The Engineer’s

Guide to
Tank Gauging

2021 EDITION
What is tank gauging?

Tank gauging technologies

Engineering standards and approvals

Volume and mass assessment

Accuracies and uncertainties

Temperature measurement

Liquefied gases

Additional sensors

System architecture

Overfill prevention

Appendix: Typical tank gauging

configurations

References
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 Table of contents

1. What is tank gauging? 1

2. Tank gauging technologies 7

3. Engineering standards and approvals 15

4. Volume and mass assessment 27

5. Accuracies and uncertainties 33

6. Temperature measurement 41

7. Liquefied gases 47

8. Additional sensors 51

9. System architecture 55

10. Overfill prevention 63

11. Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations 71

12. References 89
Abbreviations
AOPS Automatic Overfill Prevention System MPMS Manual of Petroleum Measurement
Standards
API American Petroleum Institute
MTBF Mean Time Between Failures
ATG Automatic Tank Gauge
NIST National Institute of Standards and
ATT Automatic Tank Thermometer Technology

BEV Bundesamt für Eich- und NMi Nederlands Meetinstituut

Vermessungswesen
NSV Net Standard Volume
BS&W Base Sediment & Water
OIML International Organization of Legal
DCS Distributed Control System Metrology

EMC Electromagnetic Compatibility OPS Overfill Prevention System

EODR Electro-Optical Distance Ranging PLC Programmable Logic Controller

FMCW Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave PTB Physikalisch-Technische Bundesinstitut

FWL Free Water Level R 85 Recommendation 85, a special

procedure for testing of tank gauging
FWV Free Water Volume equipment defined by OIML.

GOV Gross Observed Volume RRF Risk Reduction Factor

GSV Gross Standard Volume RTD Resistance Temperature Detector

HTG Hydrostatic Tank Gauging SAT Site Acceptance Testing

IEC International Electrotechnical SIF Safety Instrumented Functions

Commission
SIL Safety Integrity Level
ISO International Organization for
Standardization SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden

LNE Laboratoire national de métrologie et TCT Tank Capacity Table

d’essais
TOV Total Observed Volume
LNG Liquefied Natural Gas
VCF Volume Correction Factor
LPG Liquefied Petroleum Gas
WiA Weight in Air
LTD Level Temperature Density
WiV Weight in Vacuum
MOPS Manual Overfill Prevention System

MPE Maximum Permissible Error

1 What is tank gauging?

Topic

1.1

1.2

1.3

Tank gauging is a system science

Where is tank gauging used?

The purpose of tank gauging

1.3.1
1.3.2
Oil movement and operations
Inventory control
Page

4
5
1.3.3 Custody transfer 5
1.3.4 Loss control and mass balance 5
1.3.5 Overfill prevention 5
1.3.6 Leak detection 6
1.3.7 Volume reconciliation 6
 1 - What is tank gauging? 1 - What is tank gauging?

Besides precision level gauging, temperature

1. What is tank measurements are essential in assessing tank
contents accurately. All liquids have a thermal
gauging? expansion coefficient and proper volume
compensation needs to be applied when transferring
Tank gauging is the measurement of liquids in large volumes at different temperature conditions. A
storage tanks with the purpose of quantifying the pressure measurement of the liquid head is often
volume and mass of the product in the tanks. added to provide a current assessment of the average
observed density and to calculate the product mass.
The oil and gas industry generally uses static Figure 1.1 : Tank gauging involves a substantial number of interdependent devices and functions.
volumetric assessments of the tank content. Modern tank gauging systems digitize the tank
This involves level, temperature and pressure measurement and digitally transmit the tank many different functions spanning from operator Storage tanks are often placed in clusters or tank
measurements. There are different ways of information to a control room where the liquid interface, batch handling, reporting, alarm functions, farms. The tanks are atmospheric, pressurized or
measuring the liquid level and other properties of the volume and mass information is distributed to users connectivity to host systems and much more. It is cryogenic.
liquid. The measurement method depends on the of the inventory data. a system engineering science across many areas of
type of tank, the type of liquid and the way the tank technology. Atmospheric tanks are vertical cylinders with various
is used. roof designs. Most common are:

1.2 Where is tank gauging used? • Fixed roof tanks, either cone roof or dome roof
tanks
Tank gauging is needed wherever liquids are stored in
large tanks. Such storage tanks are found in: • Floating roof tanks with various designs

• Refineries

• Petrochemical industry

• Distribution terminals

• Pipeline terminals

• Fuel depots
Figure 1.2: Fixed roof and floating roof tanks.
• Air fueling storage at airports
In a fixed roof tank there is a vapor space between the
• Chemical storage liquid surface and the external roof.

In a floating roof tank the liquid surface is covered

by either an internal or an external floating roof.
There are many different designs of floating roofs
depending on the service, the liquid and the size of
Storage tanks can contain large volumes of liquid 1.1 Tank gauging is a system science the tank. It is common that floating roof tanks have
product representing a significant value. The one or more still-pipes that go from the bottom of
accuracy performance of a tank gauging system is of The concept of tank gauging involves much more the tank, through an opening in the floating roof to
high importance when assessing the tank content at than just the precision instruments on the tank. the top of the tank. This still-pipe is used to access
any given time. Tank gauging requires reliable data communication the liquid for sampling, hand level gauging, hand
over large field bus networks, often both wired and temperature measurement and automatic tank
Tank gauging is used on large storage tanks in wireless. The communication solutions often need gauging. With a good Automatic Tank Gauge (ATG)
refineries, fuel depots, pipelines, airports, and arrangement for redundancy in the field buses, design, all these things can be performed in one
storage terminals. Storage tanks usually come in four the data concentrators, the network components still-pipe.
basic designs: Cylindrical fixed roof tanks, cylindrical and the network servers. Tank gauging systems
floating roof tanks and pressurized tanks of either must also be able to calculate product volumes and
spherical or horizontal cylinder design. There are tank mass according to the industry standards. The tank
gauges available for all these tank types. gauging software/information system must perform

2 3
 1 - What is tank gauging? 1 - What is tank gauging?

Pressurized tanks are often of spherical or horizontal 1.3 The purpose of tank gauging 1.3.2 Inventory control Custody transfer requires the highest possible
cylinder design. accuracy of the tank gauging system. The OIML
The information from a tank gauging system is used A tank farm stores valuable assets, and owners of the standard R 85:2008 defines the requirements for tank
for many different purposes. The most common are: assets will require very accurate assessments of their gauges used for custody transfer.
value.
• Oil movement and operations
The tank gauging system should be able to provide 1.3.4 Loss control and mass balance
• Inventory control high accuracy inventory reports at given intervals
or instantly if so required. Automatic measurement The financial impact of refinery losses is of great
• Custody transfer of free water at the bottom of the tank may also be importance. Achieving a high quality mass balance
required for accurate inventory assessment. The of a refinery is the method by which losses are
• Loss control and mass balance tank inventory figures are essential for financial estimated. It is important to distinguish between
accounting purposes and are often used for fiscal real losses and apparent losses stemming from
• Volume reconciliation and customs reporting. The system should be able measurement errors.
to calculate net volumes and mass according to the
• Overfill prevention rules set forth by industry standards organizations The refinery loss is defined as:
Figure 1.3: Pressurized tanks normally require automatic tank gauging in such as API and others.
a still-pipe.
• Leak detection
Loss = inputs - outputs - current inventory
Hand gauging cannot be performed on pressurized + previous inventory - fuel
tanks. For high accuracy automatic tank gauging a 1.3.1 Oil movement and operations
still-pipe inside the tank is normally required.
The operation of a tank farm relies heavily on For loss control purposes the highest possible
In cryogenic tanks, automatic tank gauges are often information regarding the situation in the tank farm. accuracy of inventory measurement is required.
of the same design as for pressurized tanks. To operate the tank farm safely and efficiently it is Hence the quality and performance of the tank
important to know exactly what is going on inside the gauging system is of utmost importance in the area
tanks. The tank gauging system must at any given of loss control and mass balance.
time provide instant information about:

• How much liquid is in the tank 1.3.5 Overfill prevention

• How much available room is left in the tank A tank overfill can have disastrous consequences. A
Figure 1.5: Inventory management calculations. spill can cause explosions and fire that can spread
• At what level rate the tank is being filled/ to all tanks in the tank farm and to the surrounding
discharged 1.3.3 Custody transfer area. Since the tanks contain huge amounts of stored
energy, a fire can have far-reaching consequences.
• When the tank will reach a dangerously high level When buying and selling large volumes of liquids,
tank gauging data serves as the main input for Fires caused by overfill have rendered legal damages
• When the tank will become empty at a given establishing correct invoicing and taxation. Certified exceeding $1 billion. From this, and many other
Photo by courtesy of Center for Liquefied Natural Gas
pump rate tank gauging can provide more accurate transfer perspectives, preventing tank overfill is extremely
1.4: Cryogenic tank storing LNG at -162°C. assessments compared with metering when important.
• How long a given batch transfer will take performing large transfers such as from a tanker ship
The methods for proper automatic tank gauging to a shore tank. With a certified tank gauging system A spill can happen when the tank operators are
are described in various engineering standards. The The operation will also require that the tank gauging manual tank surveying can often be omitted. unaware of what’s going on in the tank farm. This
most commonly applied standards are the Manual of system gives alerts and alarms before any preset level could take place if an undetected fault occurs in the
Petroleum Measurement Standards (MPMS) issued or dangerous high tank level is reached. For legal or fiscal custody transfer, the tank gauging tank gauging components. High level switches could,
by the American Petroleum Institute (API). system must be certified by international authorities, if not maintained and tested properly, also fail.
Oil movement and operations depend on reliable mainly the International Organization of Legal
and readily available tank information. A loss of tank Metrology (OIML). The system may also be required Tank gauging devices provide the basic process
gauging data will seriously interrupt time critical to have approvals from local metrology entities such control layer in the tank farm. Independent high
operations and product transfers which may lead to as PTB, NMi, LNE or other national institutes. level indicators or level-switches form the next layer
unplanned shut downs. of protection. Any undetected failure of these two
protection layers can cause a serious accident.

4 5
 1 - What is tank gauging?

2
1.3.8 Floating Roof Monitoring

Floating roofs can create operational and safety

issues, with significant mechanical damage, overfills,
and release of explosive hydrocarbon vapor. Tank
content may also become contaminated. Reasons for
tank malfunction may be that the roof is stuck due to
damaged or incorrectly mounted rim seals. Leaking Tank gauging technologies
pontoons, overfills, strong winds, and inadequate
draining during heavy rain or snowfall can also
dangerously affect buoyancy and roof position.
A floating roof monitoring function detects whether a
roof in a storage tank is stuck, sinking, tilted, floating Topic Page
Figure 1.6: Puerto Rico accident in 2009. higher or lower than normal, or if it is covered by
water or product.
This is why the reliability of the tank gauging system
and the high level alarm system has to meet the 2.1 Hand gauging 8
requirements stated by the standards for Functional
Safety. More about this subject is explained in 2.2 Float gauges 9
Chapter 10.
2.3 Servo gauges 9

1.3.6 Leak detection 2.4 Radar gauges 10

If the tank gauging system is accurate and stable 2.5 Different types of radar gauges 11
enough it can be used for tank leak detection. When
a tank is settled and closed, the tank gauging system 2.5.1 Process radar level gauges 11
can be set to detect small liquid movements. It is 2.5.2 Tank gauging radar gauges 11
recommended that leak detection is based on Net
Standard Volume (NSV) rather than just level. By
monitoring the NSV, level movements caused by 2.6 Radar frequency selection 13
temperature changes can be canceled out. Custody
transfer grade accuracy performance of the tank 2.7 Pressurized tanks 14
gauging system is required for proper leak detection.

1.3.7 Volume reconciliation

Figure 1.7: Up to six non-contacting level instruments are placed either at
the tank shell or on top of the outer roof. Roof tilt is tracked by comparing
Tank farm operations need to accurately manage the distance between each device and the floating roof.
transactions and reconcile transfers versus
physical inventory. Every company is accountable;
reconciliation and error reporting provide the
auditing and traceability that is often required. The
tank gauging system will allow the immediate data
acquisition and response required for accurate daily
accounting and reconciliation.

The performance of flow meters can be monitored

when transfer data from the meters are compared
with batch reports from the tank gauging system.
Figure 1.8: Up to six guided wave level transmitters can be installed directly
on the floating roof, with rigid probes penetrating through the roof and
into the liquid below. Roof tilt is tracked by comparing the distance from
the floating roof down to the product surface. With one or two extra
transmitters one can also detect if the roof drain gets plugged or if there is
any hydrocarbon on the tank roof.

6
 2 - Tank gauging technologies 2 - Tank gauging technologies

The ullage is the distance from the reference point of 2.2 Float gauges 2.3 Servo gauges
2. Tank gauging the tank down to the liquid surface. The tank level is
then calculated by taking the reference height minus Automatic tank gauges started to appear in the In the 1950’s, development in mechanics and
technologies the measured ullage. Ullage measurements are often 1930’s. One of the early designs of tank gauges was electronics led to the servo gauge. With this gauge
used on heavier liquids like black oils and crude oil. the float gauge. In this design, a large float inside type, the float is replaced by a small displacer. The
In addition to manual hand gauging using a tape the tank is connected to a metallic tape. The tape displacer has buoyancy but does not float on the
measure, various automatic tank gauges have is connected to a spring motor and a mechanical liquid. The displacer needs to be suspended by a thin
developed over time. Most mechanical devices are Ullage (top)
numeric indicator at the lower end of the outside of wire which is connected to the servo gauge on top
in contact with the liquid. Modern electronic tank reference - the tank through a pulley system. No external power of the tank. A weighing system in the servo gauge
Value at reference
gauges are non-contacting and have no moving point noted down is required for a float gauge, the movement of the senses the tension in the wire, signals from the
parts. liquid level powers the whole mechanism. weighing mechanism control an electric motor in the
Y servo unit and make the displacer follow the liquid
Ullage = Y - X
Reference
For remote monitoring the float gauge may be level movements. An electronic transmitter sends the
2.1 Hand gauging X Small part of tape
height equipped with a transmitter. The transmitter sends level information over field buses to the readout in
Level =
Reference height - Ullage
lowered into the tank level values through signal cables to the the control room.
product
Hand gauging can be performed on most (Same as ATG) control room.
atmospheric tanks. A specially designed Level alarm and limit Servo control circuit with
measurement tape is used for this purpose. These are Bottom switch unit integrator Measuring drum
reference
normally made of stainless steel with a weight at the Weighing balance
detector
end of the tape graded in millimeters or fractions of Figure 2.3: Manual ullage measurement definitions.
Servo motor
inches. The tape is used to measure ullage or innage
(liquid level). Direct level measurement (innage) can also be
Magnetic
carried out with a hand tape. This method is used coupling
on clean liquids since the tape will be submerged Balance springs
into the full height of the tank. When gauging clean Step transmitter
products with a tape an indication paste is used to
Measuring cable
make the surface cut visible. Local indicator

Displacer

Figure 2.6: Servo gauge.

Top
reference

To keep the displacer from drifting in the tank, a still

pipe is needed wherever a servo gauge is installed.
A clear, sharp mark This is also required in fixed roof tanks.
from product on tape
is required to get a Reference
high accuracy height
Figure 2.1: Hand dipping tape.
Figure 2.5: The float and tape gauge was introduced around 1940.

Dip tape
Tape bulb touching Bottom The accuracy performance of a float gauge is often
zero reference reference
low. There are plenty of error sources such as
buoyancy differences, dead-band, back-lash and
Figure 2.4 : Manual level measurement definitions. hysteresis in the mechanisms. If anything goes Measuring
wrong with the float, the tape or the guide wires, it wire

For proper and accurate hand gauging, a high quality, is necessary to carry out service work inside the tank. Displacer
newly calibrated tape is required. On heated tanks it No gauging can be done with the float gauge while
Pipe
may be necessary to calculate the thermal expansion waiting for a repair.
of the tape to obtain good measurement accuracy.
The float gauge is a relatively simple device but has
The API standard MPMS Chapter 3.1A describes how many moving parts that will require maintenance and
proper manual tank gauging is performed. repair over its lifetime.

Figure 2.2: Hand gauging with a dipping tape. Figure 2.7: Servo gauge and temperature sensor measuring inside
still-pipes.

8 9
 2 - Tank gauging technologies 2 - Tank gauging technologies

The servo gauge generally performs better than a

float gauge. A newly calibrated servo gauge can meet
custody transfer accuracy requirements. However,
the servo gauge has many moving parts and the
displacer and the wire are in contact with the tank
liquid. Hence servo gauges need attention in the
form of calibration, routine maintenance and repair.

