity constant from
cycle to cycle and cylinder to cylinder.
The essentials for good combustion in a cylinder are
Viscosity,
This is the resistance to flow. For good combustion the viscosity must be low
enough to ensure correct atomisation at the fuel injector. Viscosity reduces as its
temperature increases, so it is necessary to heat heavy fuel oil to reduce the
viscosity to a level suitable to give good atomisation.
Atomisation,
This is the splitting up of the fuel into very small particles (mist). This is carried
out by the fuel injector where the fuel is forced at high pressures through the
nozzle holes.
Penetration,
This is the distance the droplets of fuel travel into the cylinder combustion space
before they mix with the air and then igniting.
The amount of penetration is dependent upon the size of the droplets, the velocity
of the fuel leaving the nozzle and the conditions in the combustion chamber.

Turbulence.
This is the movement of the air and fuel in the combustion chamber before the
combustion occurs.
Turbulence improves the mixing of the fuel and air to ensure rapid effective
combustion.
The turbulence can be achieved by creating a swirl of the incoming air by the
shape of the inlet ports and further agitated by the shape of the piston crown and
cylinder head.
Fuel injection pumps
Purpose:
To raise the fuel to a high pressure for admission via the fuel injector
To time the admission of fuel to the cylinder
To control the volume of fuel admitted to the cylinder
To raise the fuel pressure to In most diesel engines, the method of fuel injection is
by the “Jerk Pump “ system where an individual piston in a sleeve is provide a
variable amount of fuel to the injector.
These pumps all operate on the same principle, using a high profile cam to
produce a rapid movement of a finely finished piston in a honed sleeve. No sealing
rings are fitted to the piston, sealing being achieved only by the fine clearances
between the sleeve and the piston.

The position of the helical groove in relation to the spill port determines the
amount of fuel injected.
This, in turn, is determined by the rotational position of the plunger.
The rotational position of the plunger is controlled by the fuel rack.
The fuel pump cam determines the timing of the fuel pump plunger stroke.
Jerk Type Fuel Pump

The fuel injector is also a precision item of equipment, the nozzle being a matched
set consisting of needle and body. The nozzle is replaceable and has a limited life
depending on the fuel quality and the effectiveness of purification.
Large slow speed diesel engines may have up to 3 injector per cylinder, the angle
of swirl being tangential in the cylinder to produce a fuel swirling effect.
Common Rail Fuel Injection
This is another form of fuel injection method, where the fuel is pressurised to fuel
injection pressure by a common group of fuel pumps. Each cylinder therefore does
not have it’s own timed “Jerk” pump, but instead has a valve which can be
opened by some sort of timing system, and introducing high pressure fuel to the
injector.
Scavenging and Turbo charging
In order to complete the diesel cycle, whether it is a two stroke or four stroke
cycle, the exhaust gas must be removed from the cylinder as completely as
possible to allow the new air charge to enter.
This process of “Sweeping Out” the old, burnt gases is called scavenging.
It is achieved by having an overlap period when the Inlet valves or ports are open
AND the Exhaust valves or ports are still open.
This allows the charge air to blow the exhaust gases completely out and improves
the engine efficiency.
To see the scavenge overlap on a two and four stroke cycle, go back to Pages 42
and 44 and have a close look at the diagrams.
You will see that there is a period when the cylinder is open to the exhaust system
AND the inlet air system.
This is the Scavenging Period.

Since the entire cycle has to take place in one rev, the use of inlet and exhaust
valves is not required. The above are typical methods of allowing air into the
cylinder and exhaust gas out of the cylinder , for a modern slow speed marine
engine.
The Uniflow scavenging method is now by far the most popular.
Note that for Uniflow scavenging, an exhaust valve system is necessary.

TURBOCHARGERS
When an engine is turbo-charged, it is effectively fooled into believing that
it has a larger capacity than it actually has.
o By pressurising the inlet air above atmospheric pressure, more fuel can
be burnt.
o This gives the engine a higher power to weight ratio
o There is also an increase in engine efficiency
We can take this further by cooling the turbo-charged air by means of an inter-
cooler, thus increasing its density even more. This enables more fuel to be burnt
which further enhances the way in which the engine believes it has a larger
capacity than it actually has. This along with the air being supplied to the cylinders
under pressure, is a very effective way of greatly increasing the engines power
output. The use of the turbocharger has meant that manufactures can now
produce lighter, higher performance diesel engines with an excellent power to
weight ratio in comparison with earlier normally aspirated designs.
Operation
Turbo-chargers are mounted on the engine exhaust manifold and the exhaust gas
expelled from the engine cylinders is used to drive the turbine. This in turn drives
the impeller, which is in the form of a rotary air compressor.
The air is drawn through a filter into the impeller and its speed increased as it
passes through to the impeller outlet side. The air is then directed through a
volute casing which changes the kinetic energy to a pressure energy.
This pressurised air then passes through an inter-cooler, to remove the heat
gained by the air in the process of being compressed in the turbo-charger, before
entering the scavenge air receiver. From the scavenge air receiver the pressurised
air is admitted to each cylinder through the air inlet valves or the scavenge air
ports.
Inter-Cooler:
The inter-cooler is similar to a shell and tube type cooler, consisting of finned
tubes circulated with water through the inside, and the air being directed over the
outside of the tubes.

Pulse System:
Typical Questions
1). State the function of the following components in a slow speed

crosshead marine diesel engine
Tie Bolt Piston Rod
Bed Plate Crosshead
2).Explain the function of the following:
Compression Rings
Oil Control (Scraper Ring)
3) describe with the aid of a sketch how fuel is metered into the cylinder
of a diesel engine.
4) Explain with the aid of a sketch how a fuel injector operates and how it
is set to the correct pressure.
5) On the drawing provided , label the parts indicated, using the correct
terminology. What is the correct designation for this type of engine ?
6) On the drawing provided , label the parts indicated, using the correct
terminology. What is the correct designation for this type of engine ?
7) Explain what is meant by turbocharging.
What are the advantages of doing this ?

DRAWING FOR Q7
DRAWING FOR Q8
o Could you label a diagram of a Diesel Engine, identifying the

principal parts ?
o Could you state the purpose of the various components or

assemblies in a diesel engine ?

before continuing.
MODULE 3 - Steam Boilers
A boiler is a closed vessel containing water, which by the

application of heat, is converted into steam at any desired
pressure. A boiler is basically a “steam generator”.
As the boiler function is to generate steam from water, it must

consist of the following: -
o A furnace or combustion chamber in which the fuel can be

burnt efficiently, releasing energy.
o Heat transfer surfaces, which allow the energy, released to

transfer to the water contained in the boiler and to form
steam.
o A chamber to allow the steam and water to separate.
o Passages or ducts that allow the supply of air to burn the fuel
and for the escape of flue gases to atmosphere.
o Various fittings and control devices that ensure that the

supplies of fuel, air and feed water are balanced with the
steam demand.
o Various fittings concerned with the safe operation of the boiler
i.e. Boiler Mountings.
There are two main types of boiler in use.
SMOKE TUBE OR “TANK” TYPE BOILERS
WATER TUBE BOILERS

1 Fire-Tube, Smoke-Tube or Tank Type
In this type of boiler the combustion of fuel occurs within a confined

space and the hot exhaust gases pass through the inside of steel
tubes, which are surrounded by water.
o These boilers usually only operate up to a pressure of 20 bar

and 7-12 bar operating pressure is more usual.
o Due to hoop stresses on the shell, the boiler does not lend
itself to being made larger for increased steam generation.
2. Water-Tube type
In which the water flows inside the steel tubes, which surround the
combustion chamber.
o The type of boiler fitted to a ship is dependent on the quantity

of steam required.
o A steam turbine engined ship will have a water-tube type

boiler fitted, as it requires large amounts of superheated
steam to run the turbines.
A diesel engined vessel could also be fitted with a water—tube

boiler if, as in the case of a large oil tanker where it would require
large volumes of steam to heat the oil cargo in order to make
discharge easier in colder climates. This type of ship would probably
also be fitted with other steam driven auxiliaries such as cargo
pumps.
A diesel engined vessel requiring only small amounts of steam, such

as a bulk carrier or container ship, would have electrically driven
auxiliaries and would be fitted with a firetube boiler probably of the
“package” type.
Water tube boilers can be constructed to operate at very high

pressure – 130 bar is common for shore based power generation.
At sea the pressure is lower, 60-65 bar is usual though 80 bar has
been tried.
The boiler has a low ratio of water volume to steam generation,
making the boiler sensitive enough to deal with rapid load change
though combustion and feed water control are of critical
importance.
A MODERN “PACKAGED” SMOKE TUBE BOILER
MULTI PASS SMOKE TUBE PACKAGED BOILER

TYPICAL “PACKAGED” SMOKE TUBE BOILER
WATER TUBE BOILERS
The above illustration shows a more modern type of boiler with the
superheater sections required for steam turbine propulsion.
BOILER MOUNTINGS
The following is a basic list of boiler mountings which will be

present on all boilers
o Water Level Gauges (Gauge Glasses) 2 Required
o Pressure Gauge Connections (To pressure gauge

ONLY)
o Low Water Alarms (Alarm and fuel shut off)
o Safety Valves (Minimum of 2 Required)
o Steam Stop Valve (Screw Down Non-Return)
o Blow Down Valves (To blow impurities out of the boiler

water)
o Chemical Dosing Connections (To get chemicals into the

boiler)
o Boiler Water Sampling Connections (To test the water)
o Feed valve (Screw Down Non Return) To get water into

the boiler.
Gauge Glasses
Gauge glasses are used to determine the actual water level in the
boiler. Two must be fitted directly to the boiler with connections to
the water side and steam side by direction of the Statutory
Authorities. For boilers of low pressure (i.e. less than 20 bar) tubes
of toughened glass are used. For boilers with pressures above 20
bar rectangular steel boxes with thick plate glass are used. A
remote level indicator may be used in the control room.
“IF THE LEVEL OF WATER IN THE BOILER IS IN

ANY DOUBT, THE BOILER SHOULD
IMMEDIATELY BE SECURED.”
Testing a Gauge Glass
The procedure of testing a gauge glass is often called blowing through the
gauge glass.
Testing a gauge glass ensures that the lines are clear and that the gauge
glass gives a correct indication of boiler water level.
The test procedure is:
1. Shut steam cock.
2. Shut water cock.
3. Open drain cock.
4. Slightly open water cock and wait for emission of water though the
drain - water line is clear. There will be steam coming out of the drain
due to the water flashing off as it encounters atmospheric pressure and
temperature. Shut water cock.
5. Slightly open steam cock and wait for emission of steam through the
drain - steam line is clear. Shut steam cock.
6. Shut drain.
7. Open water cock fully. Water should rise to the top of the gauge
glass.
8. Open steam cock fully. Water should drop smartly down to the
correct level. Slowness of water level movement indicates a restriction
in either the steam or water lines.
If, at step 7 above, no water enters the gauge glass, this may indicate a
lack of water in the boiler and loss of water procedure should be
followed .
If, at step 7 above, water enters that gauge glass normally but drains out
of the glass at step 8 (opening the steam cock), the water level is
between the bottom of the gauge glass and the top of the water
connection at the boiler. This indicates less water in the boiler than is
desirable but the boiler downcomers are still below the water surface.
The reason for the lack of water should be quickly found and rectified.
Other methods of level indication
The increase in boiler pressure has rendered the gauge glass susceptible to
failure and more frequent maintenance due to the etching effect of the boiler
water. Subject to Classification Society Approval, a row of capacitance probe
level indicators in a pressurized tube may be used instead of the conventional
gauge glass. Each probe drives an indicator light, mounted in pairs, red and
green. The full height required is covered by the pairs of indicator lights, the
overall effect being similar to a Bi-Colour Bull’s Eye Gauge Glass.
Remote Reading Level Indicators
These are fitted in addition to Direct Mounted gauge glasses. The

Classification Society Rules do not allow them to be used as a substitute.
The method most commonly used in modern practice is to use a Differential

