SAMPLING

Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the sampling
population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece
of information, situation or outcome regarding the bigger group.

Therefore, a sample is a subgroup of population that the researcher is interested in.

NEED FOR SAMPLING:-

Sampling is needed for various reasons.

i) Sampling saves time as well as money.

ii) A research study based upon sampling is generally conducted by trained and experience
investigators. As such, it provides accuracy in measurement and testing.

iii) It involves the researcher to estimate the sampling errors and that may, it helps in giving
information regarding some characteristics of the population.

iv) Sampling helps in making correct and scientific judgement about the population for which
generalisation is to be made after the completion of study.

PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING:-

1) In most cases of sampling, there will be difference between sample statistics and the true
population parameters and this is attributable to the selection of units in the sample.

2) The second principle is that the greater the rise of sample, the more accurate will be the
estimate of the population value.

3) The third principle is that the greater the difference in the variable under study in a population
for a given sample size, the greater will be the sampling error, that is greater will be the
difference between sample statistics and true population parameter.

The difference between sampling in quantitative and qualitative research:-

• In qualitative research, number of considerations may influence the selection of a sample such
as the ease in accessing the potential respondents, your judgements that the person has
extensive knowledge about an episode etc. Therefore, we make every effort to select either a
case that is similar to the rest of the group or the one which is totally different.

• The purpose of sampling in quantitative research is to draw inferences about the group from
which we have selected the sample, whereas in qualitative research if is designed either to gain
in-depth knowledge about a event or to know as much as possible about different aspects of
an individual.

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• In quantitative research, randomisation is used to avoid bias in the selection of a sample.
Whereas, in qualitative research, no such attempt is made in selecting a sample.

• Most of the sampling strategies, including some non-probability ones are described in
undertaking quantitative study, provided it meets the requirement. However, when conducting a
qualitative study, only the non-probabbility sampling designs can be used.

SAMPLING TERMINOLOGY

• The class, families living in the city from which we select our sample are called the population
or study population and are usually denoted by the letter N.

• The sample group of students, families or electors from whom we called the required
information to estimate the average age of the class, average income is called the sample.

• The number of students, families or electors from whom you obtain the required information is
called the sample size and is usually denoted by the letter n.

• The way you select students, families or electors is called the sampling design or sampling
strategy.

• Each student, family or elector that becomes the basis for selecting your sample is called the
sampling unit or sampling element.

• A list identifying each student, family or elector in the study population is called the sampling
frame .

• Our findings based on the information obtained from your respondents (sample) are called
sample statistics.

• From sample statistics we make an estimate of the answers to our research questions in the
study population. The estimates arrived at from sample statistics are called population
parameters or the population mean.

AIMS OF SAMPLING

i) To achieve maximum precision in estimating about population values within a given sample
size.

ii) To avoid bias in selecting a sample.

Bias in the selection of a sample occurs when:-

• Sampling is done by non random method, when sampling is influenced by human choice.

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• When a selection of population refused to cooperate is not available.

• When the sample frame doesn’t cover the whole population.

FACTORS INFLUENCING DECISION TO SAMPLE

1) Size of population:- If the population is small (eg: 300), the investigator may decide to include
all in his study and therefore, sampling may not be done. However, there is no clearcut
guidance exists for making distinction between large population and small population.Findings
based upon larger samples have more certainty than those based on smaller ones. As a rule,
the larger the sample size, the more accurate the findings.

2) Cost involved in obtaining the elements:- If sampling involves a bigger cost which the
investigator can’t meet, the decision to sample may be postponed. On the other hand, if
sampling involves a cost which the investigator can readily meet, the sampling task is greatly
facilitated.

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 Types of Sampling

1) Random/ Probability Sampling designs:- Probability sampling methods are those that
clearly specify the probability or likelihood of inclusion of each element or individual in the
sample.

Technically, the probability sampling methods must satisfy the conditions given below:-

i) The size of the present population from which the sample is to be taken, must be known to
the investigator.

ii) Each element or individual in the population must have an equal chance of being included in a
subsequent sample.

iii) The desired size must be clearly specified.

The major probability sampling methods are the following:

1. Simple random sampling:- It is defined as one in which each and every individual of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, and also the selection of one
individual is in no way dependent upon the selection of another individual.

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 For eg; The names of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250
employees.

Advantage:- The investigator need not know the true composition of the population beforehand.

Disadvantage:- Simple random sampling doesn’t ensure that those elements which exist in small
numbers in the population will be included in the given sample.

2. Stratified random sampling:- The researcher attempts to stratify the population in such a way
that the population within a stratum is homogenous with respect to the characteristics on the
basis of which it is being stratified.

For eg; It is much easier to stratify a population on the basis of gender than on the basis of age,
income or attitude.

Stratified random sampling consist of two types;-

a) Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling:- In this sampling plan, the researcher stratifies
the population according to the known characteristics of the population and randomly discuss the
individuals in a similar proportion from each stratum of the population.

For eg; If we have four Strats with population sizes of 200, 400, 600 and 800. If we choose a
sampling fraction of 1/2, this means we must randomly sample 100, 200, 300 and 400 subjects
from each stratum respectively. The same sampling fraction is used fro each stratum regardless of
the differences in population size of the strata.