Figure 2.8: Radar level measurement was introduced for marine

applications by Saab in 1976.
Servo gauges used for density and water
measurement In the early 1980’s, radar tank gauges were further
developed to fit shore based storage tanks. Radar
Some servo manufacturers claim that the unit technology rapidly gained market share and is today Figure 2.10: Modern radar level gauge on a fixed roof tank.
may be used for purposes other than level generally the first choice in any tank gauging project.
gauging. The servo can be used to measure Since the 1980’s, many different radar gauges have 2.5 Different types of radar gauges Figure 2.11: Non-contacting radar level transmitter and guided wave radar
level transmitter for process applications.
liquid density and water bottom levels, but in been marketed for tank gauging and other level
both cases the level gauging is inhibited while applications. Today, there is a large supply of radar There are many radar level gauges on the market.
the servo gauge performs a displacer dip into instruments on the market effectively replacing Several are made for process applications where 2.5.2 Tank gauging radar gauges
the product. By measuring the wire tension it is mechanical, ultra sound and capacitance level high accuracy and stability are not the primary
possible to measure the liquid density at various sensors due to their inherent user benefits. requirements. Unit cost and other considerations To meet the high performance requirements
levels in the tank. When water bottom detection related to these applications are more important. of custody transfer accuracy in tank gauging
is carried out, the displacer is lowered until it hits A radar level gauge has no moving parts and requires applications, radar devices typically use the
the free water level at the tank bottom. Both no regular maintenance. Radar devices require no Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave (FMCW)
these actions can create dirt build up on the direct contact with the liquid. This makes it possible 2.5.1 Process radar level gauges signal processing method. The FMCW method
wire, the displacer and the wire drum, creating to use a radar gauge on a wide variety of liquids from sometimes goes under the name “Synthesized
a maintenance problem over time. The most heated heavy asphalt to cryogenic liquefied gases like Process radar devices are made for many different Pulse”.
significant drawback is the lack of level gauging Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG). applications in the process industry. High pressure
during these dipping exercises. It should also be and high temperature combined with strong tank
Frequency, f (GHz)
noted that density measurement with a servo A good radar tank gauge can easily provide reliable agitation are common challenges for process radar
gauge is not recognized by any engineering/ gauging for over thirty years. installations. Under these conditions, high level
gauging standard. accuracy is not the primary focus. Other qualities f0
f
such as high reliability and low maintenance are more f1 d
Today, both float gauges and servo gauges are important. Pulse radar is the dominant technology
f1 f0
being replaced by modern tank gauges based on in most process radar transmitters. Pulse radar
radar technology. provides low cost, low power and reliable gauging t0 f d
under tough conditions. Process radar transmitters
are in general 2-wire units driven by a 4-20 mA loop Figure 2.12: The FMCW method.

bus powered, or battery powered wireless. They are

either of free space propagation type or guided wave. FMCW is capable of delivering an instrument level
2.4 Radar gauges The free space radar transmitters have a horn, a lens gauging accuracy of better than a millimeter over a
or parabolic antenna. The guided wave type has a 50+ meter range.
The first radar tank gauges were developed in the solid or flexible antenna protruding into the tank.
mid 1970’s (radar is also referred to as microwaves). Since its birth in the 1970’s, the FMCW based
The early versions were made for installations on There is a wide spectrum of process radar devices, radar tank gauge has developed rapidly. Several
seagoing tankers. Radar technology quickly gained and manufacturers in the market serve different generations of radar tank gauges have been
popularity and has since then basically been the only market segments such as the chemical industry, oil released. The latest design has been miniaturized
level gauging technology of choice for any large and gas and the food and beverage industry. to the extent that two radar units can share the
tanker ship. Figure 2.9: First high precision radar gauge installed in 1985 on a same small enclosure and deliver reliability and
refinery tank.
Currently, pulse technology based radar transmitters accuracy never seen before. At the same time, power
are less accurate than FMCW based transmitters used requirements have been reduced to the point that
If the radar is designed correctly it requires no for tank gauging applications. radar tank gauges can be made totally intrinsically
recalibration after the first adjustment on the tank. safe and require only a 2 wire bus for power and
communication.

10 11
 2 - Tank gauging technologies 2 - Tank gauging technologies

FMCW is required to make a radar tank gauge This position is ideal due to stability provided by the
accurate, but this is not enough on its own. Precision tank wall and a minimum of roof flexing as a result.
radar gauges must also have specially designed A radar tank gauge must be able to deliver highest
microwave antennas to be able to deliver both the accuracy even when placed close to the tank wall.
instrument accuracy and installed accuracy required Antennas with a narrow microwave beam are most
by custody transfer standards. suitable for such tank locations in close proximity to
the wall. The larger the antenna, the narrower the
One important property of radar antennas is that microwave beam becomes.
they should be designed in such a way that any
condensation will quickly drip off. Therefore,
antennas inside tanks require sloping surfaces to
avoid accumulation of condensate liquids. Figure 2.16: Low loss mode radar measurement can be used to Figure 2.17: Low loss H01 mode visualized.
virtually eliminate measurement degradation in old still-pipes.

Using a still-pipe as a waveguide

Tubular shaped waveguides supporting the so called H01 mode are capable of providing an attenuation
of just a few decibels per kilometer. Such pipe shaped waveguides have been tested to act as
telecommunication channels across nations. The same low loss H01 propagation mode has successfully
been utilized in radar tank gauging applications for many years.

Still-pipes in normal storage tanks are tubular, often in sizes between 5 to 12 in. or 125 to 300 mm in
diameter. These pipes can work as wave guides for radar tank gauging in the 10-11 GHz frequency range.
A waveguide with holes and slots in combination with dirt build-up and weld residue between pipe
Figure 2.13: Antenna design with no horizontal surfaces, sections will generate microwave losses and make the still pipe unsuitable for tank gauging. However,
according to the American Petroleum Institute Standard (API ch.
3.1B, ed. 1) using the low loss mode of the H01 propagation, these slot/hole related problems are virtually eliminated.
It is proven that still-pipes with more than 30 years of crude oil service will work perfectly as a waveguide
Figure 2.15: Radar gauges with wide beam (small antenna) and narrow for accurate radar tank gauging provided that the low loss H01 is used.
beam (large antenna).
There are three main types of applications for radar
tank gauges:
On a floating roof tank, the still-pipe is located where
• Fixed roof tank installation any liquid level gauging takes place since the rest important to select the optimal antenna design
of the liquid surface is covered by the floating roof. and the right microwave frequency. When using
• Floating roof tank installation on a still pipe A radar tank gauge antenna for still-pipes must be still-pipes as waveguides it turns out that frequencies
designed so that existing still-pipes of various sizes in the X-band are optimal. Fixed roof storage tanks
• Installation on tanks with liquefied gases, and designs can be used. The still-pipe must have without still-pipes often have tank apertures in sizes
pressurized or cryogenic slots or holes to allow good liquid mixing between 200 to 600 mm (8 to 24 in.) in diameter. Suitable
the inside and the outside of the pipe. If no holes or antennas for such openings are those that can handle
A radar tank gauge should be able to deliver highest slots are present it is likely that the liquid level inside heavy water condensation and dirt build-up. Under
accuracy when mounted on existing tank openings. the pipe will be different from the rest of the tank. If these conditions horn, cone or parabolic antenna
On a fixed roof tank, the openings suitable for tank the pipe is filled from the bottom, heavier product design has proven to work very well, especially since
gauging are normally found on the roof close to the will then accumulate in the pipe. The slots or holes they can be designed with drip-off surfaces. Such
tank wall. prevent this. antennas at this size range have an excellent track
Figure 2.18: Hand dip access in a still-pipe. record when used in frequency ranges between 9-10
A radar tank gauge for still-pipe applications must GHz (X-band).
have the ability to cope with a still pipe with large
slots/holes and yet deliver high accuracy. It must also 2.6 Radar frequency selection Higher frequencies are used in process radar gauges
perform with the highest accuracy even if the pipe to be able to fit smaller antennas in narrow tank
has rust and dirt build-up on the inside. For tank gauging applications, the reliability of the gauge openings. However small antennas and
gauging and the accuracy performance are the higher frequencies tend to increase sensitivity to
In addition, a still-pipe antenna must be made so primary qualities. To meet the requirements it is condensation and dirt build-up.
that the still-pipe can be accessed for other tasks like
sampling and hand gauging.
Figure 2.14: Fixed roof tank openings.

12 13
 2 - Tank gauging technologies

3
2.7 Pressurized tanks
Special properties are required for a microwave
antenna used for tank gauging in pressurized tanks:

• The antenna arrangement must be able to

withstand the tank pressure.
Engineering standards and
• It should have a shut-off valve for protection and
to meet safety requirements. approvals
• It should have the ability to compensate for high-
density tank atmospheres and any effect this has
on the microwave propagation speed.
Topic Page
• It should be possible to verify the performance of
the gauge during normal tank operations.

There are solutions to meet all these criteria with a 3.1 American Petroleum Institute (API)
good gauge and antenna design. See chapter 7 for standards 17
more about radar gauging on pressurized tanks.
3.1.1 Chapter 3.1A and 3.1B 18
3.1.2 Chapter 3.3: Level measurement in
pressurized tanks 20
3.1.3 Chapter 3.6: Hybrid tank gauging
system 21
3.1.4 Chapter 7: Temperature
determination 22

3.2 ISO standards 22

3.3 OIML 23

3.4 National metrological institutes 24

3.4.1 Nederlands Meetinstituut (NMi) 24

Figure 2.19: Radar gauge sensor including heavy atmosphere compensation 3.4.2 Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
in an LPG tank. (PTB) 25
3.4.3 Technical Research Institute of
Sweden (SP) 25
3.4.4 Other national institutes 25

14
 3 - Engineering standards and approvals 3 - Engineering standards and approvals

they have (to a varying degree) the necessary will be an automatic approval in each new country, reputation like the API or ISO standards, it may be
3. Engineering experience, skills and resources. Therefore, in since the original R 85 test report will often be subject difficult to prove that the status of the equipment
countries where there are legal requirements for to a thorough examination to check that the R 85 is not according to “good engineering practice”. In
standards and tank gauging equipment, there should also be a procedure has been followed as intended. particular, the guidelines in API Manual of Petroleum
department within a metrological organization which Measurement Standards (MPMS) chapter 3.1A and
approvals handles the legal aspects of tank gauging equipment. Since many requirements on level gauges for tank chapter 3.1B are important in this respect, since
Typically it works like this: gauging in OIML R 85 have been harmonized with they include several guidelines which could be said
the requirements defined in both the ISO and API to define “good engineering practice”, see following
standards, it will in most cases mean that a level example:
1. The government is responsible for the law (the gauge that fulfils the testing criteria according to
legal requirements on tank gauging), and they OIML R 85 also fulfils the requirements according to
issue an accreditation to a national test institute ISO and API. It should be noted however, that the Example 3.1: Good engineering practice
through an accreditation body. OIML R 85 only covers the testing of the level gauge
functions. Product temperature measurements or API MPMS chapter 3.1 A recommends how a still-
density measurements are not covered by OIML so pipe in a floating roof tank should be designed,
far, see section 3.3. and especially what minimum hole size is needed
to ensure proper product flow from outside the
2. The test institute must show the accreditation pipe to the inside. It is obvious that holes that
body that they have the skill and expertise to are too small, (or no holes at all) could cause an
perform the testing, and they must also define a overfill since the level gauge mounted on the
test procedure. still-pipe in this case would indicate a level that
is too low, because the level outside the pipe
There are a number of international standards that will be higher. On the other hand, the user does
are relevant for tank gauging. The main purpose not want to have an excessive hole size since
of these standards is to serve as guidelines for this would increase product evaporation which
both users and manufacturers of tank gauging 3. After approval from the accreditation body, could conflict with environmental regulations.
equipment. The members of the working groups the test institute is granted the right to perform By complying with the recommendation in
behind the development of these documents are in testing and can then issue a test report. If the API MPMS chapter 3.1A, the owner would be
most cases experienced users from the petroleum test report conforms to the legal custody transfer following recommendations issued by the most
industry or manufacturers with considerable requirements, an approval can be issued. knowledgeable people in the petroleum industry.
tank gauging knowledge. It is important that the
working groups have a good balance between users
and manufacturers, to avoid standards becoming Fortunately, the different national institutes in
biased in any direction. The present trend is to avoid the world that perform testing are cooperating 3.1 American Petroleum Institute
technology specific standards as much as possible, within an organization named OIML (International (API) standards
and specify the requirements on equipment for a Organization of Legal Metrology). In this organization Figure 3.1: Still-pipe in an open floating roof crude oil tank.
certain application. This leaves the door open for any a number of test procedures are defined, and there The API standards are well known by most people in
technology to conform, if it can be proved that it is a special procedure defined for tank gauging Another aspect of the standards should also be the petroleum industry. One important characteristic
fulfils the requirements. equipment called R 85 (Recommendation 85). noted. If an accident such as an overfill of a tank of the API standards is that they provide very useful
(or in the worst case a fire with casualties) occurs experience based facts about daily tank gauging
To prove compliance to a standard is however not Since most countries that have defined requirements at a petroleum plant, it will probably result in a problems and how to solve them. They also
always easy, since there must be an independent for legal custody transfer are members of OIML, lawsuit and/or criminal prosecution. In such legal summarize know-how from practical investigations
authority/body available that has the knowledge the test procedure for having national approval proceedings the status of the whole installation of which have been performed by research departments
and resources to test a tank gauging system. ISO is basically the same in each OIML country, and the level gauge system is likely to be scrutinized. at major oil companies. Specifically for tank gauging
(International Organization for Standardization) and complies with R 85. There may be some minor One question then becomes very important: “Is the there are some important API standards in MPMS
API (American Petroleum Institute) are responsible differences in the requirements from one country to level gauge system installed and operable to best such as:
for the most important standards within tank another, but in principle a country that is a member engineering practice?”
gauging, but do not have their own test organization of OIML should not adopt any other requirements • Chapter 3.1A Standard Practice for the Manual
and are not organized as typical test institutes. than those prescribed by R 85. If not, and the level gauge system or installation is in Gauging of Petroleum and Petroleum Products
a bad condition, it is probable that the owner of the
Instead it is the national metrological authorities in a A tank gauging system that has been tested by plant could receive serious fines, have to pay huge • Chapter 3.1B Standard Practice for Level
country who should have this expertise. Depending an accredited OIML R 85 institute in one country, damages, or even face imprisonment. If the owner, Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons in
on how custody transfer based on tank gauging will therefore not need to repeat the same test in on the other hand, can show that the equipment Stationary Tanks by Automatic Tank Gauging
equipment has been implemented in their country, another. However, it cannot be assumed that there or installation conforms to a standard with good

16 17
 3 - Engineering standards and approvals 3 - Engineering standards and approvals

Tank with still-pipe: Tank with fixed roof, no still-pipe:

The American Petroleum Institute (API) was established in New York
City 1919, following a momentum build towards forming a national • If the tank has a still-pipe it is important that it is • To avoid movements between the level gauge
association to represent the oil and gas industry in the postwar attached to the tank bottom correctly and that it reference point and the gauge hatch, the level

API
years. is guided only at the top, see figure 3.2. gauge should be installed close to the gauge
hatch.
Today, API is based in Washington D. C. and it is the largest U.S
trade association for the oil and natural gas industry. It represents Level Gauge • When the level gauge is installed on a manway on
approximately 650 petroleum industry corporations involved in the roof, flexing of the roof where the level gauge
production, refinement and distribution among other areas. ANSI Flange 150 lbs is located should be minimized. Best practice is
Stilling Well to install the level gauge “fairly” close to the tank
Sliding Guide
The main function of the API is speaking for the oil and natural 3 in. Protection Pipe wall where the roof is most stable. (The meaning
(Temp)
gas industry in order to influence public policy in support of the 8 in. Stilling Well of “fairly” depends on the level gauge type, see
industry. Its functions include advocacy, negotiation, lobbying, relevant level gauge installation information.)
Pontoon
research, education and certification of industry standards.
Typical 18 to 30 in.
(to centerline of stilling well)
Some of the reference height variations can also
be compensated for in a modern level gauge. The
criteria for using this option is that the variation is
predictable. Bulging of the tank wall is one example,
• Chapter 3.3 Standard Practice for Level is surprising how often a discrepancy between a value 2 in. Nozzle Pressure Tx since it is related only to the static pressure on the
Datum Plate
Measurement of Liquid Hydrocarbons in taken by hand dip and a value from an automatic tank wall and therefore predictable. If the reference
Stationary Pressurized Storage Tanks by level gauge is caused by an inaccurate hand dip. height is measured at a number of different product
Automatic Tank Gauging The reason may be that poor equipment such as Figure 3.2: Still-pipe attached to the tank bottom. levels, it is possible to program the change into the
inaccurate/non-calibrated hand dip tapes were used, level gauge and compensate the level value for the
• Chapter 3.6 Measurement of Liquid temperature corrections of the tape were not made, • When attached to the wall, the bulging effect of reference height variation. Another predictable
Hydrocarbons by Hybrid Tank Measurement the hand dip was carried out on a moving/turbulent the tank wall due to heavy static pressure from variation is the thermal influence on the tank wall or
Systems surface, or the person performing the hand dip was the liquid should not cause the still-pipe to move still-pipe. By using the temperature information from
careless etc. vertically. A hinge design as in figure 3.3 should a multi-spot temperature sensor, the level gauge
• Chapter 7 Temperature Determination prevent this. can compensate for the expansion/contraction
Another common reason for hand dipping caused by temperature changes. For a fixed roof
• Chapter 7.3 Temperature Determination – Fixed discrepancy is the mechanical properties and tank, this compensation calculation depends on both
Automatic Tank Temperature Systems instability of the tank. The influence of mechanical Level Gauge the ambient temperature and liquid temperature.
instability can be explained as follows: The level Chapter 3.1A describes how this should be taken into
ANSI Flange 150 lbs
• API 2350 Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in gauge measures the distance from its reference point account.
Petroleum Facilities down to the liquid surface, and calculates the level by Stilling Well Sliding Guide

subtracting the measured distance (ullage) from the

These standards are briefly described below. reference height (the distance from the gauge hatch 8 in. Stilling Well
reference down to the datum plate, see chapter 2
figure 2.1). Pontoon

3.1.1 Chapter 3.1A and 3.1B Typical 18 to 30 in.

(to centerline of stilling well)
The person who performs the hand dip measures
The API MPMS chapter 3.1A is related to how to the distance from the datum plate up to the mark
perform manual measurements according to best the product makes on the tape, i.e. if the reference
engineering practice. Since the manual measurement height varies due to mechanical or thermal stress
on the tank is the reference for automatic there will be a discrepancy. How much the reference Datum Plate
measurement with level gauges, it is of utmost height varies depends on the actual tank type and the
importance that manual gauging is performed design of the tank. In API MPMS chapter 3.1A (and Figure 3.3: Still-pipe attached to the tank wall.

correctly. Chapter 3.1A includes detailed information also in chapter 3.1B) there is valuable information on
on how a manual measurement should be performed how to design tanks with a minimum variation of the • The datum plate (the hand dip reference plate)
and also how it should not be performed. This reference height. Some important basic guidelines should be attached to the still-pipe and not
procedure may seem very simple at first glance, but it can be mentioned: installed on the bottom of the tank unless the
still-pipe stands directly on the tank bottom. Figure 3.4: Manways are normally located near the tank wall which
provides mechanical stability.