Pressure Cell with a fixed reference leg to provide a signal to a a remote
indicator. The remote indicator being a vertical bar strip indicator which is
visually apparent. Two individual remote sensing instruments are used for
each boiler drum to emulate the gauge glasses.
Pressure Gauge Connections
Pressure gauges are fitted as a requirement to the steam drum and

superheater outlet header, to enable the boiler pressure conditions
to be monitored.
Low Water Alarms
The classification societies demand that these are fitted to reduce

the risk of damage to the boiler in the event of feed water loss.
Safety Valves
Each boiler is required to have at least two safety valves, to prevent

the boiler pressure rising to dangerous levels.
These must be set to lift at not more than the Maximum Working
Pressure and then witnessed by the Classification Society Surveyor.
BOILER COMBUSTION
The first stage of combustion is by conditioning the fuel.
This involves heating the fuel to the correct viscosity. If the fuel is too viscous
it is difficult to pump , to filter and atomise correctly. If it is allowed to get too
hot, it is possible that ' cracking-' can occur, depositing carbon in the piping
and gas formation in the fuel' mass ' and starving the boiler of fuel.
Burner Air Register
Air Registers
The Air Register supplies combustion air to the burner just as the atomizer
supplies fuel to it. These two components are the key to proper combustion in
the boiler. The combustion air is fed into the boiler furnace through the Air
Register around the atomizer.
The Air Register includes an air tube, igniter, swirl vane assembly and in most
cases acts as the housing for the flame detectors , pilot burner (if fitted) and
burner retraction gear etc.
Burners
The burner breaks the fuel up into a fine , directed spray of

droplets. These, with a large surface area to volume are intimately
mixed with the combustion air to provide the conditions necessary
for full combustion.
For packaged type tank boilers, a rotary cup burner is often

used.
Fuel oil is supplied down a central tube, and discharges onto the
inside surface of a rapidly rotating cone. As the fuel oil moves along
the cup (under the influence of centrifugal force) ,
The oil film becomes progressively thinner as the circumference of

the cap increases. Eventually, the fuel oil is discharged from the lip
of the cone as a fine spray.
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS
o The exhaust gases from a large diesel engine contain around 34%
of the working energy liberated by the fuel. The temperature of this
large volume of gas ranges from 280°C to 340°C.
o It would be pointless to waste fuel to maintain an oil fired boiler to

produce steam, when the vessel is at sea, if the heat from the
engine exhaust gases could be utilised for the same purpose.
o This type of boiler is known as an exhaust boiler.
o For a variety of reasons only between 5% -10% of the energy in the

exhaust gases is recovered in the boiler and the working pressures
are generally below 7 bar. There are a number of exhaust gas boiler
arrangements.
o In some the exhaust gas passes though the boiler permanently and
this type can be operated with or without water. In others the boiler
is bypassed when not in use.
Basic Waste Heat Recovery System
o Motor Ship exhaust gases still have a useable amount of heat in

them, even after being through the turbocharger.
o To take advantage of this "free" energy, an exhaust gas boiler is

often used.
o This boiler will deal with the heat load for domestic and bunker
heating etc, while the ship is on passage. A conventional boiler will
be provided as a back up, and for "In Port" use.
o Some large engines may provide enough waste heat to run a Turbo-
Alternator for improved plant efficiency.
o This is often the case on so-called "Hybrid" oil tankers, where the
cargo pumps are turbine driven and a boiler installation is required
anyway.
The illustration above shows a simple waste heat recovery system

, used for heating purposes only.
Note that the steam boiler is used as a separation vessel to separate the
steam from the water after the water has been circulated through the
Economiser unit mounted in the diesel engine uptake.
Exhaust Gas Boilers
Exhaust gas boilers consist of some form of exhaust gas heat exchanger
mounted in the main engine uptake.
However, the output of these units is directly dependant upon the main
engine output and so it is necessary to provide an additional oil fired
boiler to supplement or supplant the steam produced by the exhaust gas
unit when the main engine is operating at low load conditions, or when it
is stopped. In many cases a convenient arrangement is to use the drum
of an oil fired boiler as a steam receiver for the exhaust gas heat
exchanger (see Fig. 1). This gives the advantages that only a single
steam drum with its associated mountings is required, and that the oil
fired boiler is kept in stand-by condition ready for immediate oil firing to
support or replace the heat from the main engine exhaust gases.
The exhaust gas economizer heat is a forced circulation multi-loop type,

of all-welded construction (see Fig. 2). Extended heat exchange surfaces
are used, mild steel fins being fitted in the higher temperature regions,
while cast iron gills are fitted to give protection against corrosion in those
sections where the gas stream may fall below its dew point temperature
(approx 160°C) under normal operating conditions.
Fig. 2 Exhaust gas economiser

Composite Boilers
The majority of motor ships are fitted with some form of waste heat
boiler.
The output from these is dependant upon the temperature and mass of
exhaust gas available from the main engine, and as it would obviously be
unsatisfactory to have steam available only when the main engine was in
operation, it is necessary to have an alternative method of steam
generation.
o A common means of doing this is to fit a composite boiler, this

being so arranged that it can be fired either by main engine exhaust
gases, or by burning oil in the boiler furnace.
o In most cases the gas flows are kept separate, each having its own
uptake, this permits the oil firing to be used in conjunction with the
engine exhaust gases, to support them at low engine loads or to
replace them when the engine is stopped. By this means the output
of steam can be maintained independent of the engine power.
Some of these waste heat recovery systems provide superheated steam

for use in turbo-alternators which are capable of supplying the ship's
electrical power requirements while at sea and proceeding at or near
normal service speed, such a system is shown in Fig. 4. This system is
practical only on high-powered ships where there is sufficient exhaust gas
to generate enough steam to, in turn, generate a significant amount of
electricity.
Waste Heat Recovery System With Turbogenerator
Feed Systems
There are two distinct types of feed system in use, which may be
identified as Open and Closed feed systems.
The Open feed system has some contact with the atmosphere and is
common in Low pressure systems. The Closed feed system has virtually
no contact with the atmosphere and is the system used for High pressure
systems.
FUNCTION OF A FEED SYSTEM
• To transport the working fluid from the steam load (whatever that
may be) to the boiler, thereby closing the loop.
• To supply the boiler with water of a suitable purity to avoid

corrosion and scaling
• To remove incondensable gases from the system (Closed Feed High
Pressure Systems only)
• To improve the efficiency of the system where practicable
Open Feed System (Auxiliary Steam Boilers)
The auxiliary boiler as used for steam heating etc is the simplest feed
system and as such has few components.
The Open feed system has some contact with the atmosphere and is
common in Low Pressure closed feed systems.
OBSERVATION TANK
o The observation tank allows the returns to be checked for oil

contamination.
o The observation tank is fitted with coarse filter pads , traditionally of

coconut fibre (Coir) which trap solid impurities and oil emulsion (if
present) before they reach the Feed Tank.
o The observation tank is fitted with
• Scum Pan to allow oil to be removed

• Drain valve to allow contaminated water to be dumped
before it reaches the feed tank
• Observation windows before and after the filter stack.
• A weir to prevent the surface oil bypassing the filter
stack
• May be fitted with an oil alarm
• Manholes on both sides (For inspection and cleaning)
• Drain valves (On both sides)
FEED TANK OR HOTWELL
o The Feed Tank acts as a buffer tank to allow for surges in water
returning from heating services, and periods when the feed pump
is not running.
o The Feed Tank has capacity to cater for changes in demand .
o The Feed Tank has a float valve allowing the volume of water in the
system to be made up from the main F.W. Tanks.
o The feed Tank has an overflow line (usually to the bilge). Overflow
should only occur in the event of a fault, since the Feed Tank size
and level are designed such that all usual surges are allowed for in
variation of level.
o The Feed Tank is lagged to retain heat, the hotter the better to
minimise entrained gases.
o The feed tank is fitted with :
• Level Gauge
• Thermometer
• High and Low level alarms
• Good insulation
• Drain Valve
• Manholes (For inspection and cleaning)
• Scum Pan and valve
FEED PUMPS
o Feed Pumps for packaged auxiliary boilers usually operate on the

“On/Off” principle of feed control since the ratio of water in the
boiler to steam demand is large enough to allow this.
o Feed pumps for packaged auxiliary boilers are usually multi stage
centrifugal pumps, electrically driven.
o Two identical feed pumps are usually fitted. One “In Use” and the
other “Stand By” and to allow for maintenance.
o A screw down non return (S.D.N.R.) Feed Check Valve is fitted

directly to the boiler shell.
o The feed pumps are each fitted with screw down non-return
(S.D.N.R.) valves to prevent water flow back through the “Stand
By” pump.
Closed Feed System (Steam Propulsion Boilers)
In modern steam turbine installations with water-tube boilers, the feed

water circuit from the regenerative condenser to the boilers is completely
closed.
This is known as the closed feed system and its essential function is to
prevent the condensate, from which most of the air has been extracted
in the condenser, from coming into contact with the atmospheric air
before being returned as feed water to the boilers.
The de-aerated water would absorb air if any part of the circuit was open
to the atmosphere and the oxygen of the air would cause corrosion in the
boilers.
The diagram shows diagrammatically a closed feed system with its basic
units.
The water is taken out by a condensate pump and discharged along the
feed water circuit into the boilers.
Drains and make-up feed water are led to the condenser where the water
is de-aerated before passing into the feed range.
The pump boosts the Feed Water pressure to say 80 bar, pumping it
through the Economiser, where further heat is gained from the Flue
gases, and from where it is fed back into the Boiler to maintain a
constant water level in the Steam Drum.
L.P. Feed System or Condensate System
This part of the system extends from the exhaust from the turbine to the
main feed pump and consists of:
• Condenser
• Extraction Pump
• Gland Steam Condenser/Drains Cooler
• L.P. Feed Heater
• Dearator/Closed Feed Tank
Condenser
Purpose:
A Condenser is fitted into a steam system to condense the Turbine

Exhaust Steam to Water, to enable it to be re-cycled, in addition, when
fitted to a Steam Turbine it reduces the Back Pressure against, which the
engine works, thus allowing more work to be done from a given quantity
of steam.
Air Ejectors or Vacuum Pumps
Purpose:
o To produce a vacuum in the steam side of the condenser
before plant operation.
o To remove incondensable gases from the steam side of the
condenser during operation, in order to maintain vacuum.
The condensation of the steam into water maintains the vacuum, but
arrangements must be made to obtain the vacuum in the first place, and
to remove any incondensable gases (air, carbon dioxide) from the
condenser shell.
The presence of these gases degrades the condenser vacuum, and also
the incondensible gases blanket the tubes and reduce heat transfer.
Extraction Pump
Purpose:
o To extract the water produced by the condensed steam from
the bottom of the condenser.
o To raise it to a sufficient pressure to be introduced into the
deaerator
Feed Heaters
Purpose:
To increase cycle efficiency.
To heat the condensate and feed water to avoid thermal shock to the
boiler.
Steam may be tapped off a suitable point in the L.P. Turbine and used to
further heat the condensate. This is regenerative feed heating and
increases the cycle efficiency.
The L.P Feed heater is a tubular heat exchanger, the steam side being fed
back via a level controller or a steam drain trap to the feed system.
Deaerator
Purpose
o To remove incondensable gases from the feed water
o To act as a direct contact feed heater
o To act as a buffer feed tank
The deaerator removes any final undissolved gas from the feed water and
thus conditions it for entry into the boiler, which is very vulnerable to
such gases, especially oxygen.
In order to achieve this deaeration , the feed water must be raised to it’s
boiling point, a condition where all entrained gases are removed.
This is achieved by mixing the water with a steam supply, the water being
sprayed in and close mixing with the steam being achieved by an
arrangement of baffles and heat exchange surfaces.
Any released gases rise to the top of the deaerator vessel and are
removed.
The feed water falls to the bottom of the vessel as a liquid at it’s
saturated vapour temperature.
The main part of the deaerator vessel is extended into a tank, with
sufficient volume to act as a buffer tank to cope with system volume
changes due to load fluctuation.
The design of dearators varies, some also using bubble caps to bubble
steam through the water .
The design below uses a heat exchange cone then recirculation to ensure
mixing of the steam and water.
The “Drive” steam is also taken from the system, normally from the Turbo
Feed Pump exhaust, with a saturated steam back up from an L.P steam
range for conditions where the main feed pump is not in use.
H.P. Feed System
Feed Pump
The feed pump is the point in the system where the condensate pressure
is boosted to above boiler pressure, thus allowing re-entry into the
boiler.
Under high boiler load conditions (main turbine plant in use), a Turbo
Feed Pump is used. This is a full boiler pressure simple turbine, directly
driving a 2 stage centrifugal pump.
The high speed of the turbine (7000 to 9000 rpm and the square law
relationship between rotational speed and pressure making this possible.
The turbine is a back pressure turbine operating at approx 3.5 bar, the
exhaust steam being the drive steam for the dearator.
Built in safety features include trips for excess back pressure and
overspeed and a turbine casing relief valve.
For in port conditions , an electrically driven harbour feed pump is

provided. The rotational speed of this pump is limited by the frequency of
the electrical supply and so a multi stage centrifugal pump is required.
Boiler Water Treatment
Purpose:
Treatment is carried out to: -
o Reduce the corrosion of boiler tubes and shell
o Reduce scale formation, and hence maintain heat transfer
rates
o Control sludge formation within the boiler
o Control foaming and priming
Scale forms on the heating surfaces due to:
o impurities in the water, usually calcium and magnesium salts from

sea water ingress to the system or contaminated feed water.
o Allowing the total dissolved solids in the boiler water (Density) to

become too high.
o Inadequate levels of boler treatment chemicals
Scale is undesirable because:
o It radically reduces the heat transfer through the metal. Leading to

increased metal temperature and possible failure.
o It reduces the boiler efficiency meaning the boiler must be fired

harder to produce the same quantity of steam.
o It can act as a “Shield” allowing corrosion cells to form, leading to

metal pitting and failure.
Scale build up is prevented from forming in steam boilers by:
o Maintaining feed water and make up water purity as high as

possible
o Regular testing and logging of boiler water conditions to identify

problems which can then be rectified.
o Maintaining correct levels of boiler water treatment chemicals in the

boiler
o The boiler water density should be kept below the recommended

maximum by blowdown.
The following tests may be carried out to check the condition of

the water
1. Chlorinity
This is a measure of the chlorides, which are present. This test is mainly
for seawater contamination, as 89% of the salts present in seawater are
sodium and magnesium chlorides. High chlorides will cause increased
scale, acidity, and boiler priming.
The test is carried out by titrating silver nitrate into acidic boiler water
solution which has potassium chromate added as an indicator.
The maximum accepted level of chlorides within the boiler depends on the
firing rate of the boiler and its construction; see hand —out for actual
levels. Should the chloride level fall, then loss of boiler water is the only
explanation.
2. Alkalinity
Two measurements of alkalinity can be taken, ‘P’ or phenolphthalein, and
total. ‘P’ alkalinity measures the alkalinity due to hydroxides, carbonates,
and phosphates. This test is a more accurate method of determining
alkalinity than pH testing. If alkalinity is too low then corrosion occurs,
and if too high then foaming can take place.
The test is carried out using Phenolphthalein neutralised by a quantity of
Sulphuric Acid.
Total Alkalinity measures the alkalinity of all the boiler salts, including
bi-carbonates. Note that bi-carbonates cannot exist under boiler
conditions, and their presence in the boiler water sample is due to sample
exposure to air, and the transformation of half the carbonates to bi-
carbonates in the phenolphthalein test Drew states that total alkalinity
should be less than 2 x “P” alkalinity, and this may occur when large
quantities of untreated feed is admitted to the boiler.
This test is carried out using Methyl-Orange neutralised by Sulphuric Acid.
3) Phosphates
A reserve of phosphate should be present in the boiler water to neutralise
any hardness salts, which may enter. These salts would deposit as scale
on the heating surfaces if the reserve is too low, whilst too high a reserve
leads to foaming and possible excess production of sludge. if this sludge is
not removed, it will settle out and deposit on the heating surfaces.
The tests used may vary, but all use a Molybdate solution to react with
the test water, either to induce cloudiness or colour change, which
indicates the level of phosphate reserve.
4) Total Dissolved Solids (T.D.S.)