Advantage: The sampling error is minimised because the sample drawn possess all the
necessary characteristics of parent population.

Disadvantage: It is a difficult method. This method assumes that the researcher knows the
composition of population well before the actual sampling starts.

b) Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling: The substrata of the drawn sample are not
necessarily distributed according to their proportionate weight in the population from which they
were randomly selected.

For eg; To represent the large supermarkets to reflect their sales rather than the number of stores.

Advantage: It is less time consuming than proportionate stratified random sampling because the
investigator is not worried about making proportionate representation of each stratum of the
population.

Disadvantage: Certain stratum of the population is overrepresented and some other strata are
underrepresented.

c) Area or Cluster Sampling: It is based on the ability of the researchers to divide the sampling
population into groups called clusters, and then to select elements within each cluster, using SRS
technique. Clusters can be formed on the basis of geographical proximity that has a correlation
with the main variable of the study.

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For eg; An organisation intends to survey to analyse the performance of smartphones across
Germany. They can divide the entire country’s population into cities (clusters) and select cities
with the highest population and also filter those using module devices.

Advantage: When large geographical areas are to be covered, it is easier to use area sampling
than any other method.

Disadvantage: The degree pf sampling error is usually high.

II) Non random / non probability sampling design: It doesn't follow the theory of probability in
the choice of elements from the sampling population. Non-Probability sampling designs are used
when the number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be individually
identified.

There are five commonly used non-random designs and they are as follows:-

1)Quota Sampling:- In quota sampling, the investigator recognises the different strata of
population and from each stratum, he selects the number of individuals arbitrarily. This constitutes
the quota sample.

For eg; We could divide a population by the state they live in, income or education level. The
population is divided into groups and samples are taken from each group to meet a quota.

Advantage:- Quota samples are the most satisfactory means when quick and crude results are
desired.

Disadvantage:- There is no means of establishing randomness. As such, the selected samples

remain no longer representative of the population.

2) Accidental Sampling:- It refers to the sampling procedure in which the investigator selects the
persons according to his convenience.

Here, the investigator doesn’t care about including the people with some specific trait, rather he is
mainly guided by economy and convenience.

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For eg; An investigator may take students of class X Ito the research plan because the class
teacher of that class happens to be his friend.

Advantage: It is the most convenient method of sampling.

Disadvantage: The investigator gets sample opportunity to show his bias and prejudice in
selecting the individual.

3) Judgemental sampling or purposive sampling:- The investigator has some belief

that the sample being handpicked is typical of the population. A purposive sample is
known as a judgemental sample because the investigator on the basis of his impression
makes a judgement regarding the concerned cases, which were thought to the typical of
the population.

For eg; For studying attitude towards any national issue, a sample of journalists, teachers
and legislators can be more reasonably be expected to represent the correct attitude than
other.

Advantage: Since, it doesn’t involve any random selection process, it is somewhat less
costly and more readily accessible to the investigator.

Disadvantage: There is no way to ensure if the sample is truly random.

4) Expert sampling:- It is where we draw our sample from experts in the field we are
studying. It is used when we need the opinions or assessment of people with a high
degree of knowledge about the study area.

For eg; We first identify persons with known expertise in an area of interest to us, seek
their consent for participation and then correct information either individually or
collectively in the form of a group.

Advantage: Opinions of expert are more easily respected by other people.

Disadvantage: Experts on daytime television, anyone can purpose to be an expert and

their opinions might simply be wrong.

5) Snowball Sampling:- It is a process of selecting a sample using networks of friends

and knowns. It is defined as having all the persons in a group identifying their friends who
in turn identify their friends until the researcher observes that a constellation of
friendships converges into some type of a definite social pattern.

For eg; If we are studying the level of customer satisfaction among the members of an
elite country club, we will find it extremely difficult to collect primary data unless a

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member of the club agrees to have a direct conversation with us and provides the contact
detail of the other members of the club.

Advantage: It is helpful in studying a small, informal social group and its impact upon
formal organisational structure.

Disadvantage: It is difficult when N is large or say if exceeds 100.

III) Systematic Sampling Design ( a “mixed design”) :- Mixed sampling is one where
the characteristics of both probability sampling and non-probability sampling are mixed. It
may br defined as selecting every nth person from a predetermined list of individuals.

Selecting every 5th roll number in a class of 60 students will constitute systematic
sampling. Likewise, drawing every 8th name from a telephone directory is an example
systematic sampling.

Advantage: It is relatively a quick method of retaining a sample pf elements.

Disadvantage: It ignores all persons between every nth element chosen. Obviously then,
it is not a probability sampling plan.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

All non-probability sampling designs - purposive, judgemental, expert, accidental and

snowball can also be used in qualitative research with two differences:

i) In quantitive research, we collect information from a predetermined number of people

but in qualitative research, we don’t have a sample size in mind.

ii) In quantitative research we are guided by our desire to select a random sample,
whereas in qualitative research we are guided by our judgement as for who is likely to
provide us with the “best” information.

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