18 19
 3 - Engineering standards and approvals 3 - Engineering standards and approvals

Chapter 3.1A lacks a more exact description In API MPMS chapter 3.1B, the focus is on Both the described reference methods may be 3.1.3 Chapter 3.6: Hybrid tank gauging system
regarding how to handle the hand dip tape and how automatic tank gauging equipment. The chapter questionable from a theoretical metrological point of
to make tape corrections. Some users measure ullage does not specify any particular preference for any view, since the traceability to a national standard is The name “hybrid tank gauging system” comes from
(the distance from a reference in the dip hatch to technology, but it is very clear that there are very not entirely straightforward. However, there are no the fact that it is a combination of a traditional tank
the liquid surface) instead of level. This is common few technologies that can meet the custody transfer better verification methods for this application, and gauging system and a Hydrostatic Tank Gauging
for heavy products in order to avoid the whole tape requirements of 1 mm (0.04 in.) accuracy under the metrological authorities have in general accepted (HTG) system. There are two main use cases for a
being coated with product. Hand dipping a full laboratory conditions over the whole temperature the limitations of the reference methods. hybrid system where the user is interested in either
bitumen tank in cold winter weather by lowering the range. mass or density (or both).
tape all the way down to the bottom will make the
tape unusable for the future. Chapter 3.1B also specifies a very relaxed accuracy Most hybrid system users in the petroleum industry
requirement when the level gauge system is used are interested in measuring density online since the
When making a hand dip in heated tanks it is very for inventory purposes only. The requirement is calculation of transferred volume (Standard Volume)
important to make a temperature correction of the defined as low as 25 mm (1 in.). It is unlikely that a requires measurement of level, temperature and
tape. An example: user would purchase a level gauge system with such density. The hybrid system makes it possible to avoid
a low performance, so it is probable that this figure manual density measurement on tanks, which is a
• A hand dip tape typically has a thermal expansion is set to allow old systems to fall in the category of labor intensive task and is often related to serious
coefficient of 12 ppm / °C, and is calibrated at “best engineering practice” in a legal dispute, and measurement errors if not done properly. To be
20°C. they would therefore not be in immediate need for able to calculate density, a hybrid system therefore
exchange to more modern equipment. has one pressure sensor if the tank has atmospheric
• In a bitumen tank with temperature 220 °C and pressure, and two pressure sensors if the tank is not
at 20 m distance the tape will be: (220-20) x 12 x The level gauge system is generally not only used for freely ventilated.
10-6 x 20000 = 48 mm longer. operations, custody transfer and inventory purposes,
but also for mass balance, loss control and in some
• The tape will consequently show an error of 48 cases leak alarm purposes. Chapter 3.1B does not
mm at 20 m distance. address the requirements of these latter purposes Level Multi Point
Temp. and
at all, however in modern tank gauging it could be Water Level
It is clear that in the case above temperature noted that many users have similar requirements
correction is necessary. This is also the case in heated for these as for custody transfer purposes. The Pressure
tanks with lower temperatures like fuel oil etc. requirements do however become more complicated
where temperature correction is necessary to get a since the requirements for mass balance and loss Figure 3.5: Level measurement in pressurized tanks cannot be done by hand
gauging, leading to technology specific recommendations for servo based
reference accuracy in the range of a few millimeters. control are based on mass precision, and level and radar based level gauging.
accuracy is in these cases only one parameter in the
Another method of hand dipping used by some is to equation. Field
attach a metal bar at the hand dip tape and position Since LPG usually has a lower economic value Display
the tape by placing the bar on top of the hand dip compared to refined oil products, user requirements
hatch and only dip the lowest end of the tape into 3.1.2 Chapter 3.3: Level measurement in are generally not that strict. Often the accuracy
the liquid. After subtracting the liquid cut on the pressurized tanks achieved by mass flow measurements is regarded
tape from the value on the tape to which the bar was as sufficient. Transactions of LPG based products
attached, it is possible to get a very exact reading. The standards in Chapter 3.3 deal with level based on legal custody transfer are therefore not very Pressure
This is an ullage measuring method, and reference measurement in pressurized tanks. It describes the common.
height changes will not influence the reading except special safety precautions required for pressurized
for any variation in the level gauge reference position LPG tanks and how an installation according to best Much of chapter 3.3 instead focuses on performance
compared to the position of the gauge hatch. practice may be achieved. requirements to obtain a safe and reliable
measurement in LPG tanks, and the accuracy figures
API MPMS chapter 3.1A and also 3.1B strongly A special circumstance with a pressurized tank is that mentioned are very much based on the metrological
recommends that the user measures the reference the normal reference measurement with a manual uncertainty in the reference measurement, where Tank Hub
height at the same time as the liquid level hand dip hand dip cannot be used. Instead the standard hand dip not is an alternative. Despite this, chapter
is made. This is a very straightforward method, and describes some indirect reference methods; one for 3.3 provides valuable information on best practices
it will immediately tell the user if any discrepancy servo based, and one for radar based level gauges. for installing and putting a level gauge system for LPG
is related to the level gauge or to the mechanical This means that in this case, the rule of avoiding in operation.
instability of the tank. technology specific solutions has not been followed.
Software

Figure 3.6: Hybrid tank gauging is a combination of a traditional tank

gauging system and an HTG system.

20 21
 3 - Engineering standards and approvals 3 - Engineering standards and approvals

In a traditional Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG) accuracy that is the most critical measurement • ISO 4266-4:2002 Petroleum and liquid The requirements of the level gauge when used for
system there is one additional pressure sensor and no in order to get a high accuracy of the quantity petroleum products -- Measurement of level legal custody transfer are quite high, and today there
level gauge system. The product density in the HTG assessment. The importance of temperature and temperature in storage tanks by automatic are very few products that can live up to them. The
system is calculated from the density between the P1 measurement accuracy is described more in methods -- Part 4: Measurement of temperature reason for the high demands is that a level gauge in
and P2 sensors only. The density in this range is not chapter 6. in atmospheric tanks legal use acts as a third party between a buyer and
representative of the density of the whole tank and a seller of large volumes of bulk liquids with high
the value is therefore normally not usable for custody • ISO 4266-5:2002 Petroleum and liquid economic value. The measurement device is neutral
transfer. 3.2 ISO standards petroleum products -- Measurement of level in this transaction, and there are many corresponding
and temperature in storage tanks by automatic transactions in our daily life which are similar. Some
With a hybrid system, the density is calculated by The International Organization for Standardization methods -- Part 5: Measurement of temperature examples which we take for granted are the result
using the liquid column height above the P1 sensor (ISO) has also developed a number of standards in marine vessels from a weighing machine or a gasoline pump, where
given by the level gauge. In this case a much more for tank gauging. In the past these standards could we don’t question the result if we know that it is
accurate density value is received, representing the be quite different compared to API standards, but • ISO 4266-6:2002 Petroleum and liquid approved by a metrological office.
overall density of the product. during the last 15 years, considerable harmonization petroleum products -- Measurement of level
between API and ISO has taken place. and temperature in storage tanks by automatic Also, the result from the level gauge can often be
Since most petroleum products are by tradition methods -- Part 6: Measurement of temperature used for determination of import tax where the
traded based on standard volume and not mass, This has resulted in standards which have very in pressurized storage tanks (non-refrigerated) government has an interest in the measurement
the use of a hybrid system (or HTG system) for mass similar content. As a consequence it was decided having highest possible precision.
measurement is of very limited use worldwide. There to have more direct cooperation between API and • ISO 15169:2003 Petroleum and liquid petroleum
are however some exceptions, for example China, ISO, which would reduce the costs for the standards products -- Determination of volume, density The accuracy requirements in OIML R 85 for having
which has for many years used mass based custody development. and mass of the hydrocarbon content of vertical pattern approval is: Maximum Permissible Error
transfer. Some installations, mainly for storage of cylindrical tanks by hybrid tank measurement (MPE) which may not be larger than ±1 mm (0.04
special chemical petroleum products are another Today ISO issues no new standards in the tank systems in.) over the intended operating range. In addition
exception, but they are in general rare. gauging area. Instead ISO takes an active part in the this requirement must be fulfilled over the intended
API work of standard revisions and development of temperature range which may be the most severe
Chapter 3.6 is unique in that it not only gives new ones. There are however some API standards 3.3 OIML requirement, since it puts high requirements on
information on best practice for installation of a not yet ready (one example is the remaining sub the temperature stability of both mechanical
hybrid system, but it also shows what accuracies can chapters under API chapter 7) and therefore some The most important document from OIML which components and electronics. The installed accuracy
be expected on density and mass. All calculations in a ISO standards are still relevant. concerns level gauges is the R 85 recommendation. requirement is: MPE may not be larger than ±4 mm
hybrid system and the expected performance will be This document specifies the requirements of a level (0.16 in.), and this figure includes not only errors
discussed in chapter 8. The ISO standards are not discussed in detail in this gauge that should be used for legal custody transfer, from the level gauge but also all errors from tank
guide, but the list below shows the relevant ISO how it should be tested for a pattern approval, and mechanics, thermal stress of the tank etc.
standards for tank gauging purposes: what procedures should be followed to put the level
3.1.4 Chapter 7: Temperature Determination gauge in operation on a tank. In addition it describes
• ISO 4266-1:2002 Petroleum and liquid a suitable procedure for verifying that the level gauge
API MPMS chapter 7 is now being revised and one petroleum products -- Measurement of level is in proper condition.
important new approach is to divide the different and temperature in storage tanks by automatic
use cases into four subchapters. The previous edition methods -- Part 1: Measurement of level in
of chapter 7 included many different temperature atmospheric tanks The International Organization of Legal Metrology (OIML) is an
measuring cases in the same section which was intergovernmental organization founded in 1955 and based
somewhat confusing, so the new approach is an • ISO 4266-2:2002 Petroleum and liquid in Paris. It promotes global harmonization of legal metrology
improvement. petroleum products -- Measurement of level procedures that are the base of and facilitate international
and temperature in storage tanks by automatic trade. Harmonizing legal metrology ensures that certification

OIML
Only part 7.3 is finalized today. It describes methods -- Part 2: Measurement of level in of measuring devices in one country is compatible with
temperature measurements in tanks for inventory marine vessels certification in another.
and custody transfer purposes. Section 7.3 gives a lot
of important guidance on how a proper installation • ISO 4266-3:2002 Petroleum and liquid OIML has developed guidelines to assist its members in
should be made, how many sensors are required for petroleum products -- Measurement of level creating appropriate legislation and guidelines on certification
custody transfer use, and what accuracy on individual and temperature in storage tanks by automatic concerning metrology. They work closely with other
temperature elements, electronic conversion units, methods -- Part 3: Measurement of level in international organizations to ensure compatibility between
etc. is required. pressurized storage tanks (non-refrigerated) certifications. OIML does not have the authority to impose
solutions on its members, but its recommendations are often
Since the accuracy of a modern level gauge today used as part of domestic laws.
is very high, it is in many cases the temperature

22 23
 3 - Engineering standards and approvals 3 - Engineering standards and approvals

The procedure when testing a level gauge against 1. Use the test report made by a test institute 3.4.2 Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt
R 85 also includes a number of influence factor that is approved for OIML R85 testing. This (PTB)
tests, like EMC, short power interrupts, stability report should state that requirements in R 85 are
in communication links, provisions to allow fulfilled. Germany also has a long history of using level gauge
metrological sealing etc. Consequently, a level gauge systems under legal metrological control, and the
that that passes a pattern approval test according approval of equipment has been made by PTB. Some
to R 85 will have shown that it has potential to work time ago Germany had their own requirement for
with high precision on a tank. However it is not level gauge systems, but have now adopted R 85
sufficient to just pass the pattern approval tests, since as their national requirement. Germany has also
the level gauge also needs to conform to the installed for many years had national requirements on the
2. Send the test report to the national test
accuracy requirements, i.e. the whole mechanical temperature measuring system in a tank gauging
institute in the country subject to an approval.
arrangement on the tank must be in good condition. system. Surprisingly, they are alone on this despite
The latter is normally the responsibility of the the fact that temperature is a very important
owner of the tank, but in practice the level gauge parameter in the assessment of a transferred
manufacturer is often involved by giving guidance quantity. See chapter 6 and example 6.1 for the
and recommendations to the tank owner. influence of temperature on volume and mass
assessment.
So far OIML has not issued any recommendation 3. The test institute in the country subject to
on how to measure temperature or density for approval, may have comments or questions, and
legal tank gauging purposes. Corresponding ISO it may be necessary to design a special approval 3.4.3 Technical Research Institute of Sweden
and API standards are therefore at present the plate with the native language etc. (SP)
most important documents in this area. Also the
requirements on total volume accuracy is not defined SP has also been accredited for the testing of level
in any OIML recommendation, even though working gauge systems according to OIML R 85. They
group activity has been discussed. have a very good reputation for testing advanced
radar based level gauge systems, and they use
4. When the above is performed, an approval can very advanced equipment for testing this type
3.4 National metrological institutes be issued. of technology. The total uncertainty in the test
equipment they use is less than 0.17 mm (0.0067 in.)
As mentioned earlier, neither ISO nor API are This procedure assumes that the actual country has over a 30 m (98 ft) measuring range.
organized as test laboratories, and therefore they accepted OIML R 85 as the base for their national
do not have the capability to test a tank gauging requirements. Not all countries have yet become
system against the requirements in a standard. Since members of OIML, but it is very rare that they will not 3.4.4 Other national institutes
the test procedure is not described in detail in most accept OIML R 85, or have requirements that are not
standards, it will be up to the test institute, who is in line with R 85. Bundesamt für Eich- und Vermessungswesen (BEV) in
often the expert in this area, to define the procedure. Austria chaired the secretariat for R 85 for a number
OIML has for their guidance developed a detailed Some OIML member countries have been approved of years in the past, and have also carried out some
test procedure for OIML R 85, and it is expected that for making tests of level gauges according to the R 85 testing against OIML R 85 requirements.
this procedure will be followed by all institutes. This recommendation. Some of the most important are
is a big improvement compared to how it was some mentioned below (in alphabetical order): National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
20 years ago, when each country had their own test in the USA has recently taken over the secretariat
procedure, which made tested equipment more for R 85. Custody transfer under legal metrological
expensive in each country, and also reduced the 3.4.1 Nederlands Meetinstituut (NMi) control is not well known in the USA currently,
number of available models of level gauges. however with the presence of API and many major oil
NMi has a long experience in testing level gauge companies there is a lot of know-how in the country.
The procedure to get an approval in a country is systems used for custody transfer, especially servo The fact that the institutes mentioned above are
much easier today: based level gauges. They chaired the secretariat for R experts on metrological issues and often have limited
85 for many years, and there is a long history of using knowledge of the practical life for a tank gauging
metrological sealed level gauges in the Netherlands. system, has sometimes raised criticism against
documents like R 85. With NIST as chairman (and
maybe with API involved) this could probably be
overcome.