This has taken over from boiler water density as a measure of the
impurity of the water used in a steam system.
The density of pure water is 1000kg/m3 giving it a relative density
of 1.0
T.D.S. is a measure of all the dissolved solids in the water including those
resulting from the treatment chemicals; it gives an indication of salt-
water contamination, but is not as accurate as the chloride test
Excess solids produce foaming as well as possible increased
deposits.
Tests are normally carried out using an electrical conductivity meter, but
note that the sample should be neutralised before testing, as an alkaline
sample will affect the TDS reading.
5) Oxygen Scavengers
These chemicals are added to chemically de-oxygenate the boiler water.
This treatment is only useful on closed feed systems, as oxygen will enter
the feed at an open hot well. The test is carried out to establish the level
of chemical reserve of the two main chemicals used, hydrazine and
sodium sulphite.
If the chemical reserve is low, then corrosion may occur. Whilst excess
sulphite will raise the density levels, and excess hydrazine will form
ammonia, which can attack copper alloys in the feed system.
The test is carried out using a Comparator method, which measures the
colour change of the boiler test water.
Changes in Test Results
SEA WATER. RAW FEED

WATER LEAK
INGRESS INGRESS
HARDN ESS Increase Increase Decrease
T.D.S. Increase Increase Decrease
CHLORIDE Increase Slight increase Decrease
ALKALINITY Decrease Slight increase Decrease
PHOSPHATE Decrease Decrease Decrease
If boiler water pH is low, the boiler is dosed with

Sodium Hydroxide to bring it back to the desired
level.
If boiler water Phosphate reserve is low, the boiler
is dosed with Di Sodium Phosphate to bring it back
to the desired level.
If T.D.S. or Chlorides or Hardness are HIGH, the
boiler is blown down to bring the levels below the
maximum stated figure for the boiler type and
pressure.
Boiler Water Treatment and Chemicals
1.) Alkalinity
Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
Common name for caustic soda. Sodium hydroxide reacts with
magnesium chloride producing a harmless precipitate and sodium
chloride, which remains in solution. It is not suitable for pre-mixing with
other chemicals to form a one-off treatment, but can be used in
conjunction with other treatment chemicals.
2). Phosphate
Di-sodium Phosphate (Na2HPO4)
Di-sodium Phosphate dissolves in water to form a neutral solution. It
reacts with the sulphates of calcium and magnesium, precipitating then as
their corresponding phosphates, or converting them to sodium salts,
which remain in solution. When added to water containing caustic
alkalinity, it combines with the sodium hydroxide to form trisodium
phosphate thus preventing the formation of excess levels of free sodium
hydroxide.
3). Oxygen scavengers

Hydrazine (N2H4)
Normally supplied as a 35% solution, it reacts with the dissolved oxygen
to form nitrogen and water. This chemical should be injected continuously
into the boiler drum.
4). Coagulants
These are colloidal substances, which by their electrical charge and large
surface area attract the sludge, which floats in the boiler water. Thus they
keep the precipitated particles in suspension, and a void’s the build-up of
sludge, which may adhere to the heating surfaces.
Some coagulants also help to reduce foaming, and Will keep any oil
present in the boiler water in an emulsified form.
It is important that the water is maintained in an alkaline condition,
otherwise the electrical change of the coagulant is neutralised.
Chemicals used are organic such as Stanch, Tannin; inorganic such as
sodium aluminate; or synthetic organic polymers known as
polyelectrolytes.
Frequency of Test Daily Daily Weekly Daily Daily Daily Daily Daily
Chlorides Dissolved Solids EDTA

Alkalinity to Caustic Sulphite Phosphate Hydrazine
Boiler Water Test Conductivity at 25oC Hardness
Phenolphtalein (Max) Alkalinity excess Reserve Reserves
(max) (max)
PPM as PPM as PPM as PPM as PPM as

Result Expressed PPM as CaCO3 PPM PPM as PO4
NaCl CaCO3 CaCO3 Na2SO3 N2H4
Boiler
Press.
Type
(bar)
< 17.5 Scotch 300 – 700 3000 150 – 500 10000 5 50 – 100 30 – 70 -
< 17.5 Vertical 300 – 500 1200 150 – 400 4500 5 50 – 100 30 – 70 -
Package or
< 17.5 15 – 300 350 75 – 250 3000 5 50 – 100 30 – 70 -
steam Gen.
< 17.5 Watertube 150 – 300 350 75 – 200 2250 5 50 – 100 30 – 70 -
17.5-31 Watertube 150 – 300 150 100 – 250 1500 5 50 – 100 30 - 70 -
31-42 Watertube 100 – 150 100 50 – 100 750 1 20 – 50 30 – 50 0.1 – 1.0
42-60 Watertube 50 – 100 50 40 – 60 600 1 30 – 50 0.1 – 1.0
60-80 Watertube 50 – 80 50 40 - 60 450 1 20 – 30 0.1 – 1.0

Questions
1. Explain how the the accuracy of a boiler water level gauge glass
could be checked. Outline your answer in a series of numbered steps
in the logical order
What immediate actions should be taken if the water level in a steam

boiler cannot be determined ?
2. List FIVE boiler mountings , giving a brief explanation of the purpose

of each.
3. State the TWO main purposes of boiler water treatment.
What are the dangers of allowing the boiler water density (Or Total
Dissolved Solids) get too high ?
What is the purpose of dosing a high pressure steam boiler with

Hydrazine ?
Under what circumstances would all the boiler tests carried out
show a gradual decrease over time ?
Under what circumstances would T.D.S., Salinity and Hardness

increase while pH and Phosphate reserve decreased ?
4. What is the purpose of a deaerator in a closed feed system ?

o Could you name and briefly describe the purpose of various “Boiler
Mountings”
o Could you explain how to blow down a boiler gauge glass ?
o Could you explain the difference between a smoke tube boiler and a
water tube boiler ?
o Could you draw a basic system for a packaged boiler with waste heat
economiser ?
o Could you explain the function of a dearator ?

before continuing.
MODULE - 4 Steam Turbines
BASIC STEAM CYCLE FOR CONVERTING STEAM TO MECHANICAL
POWER
E- Course Propulsion - Page 132 of 214
STEAM TURBINES
The steam turbine is a machine for converting the heat energy in the steam into
mechanical energy at the shaft. The heat energy is the result of heating water in
the boiler, and the steam produced is simply the transport fluid for that energy.
Referring to Newton’s Laws.
o Any body will remain in a steady state of motion until acted upon
by a force.
o For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
A force is occasionally still referred to (in old fashioned language) as an

“Impulse” and therefore a device which relies on a force to push it round could
be referred to as an IMPULSE device. (Paddle Wheel, piston engine, bicycle pedal
etc).
Another way of achieving motion is to rely on the reactive force produced by the
original force. (Lawn sprinkler, rocket engine ).
Because of this there are two types of turbine, the `Impulse' and the
'Reaction'.
Both types of turbine basically consist of a rotating part, called the Rotor, having
several rows of blades projecting outwards. The Rotor is supported at either end
by sleeve type White Metal bearings and is fitted into a stationary casing.
The casing has inward projections, which fit between the rows of blades of the
rotor. These inward projections are either Nozzles for IMPULSE type turbines or
Blades for REACTION type turbines, or both in COMPOUNDED turbines.
Steam is passed through the turbine from the High Pressure (H.P) end to
the Low-Pressure (L.P.) end, and as it passes through each row of rotor
blades, it gives up some of its energy to the blades, which causes the rotor
to rotate. This transfer of energy is brought about by a progressive fall in
pressure of the steam passing through the turbine.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Saturated Steam is generated in the Boiler, say to a pressure of 75 bar and a

temperature of 285° C.
The steam then passes from the Boiler Steam Drum, to the Superheater,
where it is completely dried out and its temperature raised to say 510° C.
This is main steam to supply the Steam Propulsion Turbines (also it supplies
through an auxiliary system, and steam for the Turbo-Alternators).
The Superheated Steam is admitted to the High Pressure Ahead Turbine

(HP), by opening the Ahead Manoeuvring Valve, where it expands through the
various stages down to a pressure of about 2.5 bar. In doing so, Pressure and
Heat Energy are converted into Kinetic energy by expansion, in accordance with
the Law of Conservation of Energy.
The Kinetic Energy in the steam is then transferred into Mechanical Energy by the
turbine blades.
As the steam falls in pressure it consequently increases in volume.
To accommodate the increasing volume of the steam as it passes through the

turbine, the rotor and casing is made progressively larger in diameter from the
high pressure end to the low pressure, usually in steps, with larger area of annulus
and longer blades.
The steam is then exhausted across to the Low Pressure (LP) Turbine in
which it does further work, while expanding down to almost zero pressure (0.05
bar absolute).
The Superheated Steam can be admitted to the Astern Turbine by closing the
Ahead Manoeuvring Valve and opening the Astern Manoeuvring Valve.
Since leakage of steam to the astern turbine while the turbine is under Ahead
steam could cause severe damage, an Astern Guardian Valve is also fitted as an
isolating valve.
The Turbines run at about 6000 rpm and produce a fairly low torque: this is
converted to a high torque at suitable propeller speeds of about 100 rpm,
through a double or triple reduction "train" or "epicyclic" gearbox.
Note that the steam is only the transport fluid for the HEAT produced in
the boiler.

The steam is then condensed and fed back to the boiler.
This means that the turbine plant is a CLOSED CYCLE , EXTERNAL

COMBUSTION THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE.

Advantages of a Steam Turbine compared to a Diesel Engine.
One Moving Part. Reduced Maintenance.
Reduced Weight. Direct rotary motion to shaft.
No internal friction No internal lubrication

In the drawing above, the rotor is supported in bearings which are outside the
casing.
The rotor has its own thrust block to locate it accurately relative to the casing
The casing is split horizontally and bolted together with metal to metal contact.
This a High Pressure (HP) turbine and is made up of multiple Impulse stages.

The Impulse Turbine:
In the impulse type turbine the high-pressure steam passes through nozzles,
wherein it expands from a high to lower pressure and thus the pressure energy in
steam is converted into velocity energy, "Kinetic Energy". This fully
corresponds with the Law of Conservation of Energy mentioned above, and the
conversion is easily worked out using Steam Tables.
The (now) high velocity steam is directed onto blades fitted around the turbine
wheel, the blades are of curved section so that the direction of the steam is
changed thereby imparting a force to the blades to push the wheel around.

Nozzles:
The nozzles are merely converging plates, swept to the direction of rotation, and
set in nozzle segments.
As the steam passes through the nozzles it is expanded i.e. there is a

pressure drop. There is an interchange of energy as this takes place in which the
heat energy liberated when the pressure is reduced is converted into kinetic
energy i.e. the steam is accelerated. In fact, from Bernoulli, this is necessary to
maintain the Conservation Equation).
o Steam Passes Through Angled Nozzles

o Steam Velocity Goes Up
o Steam Is Redirected In Moving Blades Attached To A Disc On The
Rotor
o The Steam Force On The Blades Turns The Rotor

Nozzle Control Valves:
The nozzle segments receiving the steam initially are fitted with a nozzle control
valve so that the initial steam pressure can be maintained at a maximum by
regulating the number of control valves, which are open. Maximum initial steam
pressure produces highest efficiency because maximum expansion is attained
throughout the turbine.
Diaphragms
The Impulse turbine consists of a number of stages which are arranged in a series
of nozzle rings followed by moving blades, along the length of the turbine.
All the pressure drop takes place in the nozzles, so these must be sealed in the
casing and at the shaft to prevent steam leakage.
This is achieved by fitting the nozzles into plates called diaphragms.

