Points To Remember

Breathing : (External respiration) The process of exchange of O2 from the

atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cells.
Carbamino haemoglobin : Compound formed in RBCs when CO2 combine
with haemoglobin.
Inspiration : Oxygen from fresh air taken by lungs and diffuses into the
blood.
Expiration : CO2 given up by venous blood in the lungs is sent out to exterior.
Respiration : The sum total of physical and chemical processes by which
oxygen and carbohydrates (main food nutrient) etc are assimilated into the system
and the oxidation products like carbon dioxide and water are given off.
Diaphragm : A muscular, membranous partition separating the thoracic
cavity from the abdominal cavity.
Hypoxia—Shortage of oxygen in tissues.
Partial Pressure—The pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture
of gases. It is represented as pO2 for oxygen and pCO2 for carbondioxide.
Pharynx : The tube or cavity which connects the mouth and nasal passages
with oesophagus. It has three parts (i) Nasopharynx (anterior part) (ii) Oropharynx
(middle part) and (iii) Laryngopharynx (posterior part which continues to larynx)
Adam’s Apple : The projection formed by the thyroid cartilage and surrounds
the larynx at the front of the neck.
Tidal volume (TV) : volume of air during normal respiration (500 mL.)
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV) : Additional volume of air inspired by a
forcible inspiration. 2500mL to 3000mL.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV) : Additional volume of air, a person
can expire by a forcible expiration.
(RV) volume of air remaining in the lungs even after a forcible expiration
(1100 mL to 1200 mL)

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 PULMONARY CAPACITIES : Use in clinical diagnosis.
Inspiratory capacity (IC) = (TV + IRV) Total volume of air a person can
inspire after a normal expiration.
Expiratory Capacity—Total Volume of air a parson can expire after a normal
inspiration E.C. = TV + ERV
Functional Residual Capacity—Volume of air that will remain in lungs
after a normal expiration (FRC) = (ERV + RV)
Vital Capacity (VC) = (ERV + TV + IRV) or the maximum volume of air
a person can breath out after a forced inspiration.
Total Lung Capacity : It includes RV, ERV, TV and IRV or vital capacity
+ residual volume.
Pulmonary—Anything associated with the lungs is given the pre®x
‘pulmonary’ steps involved in respiration—
(i) Breathing or pulmonary ventilation (intake or atmospheric air and releasing
out CO2 rich alveolar air)
(ii) Diffusion of gases (O2 and CO2) across alveolar membrane.
(iii) Transport of gases by the blood.
(iv) Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
(v) Utilisation of O2 by the cells for catabolic reactions and resultant release of
CO2.

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 Mechanism of Breathing
Inspiration :
If the pressure within the lungs (intrapulmonary pressure) is less than the
atmospheric pressure, i.e., there is negative pressure in the lungs with respect to
the atmospheric pressure.
 The contraction of diagphragm increases the volume of thoracic chamber in
the antero-posterior axis.
 The contraction of external intercoastals muscles lifts up the ribs and the
sternum causing an increase in the volume of thoracic chamber in the dorso
ventral axis.
 It causes an increase in pulmonary volume decrease the intra-pulmonary
pressure to less than the atmospheric pressure.
 If forces the air out side to move in to the lungs, i.e., inspiration.
Expiration :
Relexation of diaphragm and sternum to their normal positions and reduce
the thoracic and pulmonary volume.
 It increases in intrapulmonary pressure slightly above the atmospheric
pressure.
 It causes the expulsion of air from the lungs, i.e., expiration.

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 Inspiration Expiration

Contraction of diaphragm and external Relaxation of diaphragm and sternum

intercostal muscles
 
Increase in the volume of thoracic Decrease in the volume of thoracic
chamber chamber
 
Lungs expand Lungs contract
 
Pressure inside the lungs fall Pressure inside the lings increase
 
Air rushes in Air rushes out

Respiratory Tract :
A pair of external nostrils  nasal chamber through nasal passage 
nasopharynx  glottis  larynx  trachea  Left and right primary
bronchi  secondary and tertiary bronchi  bronchioles  vascularised
bag like structures (alveoli) or air-sacs. Each lung is covered with double
layered membrane known as pleura with pleural ¯uid between them.
Respiratory organs in animals :
(i) Protozoans, annelids Frogs—Body surface
(ii) Fishes, tadpole stage of frog and many other aquatic animals—Gills
(iii) Insects and a few other arthropods—Tracheal tubes
(iv) All land vertebrates (amphibians, reptiles, aves and mammal)—Lungs.
Conditions required for cutaneous respiration
Skin should be moist and thin. It should be highly vascularised.
Physiology of Respiration :
(a) Exchange of gases—Diffusion of gases takes place from the region of higher
partial pressure to lower (lesser) partial pressure)
(i) pO2 in alveolar air = 104 mm Hg.
(ii) pO2 in venous blood = 40 mm Hg.
O2 diffuses from alveoli to venous blood.
(iii) pCO2 in venous blood = 45 mm Hg.
pCO2 in alveolar air = 40 mm Hg.
CO2 diffuses from venous blood to alveoli
Breathing and Exchange of Gases 155
(b) Transport of O2 by the blood—About 10% of CO2 forms carbonic acid
with water of plasma.