24 25
3 - Engineering standards and approvals

4 Volume and mass

assessment

Topic

4.1

Volume assessment

4.1.1
4.1.2
4.1.3
4.1.4
Total Observed Volume (TOV)
Gross Observed Volume (GOV)
Gross Standard Volume (GSV)
Net Standard Volume (NSV)
Page

28

28
29
29
31

4.2 Mass assessment 31

4.3 Quantity assessment of liquefied

petroleum gases 31

26
 4 - Volume and mass assessment 4 - Volume and mass assessment

4.1.1 Total Observed Volume (TOV)

4. Volume and
The measurement value from the level gauge is
mass assessment a value that is calculated within the level gauge.
When calculating the value, corrections both for
Measurement data from a tank gauging system plays reference height changes due to static mechanical
an important role for the operation of both refineries stress and temperature expansion/contraction
and terminals in the petroleum industry. Depending may have been applied. This corrected level value
on the type of operation, various calculations is entered in what is referred to as a Tank Capacity
are performed which to a high degree have been Table (TCT), also called a Strapping Table. The TCT
standardized within the industry. converts the level value to a volume value normally
called Total Observed Volume (TOV). Since the TCT
is only valid for certain temperatures, a correction
4.1 Volume assessment also needs to be applied to allow for tank wall
expansion/contraction due to the influence of Figure 4.2: Example of a Tank Capacity Table.
Calculation of volumes is central, and this procedure product temperature and ambient temperature. API
is described in figure 4.1 below. For a more detailed has stated that the tank wall temperature for non- change the values in the TCT. It is unusual to see this used in North America and often also for crude oil in
view, see figure 4.4. insulated tanks should be calculated as: correction today, but in case it is required, a modern the Middle East. The conversion of Observed Volume
tank gauging system should have this possibility. into a temperature Standardized Volume is carried
out using the API tables, where a conversion factor is
7 1 Another correction that should be made applies to defined.
Level Ttankwall = Tproduct + T floating roof tanks with still-pipes. In a floating roof
8 8 ambient tank, the roof will occupy a certain volume of the Since hydrocarbon liquids in the petroleum industry
product and it should therefore be subtracted from may consist of many hundreds of different individual
the value given by the TCT. This correction depends liquid components, it will be difficult or unpractical to
Measuring the ambient temperature on a tank on the weight of the roof and the observed density of determine the volumetric expansion of a product like
Tank Capacity
Table may however require an expensive ambient the product, where the observed density is the actual crude or gasoline based on the individual volumetric
meteorological station on each tank, so in many density of the product at the temperature when the expansion of the incorporated liquid components.
cases this figure is manually entered as a fixed value, correction is made. Instead a simplified approach has become an
since it does not affect the final result very much. accepted standard. It is based on the fact that there
The temperature effect from the liquid can however is a correlation between volumetric expansion and
Total Observed be quite large on the TCT, especially on heated 4.1.2 Gross Observed Volume (GOV) density. Instead of complex investigations of all
Volume
products, or tanks which have ambient temperatures individual hydrocarbon components in a product,
which differ considerably from the calibration The next calculation step is Gross Observed Volume, only the density of the product is considered and
temperature of the TCT. which includes subtraction of any Free Water Volume from that an estimation of the volumetric expansion
(FWV) from the bottom of the tank. The free water due to temperature is made. This method is not
Gross Observed The correction for a TCT due to temperature on a level is either measured manually by hand dipping 100 percent accurate, but as long as all parties in
Volume cylindrical carbon steel tank is: or automatically with a Free Water Level (FWL) the petroleum business use the same method and
measurement probe connected to the level gauge base the price on a product on this estimation, it
system. The value from this probe or the manually could be argued that the precision of this estimate is
Volume entered free water level value is entered into the TCT, acceptable.
Correction VolumeTCTcorrected = VolumeTCT x (1 + ∆T and the FWV value is subtracted from the TOV.
Factor (VCF)
This is the essence of the API tables, which were
x 0.000022) first issued in 1952. In the first issue there was no
4.1.3 Gross Standard Volume (GSV) differentiation between any petroleum products;
Gross Standard
Volume
crude was handled in the same way as gasoline,
where ∆T = TTCT calibration temp - Ttankwall All hydrocarbon liquids change their physical volume kerosene or fuel oil. In 1980, a new revision was
in relation to their temperature. When stating a released which made a differentiation between crude
Sediment &
Water volume value, this would be of no value without and refined products, where the refined products
stating at what temperature the figure applies to. were also divided into four different subgroups
Some TCTs also state that a correction due to density In the petroleum industry, this temperature value depending on their density range. The 1952 tables
Net Standard should be applied, i.e. this means that the TCT is only is usually standardized to 15°C or 60°F, where the were based on printed tables, and the underlying
Volume
valid for a certain product density, and a different Celsius value is commonly used in Europe, Asia, algorithms were not presented. There were even
Figure 4.1: Volume calculation flowchart. density will, due to more or less mechanical stress, Australia and South America. The Fahrenheit scale is some printing errors in these first tables and some

28 29
 4 - Volume and mass assessment 4 - Volume and mass assessment

values were adjusted by hand before printing. These expansion coefficient. The density value used in The output from the API tables as above is a value since the chemical process changes the physical
tables would be quite difficult to implement in a the API tables must be the density at the same called Volume Correction Factor (VCF). composition of the crude oil. In theory one could
computer today. temperature as the reference temperature for the actually get more volume out from a refinery than
actual table, e.g. the density value for table 54 should The Gross Standard Value (GSV) is then given by: was put in.
The 1980 table presented an algorithm which was be the density at 15°C. In practice this is achieved
possible to implement effectively in a computer, by taking manual samples of the product on tank, It is different with mass, where the output would
but the table had limitations in resolution. This these samples are then measured in a laboratory GSV = GOV x VCF be the same as the input if no losses occur and no
limitation was mainly a consequence of the fact that either with a glass hydrometer or an electronic addition of weight is made in the process. Therefore
the intention with the printed table was for the user density meter. The measurement also includes loss control is based on mass, not volume.
to have a look-up table and enter values rounded measurement of product temperature, and the It should be noted that the C tables above may
off to the resolution in the table. The tables could corresponding density value is called “observed be used for special products where the thermal The term “mass” also needs an explanation, since
be entered into a computer, as long as the software density” (i.e. the density at the actual temperature expansion coefficient is known. This is mainly the by definition it is the Weight in Vacuum (WiV). In
rounded the input values to the same resolution as in during measurement). To be able to use this value case where only one or a few single hydrocarbon practice this unit is rarely used; the term Weight
the printed table. in the API table, it should be converted to reference components are present. There is also some use of in Air (WiA) is more common. WiA is calculated by
density (using the same temperature that the table API tables, mainly in some South American countries, subtracting the weight of 1 cubic meter of air from
With the introduction of computers which simplified refers to). This is made with another API table which which are based on specific gravity (specific weight) WiV. The weight of 1 cubic meter of air is typically
all these calculations, and new measurement is linked to the volume table, i.e. if table 54A is used and temperature corrected to 20 °C. 1.22 kg, which value is used in the calculation. This
technologies which had a precision above the then there is an API table called 53A which should value should be programmable for the operator since
resolution in the printed 1980 tables, the request be used to convert observed density to reference it may vary slightly from country to country.
came up to have “tables” that were based on density. The same applies to table 6A, B and C, where 4.1.4 Net Standard Volume (NSV)
algorithms only and where no rounding of measured there are corresponding API tables called 5A, B and C
values were made. These tables were published which give the gravity value for number 6 tables. In The Net Standard Volume (NSV) is the same as 4.3 Quantity assessment of liquefied
in 2004, and are often referred to as “the year modern tank gauging systems all these calculations GSV unless there is a measurable content of base petroleum gases
2K tables”. They use the same algorithms which are normally available, i.e. the user only needs to sediment and suspended water (BS&W) in the
were the base for the printed 1980 tables but do enter the observed density and related product product. This is mostly common in crude oil and As mentioned in chapter 3, LPG transfers are
not require the rounding of the input values. With temperature of the sample, and the tank gauging measured at laboratories in percent. Therefore, the generally based on mass using mass flow meters.
improved measuring devices, they will therefore give system will then calculate the value for reference NSV is given by: Quantity assessment in volumetric terms is not
different results compared to the 1980 tables, and density that should be used for the VCF calculation. uncommon however, particularly for inventory
with better precision. purposes, and in rare cases also for transfer. The
Since engineering units vary globally, the tables are NSV = GSV - BS&W x GSV calculation of LPG volume is however problematic,
Today all the tables described above are still in use, also divided into tables using Celsius temperature as the calculation of VCF via the API tables is not
and for different reasons. Some users have the 1952 and density, Fahrenheit temperature and API gravity, supported. The reason for this is that the density
tables as their standard since it appears that oil or Celsius temperature and specific gravity (specific 4.2 Mass assessment range for LPG products is below what modern API
exporting countries get some benefit from these weight). Therefore the tables are referred to as: tables are defined for. This is true for tables from
tables. Many use the 1980 tables, often because they Standardized volumes are vital for a number of 1980 and onwards, but the very old API tables from
have not yet made any investment in new software • Table 6A, crude oil: Conversion using 60 °F and operations in the petroleum and terminal industry 1952 have a density range which could allow them to
to be able to use the new 2004 tables. Buyers of new API gravity such as custody transfer, inventory management be used for LPG products. The input from users has
tank gauging systems often request the new 2004 etc. Sales of petroleum are in most cases based on shown that it is a quite common practice to use the
tables. A supplier of tank gauging equipment must • Table 6B, refined products: Conversion using 60 NSV, but there are a few exceptions where the mass old 1952 tables despite the fact that they are only
therefore be prepared to have both the new and all °F and API gravity value is used in transactions. China is one example available as printed tables (no defined data algorithm
the old API tables implemented in the tank gauging that has practiced mass based custody transfer over a is available), and they also have some printing errors
calculation software, even though the old 1952 • Table 6C, special products: Conversion using 60 number of years. Also, when selling refined products in the tables. This is of course not an ideal situation,
tables may be somewhat awkward to implement. °F and thermal expansion coefficient over a weighing bridge it would be natural to sell but since no other API tables are available this is
the quantity in mass terms. LPG is another example currently the only option.
To change from one revision to another is more where sales are often based on mass, using mass flow
complicated than it seems. On a refinery it might meters for the measurement. There are also some special calculations for LPG
mean that there will be a substantial change to the • Table 54A, crude oil: Conversion using 15 °C and products since tanks containing liquefied gases
inventory value of products, which could be difficult density (at 15 °C in vacuum) However, loss control is normally the most common may have a substantial amount of product in the
to handle from an accounting point of view. Also all use case for mass measurement. If we imagine a gas phase. To calculate the total product volume,
transfer contracts and pricing to external customers • Table 54B, refined products: Conversion using 15 refinery which wants to estimate the efficiency or the tank gauging system must be able to accurately
may have to be adjusted to the new revision. °C and density (at 15 °C in vacuum) the losses that occur in the process, volume is not assess product volume and mass in both liquid
an option to use. The reason is that if they measure and gas phases. This involves the calculation of
The input values for the API tables are average • Table 54C, special products: Conversion using 15 the product input in volume terms then they cannot Vapor Liquid Volume Ratio (VLVR) which requires
product temperature and density or thermal °C and thermal expansion coefficient compare that to the output volume from the plant, measurement of the vapor pressure in the tank.

30 31
 4 - Volume and mass assessment

5
For this reason, an LPG level gauge should have a
pressure sensor attached (often integrated) for the
VLVR measurement.

The VLVR calculation method was published in

a preliminary ISO standard which did not receive
the status as a final standard. However since the
calculation is based on general physics, the method Accuracies and uncertainties
has received acceptance in the industry as the
standard method for calculation of VLVR.

An inventory control system as described above can

automatically carry out the total volume assessment Topic Page
based on the tank liquid level, the volume tables, the Figure 4.3: A pressurized tank with product in both liquid phase and gas
phase.
product properties and pressure measurement.

5.1 Uncertainties in tank gauging systems 35

Level
5.2 ATG system vs. flow meter system 37
TCT

Sump Volume 5.3 Process level gauges vs. tank gauging

Automatic density level gauges 38
TOV measurement
Air Density
FWV TCT FWL 5.3.1 System architecture 38
Vapor Density
TEC Tank Press Vapor 5.3.2 Accuracy statement 38
Avg Temp Press Liq 5.3.3 Lifetime expectations 39
Ambient Air Temp Press Sensor Levels
5.3.4 Installation 39
CTSh Base Temp Min Level
Level 5.3.5 Installation on still-pipes 40
Base Density
Local Grav
Ref. Density
Air Density
FRA Roof Weight
Obs Dens
GOV Ref Dens Avg Temp
Ref API Grav
VCF
TEC Liq RT54 tables
GSV Avg Temp Ref Temp

Max Volume
AVRM TOV
Press Vapor
Temp Vapor
Liq Equ VLVR

Vap Mass Mol Mass LPG / LNG tanks only

S+W

NSV

Ref Dens

WIA / WIV

Figure 4.4: Detailed volume calculation flowchart.

32
 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties

without knowing anything about the tanks or A level gauge which normally has an excellent Manufacturers who test every level gauge individually
5. Accuracies and operation of the tanks should be looked upon with performance but performs poorly when an operator before delivery can claim that the accuracy figure
some suspicion by the user. starts using their walkie-talkie, or during a very warm is the maximum deviation that the unit will show
uncertainties summer day, is not what a user wants. One easy way during final testing. The figure is then an approval
for a customer to ensure the tank gauging system criteria in the production. OIML R 85, 2008 states
(mm)
The term “accuracy” is used in most level gauge is suitable for the intended operation, is to check requirements for use in legal custody transfer as:
manufacturers’ sales documents. The definition 4 if it has been OIML R 85 approved. The customer Maximum Permissible Error (MPE) shall be ± 1 mm
Old (R85:1998)
of accuracy is however somewhat unclear, unless should also check that it is approved according to (0.04 in.). If every delivered unit is tested to be within
3
the manufacturer has actually specified it. It should the latest revision of R 85, which is currently from this criteria, then the accuracy figure consequently
also be noted that in more precise documents like 2 2008. A serious supplier should also be prepared to means all units are within the stated figure.
the OIML R 85 this word is not used or defined. New (R85:2008) give the customer a copy of the R 85 test report if the
1
Customers may ask themselves: does the accuracy customer wants to check the results from the tests. Also important is the uncertainty in the reference
(m)
figure also apply when the level gauge is installed 0 The OIML R 85, 2008 is probably the best guarantee a measurement system when establishing the accuracy
on a tank? Does it consider all types of parameters 5 10 15 20 25 30 user can get with regards to these questions, except figure. A metrological rule of thumb is that the
-1
(temperature, pressure, EMC, ageing etc.) that may New (R85:2008) possibly for the issues related to ageing. reference shall have an uncertainty at least 3 times
influence the operation of the level gauge, and does -2 better than the figure it should verify. For verification
the figure mean that all level gauges will never show The ageing of a tank gauging system is of great of a stated accuracy of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) this would
an error larger than the accuracy statement? -3 importance, since its lifetime can be some 15-20 then require a reference uncertainty in the range
-4
Old (R85:1998) years or even more. The environment in a refinery of 0.17 mm (0.0067 in.), which implies very high
The reason for using the word accuracy is likely or tank terminal is often harsh, with high salt and requirements on the reference measuring system,
Downwards manual log
to have a historical explanation, and it could be Upwards manual log sulfur content in the air, solvents that attack rubber and it typically requires expensive arrangements with
assumed that since the interpretation varies, that Downwards autolog
or plastics and UV-radiation which breaks down paint tracking laser equipment etc.
is also what some manufacturers want. Going back and plastics. References from other installations are
to the questions above, it is worth considering the Upwards autolog
the best way to ensure that a long lifetime system is
following: Figure 5.1: Graph showing OIML level accuracy requirements with a high selected. 5.1 Uncertainties in tank gauging
performance radar gauge.
systems
Since the lifetime is long for a tank gauging system,
Does the accuracy figure also apply Often when a user buys a tank gauging system spare part availability is also important. Spare parts Following section aims to give some understanding
when the level gauge is installed on there is a certain goal that must be achieved, from third parties may affect the performance of the of what uncertainties can be achieved in a tank
a tank? like: “the system should be used for legal custody system and should be avoided. The supplier should gauging system.
transfer”. This means that it should not only fulfil also show their life-cycle policy for spare parts.
the requirements of accuracy under reference A modern radar level gauge is capable of an intrinsic
A responsible supplier of tank gauging systems will conditions, but also fulfil the system requirements accuracy (accuracy at reference conditions) of
clearly state that the figure applies to what is called when installed on a tank. This could mean that the Does the accuracy figure mean that maximum error ± 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) and over the
reference conditions and the supplier should also be user needs to calculate how much it would cost to all level gauges will never show whole temperature range (-40 °C to 85 °C) the
prepared to show the customer how these reference make modifications to the tank to be able to fulfil maximum error should be within ± 1 mm (0.04
conditions are set up. In other words, the user should the installed accuracy statement. In this whole
an error larger than the accuracy in.). The installed uncertainty on the tank may be
obtain a document from the supplier which details process the experience and the help a manufacturer statement? estimated to be in the range:
the conditions in which the accuracy statement can contribute is of great value to the user. A tank
was originated. The measuring range and the gauging supplier may have experience from more Level uncertainty (installed) = 2 mm
temperature range should be addressed, and there than 100 000 tank installations, and also have a The accuracy figure may also mean typical accuracy,
should be an uncertainty calculation of the precision record and a reputation which may be easily checked meaning that the figure has some statistical This assumes a high performance custody transfer
of the reference measuring system etc. by the user. In this respect it is a good idea for the distribution (e.g. Gaussian) where some units level gauge with proven performance. The
customer to check for references from other users are within the range of the figure, but a certain method of installation is important; the installed
A responsible supplier will not guarantee the installed who have tank gauging systems installed where the distribution may be outside. In this case the word level gauge must be rigidly mounted to the most
accuracy, since that means guaranteeing the skill requirements are high. accuracy could be exchanged for uncertainty which mechanically stable point of the tank. This is normally
of the persons making the comparing hand dip, is a more appropriate term for a statistical method accomplished by installing the level gauge on a still-
guaranteeing all types of conditions that could occur of expressing performance. When statistical means pipe, which is either mechanically fixed to the tank
in the tank, and also guaranteeing the mechanical Does the accuracy figure apply to all are used for the expression of performance, it is also bottom or the lower corner between tank wall and
stability and method of installation for each tank. It types of influences (temperature, important to define the confidence interval for the tank bottom. For further installation guidelines see
is not possible to guarantee all these things without pressure, EMC, ageing etc.) that may value, i.e. the sigma (σ), where normally 2 sigma or 3 API Ch. 3.1B. Certain corrections may be necessary
making a time consuming investigation, for which in sigma are used. to achieve 2 mm installed accuracy like correction of
most situations there is neither time nor resources
occur during the operation of the thermal expansion of still-pipe etc. Corrections like
available. A vendor that gives such guarantees level gauge? this should be available in these types of level gauges.