The Reaction Turbine:
o In the type usually known as the reaction turbine, the steam is expanded
continuously through guide blades fixed to the casing and also as it passes
through the moving blades on the rotor, on its way from the inlet end to the
exhaust end of the turbine.
o There are no nozzles (as such) in the reaction turbine. All the blades have a
reduction in throat area and hence they ALL act as nozzles.
o When the high pressure steam enters the reaction turbine, it is first passed
through a row of guide blades in the casing through which the steam is
expanded slightly, causing a small drop in pressure with a resulting increase
in velocity, the steam being guided on to the blades in the first row of the
rotor gives an impulse effect to these blades.
o As the steam passes through the rotor blades it is allowed to expand

further so that the steam issues from them at a high relative velocity in a
direction approximately opposite to the movement of the blades; thus
exerting a further force due to reaction.
o This operation is repeated through the next pair of rows of guide blades
and moving blades, and then through the next set and so on throughout a
number of rows of guide and moving blades until the pressure has fallen to
exhaust pressure.

Reaction Blading In A Steam Turbine

Gland Steam System
The turbine is designed as a non-contact machine, that is, the rotor is not in
contact with any parts of the casing. For this reason, and to remove the
need for packing or mechanical seals, the sealing arrangement where the
shaft exits the turbine casing is also made non-contact.
This is achieved by using labyrinth glands where the leakage path is made
long and tortuous to reduce the amount of steam flow.
Steam is prevented from leaking out of the rotor nigh-pressure end and air is
prevented from ensuring the low-pressure end by the use of glands. A
combination of mechanical glands and a gland sealing system is usual.
Mechanical glands are usually of the labyrinth type. A series of rings

projecting from the rotor and the casing combine to produce a maze of winding
passages or a labyrinth . Any escaping steam must pass through this labyrinth,
which reduces its pressure progressively to zero.
The gland sealing system operates in conjunction with the labyrinth gland where a
number of pockets are provided. The system operates in one of two ways.
When the turbine is running at full speed steam will leak into the first pocket and-
a positive pressure will be maintained there. Any steam which further leaks along
the shaft to the second pocket will be extracted by an air pump or air ejector
to the gland steam condenser. Any air which leaks in from the machinery
space will also pass to the gland steam condenser.
At very low speeds or when starting up, steam is provided from a low-pressure
supply to the inner pocket- The outer pocket operates as before.
The gland steam sealing system provides the various low-pressure steam
supplies and extraction arrangements for all the glands in the turbine unit.

Sliding Feet
A steam turbine is a “Hot” machine and will expand considerably between non-
running and running conditions.
Sliding feet allow the turbine to expand axially and laterally while being accurately
located by keys.
The whole arrangement is kept free to slide by lubricating with a high temperature
grease.
Flexible Couplings
The HP and the LP turbine are separate machines and must be free to locate
themselves without putting forces on the gearbox.
Or this reason the turbine rotor is coupled to the gearbox by a short shaft with a
flexible coupling at each end. This allows the turbine to expand and accommodates
small misalignments without placing stress on the gear teeth in the gearbox.
Safety Trips
The following trips are fitted to a steam turbine
o Overspeed
o Low Lub Oil Pressure
o Low Condenser Vacuum
o Rotor Axial Movement.
On a modern turbine set other trips may be fitted , but the above are all a
requirement of the Classification Societies

The Requirement For Gearing
TYPICAL STEAM TURBINE SPEED 6000 rpm
TYPICAL PROPELLER SPEED 80 TO 100 rpm
The speed at which turbines should run to obtain the best efficiency is high,
much higher than the economical speed of a ship's propeller.
Therefore to obtain the best performance from both turbine and

propeller, reduction gearing is interposed between the turbine
shaft and the propeller shaft. This is to enable both to run at their
best speeds.
In addition, since the turbine is split into two parts (HP and LP) ,
TWO machines have to be coupled to the same propeller shaft. This
requires a gearbox.
Single reduction gearing consists of one stage of speed reduction in which a

pinion on the turbine shaft meshes with a gear wheel on the main shaft.
Double reduction gearing consists of two stages of speed reduction by means of

a pinion on the turbine shaft meshing with an intermediate wheel, on the
intermediate shaft a secondary pinion meshes with the main gear wheel on the
propeller shafting.
The teeth in the wheels are cut at an angle to the axis of the shaft (these are
known as helical teeth) for smooth running, and all gear wheels are arranged in
pairs to balance any axial thrust caused by the teeth being helical.
The figure below shows diagrammatically a typical turbine lay-out including astern
turbine and double- reduction gearing. Note the flexible couplings between
turbine shafts and pinion shafts; these are to prevent thermal expansion of the
turbine or misalignment of its shaft affecting the perfect meshing of the gear
wheel teeth.
Using Double Helical Gears Has The Following Advantages:

o Quieter Running
o Less Shock Loads On The Teeth
o Axial Forces Are Cancelled Out By Each Other

“CONVENTIONAL”GEARING.
The gearbox is a double reduction

geabox using double helical
gearing.
The gearbox has 2 inputs, one for

the H.P. Turbine and one for the
L.P./Astern Turbine.
Mixed Epicyclic and Parallel

Reduction.
Another method of obtaining the

required reduction is to use
epicyclic gears for part of the
reduction.
This has a weight and size

advantage and also allows the
shafts to be in the same plane.
In this case the HP turbine has a

TRIPLE reduction, using 2 epicyclic
gear reductions (Primary and
Secondary), and a final (Tertiary)
parallel shaft reduction.
The gears are all double

helical.

Lubricating Oil System
A turbine and gearbox set is supplied with oil from a sump tank built into the
double bottom structure of the ship.
The oil therefore has to lubricate the bearings, which would be best achieved with
a low viscosity oil, and lubricate the gears which would be best achieved with a
higher viscosity oil. The oil consequently has quite an arduous task and must also
be able to “detrain” air and water easily.
A turbine and gearing set takes a long time to slow down to a stop in the event of
a power failure and must be lubricated during the run down period, to avoid
damage.
For this reason a Gravity Tank is fitted to the system which contains
enough oil to allow the turbine set to be brought to a stop without
damage.
A built on oil pump, driven from the gearbox is used to provide oil to
the bearings and gearbox when under way normally, and, being
driven from the set itself, provides oil pressure during part of the run
down period in the event of electrical blackout..
An oil cooler, usually sea water cooled, removes heat from the oil and the oil
temperature is automatically controlled.
The bearings and oil supply temperature are monitored continuously by an

instrumentation system situated in the Engine Control Room.
A low lubricating oil pressure trip is fitted, which will shut off the steam supply to
the turbine set in the event of a lower than normal oil pressure.
2 electrically driven pumps are fitted in the system to supply oil when the turbine
set is stopped. (One for running and one for automatic cut-in, in the event of
failure of the first)
The gravity tank is fitted with a non return valve and orifice, so that when the
system is running normally, the gravity tank is kept “Topped Up”. If the oil
pressure in the system drops, the non-return valve allows oil from the gravity tank
into the system, providing lubrication for a limited period, as the turbine stops.

Emergency Features
Gravity Tank with sufficient capacity to allow safe run down of the turbine
set after it has tripped due to Low L.O Pressure after a blackout.
Built On Pump driven from the gearbox to provide lubrication during run
down after a blackout.
Orifice plate arrangement fitted to the gravity tank to keep it topped up but
allow full flow to the turbine set during a blackout

TURBINE LUBRICATING OIL SYSTEM
MODULE 5 – Gas Turbines
Basic Principles
All gas turbines no matter how large or complex are made up of three basic parts:
a compressor
a combustor or combustion chamber
a turbine
The three basic units of the gas turbine are so arranged and connected that the
power output from the engine is steady and continuous. In brief the gas turbine
engine can be defined as an I.C. engine that produces power by a continuous and
self-sustaining process.
Basic Parts
Compressor.
Takes in atmospheric air and compresses it.

Part of the compressed air, called primary air, enters directly into the combustion
chamber where it is mixed with atomised fuel so that the mixture can be ignited
and burned.
The remainder of the air, called secondary air, is mixed with the gases of
combustion.
The purpose of the secondary air is to cool the combustion gases down to the
desired turbine inlet temperature. The division of air actually takes place in the
combustor, not the compressor.
Both axial-flow and centrifugal radial-flow compressors are currently used in gas
turbine engines.
Combustion Chambers.
The components in which the fuel-air mixture is burned.
The combustion chamber consists of a casing, a perforated inner shell, a fuel

nozzle, and a device for initial ignition. It is the most efficient component of a gas
turbine engine, with efficiencies of between 95 and 98 percent. The number of
combustion chambers varies from as few as one to as many as sixteen.

To produce such efficiencies combustion chambers are designed to operate with:
o low pressure losses;

o high combustion efficiency;
o good flame stability.
Only about one-fourth of the air which enters the combustion chamber area is
burned with the fuel (primary air). The remainder of the air is used to keep the
temperature of the combustion gases low enough so that the turbine nozzles and
blades will not be overheated and thereby damaged (secondary air).
Turbine
In theory, design, and operating characteristics, the turbines used in gas turbine
engines are quite similar to the turbines used in a steam plant. The gas turbine
differs from the steam turbine chiefly in the:
type of blading material used;
means of cooling bearings and highly stressed parts;
higher ratio of blade length to wheel diameter (to accommodate the large gas
flow).
The turbine is mounted directly behind the combustion chamber outlet and
consists of two basic elements, the stator element (referred to as either turbine
nozzle vanes or turbine guide vanes) and the rotor.
As in the case of steam turbines, thermal energy is converted into mechanical

kinetic energy in the nozzles. The jets of combustion gas leaving the vanes of the
stator element act upon the turbine blades and cause the wheel to rotate at a very
high speed.
The high rotational speeds impose severe centrifugal forces on the turbine wheel,
and at the same time the very high temperatures result in a lowering of the
strength of the material. Consequently, the engine speed and temperature must
be controlled to keep turbine operation within safe limits.
Even so, the operating life of the turbine blading is accepted as the governing
factor in determining the life of a gas turbine engine.

Combustion Chamber
The criterion for an acceptable combustion chamber is that the pressure loss for
the working fluid passing through the burner must be held to a minimum, while
combustion efficiency is kept at a high level.
There must be no tendency for the burner to blow out, and no burning should
occur after the gases leave the burner.
The turbine may be of the single-shaft type (see Fig. A)

or
the split-shaft type (see Fig B).
Single Shaft Gas Turbine

In the single-shaft type, the power is developed by one rotor, and all engine-
driven parts are driven parts are driven by this single wheel.
Fig. A Simple Gas Turbine
o The turbine runs at the optimum speed to drive the compressor.

o The shaft speed is therefore very high
o A gearbox is required to obtain a usable shaft speed.

Split Shaft Gas Turbine
In the split-shaft type, the power is developed by two or more rotors. It is possible
for one or more rotors to drive the compressor and the accessories, while one or
more rotors are used for the power output.
Fig. B Split-shaft gas turbine
o The gas generator turbine drives the compressor.

o The gas generator turbine is designed to run at the optimum speed for the
compressor.
o The Power turbine is designed to run at the optimum speed for the load.
Power Transmission Systems
The gas turbine engine does not produce high torque, but it does produce high
speed. For lower speeds a gear train is used to lower the speed and increase the
torque.
With careful design, a gas turbine set can be efficient at speed in the 3000-3600
r.p.m. range meaning it can be directly coupled to an alternator and produce 50
-60 hz. This is the reason for its popularity as a small high powered unit for
electrical propulsion vessels such as cruise liners.

Many types of gas turbine engine are in use. The single-shaft type (see Fig. A)-is
so called because one shaft from the turbine rotor drives the compressor, and an
extension of this same shaft drives the load. Suitable for gas turbine engine driven
alternators.
The gas turbine shown in Fig. B is called a split-shaft type. This engine is
considered to be split into two sections, these being the gas generator section and
the power turbine section which is connected to the power output shaft.
There is no mechanical connection between the gas-generator turbine and the

power turbine. When the engine is operating, the two turbines produce basically
the same effect as that produced by a hydraulic torque converter.
The split-shaft gas turbine is well suited for use as a propulsion unit where loads
vary because the gas generator section can be operated at a steady and
continuous speed, while the power turbine is free to vary its speed with load.
Starting effort is far less than that required for a single-shaft gas turbine engine
connected to the reduction gear, propulsion shaft, and propeller.
Gas Turbine - Engine Systems
Fuel System.
The fuel supplied is either JP-5 , essentially a kerosene with a high flash point – a
minimum of 60 °C, or diesel fuel. The engine-driven pump receives filtered fuel
from a motor-driven supply pump at constant pressure.
The engine-driven fuel pump increases the pressure and forces the fuel through a
high-pressure filter to the fuel control governor in the fuel control assembly.
The fuel control governor provides fuel to the nozzle at the pressure and volume
required to maintain the desired engine performance. At the same time it limits
fuel flow to maintain operating conditions within safe limits. The fuel nozzles spray
fuel under pressure into the combustion chamber. The fuel control assembly is the
unit that regulates the turbine rpm by adjusting fuel flow from the high-pressure
engine-driven pump to the nozzle.
Lubricating System.
Because of the high operating rpm and the high operating temperatures
encountered in gas turbine engines, proper lubrication is of vital importance.
Gas turbines invariably run on synthetic oil.