(c) Transport of CO2 in the blood—

About 20% of CO2 is transported by combining with free amino group of

Haemoglobin in RBC.
70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonates of sodium (NaHCO3) and
potassium (KHCO3)

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Regulation of Respiration
A specialised centre in medulla of brain controls the respiratory rhythm.
Another region in the pons region of the brain called pneumotaxic centre
can moderate the functions of respiratory rhythm centre. Neural signal from
pneumotaxic centre can reduce the duration of respiration thereby increasing
the respiratory rate. Chemosensitive area present near the rhythm centre, aortic
arch can sense the change in CO2 & H+ concentration, which in turn send signal
to rhythm centre to make necessary adjustment so that those substances can be
eliminated.

Questions

Very Short Answer Questions (1 mark each)

1. Name the organ in human respiratory system which produces sound.
2. How many oxygen molecules can be carried out by one haemoglobin
molecule.
3. Give the name and function of a ¯uid ®lled double membranous layer which
surrounds the lungs.
4. Which organ of our respiratory system acts as primary site of exchange of
gases ?
5. Cigarette smoking causes emphysema. Give reason.
6. Name the principle or process of exchange of gases.
7. What is the role of oxyhaemoglobin after releasing molecular oxygen in the
tissues ?
8. Name the muscles which facilitate breathing.
9. How is the entry of food prevented in the respiratory tract ?
10. About 97% of O2 is transported by RBCs in the blood. How does the remaining
3% of O2 transported ?
Short Answer Questions (2 marks each)
11. Draw a labelled diagram of a section of an alveolus with a pulmonary
capillary.
12. Following is the table showing partial pressure (in mm Hg) of oxygen and
carbondioxide) at different parts involved in diffusion in comparison to those
in atmosphere. Fill in the blank – a, b, c and d.

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Respiratory Atmospheric Alveoli Blood Blood Tissue
gases air (Deoxygenated) (Oxygenated)

O2 (a) 104 40 (d) 40

CO2 0.3 (b) (c) 40 45

13. Name the organs of respiration in the organisms.

(a) Flatworms (b) Birds (c) Frog (d) Cockroach
14. What are occupational respiratory disorders ? What are their harmful effects
? What precautions should a person take to prevent such disorders ?
15. How is respiration different from breathing ?
Short Answer Questions-II (3 marks each)
16. Explain the role of neural system in regulation of respiration is human.
17. Explain the neural control of respiration in human.
Long Answer Questions (5 marks each)
18. With the help of labelled diagram explain the structure of human respiratory
system.
19. Explain the mechanism of breathing with the help of labelled diagram
involving both stages—inspiration and expiration.
20. Explain the process of exchange of gases with the help of a diagrammatic
representation in human respiratory system.
21. A NGO has reported about children below the age of 16 years working
in a tobacco factory. On reading this news in paper, what will be your
reaction ? Would you like these children to continue working over there
why/why not ?

Answers

Very Short Answers (1 mark each)

1. Larynx (Sound box)
2. Four molecules
3. Pleuron. It reduces the friction and keeps the two pleura together and the
lungs in¯ated.

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 4. Alveoli of lungs.
5. Cigarette smoking damages alveolar walls due to alveolar sacs remaining
®lled with air leading to decreased respiratory surface for exchange of gases.
6. Diffusion.
7. Amino group of reduced haemoglobin combines with CO 2 forming
carbaminohaemoglobin to transport CO2.
8. External and internal intercostals muscles, situated between ribs.
9. During swallowing a cartilaginous ¯ap like structure called epiglottis covers
the glottis and prevents the entry of food into respiratory tract.
10. In simple solution form through plasma.
Short Answers-I (2 marks each)
11. Refer ®g 17.4, page 273 (NCERT Text Book Class XI Biology)
12. Refer ®g 17.1, page 272 (NCERT Text Book Class XI Biology)
13. (a) Body surface (b) lungs (c) skin and lungs (d) Network of trachea
14. Refer ®g 276 (NCERT Text Book Class XI Biology)
15. Slow oxidation of food to release energy is called respiration while breathing
is a biophysical process which is the ®rst step of respiration.
Short Answers-II (3 marks each)
16. Refer page 275 (17.5) (NCERT Text Book Class XI Biology)
17. Refer content 17.5 regulation of respiration on page no. 275 (NCERT Text
book XI Biology)
Long Answers-II (5 marks each)
18. Refer content 17.1.1 page 29, diagrams 17.1, page 29 (NCERT Text Book
Class XI Biology)
19. Refer content 17.2 and ®g 17.2 page 270–271 (NCERT Text Book Class XI
Biology)
20. Refer content 17.3 and ®g 17.3 page 272–273 (NCERT Text Book Class XI
Biology)
21. It is very painful to know about such things prevalent in our society. As a
biologist I know long exposure to tobacco particles in air will give rise to
in¯ammation leading to ®brosis and thus can damage the lungs severely. So
I would not like the children to continue working over there.

Breathing and Exchange of Gases 159