34 35
 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties

One problem could be to verify an uncertainty in value to digital format, and the electronics should has been used, and the time since the calibration Figure 5.3 shows that in general an Automatic Tank
this range with hand dip. It would require a very be designed for full accuracy at actual ambient was performed. Old calibration methods often Gauge (ATG) system is superior for handling large
experienced person to make hand dips with an temperature conditions. state an uncertainty of 0.10% in the TCT, but recent transfer batches, and a flow meter system is superior
uncertainty in the range of 1 mm (0.02 in.) or less, calibration methods based on EODR (Electro-Optical for smaller batches. Where the intersection of the
but some metrological authorities claim that it Distance Ranging) have shown figures as low as two curves is located varies between different tanks,
is possible. It is clear however, that this is not a Uncertainty in density measurement: 0.5-1.5 kg/m3 0.01% – 0.02%. and the shape of the tank has certain influence.
common day-to-day practice because it can only be There is however a lot of other factors that also may
done under very well controlled conditions. Figures on accuracy for manual density sampling The fact that custody transfer is a difference influence the performance, and in general it can be
are often in the range of 0.5 kg/m3. The actual measurement also affects the uncertainty in the said that:
Level uncertainties in transfers are affected by accuracy of laboratory measurements is better, but TCT, and errors are to a certain degree cancelled
the fact that a custody transfer is a difference the handling of the sample on the tank roof, and out. Particularly on small transfers this cancellation ATG’s may not perform well if:
measurement, i.e. the difference in level at start and how well the sample represents the product may effect can have a large impact and uncertainty may
at end of transfer is measured. Some types of errors introduce additional errors. be better than the figures above. Also, an offset error • Batches are small
will thereby be cancelled out in a cylindrical tank, e.g. due to difficulties in estimation of the bottom volume
an offset error of the level gauge will be the same For automatic measurement with the hybrid type will thereby have no (or very little) influence on the • Tank Capacity Table is old or badly strapped
before and after transfer, and will subsequently have system (see chapter 8), the accuracy is mostly transferred batch, since this part of the tank should
no (or very little) influence on the transferred batch. determined by the precision of the pressure not be used for transfers. • Tanks are deformed or mechanically unstable
transducer. The accuracy will also vary depending
on the liquid level in the tank, i.e. at low liquid levels So what will the above uncertainties end up as when Meters may not perform well if:
the accuracy will deteriorate, since offset drift in the it comes to standardized volume and mass? To
pressure transmitter will affect the reading more than answer this question, all the uncertainties above need • Batches are large
at high liquid levels. Typical accuracy figures which to be taken into account for calculation of a figure.
are achievable with standard pressure transmitters This work has been discussed within OIML R 85 for a • Product contains abrasive material, sand etc.
are around 1.5 kg/m3 at 3 meter liquid level (with number of years, but a document has so far not been which damages mechanical parts
Uncertainty Uncertainty
better results at higher levels). issued and no working committee has been set up.
The figure that has been discussed as a requirement • Product is viscous (bitumen, lube oil, waxy crude
The main impact density has on the transfer for custody transfer has been in the range of 0.5 % etc.)
Uncertainty calculations is seen when using API tables for based on mass, and this is also a figure that some
calculation of Volume Correction Factor (VCF) and metrological authorities use today when they use • There is a lack of proper meter calibration
standardized volume. However, the API tables are mass based custody transfer. The future will tell what facilities
not very sensitive to density variations. In most requirements will be set in forthcoming standards.
areas of the API table the density can be varied by The last point above may be considered in particular.
Figure 5.2: Uncertainty when measuring batches could be reduced by offset approximately 7 kg/m3 without any visible change Calibration of an ATG system is normally very simple
error elimination.
in the last decimal of the VCF figure. An example 5.2 ATG system vs. flow meter system and low cost compared to meters which require
is shown in table 5.1, where density can vary from complex and expensive equipment.
739.4 – 746.9 kg/m3 without affecting the value of A tank gauging supplier often gets the question:
Uncertainty in average product temperature: 0.3 °C the VCF figure. “How accurate is a tank gauging system compared What should also be considered is that an ATG
to a flow meter based system at transfers?” This system is normally also required for other purposes
To achieve 0.3°C installed accuracy, a multi-spot question may be answered “It depends on the actual such as:
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) with Uncertainty in Tank Capacity Table: 0.01-0.10% transfer”, but one basic fact is illustrated in figure 5.3
sensor elements at various heights in the product below: • Operational control
is required in most cases. A stable electronic The precision in the Tank Capacity Table (TCT)
temperature conversion unit converts the resistance varies with respect to which calibration method • Inventory control
Flowmeter
Automatic • Mass balance and loss control
Tank Gauge
Density at 15°C
Performance
739.0 739.4 741.3 742.0 742.8 745.0 745.8 746.5 746.9 747.2 • One independent layer of overfill prevention and
(kg/m3)
leak alarm
Uncertainty
-0.80 -0.75 -0.50 -0.40 -0.30 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.25 0.30 If we assume there always has to be an ATG system
(% reading)
installed for the above purposes, the additional cost
VCF for using the ATG system for custody transfer can
0.9938 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9939 0.9940 Batch size
Computed also be estimated. There is a somewhat higher price
Figure 5.3: ATG systems perform better than flow meter systems when for a custody transfer class ATG system, compared
Table 5.1: Density variation does not affect the Volume Correction Factor to a large degree. handling large batches, and vice versa.

36 37
 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties

to a system with lesser performance. However, 5.3.1 System architecture

the lifetime of an ATG system is often very long Radar level PC with
with an average of around 15-20 years. In this time Most process level gauges are designed to produce Temperature gauge Inventory Software
perspective the additional investment in better only level information to a DCS system, and there transmitter
Tank hub System hub
performing equipment will be negligible. Also, are no particular ATG functions available. Such a
the procedure of supervision of the performance function could be an integrated average temperature
(subsequent verification) when the system has been measurement which considers the level in the tank,
installed on a tank is limited to some hours per correction algorithms for tank wall expansion,
year by an independent resource. The total overall temperature correction of Tank Capacity Tables etc. Pressure
additional cost to have an ATG system with certified Also, most process level gauges are using a 4-20 mA Graphical transmitter DCS
custody transfer performance can therefore be current loop which has a resolution that is too low field display
considered low. for tank gauging purposes, and the unit may lack
communication possibilities for a more efficient or
The status of the Tank Capacity Table should also advanced digital bus. Some tank gauging systems
be considered. It is well worth considering a re- also have the possibility to handle existing cabling
strapping of an old tank according to new modern from old mechanical level gauges, and can often
methods, especially if the strapping was made a coexist with them by emulating the old level gauges.
long time ago. The cost for re-strapping may not be Software functions for complex standard volume
high considering the measurement error in terms and mass calculations are also required and these
of product volume that can occur during a single are normally not available in standard PLC or DCS
emptying or filling operation of a tank. systems.

For product transfers, many operators use both an

ATG system and a flow meter based system. They can 5.3.2 Accuracy statement Figure 5.5: Typical tank gauging system architecture.
then compare the result from both technologies and
investigate the cause if the difference is too large. A process level gauge is often optimized to
handle difficult operating conditions such as gauge, which if OIML R 85 approved, is not allowed to 5.3.3 Lifetime expectations
turbulent liquids, product foam, high pressure and vary more than 1 mm (0.02 in.) in the whole ambient
5.3 Process level gauges vs. tank temperature. In such conditions the focus is not on temperature span. If the statements on temperature The lifetime of a tank gauging system is often in
gauging level gauges accuracy. Despite this, accuracy statements like influence on a process level gauge (if stated at all the range of 20 years or even more, which is rarely
“3 mm accuracy under reference conditions” for a by the manufacturer) are checked, typical figures the case for a process level gauge. During this
It may be tempting for a user to go for a radar based process level gauge may be seen. This may be true on accuracy in the range of 20 mm (0.8 in.) or more time period there must be spare parts available to
process level gauge in a tank gauging application, under reference conditions, but in a tank gauging over the intended ambient temperature range can secure maintenance without serious operational
since the cost often is lower (see chapter 2). In this application it is necessary to know how big the be seen. This temperature dependency often makes disturbances. The lower cost and the simple 4-20
case there is a number of important factors to bear in temperature influence is. Typically there is a very the process level gauge unusable in a tank gauging mA connection to a DCS system used by a process
mind, presented in the following sections. big discrepancy compared with a tank gauging level application. Just a difference in temperature between level gauge may imply that a change of the complete
day and night may be enough to make an operator level gauge unit is all that is required. A check of the
nervous, since it could look like there is a leakage manufacturers’ life-time policy may be important.
DCS in a non-active storage tank. Inventory estimations
can vary considerably with the weather, and mass
4-20 mA balance and loss control may be inaccurate. 5.3.4 Installation

The difference in temperature influence between a A process level gauge is often designed for
Guided wave radar typical process level gauge and an ATG is due to the installation on smaller vessels with narrow openings,
level transmitter technology used. An ATG level gauge is normally which often would disqualify a typical ATG level
based on FMCW technology which is easier to gauge. ATG level gauges based on radar often have
design with little temperature influence, compared larger antenna apertures to allow installation on
to a pulsed (also called time-of-flight) process level available manways on storage tanks. These are often
gauge, where it is a challenge to get the timing located close to the tank wall since this section is
circuitry temperature stable. regarded as a reasonably stable installation point.

Figure 5.4: Typical process level transmitter architecture.

38 39
 5 - Accuracies and uncertainties

6
The larger antenna aperture on an ATG level gauge
will allow installation close to the tank wall without
degraded performance resulting from interfering
radar echoes from the tank wall. An antenna that
is too small would in this case have its installed
accuracy affected by the interfering echoes. It is
possible to increase the frequency of the radar
signal to some extent to get higher directivity of the Temperature measurement
transmitted radar beam and thereby avoid tank wall
influence. There are however other disadvantages
with higher frequencies and since the size of the tank
openings is rarely critical on storage tanks, they offer
no benefits in most cases. Topic Page

5.3.5 Installation on still-pipes

6.1 Influence of API tables 43
In ATG applications it is common that the level gauge
installation is made on a still-pipe. The reason is that 6.2 Systematic measurement errors 44
a still-pipe, correctly installed at the tank bottom or
lower part of the tank wall is a very stable reference 6.3 API standard 44
point for the level measurement. Another reason may
simply be that the tank has a floating roof, and it is 6.4 Location of spot elements 45
necessary to penetrate the roof with a still-pipe to get
access to the liquid surface. 6.5 Additional uses of temperature
measurement in tank gauging 45
The percentage of installations that require
installation on still-pipes is approximately 50% 6.5.1 Correction of tank height 45
in ATG installations and close to 0% for process 6.5.2 Correction of Tank Capacity Table 46
installations. As a result of this it is very rare to see
process level gauges supplied with the special type of 6.5.3 Correction of hand dip tape 46
radar antenna that is required for high performance
installations on still-pipes. To use a standard free-
propagation device on a still-pipe would give very
poor measuring results since they do not have the
special H01 transmission mode which is necessary
(see chapter 2). This absence of a suitable antenna
solution for still-pipes may therefore be the major
difference between a radar based ATG level gauge
and a process level gauge.

40
 6 - Temperature measurement 6 - Temperature measurement

end up in the same accuracy class as the level gauge, the value 18.4 °C should be used in the algorithm, not
6. Temperature the temperature measuring system must first of all 18.25 °C as with the old tables.
be able to handle the temperature gradient. That
measurement is, it needs to be of the multi-spot type measuring The new API tables open up possibilities for
temperature at different heights in the tank and better volume estimation through more precise
Measurement of product temperature is vital in calculating an average from the sensors which are temperature measurements. The resistance
a tank gauging system for input to the Standard submerged in the liquid. Secondly, the temperature difference possible in a 3-wire Pt100 system is
Volume and Mass calculation, and it has a greater sensor combined with conversion electronics should therefore not uncritical anymore, and there is a clear
importance than some users may think. In the past have an accuracy far better than ± 1 °C. trend to go for 4-wire Pt100 sensors instead. A 4-wire
(and also to some extent today), storage tanks could Pt100 sensor will fully compensate for the resistance
be seen with only one temperature sensor mounted difference in wires from conversion electronics
on the tank wall near the bottom of the tank. This 6.1 Influence of API tables to the Pt100 element. It requires a resistance to
type of arrangement will not show a representative temperature conversion unit that is designed for
value of the overall product temperature, since all A limitation in the temperature measurement related 4-wire connections, and the conversion electronics
storage tanks will show a considerable temperature to the API tables and the Volume Correction Factor should have sufficient accuracy and ambient
gradient from top to bottom. This can to some (VCF) calculation should be considered. The API temperature stability.
extent be minimized by agitation of the product, tables before 2004 only had a resolution of 0.25 °C
but agitation is in most cases unwanted since (0.5 °F), which made temperature measurement
it will increase evaporation in or from the tank. accuracies better than 0.25 °C meaningless. The
Figures on how much temperature difference can typical sensor type that is used in this case is 3-wire
be expected in a normal cylindrical tank that has Pt100 elements, where the error due to different
been settled is in the range of 1-4 °C in a vertical resistance in the three wires in most cases should be
direction. Cold products will have higher density and possible to get below 0.25 °C.
will therefore end up at the bottom of the tank. The
temperature gradient in a horizontal direction has Still, if the temperature precision is only as good as
often been debated, but under normal conditions 0.25 °C, the corresponding level error in the tank
API documents state that the horizontal temperature Figure 6.1: Top mounted temperature transmitter for up to 16 spot example above is in the range of several millimeters,
temperature elements.
difference in a storage tank is less than 0.5 °C. and on large crude tanks the figure can be a lot
larger. A modern level gauge has an intrinsic accuracy
of 0.5 mm (0.02 in.) and when applying certain tank
corrections the installed accuracy could be in the
Example 6.1: Volume error given by temperature error range of 2 mm (0.08 in.) or better. This is why it is
important to decrease the error in the temperature
The following example illustrates how large volume error will be given by an error in the average product measurement, and to arrive at an accuracy in the
temperature of 1 °C: range of 0.1 °C or better. Since the introduction of
the new higher resolution 2004 API tables, using
In a normal, typical cylindrical shape product tank, with a height of 20 m, a diameter of 36 m, and a total these high accuracies is now highly relevant.
tank volume in the range of 20 000 m3, the error in volume will be: Figure 6.2: Left - Multi-spot temperature sensor with Pt100 elements
The 2004 tables are different compared to all the and corrosion resistant metallic sheath. Right - Complete temperature
Volume error = 20 000 x 700 x 10-6 = 14 m3 earlier tables in that they do not use the tabulated measuring assembly with transmitter, sensor, optional water level sensor
and anchor weight.
VCF value (the printed value) from the API table.
where 700 x 10-6 is based on the assumption that the volume of petroleum products is affected by temperature in Instead it is the result from the algorithm behind the
the range 600-800 ppm per 1 °C. table that is the correct value. This is a consequence The Pt100 sensor elements exist in different accuracy
of the fact that that operators today do not use the classes, and in general 4-wire elements use the
This may not seem too alarming, but if one considers that the temperature error might be systematic, i.e. table value but instead have a computer program highest accuracy classes. Some manufacturers also
if a similar error occurs every time when filling or emptying a tank, it will cause considerable loss to one of which has the algorithm implemented to enable the issue a calibration sheet together with each element.
the parties involved in the transaction. computer to make the calculation. However, when This calibration sheet could then be used for entering
the computer makes the calculation for the old tables corrections of the sensor element and thereby
it should round off the temperature value to nearest improving the accuracy even more. To do this
0.25 °C, to get the same result as in the printed table. automatic calibration, a corresponding function must
In a tank the same size as in example 6.1, a level error The tank gauging system is therefore poorly matched This is different in the 2004 table, where the rounding be available in the temperature measuring system.
will correspond to approximately 1 m3 for each mm. if the level gauge has an installed accuracy in the instead should be to the nearest 0.1 °C. This means
The 1 °C error in temperature will then influence the range of a few millimeters and the temperature that if the temperature system has measured and
volume the same as a level gauge error of 14 mm! measurement has an accuracy of ±1 °C. To be able to calculated an average liquid temperature of 18.37 °C,