Main bearings in a gas turbine engine serve the critical function of supporting the
compressor, the turbine, and the engine shaft.
The number and position of main bearings required for proper support vary
according to the length and stiffness of the shaft, with both length and stiffness
being affected by the type of compressor used in the engine. Heat absorbed by
lubricating oil is removed by a lube oil cooler.
Starting System.
A gas turbine will not produce the required combustion air pressure until it has
been run up to ignition speed by some external means.
A spark ignition system is used to provide the initial heat source in the combustion
chamber.
Once the engine is running there is sufficient heat in the chamber to sustain
combustion, and the igniter is no longer necessary.
To start a gas turbine, the compressor is rotated either:

o manually;
o pneumatically
o electrically,
o hydraulically.
Air starter –
o is essentially a compressed air driven turbine whose output is geared to the

compressor shaft and is designed to provide the required torque to rotate
the compressor.
o When the compressor reaches a designated limit, ignition takes place.
Following combustion, the compressor speed increases, and a centrifugal
switch deactivates the starter.
o The ignition system is also deactivated at this time; it may be tied to the
same switch or operated manually.
Electric starter –
o consists of electric motor energised by batteries which is geared to the

compressor shaft.
o The starter can automatically be cut out along with the ignition system by a
centrifugal switch, or the starter can be driven by the compressor shaft to, in
effect, become a generator.

o As a generator it is used to recharge the batteries as well as supply current
to tachometer or other auxiliaries.
Hydraulic starter –
o uses a closed, recirculating oil system with a pump supplying the power to a
hydraulic motor to crank the gas turbine.
o It is deactivated in the same manner as the air starter.
o This type of starter provides the advantage of permitting extended cranking
periods as compared to air and electric starters.
Regeneration.
The largest single loss of energy in the basic gas turbine is the amount of
heat rejected to atmosphere.
The use of a device called a regenerator allows us to recover some of this heat loss
and thereby improve the efficiency of the gas turbine cycle. The regenerator acts
very much like an economiser does in steam plant (see Fig. C).
The combustion air is preheated as it passes through the regenerator. This

increases the combustion rate and decreases fuel consumption.
Fig. C Simple Gas Turbine with Regeneration

The LM 2500 Gas Turbine Engine
The LM 2500 gas turbine engine (see Fig.7) produced by the General Electric
Company has been in production since the 1970’s and has become a popular
marine gas turbine for both naval and merchant purposes.
The gas generator is composed of a sixteen-stage axial flow compressor with

horizontally split stator casings and seven stages of variable angle stator vanes, an
annular combustor with 30 fuel nozzles, and a two stage, air-cooled, high-pressure
turbine.
The gas generator maximum rotor speed is about 10,000 rpm. The power turbine
is a six stage low-pressure turbine which is aerodynamically coupled to the gas
generator.
The power turbine max steady-state speed is 3,600 rpm. The exhaust gas is
expanded through a diffuser con into a 90° exhaust elbow or collector. The flexible
coupling shaft joins the power turbine to
Fig. 7 LM2500 Marine Gas Turbine
Note that at 3,600 r.p.m., the power turbine can be directly coupled to a 2
Pole 60 hz alternator.

This allows Gas Turbine Powered Alternators to be used for Electric
Propulsion.

Module 6 - Operations
Diesel Engines
Slow Speed Diesel Engines
Preparation For Running.
Checks:
Lub Oil System In Operation

Cooling System In Operation and up to temperature. (use jacket water
heating if necessary.
Fuel Supply In Operation
Starting Air Available but not supplied to the engine
Ask Bridge for permission to turn the engine.
Cylinder lubricators operated to lubricate the cylinders

Put Turning Gear In and engine turned with the indicator cocks open.
o This will spread the oil over the contact surfaces and check for freedom
of movement.
o Listen for unusual noises from the engine
o Observe Turning Gear motor amps for fluctuations or high current
o Observe indicator cocks for water or fuel being blown out.
After at least one full turn, take the turning gear out.
With cocks still open, reset the engine trips and make starting air available
to the engine
Ask bridge for permission to kick the engine on air
Kick the engine on air Ahead and Astern
o Checks the engine start air system and reversing gear.
Shut the indicator cocks
Ask bridge for permission to kick the engine on air
Start the engine ahead, on slow revs only, stop then restart the engine , on
slow revs only.
o Checks the engine will run on fuel ahead and astern
Switch to Bridge Control or stand by to answer telegraph movements

Speed and Load Adjustment
The speed of a slow speed marine diesel engine is varied by altering the position of
the fuel rack.
This alters the amount of fuel being injected into the cylinder and the engine
speeds up or slows down accordingly.
It is important to remember that thermal and mechanical stresses have to be

taken into account, and when going from manoeuvring “Full Ahead” to “Full Away”
revolutions, time must be allowed for the engine to speed up.
As a general rule, about 30 minutes to 1 hour is allowed, while the engine speed is
increased slowly to maximum revs.
Slowing Down and Stopping
As above, when slowing down to manoeuvring “Full Ahead” the engine should be
allowed (when possible) to lose revs slowly to avoid stresses.
If it is the type of engine which runs on heavy oil but has to be shut down on
diesel fuel, the fuel should be changed over to the lighter (diesel fuel) grade.
After “Finished With Engines” the engine systems (Lub Oil, HTFW and
LTFW) should be allowed to circulate until the temperatures at the engine
start to drop to ensure that all excess heat has been removed from the
engine components.
After this they may be shut down - However:
With large engines, for periods in port of a number of hours, it is normal to

continue to circulate all the engine systems.
After finished with engines the following is normal :
o Engine selected to Engine Control Room Control

o Starting Air to the engine isolated at the start air bottles.
o Indicator Cocks open.
o Turning Gear In.

BOILER OPERATION
It is vitally important that only competent personnel , familiar with the

installation operate a boiler, whether in “Auto” or “Manual”.
The operator must know the firing sequence, purge times etc so that they
can identify a starting sequence which is operating incorrectly.
o Automatic Mode
The burner operation, FD fan, ignition pump and fuel pumps must all be
selected to the “Auto” position. The boiler must be selected to “Auto”
• The control system automatically starts, stops and regulates the

burner in normal operation depending on the steam demand.
• When the steam pressure is below the set point for operation, the
burner commences the startup sequence.
• The burner can be regulated through the complete load range from
minimum firing load to full load. (“Modulation”)
• Should the steam demand decrease below the minimum firing load of
the burner, the steam pressure will increase to the burner stop set
point. The burner will remain stopped until the cut in set point is
activated by the drop in steam pressure.
• All safety devices are in operation and the boiler is usually certified for
unmanned operation.
o Manual Mode
When the MANUAL burner operation mode is selected the boiler must be
started and stopped manually.
The burner start-up sequence is handled automatically by the control

system, unless the burner operation switch is in the EMERGENCY position.
After start-up the desired load alterations must be carried out manually by
the operator.

Boiler Start Sequence
A basic Start sequence would contain the following elements.
Checks:
Walk Round check to ensure boiler is closed up and the gas path to the
uptake is clear.
Walk Round check to ensure that all valves are in the correct position for
firing and raising steam in the boiler.
Drum vent is open. (For superheat boiler, superheat vent or circulation valve
open also)
Power is available to the boiler control cabinet.
Safety valves are intact and free to operate, with easing gear correctly fitted
and operable.
A visual check is made to ensure that there is a water level in the boiler.
Starting from “Cold” this is usually a low level, sufficient to clear the alarms
but below normal to allow for expansion as the water heats up.
Fuel Pump, Feed Pump and F.D. Fan are all checked for correct operation.
Fuel is made available to the boiler, and the fuel pump started.
The boiler furnace is purged to ensure no flammable gases are present. This
is a very important part of the “Start” procedure. The duration of the
purge varies with boiler type and size. The purge time may be as long as 3
minutes. If you are firing the boiler you should be aware of what the
recommended purge time is, from the boiler operation manual, (Which you
must have read for safe and legal operation of the boiler !)
The F.D. Fan vanes are then closed in to a preset minimum air position so
that the flame is not immediately blown out when it is established.
The igniter is started – usually an electrode or electrodes powered by a high

voltage transformer.
The fuel solenoid valve is opened and fuel is introduced to the burner. The
fuel is ignited by the igniter and a flame is established.

The flame eye senses the flame and the fuel solenoid valve stays open. If a
flame is not sensed, the fuel solenoid valve shuts, the boiler “Locks Out” and
an alarm is sounded.
(As soon as possible after initial firing, the boiler safety trips should be
tested, and certainly the Flame Fail Lock Out should be tested by removing
the flame eye and observing the boiler lock out.)
With the flame established, the Air and Fuel are raised together to give the
desired firing rate. In “Auto” this is done by the boiler pressure control. In
“Hand” the operator would do this with push buttons. (Raise/Lower)
When firing from cold, it is normal on packaged boilers of smoke tube design
to intermittently fire the boiler until steam is being produced. This is because
circulation is very poor until assisted by steam production. 5 minutes firing
at , say 10% maximum firing rate, followed by 10 minutes with the burner
off, repeating until steam pressure is about 1 bar gauge. The boiler manual
will give manufacturers recommended firing times, often in the form of a
graph or chart.
At about 1 bar (gauge) boiler pressure, the drum vent can be shut and
sufficient pressure should be available to blow the gauge glasses down.
A walk round of the boiler should be carried out to ensure that there are no
water or gas leaks and all is functioning correctly.
Low firing is continued until the boiler is thoroughly warmed through and up
to pressure.
If it is a superheat boiler, the superheater circulation valve should be left

open until the boiler is on load.
If possible, the boiler and steam range should be warmed through and
brought up to pressure at the same time. This makes warming through of
the steam range easier and reduces the possiibilty of water hammer etc.

Sootblowing
Purpose:
o To remove soot deposits from the heating surfaces to maintain

the boiler at optimum efficiency
o To prevent a potentially hazardous accumulation of soot in the
boiler and economiser spaces which could catch fire
Checks:
Adequate load to ensure clearing of soot.
Inert gas plant not in use.
Request Permission from the Bridge
Ensure drain lines are open, and crack the Sootblowing master Valve by-
pass.
Check that the system is draining and warming through properly.
When system is warmed through, close drain valves.
Open Master valve and shut the By-Pass
Carry out the required sequence, usually economiser first then boiler and
economiser upwards
While blowing, check that all blowers operate correctly and return to the
"park" position with the poppet valve shut.
Upon completion, shut Master valve and opens drains.
Inform Bridge that sootblowing is complete.

Steam Turbines
Open all intermediate valves and warm through the whole line as far as the
turbine stop valves in one go. Use Boiler Stop by-pass valves for warming
and all drains open.
Check Turbine Sump Oil levels and condition (water), Circulate L.O. and
check flow at all sight glasses.
Circulate cooling water through the main condenser.
Check all Turbine Drains are open (casing - lines)
Expansion arrangements checked, note position during warming procedure

to ensure even expansion
Ask for permission to turn engine - Prop clear (bridge)
Turn to ensure freedom, watching turning gear motor current for

irregularities
Extraction pump on and on recirc to cool glands condenser.
gland steam on.
Air ejector on (low vacuum in case of distortion)
Crack warming through lines
Check drains
Allow crossover to reach about 70C while turning the rotors
There will come a point when the limited amount of steam available has
warmed the turbine up as far as it will go. Provided all expansions and
sliding feet positions are stabilised this is the end of the first stage of
warming through.
Check expansion

Start to bring up vacuum to normal
Turning gear out.
Reset the turbine trip system and trip on “Hand” or by simulating a trip.
Check that the valves operate correctly
Introduce brief burst of steam in Ahead and Astern directions to rotate the
rotor on steam. Low propeller speeds only.
The turbine is still warming through and expansions and rotor positions
should still be checked.
Kicking Ahead and Astern are continued until first movement.
During the warming through procedure regular checks should be made round
the turbine set , listening for unusual noises, observing sliding feet and rotor
positions. Watching turning gear amps etc.
This will ensure that the turbine is warming up correctly and that expansions
are even.