42 43
 6 - Temperature measurement 6 - Temperature measurement

To summarize, it could be stated that temperature element may only be included in the average 6.4 Location of spot elements
measurement must not be a limiting factor for a temperature measurement at certain liquid levels
proper performance matching with the level gauge in and excluded at lower levels. The quality of the To achieve a good representation of the average
a tank gauging system. However, the aspects above multi-spot sensor is therefore important, and the temperature in an upright cylindrical tank, the
should be considered and they are as important for performance of each element may be subject for temperature spots should be evenly positioned with
correct volume estimation as the performance of the check at certain intervals. at least 2-3 m intervals.
level gauge.
To avoid possible influence from ground
Example 6.3: Volume error caused by temperature, the lowest spot should be placed
6.2 Systematic measurement errors temperature error compared to corresponding around 1 m from the tank bottom. Furthermore, to
level gauge error for a 20 m high tank with a avoid ambient temperature influence, the sensor
Measurement errors that can be described as diameter of 36 m and a volume of 20 000 m3. should be installed at least 1 m from the tank
systematic should be avoided as far as possible wall and close to a gauging hatch for verification
in a tank gauging system, since they will multiply Temperature Resulting Corresponding purposes.
over time and can create a considerable loss for a error (°C) Volume error Level gauge
buyer or a seller. For level measurement with a radar (m3) error (mm)
level gauge, the error is mostly of a random type 6.5 Additional uses of temperature
but for temperature measurement it can often be 0.25 3.5 3.5 measurement in tank gauging
systematic.
0.50 7 6.9
In addition to the use for Standard Volume
0.75 10.5 10.3 calculation, the temperature measuring system is
also used for other purposes, see following example:
1.00 14 13.8
Example 6.2: Temperature measurement
using only one sensor 1.25 17.5 17.2
Figure 6.3: Spot temperature elements should be placed with equal distance 6.5.1 Correction of tank height
1.50 21 20.6 between each element.
In a common case where only one temperature
sensor is installed at the bottom of the tank 1.75 24.5 24.1 Most level gauges measure the distance from their
it is certain that this will not represent the mounting position down to the liquid surface (ullage
2.00 28 27.5
average temperature of the product in a settled measurement), and calculate the level by subtracting
tank. If the temperature gradient is 4 °C the ullage from the reference height (the distance from
temperature sensor can be expected to show the level gauge mounting point to the datum plate).
an error in the range of a 2 °C too low average 6.3 API standard This calculation will show an error if this distance is
temperature each time a transfer from a full not constant, i.e. the level will vary with the reference
tank is started. Expressed in Standard Volume it API MPMS chapter 7.3 “Temperature Determination height change. One type of change which is easy to
means the volume is overestimated at the start, – Fixed Automatic Tank Temperature Systems” compensate for is the thermal expansion/contraction
and in example 6.1, this would for a typical tank was released in 2011 and describes the methods, of the tank wall or the still-pipe. With a multi spot
correspond to an error of 28 m3. This means that equipment and procedures for determining the temperature sensor installed from the top of tank
28 m3 less is delivered than the measurement temperatures of petroleum and petroleum products down to the bottom, an average temperature
indicated. The implication is that the error is under static conditions by using an automatic value of either the tank wall or the still-pipe can be
approximately the same every time a transfer method. estimated. In this case all individual temperature
from this tank takes place, since the temperature elements are used for the average temperature
stratification, due to its physical nature, is Guidelines for equipment and design requirements calculation, and a correction can be applied on the
systematic. With a turn-over rate of 30 times per are given, among other things recommending reference height based on thermal expansion of
year, it will end up in the range of 800 m3 per year Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD’s) and the carbon steel (10-12 ppm/ °C).
or some 40 full tank trucks, for one tank only. use of multi-spot averaging sensors for custody
transfer applications. It provides installation and For correction of a tank wall, the fact that there is
accuracy requirements and suggests procedures liquid on the inside of the tank and air on the outside,
for the inspection and verification of a complete as well as different media involved, should be taken
Automatic Tank Thermometer (ATT) system. into account. The thermal influence is quite different
The scenario in this example illustrates the for air and liquid and API has stated that tank wall
importance of using a multi-spot temperature temperatures in each measuring point should be
sensor, but it is still important to take care, since Figure 6.4: On floating roof tanks, a still-pipe is often used for the calculated as:
temperature sensor installation.
an error in one temperature element could cause
a similar systematic error; the faulty temperature

44 45
 6 - Temperature measurement

7
1 7 tank already has a temperature measuring system, it
Ttank wall = Tambient + T is an easy operation to activate the correction in the
8 8 liquid software, so there should be no reason not to use it.

The ambient temperature can be difficult to measure

since it may be affected by sun radiation, and 6.5.3 Correction of hand dip tape
position of the actual temperature sensor on the
tank. A correct ambient temperature would probably When making a reference measurement with hand Liquefied gases
need an advanced metrological station on each dip it should be considered that the hand dip tape
tank and in practice most users do not make this only shows the correct value if the hand dip tape has
investment since the influence is quite small. The the same temperature as when it was calibrated.
accuracy of the temperature measuring system is
uncritical for this correction, see example 6.4. For normal daily hand dip it may not be necessary Topic Page
to correct for this temperature influence, but when
making reference measurements or measurements
in heated tanks the hand dip tape may show large
Example 6.4: Reference height error errors. Below is an example from a heated bitumen 7.1 Radar tank gauging in pressurized
tank. tanks 48
An error of 5 °C when doing a correction of a 20
m high still-pipe or tank wall will only give an 7.2 Radar tank gauging in full containment
error on level as: tanks 49
Example 6.5: Tape error in heated bitumen
Reference height error = 5 x 10 x 10-6 x tank 7.3 Typical system configuration 49
20 000 = 1 mm
Tank same as before: 20 m high, half full,
where 10 x 10-6 is based on the assumption that a temperature in tank above liquid 170°C, tape
carbon steel tank wall expands 10 ppm/1 °C. calibrated at 20°C, ullage dip (due to bitumen):

A modern level gauge system should, if required, Tape error = (170-20) x 10 x 10-6 x
have the capability to correct these reference 10 000 = 15 mm
height changes.
With this ullage dip at 10 m, the tape will show a
15 mm error reading.

6.5.2 Correction of Tank Capacity Table

A Tank Capacity Table (TCT) is only valid at a certain If the tank has an installed temperature measuring
temperature, i.e. the temperature the tank shell had system, this may be used for estimation of the
when it was calibrated. The product temperature will temperature of the tape after insertion in the tank.
affect the tank shell which will expand or contract In general the tape will very quickly adopt the same
depending on the temperature. The same tank as temperature as the vapor in the tank, therefore the
in the previous example (20 000 m3) is affected by vapor temperature measured by the tank gauging
a temperature change of 5 °C from its calibration system could be used for the correction.
temperature as:

5 x 20 x 10-6 x 20 000 = 2 m3
where 20 x 10-6 is based on the assumption that the area
expansion of a carbon steel tank wall is 20 ppm/1 °C.

The error received when not making this correction

of the TCT may not upset a user, but in large or
heated tanks the error may be much larger. If the

46
 7 - Liquefied gases 7 - Liquefied gases

7.1 Radar tank gauging in pressurized 7.2 Radar tank gauging for full 7.3 Typical system configuration
7. Liquefied gases tanks containment tanks
A typical radar based full containment tank gauging
Radar tank gauging has been used on liquefied gas The use of automatic tank gauging on pressurized The basic gauge design used for radar gauging on system combines high reliability with high measuring
tanks since the 1980’s. These gases, typically LPGs tanks is described in API MPMS Chapter 3.3. pressurized tanks is also used on full containment performance and safety functions. It may include:
(liquefied petroleum gases) and NGLs (natural gas Special considerations must be taken into account storage tanks. Radar based tank gauging is today
liquids) are stored as a liquid through either pressure when designing radar tank gauges for pressure widely used for level measurement and overfill • One primary and one secondary high precision
in spheres or bullet tanks or refrigerated in full applications. Firstly, the unit must withstand the prevention in full containment storage tanks. This radar gauge for level measurement.
containment tanks. LNG (liquefied natural gas) brings tank pressure and meet the safety standards written non-contact method with no moving parts offers
additional tank gauging challenges for inventory and around pressure vessels. Secondly, the radar gauge advantages in terms of reliability and a less frequent • Two (2) temperature transmitters, each with up
safety compared to other hydrocarbons. To address must be manufactured so that it can effectively cope need for maintenance. Radar is particularly suitable to 16 spot sensors for average liquid temperature
these, among other considerations, operators need with the challenges that high vapor pressure may in cryogenic/refrigerated gas applications where measurement.
to monitor density and temperature profiles across cause in such tanks. Thirdly, the radar tank gauge in-tank maintenance is only possible at scheduled
the tank height. should have some means of performance verification maintenance periods which are several years apart. • A third radar gauge for independent high level
during normal tank conditions. Also, the often long measuring distances in this alarm gives an output to an alarm panel via a
A radar level gauge for liquefied gas should be application make non-contact measurement an SIL 2/SIL 3 rated relay or 4-20 mA signals. It can,
installed in a stainless steel or aluminum still-pipe for attractive alternative. in combination with the primary and secondary
maximum measuring range and performance. The gauges, be placed in a 2oo3 voting system.
radar gauge is bolted to a tank nozzle at the top of
the tank. A still-pipe, normally with a 100 mm • Temperature transmitters and sensors for:
(4 in.) diameter, is connected to the same nozzle and
reaches down to the bottom of the tank. • Cool-down control via temperature
measurements of inner tank wall and bottom
This still-pipe is equipped with a verification pin. It is during first fill.
mounted during installation at a known position, and
will generate a small echo used for gauge verification • Leak detection by monitoring temperature in
at normal working pressure in the tank. A radar gauge the insulation space (between the inner and
can perform a verification test at any time without the outer tank wall).
interfering with the normal liquid measurement. The
result of the automatic verification can be presented • A separate device for for level, temperature, and
at a service window of the diagnostic software density profiling (LTD) for non-homogeneous
embedded in the user interface. products such as LNG.

• Graphical field display.

• Communication devices e.g. tank hubs for

data collection from field instruments, and
Figure 7.2: A radar gauge for pressurized gas tanks must cope with transmission of such data to the control room.
challenges caused by high vapor pressure.

• Communication devices in the control room

Typical applications for this type of radar tank gauge providing data to DCS/HMI/IT systems.
are spherical and horizontal tanks used to store
liquefied gas. • Tank inventory management software including
Reference stratification monitoring, roll-over prediction,
pin and reporting features. The workstations are
Picture 7.4: Full containment tank used for storing refrigerated liquified gas.
configured in a network for data distribution and
increased redundancy.
A typical full containment storage tank holds large
Still-pipe quantities of liquified gas, 30-200k m3. Both from The radar level gauge antenna for full containment
ø 100 mm an economic, operational and safety aspect, the tanks should be designed for measurements on
data measured by the tank gauging system has a cryogenic/refrigerated liquefied gas. Radar signals
large impact. A precision radar tank gauge delivers are transmitted inside a 4-inch stainless steel still-
accuracy in the range of one millimeter over the pipe which enables the gauge to have a sufficiently
Figure 7.1: Level measurement in a spherical gas tank using a still-pipe with
reference pins.
Figure 7.3: Spherical and horizontal tanks used for storing liquefied gas. entire tank height. strong echo even under surface boiling conditions.

48 49
 7 - Liquefied gases

8
7 7

1 3 2 3 4

5 6
6
8

Additional sensors
8

Topic Page

11 11 9 9 9
12

8.1 Density measurement and

10
hybrid tank gauging 52

8.2 Pressure sensors used in

hybrid tank gauging 54
13

1 Primary Radar Level Gauge Temperature transmitter with sensors for 11 Data Concentrator 8.3 Installation considerations 54
6
cool-down and leak detection
2 Secondary Radar Level Gauge 12 Tank Management System
7 Graphical Field Display 8.4 Free water level measurement 54
Temperature Transmitter and Cryogenic 13 DCS/Host System
3
Multiple Spot Temperature Sensors 8 Tank Hub
Independent Level Alarm
4 9 SIL 2/SIL 3 Relay or 4-20 mA Alarm Signal
(Continuous Gauge)

5 Level, Temperature and Density (LTD) Gauge 10 Independent Alarm Panel

Figure 7.5: Example of a high performance full containment tank gauging system.

The tank seal is equipped with a double block Today it is often required that the radar tank gauges
function, consisting of a PTFE window and a fire- have SIL 2 rated high level alarm capabilities. Multiple
proof ball valve. A reference device function enables SIL rated radar gauges can be connected in a SIS
measurement verification with the tank in service. loop so that voting between the high alarms is
accomplished. It is also possible to utilize a 2-in-1
For land based full containment tank level radar gauge for the same purpose.
measurement, the two most common types of
gauges used today are mechanical servo gauges and A typical instrument configuration on an LNG tank
radar gauges. The mechanical servo-operated gauge includes an LTD (Level Temperature Density) sensor.
relies on a mechanical displacer attached to a wire on This LTD device provides a density and temperature
a drum. The displacer is lowered by the servo motor profile for the tank which can be used to detect
to the liquid and follows the surface movements. stratification. This data is used for calculations within
Intrusive gauging, many moving parts and a the software to determine the risk for a roll-over
significant maintenance program are challenges incident. The LTD data is used by special software for
related to servo based gauging systems. roll-over prediction. Roll-over is a phenomenon in a
cryogenic tank that has the potential of causing large
Safety and overfill prevention is a major concern for uncontrolled vapor emissions and even severe tank
any facility used for bulk liquid storage of flammable damage. By measuring the density and temperature
liquids. Many of the first radar applications on profile the risk of a roll-over can be predicted. Actions
liquefied gas was for independent overfill prevention, to mitigate the risk of roll-over can then be initiated
since mechanical servo gauges used for regular level depending on the recommendations made by the
measurement did not meet the requirements. software.

50
 8 - Additional sensors 8 - Additional sensors

8. Additional
Calculating observed product density, mass in vacuum, mass in air and gross standard volume
sensors
For most tank gauging needs, level gauging and
temperature measurements are sufficient to perform
the required volume calculations. However, in many
cases sensors are added for the measurement of 1. Observed Product Density (Dobs) in vacuum L = ATG level (innage) 3. Product Apparent Mass in Air (Ma)
observed density and free water level at the bottom
of the tank. Hybrid density calculations are based on the fact Hƅ = vertical distance from sensor P1 center of force
that product density is proportional to the liquid to the hybrid reference point Dα
pressure and can be calculated as below: Ma = M 1 -
8.1 Density measurement and hybrid H0 = vertical distance from the tank datum plate to
Dobs
tank gauging P1 - P3 = total liquid product head + in-tank vapor the hybrid reference point
head – ambient air head between P1 and P3
A hybrid tank gauging system measures both level g = local gravitational acceleration Where:
and pressure. The output from a pressure sensor is Head pressure in both liquid and vapor is
used in combination with the level value from the approximately the same as the product of average Ht = vertical distance from P1 to P3 diaphragms M = Total product mass (in vacuum) from 2.
tank gauge. From these two variables, the observed density and head: centers of force
density of the tank content can be calculated online. Dα = Ambient air density
The API standard MPMS Chapter 3.6 describes the Dv = in-tank vapor density
use of hybrid tank gauging and how the density is Liquid head pressure = g x (L – Y) x Dobs Dobs = Observed liquid density (in vacuum) from 1.
calculated. (at level of P1) Dα = ambient air density

In an open ventilated tank, with either a fixed or

floating roof, only one pressure sensor is used (P1). In-tank vapor head = g x [Ht – (L – Y)] x Dv Note: If the hybrid reference point is at the same
If there is any pressure in the tank from blanketing (at surface of the liquid) elevation as the tank datum plate, H0 is zero.
or another source, a second pressure sensor (P3) is 4. Gross Standard Volume (GSV)
required. Ambient air head = g x Ht x Dα
(at level of P1) 2. Product Mass Calculation in vacuum (M) GSV = GOV x VCF

ATG Then, the value of Dobs can be calculated from: Where:

P3 M = GOV x Dobs - WR
GOV = Gross observed volume

Where: VCF = Volume correction factor, typically obtained

H1 N( P1 - P3 ) – g( Dv - Dα )H1 from MPMS Chapter 11.1, ASTM D-1250
Dobs = Dv GOV = Gross observed volume
g( L - Y )
L
Where: Dobs = Observed product density (in vacuum) from 1.
P1
Hb
Liquid Dobs = observed liquid density in vacuum WR = Floating roof mass (if applicable)
H0
N = units constant
Hybrid
reference
Note: In atmospheric storage tanks, the mass of
Datum
plate point Y = Hƅ + H0 (the vertical distance from P1 sensor to product in vapor can be set to zero.
tank datum plate)
Figure 8.1: Density measurement is carried out with the help of a level
gauge and one or two pressure sensors.