Gas Turbines
The following are generally representative of checks and procedures for a

propulsion engine within an enclosure:
enclosure doors closed, fire system activated

cooling damper open, fan on if used
water wash valve closed
oil tank level suitable, oil coolant flow ready
electric power to engine on
fuel supply pressure/temperature correct
compressor bleed air valve(s) properly positioned
inlet and exhaust clear
reduction gear/propeller systems ready
starter supply available
starter, fuel, ignition, auto/manual start switches positioned
any pre-start procedures such as bearing pre-lube for engines with journal
bearings
Starting
Control systems have automatic as well as manual modes. The functions
performed are similar except the monitoring of time versus speed of gas
generator and turbine temperature in the manual mode is performed by the
operator.
A typical start sequence consists of three basic steps:
Activate starter.
Within specific time, at about 25 percent gas generator idle rpm, activate
fuel and ignition on.
Within specified time, when gas generator is about 90 percent idle rpm, turn
off ignition and starter. The engine continues to accelerate to the idle rpm.
During the start sequence, as a function of time, control systems normally
monitor and provide fault signal or start abort for:

o failure to reach fuel/ignition on speed versus time, failure to light or
flame out, and failure to reach idle versus time
o low lube pressure versus time
o overtemperature

Typical Questions
Q1
With reference to either Main Diesel Engine 2 stroke or Medium Speed Diesel engine
Describe the checks and procedures required to prepare the engine for Operation after
a short stay in port where the systems have been maintained in operating condition.
Q2
Why is it necessary to run the cooling and lubrication systems of a diesel engine for a
period after it has been taken off load ?.
Q3
State , in the form of a checklist, how a steam turbine installation may be

prepared for sea assuming that the boilers are already on line and up to
pressure

MODULE 7 - Maintenance
Maintenance is applied to equipment in an attempt to extend its useful life; to
ensure that it remains in a safe and serviceable condition. Maintenance is
regarded, by many people, as being merely repairs or replacement of equipment
that has suffered breakdown. Such an approach is still being applied today.
In general maintenance philosophy can be classified under the three headings:
o Breakdown or failure maintenance

o Periodic maintenance
o Condition based maintenance.
Breakdown or failure maintenance
This is applied because of breakdown of equipment or its inability to meet its

operational requirements. The equipment is left untouched until failure occurs. At
this time the equipment must be repaired or replaced and any other procedures
carried out.
“ADVANTAGES”
o No Unnecessary work is carried out.

o Appears to save money on spares
o Appears to save man-hours
DISADVANTAGES
o Cannot be allowed for in terms of Down Time, Man Hours etc.

o May not be allowed at all under Legislation
o May not be allowed at all under Classification Society Rules.
o Can ultimately be extremely expensive.
o Can ultimately be extremely hazardous.
o Is bad for morale – long working hours, loss of sleep etc.
Despite these disadvantages, failure maintenance is still widely applied, the

responsibility for implementing maintenance being given to ship’s staff, who see
failure maintenance as a simple and logical practice.

Planned Maintenance
A degree of planning is required in the operation of failure maintenance in

organisation and for stocking spare parts and tools. However, the term, “planned
maintenance” is only applied to maintenance schemes where the application of
maintenance and the practices involved are pre-planned and rigorously applied.
The object of planned maintenance is to prevent failure and breakdown of

equipment and so avoid the consequent disadvantages that are incurred. However,
breakdown and failure can still occur and emergency failure maintenance may still
have to be applied.
ADVANTAGES
o Advisory Planned Maintenance schedules are nearly always supplied by the
equipment manufacturers.
o Increases system reliability
o Allows effective use of labour by planning in full working days, when
operations etc are light.
o Planned Maintenance Systems are “Self Tracking” and approved systems are
acceptable under the I.S.M.
o Over time, the Planned Maintenance System becomes a valuable machine
history, and can be used to judge whether the maintenance requirements
are such that a maintenance routine should be amended.
DISADVANTAGES
o The system can lead to maintenance being carried out when it is not
required.
o This can be expensive in terms of parts and labour.
o All maintenance,,including unnecessary maintenance carries a risk that
incorrect procedures could actually cause a machine failure, instead of
avoiding one.
Periodic Planned Maintenance

Periodic maintenance is the application of specified routine maintenance after a
predetermined calendar period has elapsed, or after a number of running hours for
the equipment have been recorded.

Condition Based Maintenance
The concept of condition maintenance is altogether different from the two
categories of maintenance already described. Condition maintenance has been
developed to avoid routine interference with equipment that is performing
perfectly satisfactorily. The system is designed to detect trends in the operating
characteristics of equipment that indicate that deterioration is developing and
therefore that maintenance is required. The techniques involved in monitoring the
condition of the equipment are based upon periodic measurement of:
Vibration and shock pulse to detect bearing deterioration;
Insulation testing to detect electrical insulation deterioration;
Performance checks to detect general deterioration by measurement

of current, speed, temperature, pressure, or other prescribed
quantities;
Visual checks to detect wear, leakage, corrosion, security of

mountings and the like.
This ultimately comes down to effective watchkeeping. If a trained watchkeeper identifies a

combination of changes in the plant, this can lead to a very effective identification of a
specific problem.
Vibration measurement
All machinery installations have characteristic vibrations when in operation.

Recordings of these vibration characteristics, taken when the machinery is in good
condition and operating satisfactorily, provide a standard against which to judge
the future condition of the machinery, to diagnose faults and to decide on the
maintenance required. The vibration measuring equipment comprises a probe to
be applied to the machinery. The probe is connected to an electronic indication
unit.
An equipment history card details how the probe is to be applied and the readings
obtained are recorded on the card.
Although the operator must be skilled in the use of the equipment, a motor can be
monitored in only a short time.
The machinery is regularly monitored. When measurements fail outside

predetermined limits, the vibration characteristics are analysed to identify the
cause and enable appropriate maintenance to be applied.

Shock pulse measurement (Used for ball and roller bearings)
The rolling bearings of machinery, when in operation, generate shock pulse waves.
These shock pulses are due to imperfections or damage to the bearing surfaces.
Even new bearings have slight imperfections and generate shock pulses.
The fluctuations in the curve are caused by variations in the extent of the damage
and the bearing rolling out of regions of existing damage. The normal and the
maximum shock pulse limits can be calculated for every bearing. A bearing’s
normal limit may not be reached for months or years. When the normal limit is
passed the shock pulse increases rapidly to approach the maximum allowed before
breakdown becomes likely.
As the maximum is approached, readings should be taken more frequently so that

maintenance can be carried out in good time before failure can occur.
A machinery history card details how the probe should be applied and allows
records of readings to be made.
Again the user must be skilled in the use of the equipment but a motor can be
monitored in less than a minute.
Insulation testing (Electrical Equipment)
The electrical insulation of electrical machines and cables is regularly measured

using a standard ‘Megger’ type insulation tester. Readings are recorded on a
history card together with other relevant data such as ambient temperature and
humidity, and insulation temperature.
Temperature, load, visual checks
Standard checks of temperature, pressure,load and a visual check for leakage,

security, general damage, corrosion and the like can be quickly carried out and
give valuable indications of impending trouble and the need for action.

Planned Maintenance System
The operation of a periodic maintenance system requires the setting up of

specially designed systems and documentation. Regular planning
meetings (weekly) are a feature of the system. A modern system is
almost certainly a computer program.
The system would basically consist of:

a) A main planning area—this being the ‘main control panel’ for the whole
system.
A typical display would include all planning documents for:
o three months of calendar maintenance routines;

o monthly and weekly maintenance routines;
o hours-run maintenance routines;
o unscheduled and defect notes;
o work not completed in the period;
o Work to be carried out in port.
b) Planning areas for each item of equipment which detail:
o the item of equipment;

o the work to be carried out;
o the tools and spare parts required;
o the necessary safety precautions;
o a record that the work has been carried out;
o Notes for future reference.
Management of the system involves continual review

and analysis of the system.

Fault Chart For 4 Stroke Diesel Engine
1. Crankshaft does not rotate when attempting to start
Turning Gear is engaged
NOTE! Engine cannot be started when turning device is engaged.
Before starting , always check that the turning device is removed.
Starting air pressure too low. Shut off valve on starting air inlet pipe is closed.
Jamming of starting air valve in cylinder head.
Jamming of starting air distributor piston
Starting air solenoid valve faulty
Starting control system outside engine faulty
A “Stop” signal is still locked on the engine.
2. Crankshaft rotates but engine fails to fire
Too low a speed.
Automatic shut down activated
Load limit of of control shaft or governor is set at too low a value
Overspeed device has tripped
Start fuel limiter wrongly adjusted.
Some part of the fuel control mechanism has jammed preventing fuel admission
Very low air and engine temperatures
Too low a compression pressure
No fuel available at the engine
Fuel system not bled properly
Fuel pipe connections loose
Fuel insufficiently pre heated (HFO engines)
3. Engine fires irregularly, some cylinders do not fire at all

Fuel starvation
Water in fuel
Injection pump control rack wrongly adjusted
Injection pump faulty
Injection valve or valves faulty
Piston rings ineffective – too low a compression pressure.
4. Engine speed not stable
Governor adjustment faulty (normally this is due to too low a compensation setting)
See point 2 (f)
Fuel feed pressure too low.
Water in fuel.
Loading control system faulty.
5. Knocks or detonations occur in engine (if reason cannot be found

immediately, stop engine)
Big end bearing clearances excessive – loose screws !
Valve springs or injection pump tappets broken.
Inlet or exhaust valve jamming when opens.
Excessive valve clearances.
One or more cylinders badly overloaded (See 3 (b))
Initial phase of piston seizure
Cold engine with poor ignition quality fuel.

6. Dark exhaust gases.
Engine badly overloaded (Check fuel rack position and exhaust temperatures)
Late injection, wrongly adjusted camshaft timing
Injector choked or worn
Injection pump faulty
Insufficient charge or scavenge air due to:
Charge air filter clogged
Turbocharger compressor dirty
Charge air cooler clogged on air side
Turbocharger turbine badly fouled
7. Exhaust gases blue-grey or white
Excessive lub oil consumption due to:
Gas blow past of piston rings
Oil scraper rings worn or broken
Worn liner.
Sticking compression or scraper rings
Worn liner.
Blue-whitish exhaust gases may occasionally occur when an engine is left idling after
starting, or the engine is cold.
Grey- whitish exhaust gases may indicate water leakage from turbocharger or water
ingress into the cylinder.
8. Exhaust gas temperature of all cylinders abnormally high
Engine badly overloaded – Check fuel rack positions
See point 6 (e)
Charge air temperature too high

Charge air cooler fouled on either air or water side
Water temperature to air cooler too high or insufficient flow.
Engine room temperature abnormally high (Check Vent and Supply fans !)
Ports in cylinder heads choked or partially obstructed.
Turbocharger dirty
9. Exhaust temperature of one cylinder too high.
Faulty exhaust valve thermometer
Exhaust Valve jamming when open
Exhaust valve clearance insufficient (holding valve open)
Exhaust valve burnt
Faulty injection valve:
opening pressure too low
broken spring
Sticking needle when open
Individual cylinder fuel rack setting too high
Late injection, check individual cylinder timing.
Fuel pump faulty – individual fuel rack jammed.
10. Exhaust gas temperature of one cylinder below normal
Faulty exhaust gas thermometer
See points 2 (f) and (g) . See points 3(b),(c),(d) and (e)
Leaking injection pipe or fittings.
When idling or very low loads, cylinder individual fuel rack may be set below the rest.
Eroded fuel pump plunger.

11. Exhaust gas temperatures very unequal
See points 9 (a), (c) and (e)
Too low fuel boost pressure – See points 2(h) and (i) which can cause great fuel pressure
differences and load distribution between cylinders.
Turbocharger nozzle ring partially clogged in some sections only.
Individual fuel rack settings are widely varied (balance the engine)
Individual fuel injection timing is badly adjusted (Check spill timing for all cylinders)
12 Lub Oil pressure is zero or too low
Faulty pressure gauge or pipe clogged
Level in sump tank too low.
Lub oil pressure control valve wrongly set or jammed.
Three way cock for Lub oil filters wrongly set
Lub oil filters dirty
Leakge in a Lub oil suction connection
Lub oil badly diluted by diesel fuel (VERY DANGEROUS !)
Lub oil pump worn.
Excessive clearance in bearings.
13. Lub Oil pressure too high
See points 12 (a) and (c)
14. Too high lub oil temperature
Faulty thermometer
Insufficient cooling water flow through cooler.

Too high cooling water temperature
Jammed thermostatic valve
Fouled cooler
15 Too high cooling water outlet temperature or too high a difference

between cylinder cooling water outlets
Faulty thermometer or thermometers
Insufficient cooling water flow through engine
Cooler clogged
Jammed thermostatic valve
Air in system.
16. Fuel in L.O.
Fuel pump seals faulty on one or more cylinders
17. Water in L.O.
Leaky oil cooler
Leaking cylinder liner “O” Rings.
Faulty L.O. Separator.
18. Engine loses speed at constant or increasing load
Engine overload.
Engine is on the maximum fuel stop.
Fuel oil filters partially choked.
Inadequate fuel supply See points 2 (f), (g) and (h)

Inadequate charge air supply . see points 6 (e)
Initial phase of piston seizure
Incorrect governor maximum fuel setting
19. Water from indicator cock when blowing over on air
Cracked head or liner
Exhaust or inlet valve insert loose in cylinder head.
20. Oil from indicator cock when blowing over on air
If Lubricating Oil - Worn valve guides or defective valve spindle seals.
If Fuel Oil - Defective injector

Typical Questions
1. Explain what is meant by a “Breakdown” or “Failure” maintenance

systems.
State the disadvantages of such a system and suggest an alternative

system of maintenance.
2. Describe a Maintenance System which plans maintenance, rather

than waiting for equipment to break down.
State 3 advantages and 3 disadvantages of the system you have

described.
3. What is meant by “Condition Based Maintenance”
Describe 3 “conditions” which may be monitored under the system

you have described.
4. State THREE conditions which could cause a diesel engine to emit

black smoke from the exhaust

Module 8 - Systems
SEAWATER COOLING SYSTEM
In the vast majority of vessels of any size, the heat produced by the equipment on
board is the water the ship floats in.
The exceptions are very small vessels, and emergency equipment such as
generators, some fire pumps etc.
There are various ways heat can be rejected from the ship to the water.
o Directly to the sea water
o Indirectly using treated fresh water as an intermediate heat transfer medium
Keel Cooling
A keel cooler is a closed circuit cooling unit mounted on a vessel's hull beneath the
waterline. This closed circuit cooling system eliminates the need for inboard heat
exchangers, raw water pumps and strainers, as well as the maintenance
associated with them.
Only used on relatively small vessels, some keel coolers are in the form of tanks in
which the fresh water is circulated, heat being dissipated through the hull plating.
Used on some inshore vessels , or vessels which operate in estuaries etc where the
water is especially dirty or silt is a problem.