52 53
 8 - Additional sensors

9
8.2 Pressure sensors used in hybrid The water level sensor is an interface sensor
tank gauging which determines the line between the water and
the hydrocarbon above it, which can be a very
The accuracy of the calculated Observed Density challenging task. In tanks with refined white oils, the
is dependent on the performance of the pressure cut between the water and oil is often well defined
sensors used. Due to the pressure sensor and easy to measure, but in tanks with black oils
characteristics, the density accuracy varies over the or crude oil the interface tends to be an area of
level span in the tank. The highest density accuracy emulsion, making the cut hard to define. System architecture
is achieved at high liquid levels. The accuracy is
reduced when the tank level is close to the P1 sensor. Capacitance based water level sensors are normally
There is a certain cut-off level, meaning that density used in combination with the other components of
measurements are inhibited below this point. a tank gauging system. The capacitance sensor is
normally integrated with the temperature sensor. Topic Page
Only the most accurate pressure sensors should be This enables the combined level/temperature sensor
used for hybrid tank gauging. The accuracy required unit to be installed in only one tank aperture sized 50
is in the range of 0.035% of span. mm (2 in.) or larger.
9.1 Tank wiring 58

8.3 Installation considerations 9.2 Tank farm field buses 58

To gain the best range and accuracy, the P1 sensor 9.3 Communication redundancy 58
should be located at a point as low as possible in the
tank. However, the location must not be so low that 9.4 Bridge solutions 59
interference from free water and sludge will cause
measurement problems. Typically the P1 sensor is 9.4.1 Gauge emulation 59
mounted at a level between 0.5 and 1 meter from 9.4.2 Wireless communication 59
the tank bottom. The pressure sensor should also be
installed with a block off valve in such a way that the
sensor can be removed and serviced. 9.5 Software 60

The P3 sensor is located at the top of the tank above

the highest liquid level.

8.4 Free water level measurement

Petroleum storage tanks may accumulate water
in the bottom. Sources of this water may be
condensation of air moisture entering vents as the
tank is emptied or rain water accidentally entering
the tank. There may also be water ingress into the
product before the tank is filled. This is common for
crude oil tanks and may pose problems if the water
level gets too high. To avoid this, the free water must
be drained from the tank. As a general rule, water
content should be kept as low as possible.

To keep track of the free water level, sensors

connected to the tank gauging system are utilized
wherever required. The free water level data is also
used in the inventory calculation to achieve proper
product volume assessments.

54
 9 - System architecture 9 - System architecture

9. System
architecture
The main purpose of the system architecture of a
tank gauging system is to route the tank information
from the tank farm to the users in a fast and reliable
manner.

Legacy tank gauging systems based on float and

servo gauges all use proprietary communication
networks. In the past, different manufacturers of SCADA HMI Client, HMI Client, HMI Client,
gauging systems used separate and incompatible Engineering Management Operation
field bus networks, communication interfaces and Control Cabinet
protocols. Users of these systems were stuck with Ethernet
a single supplier of tank gauging equipment during DCS
the entire life of the system. This in combination with
using mechanical gauges that required maintenance,
repair and supply of parts in many cases generated a Modbus
high cost of ownership.
www
Modern tank gauging systems use open architectures Modbus
and standardized communication protocols. A user
of these systems will not be locked into a single
source situation and will have many options when
selecting instruments.
OPC Server
There are now “bridge solutions” that allow legacy Modbus
systems to be modernized step by step. Gauge
emulation and wireless technology are two such
bridges.

Data
PLC
Concentrator

Field Bus Tank Data, Level, Temperature, Pressure, Volume etc.

Figure 9.1: Modern tank gauging system architecture.

56 57
 9 - System architecture 9 - System architecture

9.1 Tank wiring 9.3 Communication redundancy 9.4 Bridge solutions

Rosemount TankMaster
Client PC’s

The instruments on the tank need power and a link to Tank information availability is of utmost importance Migration from an old legacy system to a new system
the control room. This is in most cases best realized for the operation of a busy tank farm. Lack of tank Network
Switches
can be difficult to accomplish apart from replacing
through a local intrinsically safe instrument field information can quickly shut down tank farm oil the entire system in one single major project. Old
bus. Using intrinsically safe wiring on the tank offers movements. proprietary field buses often pose a major obstacle
safety benefits. It also saves installation cost as no for a gradual upgrade. However there are ways to
expensive cable conduits are required. The tank bus is To establish high information availability, different overcome this block and bypass the legacy systems:
normally connected and powered through a tank side redundancy solutions can be applied. They include: Rosemount
TankMaster
communication/power unit. From here the longer Servers

runs of the tank farm field bus are connected and so • Gauging redundancy by using more than one Rosemount 2460
Tank Hubs 9.4.1 Gauge emulation
is the local power supply. Wireless communication gauge per tank
can also be located from here. An easy way to replace old tank gauges in existing
• Field bus redundancy by using multiple or Rosemount 2410
Tank Hubs
field bus infrastructures is by making new gauges
different communication layers for the field buses emulate the old ones by communicating via the old
mperature Temperature field bus and use the same communication protocol
& Water & Water Temperature x 2

Level Level • Gateway redundancy with redundant wires and Level x 2 and the existing power supply. With this “gauge
Level
wireless gateways Two alternatives for level redundancy emulation” an old gauge can be quickly replaced
Tank
Hubs
Tank
Hubs
with a new one based on different technology. There
• Network switch and network redundancy or are no changes of the field buses or control room
P3 equipment required. Gauge emulation can also be
• User interface redundancy Two Rosemount Rosemount 5900S.
implemented in combination with wireless solutions.
Pressure x 2 5900S/5900C/5300/5408 2-in-1 Level Gauges

9.4.2 Wireless communication

Scalable Tankbus
System Figure 9.4: Different layers of redundancy: Tank unit redundancy and field
communication unit redundancy combined with redundant data servers
Wireless instrument communication is far from
and operator stations. new. However it is only recently that intelligent
Field self-configuring mesh networks have been applied
Display
Tank Gauging servers are often placed in rack rooms for telemetry. Mesh networks as described by the
or control rooms. Customized cabinets house the standard IEC 62591 or WirelessHART® are very
servers and the field gateways. suitable for use in tank gauging systems. They have
in recent years become an attractive solution to build
Tank Hub
system architectures both for tank gauging and other
P1
types of instrumentation. Wireless communication
Fieldbus
can greatly reduce tank gauging installation cost.

Power One important characteristic of a self-configuring

Figure 9.2: Intrisically safe field bus providing power and communication to mesh network is that a minimum of engineering
the tank units.
effort is needed to design the system. Following
simple guidelines covering node distances and
9.2 Tank farm field buses locations of gateways, the system layout can be
Figure 9.3: Tank redundancy is accomplished with dual tank gauges and
Figure 9.5: A tank gauging system cabinet.
separated communication layers - wired and wireless.
The process variables measured by the tank devices
must reach users of this information quickly and with Done!
high integrity. The devices are spread over a large
area in the tank farm and field bus wiring can run long
distances. The wiring has to sustain challenges such
as attenuation and lightning damage. Existing wiring
is often in place and it should be possible to use this
wiring when installing a new tank gauging system
since new signal wires are expensive to install. If no Disconnect the old Remove the old gauge Mount the radar Mount the new gauge
signal wiring exists or is in bad condition, wireless cabling antenna and connect the wiring
communication can bridge these gaps.
Figure 9.6: With gauge emulation, a tank by tank upgrade is easy.

58 59
 9 - System architecture 9 - System architecture

designed within an hour. After power up, the network 9.5 Software Display of real time tank data
establishes itself and will be ready for operation in a Operators need full control over the tank farm
few minutes. Due to multiple communication paths A tank gauging system is not complete without a operations at all times. Levels and level rates must be
the network is self-healing if any link is disabled. Data versatile software package that brings all the tank displayed without any significant latency.
encryption and frequency hopping enables high information together. The tank gauging computer
levels of data security and communication reliability. system conducts numerous tasks and many of these Volume and mass calculations
A tank gauging system that can communicate both must be done under certain specific standards and The tank gauging software must quickly and
through wires and wirelessly has the potential of regulations to cover bulk liquid storage operations. accurately calculate tank inventory data. The volume
enhancing data availability even further through The software should also provide aid for tasks calculations should follow the relevant API standards
communication diversity and redundancy. including batch control and storage planning. and other standards/methods suitable for different Alarm handling
bulk liquids. The software must be able to handle Tank gauging is the first layer of defense against
different types of volume tables (strapping tables) overfills. The HMI must be able to provide operator
with a large number of data points. alarms if any set level or other variables are reached.
Both fixed and adjustable points are required.
Handling of laboratory product data Alarms should be audible and visible, and able to be
It is necessary to use liquid product data from lab distributed over the plant network, by e-mail and to
samples such as density and water content. The cellphones. Alarms and alarm acknowledgements
software should have the capability to use such data should also be logged, stored and reported.
either via direct input from the lab systems or by
manual operator entry. Historical data
Operators should be able to access historical data
for reliable follow up and review of past events.
Presentation of data should be in numerical and
graphical modes.
Figure 9.7: A self-organizing mesh field network can automatically find the Figure 9.9: Tank gauging software.
best way around any fixed or temporary obstacles. Embedding and integration
Direct and derived tank data are distributed through
The software requires a comprehensive and user- embedding and linking to other office and enterprise
friendly HMI built for tank farm operators. Reliability software.
and safety are key properties of the HMI since it plays
a large part in the different layers of operational User Management
safety. Navigation between the functions and the Tank gauging management software requires proper
tanks should be easy and fast. handling of user management. User login and logout,
user access rights and logging of such events and
New software should also support advances in alarm acknowledgements should be provided for
automation technology and digital transformation, safety reasons.
as well as the changed ways of working following
from this, that many users are starting to implement.
They should use open interfaces capable of handling Figure 9.10: A tank information window of a tank operator station.
data transmission both to and from other specialized
software via standardized protocols. They should
be cross-platform and compatible with multiple Reporting
different devices such as smartphones and tablets as Stored bulk liquids generally represent a substantial
well as office computers and servers, regardless of value and the assessment of the stock needs to be
brand and operative system. reported accurately and at the desired frequency.
The reports should be customized to the user
Functional requirements of a tank gauging requirements and be presented at given points in
information system can be summarized as follows: time. Example reports are: Inventory reports, Mass
balance reports, Shift Reports and Event Log Reports.

Reports can be stored, printed, e-mailed or sent to

other software through OPC or other network based
transmission methods.
Figure 9.11: Tablets can be used to check tank gauging data.
Figure 9.8: Antenna connected to tank devices.

60 61
 9 - System architecture

10
Connectivity to other systems
Besides data distribution within the tank gauging
server and its clients, the tank data should also be
easily distributed to other high level systems. Data
distribution through an embedded web server will
enable data distribution to clients within and outside
the plant network.
Overfill prevention
Another important communication capability is
connection to legacy tank gauging systems. In a
large plant such as a refinery there may be groups of
tank gauges of different makes. The tank gauging
software should have the capability to communicate Topic Page
and control such systems and make it a source of
tank gauging information for the entire tank farm.

Configuration and trouble shooting 10.1 What’s at stake 64

The tank gauging software is often the tool for
configuration, installation and trouble-shooting of 10.1.1 Probability 64
the entire tank gauging system. It should be made
10.1.2 Consequence 64
such that every system can be configured at the site
by local engineers or operators. Trouble shooting is
ideally carried out in the control room to minimize 10.2 Benefits 65
tank climbing. A good tank gauging software with
automatic “wizard based” configuration and service 10.3 Industry standards 65
tools makes this possible.
10.3.1 API 2350 66

10.3.2 IEC 61511 66

10.4 Modern overfill prevention 67

10.4.1 Key elements 67

10.4.2 Traditional approach 67
10.4.3 Modern approach 68
10.4.4 2-in-1 tank gauging technology 69
10.4.5 Proof-testing 70

62
 10 - Overfill prevention 10 - Overfill prevention

• Comply with regulations

10. Overfill
Spill clean-up Bankruptcy • Improve public relations
prevention
Western Massachusetts, United States, 2005 Puerto Rico, United States, 2009 • Corporate social responsibility
Tank overfills have for a long time been one of the
leading causes of serious safety incidents at bulk • Increase plant efficiency
liquid storage facilities, but overfills do not occur
randomly. They are predictable and therefore • Minimize financial and legal risks
preventable. This chapter summarizes current
knowledge and expertise on tank overfill prevention
and how modern equipment can be used to reach
closer to the goal of zero tank overfills. Additional in- Example 10.1: tank terminal capacity
depth reading can be found in “The Engineer’s Guide expansion (fictional)
to Overfill Prevention” (ISBN 9789198277906).
A tank terminal, which currently has 10 tanks,
needs to expand its capacity. Currently, the
10.1 What’s at stake? normal fill level is 80%. A pre-study determined
that by investing $15 000 per tank in better
Risk consists of two components: probability and Figure 10.2: Spill clean-up in Western Massachusetts. Figture 10.3: Puerto Rico accident in 2009. overfill prevention, the normal fill level can be
consequence. Both of these components are increased to 90%. For all tanks, the cost equates
unusually large for tank overfills compared to other Small facility with a single operator present while During the off-loading of gasoline from a tanker to $150 000 and the addition of 10 percentage
potential risks at a tank farm. a bulk liquid storage tank was filled through a ship to the tank farm, a five million gallon above points per tank corresponds for the 10 tanks to
pipeline. The operator thought that he would ground storage tank overfilled into a secondary an additional space of one tank. As a comparison,
have time to go to the bar across the street for containment dike, resulting in the formation of a the alternative equivalent cost of building a new
10.1.1 Probability a quick beer. Suddenly the bartender points large vapor cloud which ignited after reaching an tank was estimated to exceed $1 m.
out that diesel is shooting out from a tank ignition source in the wastewater treatment area
Historical industry data indicates that statistically vent. 23 000 gallons of diesel were released to of the facility. In addition to causing an extensive
one overfill occurs every 3,300 fillings, according the secondary containment which consisted vapor cloud fire, the blast created a pressure
to an independent insurance company (Marsh and of soil bottom and steel sides. 14 000 gallons wave registering 2.9 on the Richter scale. For
$ 1 000 000
McLennan Companies, 2011). of the released product were recovered using more than two days, dark clouds of particulates Investing in better
vacuum trucks and 9 000 gallons were lost and smoke polluted the air, and petroleum overfill prevention

to the subsurface which contaminated the products leaked into the soil and navigable
Building new tank
10.1.2 Consequence groundwater. Light non-aqueous phase liquid waterways in the surrounding area.
was found in 14 wells during 2 weeks. More than
This section provides information about example 300 000 gallons of liquids were extracted and
consequences that can occur from a tank overfill reinjected to recover the soil in the vicinity of the
using specific case examples. tank. Total cost exceeded $350 000. 10.2 Benefits $ 150 000

Investment in modern overfill prevention is good

business because not only does it reduce the Figure 10.4: Comparison of two investment options that both
correspond to an increase in volume equivalent to one tank.
Injuries, property damages and corporate fines statistically high risk of a tank overfill but it also has
an immediate positive financial impact. By better
Buncefield fuel depot, United Kingdom, 2005 knowing what’s in the tank, both efficiency and tank
utilization can be increased.
A floating-roof tank overfilled at a tank terminal which 10.3 Industry standards
resulted in the release of large quantities of gasoline near Why invest in modern overfill prevention?
London. A vapor cloud formed which ignited and caused There have been significant advancements in
a massive explosion and a fire that lasted five days. The • Protect life and health the understanding of tank overfill root-causes in
primary root cause was that the electromechanical servo recent years due to the increased availability of
level gauge failed intermittently and the mechanical • Protect environment information. Modern overfill prevention is based
level switch used in the independent overfill prevention on the understanding that a multitude of elements
system was inoperable. • Protect plant assets contribute to minimizing the risk of a tank overfill.
Figure 10.1: Property damage after the accident at Buncefield. This has been the basis for the two globally