All Seawater Cooling
SEA WATER COOLING SYSTEM.
A common arrangement for a sea water cooling system would have a pair of sea
water circulating pumps supplied from main sea suctions via suitable strainers.
The water would pass firstly through the lubricating oil cooler. From the outlet a
line would be taken off to supply the charge air cooler with the quantity being
controlled by the charge air outlet temperature via a control valve. The main flow
of the water would pass to the fresh water coolers, including the piston cooling
water cooler if water is used, and then to a three way valve leading to overboard
and also back to the suction side of the pumps. This will allow re-circulation of the
sea water in low temperature conditions and so prevent undercooling of
the systems.
Temperature control of the primary fluids is accomplished by automatic bypass of

the coolers depending on the outlet temperatures of the engine.
Seawater is circulated as above, and supplied directly to all the cooling systems
on board.
DISADVANTAGES
o All coolers on board are subject to fouling by the material in the seawater –
biological growth, organic slime , mussels etc
o Seawater is a corrosive medium and pipe failures etc are inevitable unless
more expensive seawater resistance materials are used.
In virtually all cases except the smallest vessels, seawater is NOT circulated
directly round any equipment at all, since the levels of maintenance required, and
the risk of a seawater leak are considered unacceptable.

Central Cooling System
In the central cooling water system, the central cooling water pump circulates the
low-temperature freshwater (central cooling water) in a cooling circuit:
in parallel through the scavenge air cooler(s), through the lub. oil cooler and
jacket water cooler, the two last mentioned connected in series, and through the
auxiliary engines.
The temperature in the low temperature part of the system is monitored by the
thermostatically controlled regulating valve.

Diesel Engine cooling systems.
Several cooling systems are required for the operation .of a main diesel
engine. These are:
1) Jacket cooling water system (High Temperature Fresh Water)

2) Lub Oil cooling system (Low Temperature Fresh Water)
3) Charge air cooling system(Low Temperature Fresh Water)
4) Sea water cooling system for cooling of the primary coolants in
the above systems .
The requirements for turbocharger cooling and cylinder/cylinder head cooling are
for a temperature which is high enough not to cause thermal stress in the
components but cool enough to give good heat transfer.
Most jacket cooling systems , referred to as High Temperature or H.T. systems
(H.T.F.W. Systems) operate at about 80oC
High Temperature Fresh Water system.
The requirements for turbocharger cooling and cylinder/cylinder

head cooling are for a temperature which is high enough not to
cause thermal stress in the components but cool enough to give
good heat transfer.
This is the main cooling system associated with a diesel engine. The name evolves
from the term cylinder jacket, which refers to the cast housing which surrounds
the upper part of the cylinder liner. Water is circulated through this jacket to
remove the heat generated during combustion and so maintain the engine
components at a reasonable temperature and thereby reduce thermal stresses to
an acceptable level.
The requirements of a turbocharger are similar , so turbochargers are usually

included in the same system.

The system forms a closed loop with the header tank providing capacity for small
leaks and changes in volume with temperature. The header tank also provides the
pressure on the system.
The circulating pumps are usually placed after the coolers, to reduce the possibility
of flashing off in the pump.
The water is then pumped through the heaters and coolers, which are provided
with automatic bypass controlled by the outlet temperature of the water from the
engine. The water then enters the bottom of the cylinder jacket and passes upper
part of the cylinder liner, which is intensively cooled. From here it passes through
transit pipes to the cylinder cover and exhaust valve, then out of the engine and
back to the pump suction. There is an inlet and outlet manifold arranged along the
engine with branch pipes to each cylinder unit. A line is taken from the inlet
manifold to the turbocharger water- cooled gas casing and then back to the outlet
manifold.
Adequate provision is made for expansion and venting by running risers from
various parts of the outlet pipework up to the top of the header/expansion tank. A
further make up/expansion connection is taken from the bottom of the tank to the
pump suction. A drain connection is provided to allow draining for
maintenance/cold lay up.
Outlet temperatures are maintained in the region of 80 degrees centigrade by

automatic operation of the 3 way cooler bypass valve, and , in port, the H.T.F.W.
heater.

FRESH COOLING WATER TREATMENT.
The water used as the primary fluid should preferably be distilled water. This will
prevent or at least minimise the risk of scale formation. As an alternative, fresh
water could be used but suitable treatment would be required to reduce scale
formation.
Regardless of which of the above is chosen it will be necessary to use a corrosion

inhibitor. The most common in present day use are nitrate based compounds.
These act by forming a light passive scale on the metal surface, which has little
insulating effect but prevents galvanic action and thus corrosion.
Another effective inhibitor is chromate based however, because of its toxicity, it is

prohibited for use in systems in which the engine cooling water is used as a heat
source for fresh water production.
It is also still common to provide for emergency cooling with sea water. It must be
stressed that this is only an emergency backup and, if used, then temperatures
should be maintained below 45OC to prevent excessive salt deposition and hence
abnormal thermal stress.
A modern system almost certainly uses distilled water with an

inhibitor such as Sodium Nitrite added to prevent scale formation
and corrosion.
The following tests would be carried out every week, and the results recorded.
The inhibitor chemical concentration would be adjusted by dosing to the system
header tank while the system is in operation, to circulate the chemical through the
system
.
In the event of high chlorides , a sea water leak into the system is present –
almost certainly a cooler – The leak must be found and rectified. Contaminated
water must be drained from the system , which is then refilled with treated
distilled water to restore normal conditions.
The following tests are usually carried out on a weekly basis
Salinity
pH
Hardness
Nitrites.

High Temperature Fresh
Water Cooling System:
o Two circulating
pumps
(centrifugal)
o Two coolers
o A heater
o a eader/expansion
tank,
o a drain connection
and drain tank
o necessary pipes
and valves to
allow circulation
and isolation
where required.
o A temperature
control system

Diesel Engine Lubricating Systems.
The requirements of the modern lubrication system of a slow speed marine

crosshead diesel engine can be dealt with by considering the requirements
separately.
o Bearing lubrication
o Camshaft lubrication
o Cylinder lubrication
o Turbocharger lubrication
o Piston Cooling
Bearing or Main Lubrication System
This is the main lubricating system of the engine and its purpose is to provide
lubrication and cooling of the engine crankshaft bearings, thrust bearing, running
gear bearings (crosshead, gudgeon pin, etc.), camshaft, valve gear and chain or
gear drives. It also includes piston cooling for trunk piston engines and for some
crosshead engines.
The basic system will consist of a drain tank from which two circulating pumps can
take suction through a strainer. The delivery is fed via a filter arrangement to a
cooler, which is normally fitted with a bypass. The oil the passes through a finer
filter before passing to the engine distribution rail where it is directed to the
various parts requiring lubrication. If piston cooling is included, the supply for this
is normally taken off before the fine filter.
There are various ways of distributing the oil throughout the engine depending on
the type.
Crosshead Engines
Oil is piped directly from the distribution rail to the main bearings, the gear/chain
drive bearings and sprayers, the thrust bearing and the camshaft. Oil is fed to the
crosshead via telescopic pipes or articulated links. From here it passes to the
crosshead bearing and guide slippers and, via the connecting rod, to the bottom
end bearing. It is also directed up the piston rod in some engines to provide piston
cooling.

By using the crosshead as a distribution point for the above areas the need to drill
through the crankshaft, to provide a path to the bottom ends and top ends, is
removed and thus, any associated stress problems are avoided.
Trunk Piston Engines
With trunk piston engines the above option is not available and the oil must be
supplied to the main bearings and through drillings in the crankshaft to the bottom
end bearings. The oil then passes up a hole in the connecting rod to the top end
bearings.
Camshaft Lubrication System

Large Slow Speed Crosshead engines have a separate camshaft oil system to
prevent contamination of the large volume of crankcase oil , in the event of a fuel
oil leak from the high pressure injection pumps.
Cylinder Lubrication System.

A cylinder lubrication system is used in all crosshead engines and in some trunk
piston engines. Most trunk piston engines rely on splash lubrication from the
running gear. In that case the quantity is controlled by piston rings designed for
spreading and scraping the oil over the liner surface, excess oil being scraped back
to the crankcase.
The lubrication of the cylinder has several important aims. It must ensure a good
film between piston rings and cylinder liner to minimize wear and to provide a
good gas seal. It must keep ring grooves clean and rings free in them and so must
burn cleanly. In engines burning heavy residual fuels it must neutralise the acids
formed during the combustion process due to contaminants in the fuel.
The system used in slow speed crosshead engines is normally a pumping unit,
driven from the main engine camshaft drive, supplying oil to a number of points
around the cylinder circumference via non return valves and quills, which
penetrate the liner wall.

Turbocharger Lubricating System.
The main methods for this can broadly be classified as one for rolling contact
bearings and one for sleeve type bearings. However there are many exceptions to
this classification.
ROLLING CONTACT BEARING SYSTEM.
Because of their inherent low frictional properties the lubrication of rolling contact
bearings can be achieved with a relatively small quantity of lubricant. In the case
of turbocharger bearings this is usually achieved with a small quantity of high
quality lubricating oil held in a sump in the casing.
The oil is picked up by an integral gear pump or similar and sprayed onto the
bearings. The heat generated is dissipated either through contact with the casing
walls or by the water jacket formed in the casing. The oil is replaced periodically as
are the bearings.(say l000hrs for the oil and 8000 - 12000 hrs for the bearings)
SLEEVE OR BUSH BEARING SYSTEM.
For sleeve type bearings more heat is generated and a larger quantity of clean oil
is required. The most common method is to provide a completely separate system
consisting of pumps, filters, coolers, drain and header tanks.
The oil is pumped from the drain tank to the header tank from where it is gravity
fed to the bearings. It then drains to the bottom of the bearing casing and is then
piped back to the drain tank. This system has the advantage that the optimum
grade of oil can be used and the header tank provides a rundown period in the
event of power failure.
The alternative to this is to take a tapping from the main lubricating oil circulating
system and pass it through a fine filter to the turbocharger, still usually through a
header tank arrangement.

Fuel System for Main Diesel Propulsion Engines
Modern marine diesel engines, especially large slow speed 2 stroke, are almost
universally operated on residual fuels (heavy oil). It is also usual to make provision
for manoeuvring to be carried out on the same fuel.
However for environmental reasons it is the norm, in some ports, to change over
to diesel oil for manoeuvring while in port limits. This also avoids the risk of
heavier fuel cooling down and causing blockages or poor injection conditions.
Heavy fuel in a system is kept hot by arranging automatic recirculation when the
engine is stopped during manoeuvring and at finished with engines.
STORAGE TANKS;-
These will comprise of a number of deep tanks, wing tanks and/or double bottom
tanks around the vessel. There will be provision for venting (with flame traps, and
non-return ball or float valves),
sounding pipes and filling & suction valves (often a common valve is used).
A central filling station or bunkering point is normally provided on deck with the
necessary valve and
pipe-work connections for distribution to the storage tanks
Due to the poor quality of current heavy fuels, compatibility between fuels can
lead to storage problems. It is therefore desirable to keep different batches of
fuels segregated. In this respect a number of smaller tanks are beneficial rather
than a few large tanks.
Storage tanks are normally heated by a bunker heating system. Heating is by
steam, hot water or thermal oil depending on the ship design.
TRANSFER SYSTEM
This allows internal transfers to be made, either around the storage system or to
the daily use system. There will be the necessary pipe-work, valves, filters and a
number of pumps, normally positive
displacement, and possibly flow measurement facility.

COARSE FILTERS,
Single or double type, with a mesh size of approx 2 mm are placed before the
pump in order to protect the transfer pump.
TRANSFER PUMP,
Delivers the fuel from the storage tank to the settling tank. As it is often used for
trimming, it should be as large as possible and be able fill at least the settling tank
(capacity for the consumption of one day) within two hours so as to obtain a
sufficient settling time.
SETTLING TANKS,
The function of the settling tanks is to promote the separation of emulsion and
water removal. Two settling tanks must be provided each holding enough oil for 24
hours running. The fuel transferred from the storage tanks is allowed to stand for
possibly 24 hours Heating must be provided to aid separation of the oil and water.
The water will separate out to the bottom of the tank where it can be removed by
the spring loaded drain valve provided.
The tank outlet to the separators must be of the remote operated quick closing
type.
Settling tanks must be insulated on all sides
Separator Heaters,
Pre-heaters for separators are provided to heat the fuel to an optimal separation
temperature. The purifying temperature for heavy fuel oil is generally around 90OC
but can be as higher depending on the fuel involved.
Heating is generally by steam systems but may be electrical or by thermal fluid.
Centrifugal Separators,
Two Separators with independent electrically driven pumps are often (but not
always, depending on the design) provided. The pumps should be installed as
close as possible to the settling tanks. For the purpose of adapting the separator’s
operation to varying fuel qualities the separators should be operated in parallel
(purifier / purifier) or in series (clarifier / purifier).
An after separator filter station is sometimes fitted as additional cleaning security.

Day Tanks (Service Tanks)
The day tanks collect the treated fuel, from the separators and acts as a reservoir
of clean oil to be used in the engine and/or boiler.
Two must be provided, one in use and one filling from separators.
Provision must be made so that if the day tanks overflow the overflow oil returns
to the settling tanks or an overflow tank with an level alarm fitted.
The tank outlet to the engine must be of the remote operated quick closing type.
Day tanks must be heated and insulated on all sides
Flow Meter,
To measure the amount of fuel used
Mixing Tank, (Degassing Tank)

The function of the Mixing tank is to mix the hot fuel that returns from the engine
with the fuel oil from the day tank.
Venting and degassing of the tank is achieved by an integrated level switch and
electrically controlled degassing valve.
Booster Pumps (Circulating Pumps)

Booster pumps are usually of the gear or screw positive displacement type and
they maintain the fuel pressure within the system up to the engine fuel rail.
Heaters
Used to raise the fuel temperature ( and thus lower the viscosity) in the system
Viscosity Regulator
This Measures the fuel viscosity and adjusts the temperature so that required
viscosity is achieved
Heated Filter
Normally a fine duplex filter of the automatic back flushing type and is fitted to
protect the engine fuel pumps and injectors.

Engine Fuel Rail
The engine fuel rail passes the fuel along the length of the engine to supply the
fuel pumps. Fuel is drawn off by the individual fuel pumps in firing sequence and
supplied under pressure to each corresponding injector Excess fuel is returned to
the mixing tank via a pressure regulating valve
High Pressure Fuel Injection Pumps

Usually one per cylinder and of the “Jerk” type with helical control to supply oil to
the injector(s)
Fuel Injectors,
Spray atomised fuel into the cylinder for combustion
Pre-Warming Bypass
Fitted to all modern marine systems and allows heavy fuel oil systems to be kept
warm during engine shut down. This prevents the system gassing up and the
heavy oil cooling below the pour point. It also does away with change over to
diesel when manoeuvring
Fuel Oil System Piping
All pipes in the system should be lagged and some have trace heating running
along them to keep the oil warm.
High pressure delivery pipes are always double skinned in case of rupture.

Starting System
CRANKING SPEED REQUIRED FOR STARTING:
Since the diesel engine is a compression ignition engine it is necessary that

the temperature of the fuel is raised to its auto-ignition temperature once it
is injected into the cylinder. The only source of heat at start up is that
generated by the compression of the charge of air in the cylinder so the
temperature of the air must be raised above this point.
MEANS OF STARTING:
Aux engines may be started by various methods, which include:
(a) Hand starting, in which the engine is cranked over by a starting

handle. Because of the high compression ratio, turning is quite difficult so
the exhaust valves are usually held off their seats (by a decompressor) thus
reducing resistance to turning. The engine is turned until the fuel charge
“fires”.
(b) Electric starting, in which the engine is turned by a battery

operated motor. An inertia starter is used so that it disengages when the
engine speeds up.
(c) Air motor, in which HP air (350 psi - 23 bar) rotates an air turbine which
drives an inertia starter.
D) HYDRAULIC STARTING
Hydraulic starting systems are unaffected by extremes in climatic conditions
and are independent of all ancillary services because the energy can, if
necessary, be produced manually. Therefore this system is ideal for use on

lifeboats, workboats or emergency generators.
The Hydraulic Starter, made by Lucas Bryce, applies an impulse to the

engine crankshaft by hydraulic rams. The system is shown above.
The Hydraulic Starter applies a very high torque to the crankshaft for
approximately one revolution, during which the reciprocating and rotating
masses of the engine and any permanently attached driven machinery are
accelerated to a speed well above the minimum starting speed of the engine.
Once the torque ends the momentum in the system continues to rotate the
crankshaft, still at a speed above the specified minimum starting speed of

the engine.
The system is operated by energy stored in a piston-type accumulator C,

which contains nitrogen in the sealed volume above the piston and
hydraulic fluid below it.
When the hand pump B is operated, hydraulic fluid is transferred from the
supply tank A to the lower portion of the accumulator C. This raises the
piston and compresses the nitrogen. The pressure is limited to 340 bar by a
relief valve and is shown on the pressure indicator E. The system is
controlled by a two-stage relay valve attached to the base of the
accumulator.This can be operated by a lever, pushbutton or a solenoid.
The two - stage relay valve D is connected to the starter unit G which
consists of two horizontally opposed rams, each attached to a toothed rack.
These racks engage with a helically toothed pinion, having one part of a
serrated, face-type coupling formed integrally with it. The mating part of this
coupling is attached to the end of the engine crankshaft. Initial movement of
the operating lever F on the relay valve D permits slow movement of the
rams in the starter unit G. These apply a pure torque to the pinion H and
owing to the helical teeth, cause it to move axially and engage with the
crankshaft. Further movement of the control lever F admits the full hydraulic
pressure to the rams of the starter unit G, which applies an impulse to the
crankshaft, causing it to accelerate very rapidly to an angular velocity which
is significantly above the minimum cranking speed required.
Release of the operating lever F on the relay valve D isolates the starter unit
from the hydraulic accumulator and vents the hydraulic rams to the feed
tank A, so that they return to their original positions.

Direct Air Starting
(e) Air admission, in which HP air is introduced into the engine

cylinders.
o Admission to each individual cylinder is by starting air valves, which are

unusually situated in the cylinder head and are operated either mechanically
or pneumatically.
o The air starting valve is timed to open when the respective crank is in such a
position that when the starting air acts on the piston, the crank will rotate in
the required direction.
o Air is admitted on the firing stroke and so air injection is followed by exhaust
port or valve opening.
o To avoid wastage of HP air, the air start valve is timed to close before the
exhaust port or valve is timed to open, thus air can only be admitted to the
cylinder for a limited period of time.
o The admission of starting to the correct cylinder is controlled by the air

distributor.
COMPRESSED AIR SYSTEM:
The basic components of a compressed air system for a starting and

service air system are:
o A compressor capable of delivering sufficient quantity at the required

pressure,
o A form of reservoir to give capacity for repeated starts,
o Isolating valves, connecting pipes and safety equipment to ensure safe

operation of the system.

Normally two electrically driven reciprocating compressors of the single
acting, two-stage type is used, one of which would be on stand by in case of
breakdown or high demand.
These would discharge to a pair of reservoirs or receivers which would have
a capacity large enough to ensure repeated starts to allow safe
manoeuvering. (for reversing engines 12 starts, for non-reversing engines 6
starts).
A distribution pipe work system complete with valves to allow necessary
isolation and supply to all parts of the system including a pressure reducing
station for supply of low pressure working air.
The safety devices found in such a system would include:
o Pressure Relief valves on each compressor stage

o A Bursting Disc on the compressor cooling water system in case of rupture of
heat exchanger tubes/cylinder jackets.
o A Non Return valve in the compressor discharge line.
o Compressor cut outs for Lub Oil and Cooling Water fault protection.
o A Receiver Pressure Relief Valve.
o A Fusible Plug to operate in case of fire.
o A drain valve to prevent build up of water, which may lead to corrosion and
hence weakening of the receiver shell.
Additional safety devices would be fitted depending on whether the

installation is direct drive, fixed or variable pitch, single or multi-engine etc.
The system diagram below shows a typical layout with the main
service valves from the receiver.

Diesel Engine Air Start System
A simplified air start system is shown in the diagram with the required
components from the air receiver to the cylinder air start valve.
Main Stop Valve Air Distributor

Automatic Valve Cylinder Air Start Valve
Turning Gear Interlock Flame Trap
Bursting Disc / Relief valve
Pilot Valve (Master Valve)
OPERATION OF AIR START SYSTEM:-

With main stop valve open and start lever in stop position, turning gear
disengaged and automatic valve set to auto position and closed. Air is up to
the pilot valve and the auto valve.
o Start order received and start lever moved to start position.
o Pilot valve opens and air passes to operate distributor and auto valve.
o Main air passes auto valve to cylinder air start valves and distributor.
o Air from distributor passes to correct cylinder start valve, opening valve and
allowing main air into cylinder.
o Engine turns and moves distributor to next position, which opens next
cylinder air start valve.
o When engine speed reaches required minimum air lever moved to fuel
position and pilot valves shuts.
o Air blocked to distributor and auto valve operating lines.

o Auto valve closes and vents system.
o Distributor vented and all cylinder air start valves shut.

Basic Air Start System

Typical Questions
1). a) Describe with the aid of a sketch a jacket water system suitable
for a slow speed marine crosshead diesel engine.
b) State the function of the jacket water system .
c) Why is inhibitor added to the cooling water in the system ?
2). a) Describe with the aid of a sketch a lubricating oil system suitable
for a marine steam turbine.
b) What safety features are included in the system to safeguard the

equipment in the event of a blackout ?
3). Explain the following features of a slow speed marine crosshead

diesel engine lubricating system:
a) Why the camshaft lubrication system is separate from the main

lubricating system ?
b) What additional item of equipment is used to ensure the purity of the

main lubricating oil, apart from filters and strainers ?
c) What are the TWO main functions of lubricating oil in this type of
engine ?
d) How is the Lubricating Oil temperature controlled ?
4). Explain the processes by which HEAVY FUEL OIL is treated in

preparation for combustion in a marine diesel engine.
5) Describe a method of starting a Main Engine of your choice: this to

include checks prior to starting, and any equipment required to ensure
M.E. will start and run.
A sketch and description of the air start system from Air Bottle to Air start
valve is required.

Example Question
Describe a method of starting a Main Engine of your choice: this to include

checks prior to starting, and any equipment required to ensure M.E. will
start and run.
A sketch and description of the air start system from Air Bottle to Air start
valve is required. (15)
Fuel system set up – relevant valves open, pump on
L.O. and Cooling systems – relevant valves open – pump on
Start Air pressure available up to main engine isolating valves
Turn the engine on the turning gear with indicator cocks open and check that the cylinders are
clear of liquid
Turning gear out
Permission from bridge – kick engine on air ahead and astern
Cocks shut – permission from bridge – operate engine for a few revs ahead and aster on fuel.
Engine ready to start.
NOTE – This type of question will take ALL the ten minutes allocated to it.
The answer is brief and in the form of a list.
The drawing is a hand drawn sketch – it is the labels , arrows and additional notes
which give the explanation and make sense of the drawing.

Conclusion:
If you have got this far and attempted the Typical Questions provided, you should
be in a position to sit the exams successfully.
Remember to:
Make sure you are answering the question which was asked – not
the question you think it is, or would like to be.
Provide neat, labeled diagrams if asked for by the question.
Divide your answer into the same number of sections, using the
same layout of headings and sub-headings as the original question.
If you are asked for a specific number of items . i.e “Name FIVE
boiler mountings and explain their purpose” – stop at five . You will
not receive marks for more than that number.
If you are not happy with an answer – cross it out diagonally to

make it clear that this answer is NOT to be counted as one of the
five.
Your answer should be in BLACK pen for written answer and a soft
lead black or coloured pencil for drawings.

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Marine Engineering:

This Unit – Scottish Qualifications Authority (SQA) F91234 is designed for

Task 1 – Reading the Unit:

It is always a good idea to know what we are supposed to be doing and

Also available on line in .pdf form, from:

the unit is reproduced below.

General information for centres

Unit title: Marine Engineering: Propulsion

Unit code: F912 34

On completion of the Unit the candidate should be able to:

1 Explain marine propulsion plant and ancillary equipment.

2 Explain the operational procedures, operational problems and maintenance of marine

Outcome 2 can be a question paper of three questions to be answered under supervised

HN Unit (F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 2

Higher National Unit specification: statement of standards

Unit title: Marine Engineering: Propulsion

Unit code: F912 34

Assessment should be conducted under supervised and controlled conditions.

Explain marine propulsion plant and ancillary equipment.

Knowledge and/or Skills

• Types of marine propulsion plant • Construction of marine propulsion

Candidates should with reference to a type of propulsion plant:

Draw the layout of one propulsion plant

Explain the operating principles of one propulsion plant

Explain 2 ancillary systems from:

— Lubricating oil systems

— Cooling water systems

— Starting and control systems

Evidence should be generated under controlled conditions.

(F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 3

Higher National Unit specification: statement of standards (cont)

Unit title: Marine Engineering: Propulsion

Knowledge and/or Skills

• Types of marine propulsion plant

Candidates should for one type of marine propulsion plant:

Explain the sequence of stopping plant including slow cool down.

Explain a fault associated with one type of marine plant.

Evidence should be generated under controlled conditions.

The assessment of this Outcome may last for one hour.

HN Unit (F912 34): Marine Engineering: Propulsion 4

Unit code: F912 34

Unit title: Marine Engineering: Propulsion

Original date of publication: August 2010

Version Description of change Date

OR – have some previous experience in the field of Marine Engineering.

The Unit F912 34 requires the following topics to be covered:

Types of marine propulsion plant

Layout of marine propulsion plant

Operating principles of marine propulsion plant

Construction of marine propulsion plant

Boiler feed water densities

Types of marine propulsion plant

The exams themselves must be sat under controlled conditions at a marine

As you are probably aware by now, the Internet is a tremendous source of

Website dedicated to marine diesel engines and their operation.

Website dedicated to marine steam, old and new.

Introduction To Marine Engineering

D.A. Taylor 1996 Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford

ISBN 0 7506 2530 9

Reeds Volume 9 Steam Engineering Knowledge For Marine Engineers