64 65
 10 - Overfill prevention 10 - Overfill prevention

recognized industry standards for modern overfill 10.3.2 IEC 61511 10.4 Modern overfill prevention The accepted view-point is that best practice is to
prevention: IEC 61511 and API 2350. use a number of independent protection layers to
IEC 61511: “Functional safety – Safety instrumented Modern overfill prevention is based on a holistic prevent an accident from occurring, i.e. “to not put
IEC 61511 and API 2350 have different scopes. API systems for the process industry sector” is a standard perspective with an understanding of the fact that all eggs in the same basket”. In the case of overfill
2350 is an application specific standard specifically for Safety Instrumented Functions (SIF; sensor, logic, a multitude of elements contribute to minimizing prevention, the typically used protection layers are
for bulk liquid storage, whereas IEC 61511 is targeted actuator) such as automatic overfill prevention the risk of a tank overfill, and not just the equipment depicted in figure 10.7.
towards the design of electronic safeguards in both systems (AOPS). The reliability of a SIF is quantified denoted as the ‘overfill prevention system’.
the process and bulk liquid storage industries. in “Safety Integrity Level” (SIL) 0 – 4, which each One of the most overlooked elements of overfill
corresponds to an interval of its capability to reduce prevention is probably the Automatic Tank Gauging
risk, as listed in table 10.1. 10.4.1 Key elements (ATG) system. This is the primary independent
10.3.1 API 2350 protection layer that continuously prevents tank
Key elements of modern overfill prevention include: overfills from occurring. When the ATG system
API 2350 concerns “Overfill Protection for Storage Safety Integrity Level Minimum Risk functions correctly, the other protection layers will
Tanks in Petroleum Facilities” and provides a (SIL) Reduction Factor (RRF) • Conducting a Risk Assessment not be activated. Therefore it may be argued that
holistic perspective on modern overfill prevention. this is the most important protection layer and
It addresses both “soft” factors such as procedures SIL 3 1000 • Following procedures documented in an Overfill as a consequence it needs to receive appropriate
and documentation as well as “hard” factors such as Management System attention. For example an ATG system relying on an
equipment and location of alarm points. SIL 2 100 unreliable mechanical level transmitter is not just an
• Education operational inconvenience but also a major safety
The standard requires modern facilities (denoted SIL 1 10 concern.
as “Category 3”) to be equipped with an Automatic • Use of appropriate equipment
Tank Gauging (ATG) system and an independent Table 10.1: Overview Safety Integrity Levels (SILs) and corresponding risk
reduction factors (RRFs)
Overfill Prevention System (OPS). API 2350 accepts • Non-adjustable alarm points 10.4.2 Traditional approach
both Manual Overfill Prevention Systems (MOPS),
where human intervention is required to prevent The standard does not prescribe the usage of a • Appropriate commissioning procedures such as In the past, an overfill prevention system was usually
overfill, as depicted in figure 10.5 and Automatic specific SIL; The required risk reduction shall be Site Acceptance Testing (SAT) based on point-level solutions. This equipment was
Overfill Prevention Systems (AOPS) as depicted in determined based on a risk assessment for the often put in place to fulfill incomplete prescriptive
figure 10.6, although the latter is preferred. In the specific application. • Periodic maintenance and proof-testing regulatory requirements and was treated
case of an AOPS, the practical requirement is that it accordingly. Capital expenditure was minimized and
should be designed according to IEC 61511. • Management of change maintenance and verification were not prioritized.

Manual Overfill Basic Process Control Automatic Overfill Basic Process Control
Prevention System (MOPS) System (BPCS) Prevention System (AOPS) System (BPCS)
LT LT LT LT

Emergency response layer Fire brigade

LC SIS LC

Mitigation
Secondary containment
Passive protection layer
(e.g. dike)

Emergency
shutdown Safety layer Overfill prevention system

Prevention
Operator Automatic Tank Gauging
Figure 10.5: MOPS usually consists of a level transmitter (LT) connected Figure 10.6: AOPS usually consists of a level transmitter (LT), logic and shutdown ATG
to an audiovisual alarm that notifies an operator to take the appropriate actuator which automatically closes a valve to prevent overfills from
(ATG) system
action, e.g. closing a valve. occurring. The logic may also execute non-safety critical tasks such as
shutting down a pump and notifying operators through audiovisual alerts. Figure 10.7: Commonly used independent protection layers to minimize the risk of tank overfills.

66 67
 10 - Overfill prevention 10 - Overfill prevention

Manual Overfill Prevention System (MOPS) Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) Automatic Overfill Prevention System (AOPS) Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG)

Transmitter Transmitter
with Multiple with Multiple
Radar Level Spot Temp. Radar Level
Spot Temp.
Level Gauge Sensor Gauge
Sensor Graphical Field Graphical Field
Switch Display Display
Radar Level
Gauge Inventory

L3
Management Software

SI
Discrete
Signal Includes Visual & Audible Level Alert High
and Level Alarm High-High (optional)

HiHi
Independent
Alarm Panel Hi Process
Safety
System
MWL

High-High Alarm

L3
Tank Hub

SI
Wireless THUM
System Hub Adapter
Tank Hub
SIL-PAC Valve
(DVC +
Actuator)
SI
L3 WirelessHART
Gateway

Tank Hub
Inventory
Management Software
Connection to System Hub
Inventory Software
(optional) Connection to
Inventory Software
(optional)
Includes Visual and Audible Level Alert High
and Level Alarm High-High (optional)

Figure 10.8: The traditional (obsolete) approach to overfill prevention - manual systems based on point-level measurement. Figure 10.9: Example of a modern approach incorporating an automatic overfill prevention system based on continuous radar level measurement.

10.4.3 Modern approach • Continuous level measurement allows for 10.4.4 2-in-1 tank gauging technology 2-in-1 radar level gauges can be used simultaneously
adjustment of alarms and alerts. for Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG) and independent
The industry has rapidly moved towards a modern Mechanical installation of an independent OPS OPS level measurement as shown in figure 10.11.
approach which is based on an automatic overfill • In practice, identical level sensors are often used level sensor is sometimes prohibitive due to cost,
prevention system (AOPS) with continuous level for both OPS and ATG as shown in figure 10.9. especially when requiring an additional measurement
measurement. The advantages are both financial and This approach is usually selected because: pipe in a floating roof tank. Therefore the most Automatic Overfill Prevention Automatic Tank
System (AOPS) Gauging (ATG)
risk reduction: recent advancement in level sensor technology is a
• The OPS level sensor can act as backup in case the 2-in-1 radar level measurement as depicted in figure
• Humans are inherently unreliable. The risk of an ATG fails and thereby minimizes down-time. 10.10.
overfill can be reduced by using an automatic
system • It reduces the need for device specific
configuration tools and education
• It is difficult to know whether a point-level sensor
functions correctly and it therefore requires • Inventory of spare-parts is minimized.
frequent proof-testing.
• Contrary to a common perception, neither API
• A deviation alarm between the OPS and ATG level 2350 nor IEC 61511 requires the use of different
sensor can be used to verify the integrity of both technologies for OPS and ATG level sensors
systems. (technology diversification).

• A single continuous level sensor can be used for Why select anything but the best also for the OPS
multiple alarms and alerts such as High-High, level sensor?
High, Low, Low-Low. It is not unusual that a single
continuous level sensor replaces 4 separate point-
level sensors. Figure 10.10: 2-in-1 radar level gauge. Figure 10.11: System overview for 2-in-1 radar level measurement.

68 69
 10 - Overfill prevention

The usage of 2-in-1 radar level gauges is based on the

foundation that the antenna has a very low failure
rate in comparison with the electronics. The antenna
is a non-moving mechanical part with approximately
the same Mean Time Between Failures (MTBF) as
the tank itself. Therefore it has been verified by
independent accredited third parties to be compliant
with both IEC 61511 and API 2350. Appendix: Typical tank
gauging configurations
10.4.5 Proof-testing

The purpose of proof-testing is to detect random

hardware failures to verify that commissioned
equipment already in operation functions correctly. Topic Page
It is a critical procedure to maintain the integrity of
the OPS-system and it should therefore be executed
periodically. API 2350 prescribes every 12 months.
A.1 Tank types 72
The traditional approach is a ‘bucket-test’ as depicted
in figure 10.12. This method requires a visit to the A.2 Wireless 76
tank and access to the level sensor while the tank is
temporarily taken out of operation. The procedure A.3 Emulation 78
may be a direct safety concern to the personnel
executing the test since it both exposes the tank to A.4 Redundancy 82
the atmosphere and the bucket contents may be
hazardous. A.5 Overfill prevention 83

With modern continuous level measurement sensors, A.6 RosemountTM Tank Gauging
the proof-test can be initiated remotely from the System 84

Figure 10.12: Traditional approach to proof-testing - bucket testing.

control room or via a dispaly unit in a few minutes.

Additionally, reports can be generated automatically
and the proof-test interval can often be extended.
This reduces labor and the tank’s down-time, but
more importantly, it reduces the overall risk.

70
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations
Floating roof tank
Rosemount 2240S In right still-pipe:
3x Rosemount 5408 Level Transmitters Temperature Rosemount 5900S
measuring floating roof inclination Transmitter Radar Level Gauge
In left still-pipe:
Rosemount 565
Multiple Spot
Temperature Sensor or
Rosemount 765
Multiple Spot
Emerson Temperature and
Wireless 775 Water Level Sensor
THUM Adapter
Rosemount 2410
Tank Hub
Rosemount 5900S
Rosemount 5900C Radar Level Gauge
Radar Level Gauge Rosemount 2240S
Temperature
Transmitter Rosemount 2410
Rosemount 2410 Tank Hub
Tank Hub
Rosemount 2230
Rosemount 3051S Graphical Field Display
Pressure Transmitter

3x Rosemount 5900C In left still-pipe: In right still-pipe:

Radar Level Gauge Rosemount 565 Rosemount 5900S
Rosemount 565 measuring floating roof Multiple Spot Temperature Radar Level Gauge
Multiple Spot Temperature inclination Sensor or
Sensor or Rosemount 765 Emerson
Rosemount 765 Multiple Spot Temperature Wireless 775
Multiple Spot Temperature and Water Level Sensor THUM Adapter
and Water Level Sensor
Rosemount 2410 Rosemount 2410
Tank Hub Tank Hub

72 73
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

Pressurized spherical tank Pressurized horizontal tank

Rosemount 5900S
Radar Level Gauge
and Rosemount 2051
Pressure Transmitters

Rosemount 2230 Rosemount 5300 Rosemount 644

Rosemount 644 Temperature Transmitter
Graphical Field Display Level Transmitter
Temperature Transmitter with single point sensor
Guided Wave Radar
with single point sensor

Rosemount 644
Temperature Transmitter
with single point sensor

Rosemount 3051S
Pressure Transmitter

Rosemount 2410
Tank Hub

74 75
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

A.2 Wireless
Wireless system architecture

Emerson
Wireless
1410S
Gateway Rosemount TankMaster
Temporary Inventory Management
obstacle Emerson Wireless 1410S
Software
Gateway
Permanent
obstacle
Rosemount 5900S
Radar Level Gauge
Emerson Wireless 775
Rosemount 2240S THUM Adapter
Temperature Transmitter
Rosemount 2410

Wired System
Tank Hub

DCS/ Rosemount 2160

Wireless Rosemount 2460
Host
Switch System Hub

Emerson Wireless 775 LAN

THUMTM Adapter

Rosemount 5900S
Radar Level Gauge
Rosemount 2240S Rosemount 3051S
Rosemount 2410 Wireless Pressure
Temperature
Tank Hub Transmitter
Transmitter
Rosemount 565/566 Multiple Spot
Temperature Sensor or Rosemount 765
Host/DCS
Rosemount 3051S Multiple Spot Temperature and Free Water
Pressure Level Sensor
Transmitter

Rosemount TankMaster
Inventory Management Software

Rosemount TankMaster Mobile

Inventory Management Software

All wireless devices communicate with the host system through the wireless gateway. A Rosemount Tank A wireless tank gauging solution designed specifically for every customers’ bulk liquid storage plant maximizes
Gauging System may consist of both wired and wireless networks. safety and operational performance.

76 77
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

A.3 Emulation

Gauge emulation Tank management system replacement

Existing host system from

other vendor
Rosemount TankMaster

Float/servo gauges in an CIU858

existing system from other Rosemount 2460

vendor System Hub
Rosemount 2410
Tank Hub

Rosemount 2410 Float/servo gauges from

Tank Hub Rosemount 5900S other vendor in an existing
Level Gauge system
Rosemount
5900S Level
Gauge Rosemount 5300
or 5408 Level
Transmitter

A Rosemount device can seamlessly replace a gauge from other vendor, independent of measurement Replacing old tank monitoring software with TankMaster.
technology. Data from the tank is displayed as before on the existing inventory management system.

78 79
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

Bridge solutions

Rosemount
Gateway Host/DCS TankMaster

Inventory from
RT
other vendor
ssHA
r ele
Wi

THUM

Wir
eles Rosemount 2460
Rosemount 2410 sHA
RT
Rosemount
Gauges from
5900S
other vendor

THUM

Rosemount 2410 Emergency

Shut-down
System
Rosemount Rosemount
5900S 2240S

Adding a wireless network can bridge the gaps of the legacy bus system. By doing this, the user can get an
additional communication channel for gauging, configuration and diagnostics.

80 81
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

A.4 Redundancy A.5 Overfill Prevention

Rosemount TankMaster
Client PC’s

Automatic Overfill Prevention System (AOPS) Automatic Tank Gauging (ATG)

Independent Rosemount 2240S

Network with multiple spot temperature sensor
Alarm Panel
Switches
Rosemount Rosemount 5900S Radar
5900S Radar Level Gauge
Level Gauge Emerson
Wireless
775 THUM™ Rosemount
Adapter 2230
Graphical
Delta V Field Display
SIS

Rosemount Rosemount
TankMaster 2410
Servers Rosemount Tank Hub
2410
Rosemount 2460 Tank Hub
Tank Hubs

Rosemount 2460
System Hub

Output to Connection
Rosemount 2410 SIS Valve and to TankMaster
Tank Hubs Actuator (optional) Rosemount TankMaster
Inventory Management Emerson Wireless
Software 1410S Gateway

Temperature x 2

Level x 2

Two alternatives for level redundancy

Includes Visual and Audible Level Alert High
Tank Tank and Level Alarm High-High (optional)
Hubs Hubs
or

Two Rosemount Rosemount 5900S.

Pressure x 2 5900S/5900C/5300/5408 2-in-1 Level Gauges

A fully redundant tank gauging system with four levels of redundancy: Tank unit redundancy and field Example of a modern approach to overfill prevention, incorporating an automatic overfill prevention system
communication unit redundancy combined with redundant data servers and redundant operator stations. based on continuous radar level measurement.

82 83
 Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

A.6 Rosemount Tank Gauging System Alternative connection to

Host/DCS/PLC/SCADA

SIS
THUM
2240S 2240S THUM
2410 2410 5900S SIS
2410
2240S 2410
5900S
SIS
LTD 5900C 5900S
5900C
5900C 5900C
1410S

SIS

2410 2230
2240S 5900S

5408
5408 5408
Inventory Management Software
5900S, 2-in-1 2460
+ 2 x pressure transmitters

644
2230 644 5300

644
5300
644
5300
3051S 2230 2410
644
Rosemount TankMaster™ Rosemount TankMaster™ Mobile

644
2410
2410 2410

Rosemount 5900S Radar Level Gauge Rosemount 5900C Radar Level Gauge Rosemount 2240S Rosemount 2140/2160 Rosemount 5408 Rosemount 5300 Rosemount 3308 Emerson Wireless
Multi-input Temperature Level Detector Level Transmitter Level Transmitter Wireless Level 1410S Gateway
Still-pipe Array Horn LPG/LNG 2-in-1 Still-pipe Array Cone LPG/LNG
Transmitter Transmitter
S I VE ATMOS
LO P

HE
EX

RE
IN
KE E

IT
P

CU
GH

TI
I R
T W HEN C

SIL 2/SIL 3 SIL 2

Parabolic Parabolic Rosemount 644 Rosemount Emerson

Temperature 3051S Wireless 775
Transmitter with Pressure THUM™
SI

Transmitter Adapter
SI

L2
SIL 3

Single Point
L2

Temperature
Rosemount Rosemount 765 Sensor
565/566/614 Multiple Spot Rosemount Rosemount 2460 Rosemount 2230
Multiple Spot Temperature and 2410 System Hub Graphical Field Display
Temperature Water Level Sensor Tank Hub
Sensor

84 85
Appendix: Typical tank gauging configurations

References

Topic Page

R.1 Literature references 88

R.2 Figure references 89

86
 References References

References
R.1 Literature references R.2 Figure references
American Petroleum Institute (1983) Manual of Petroleum Measurement Standards. Washington, D.C. Figure 1.4 Photo by courtesy of the Center for
Liquefied Natural Gas
American Petroleum Institute (2012) API 2350. Overfill Protection for Storage Tanks in Petroleum Facilities, Fourth
Edition. Washington D.C. Figure 1.6 “File: Caribbean Petroleum Corporation
Disaster.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons”. Commons.
International Electrotechnical Commission (2016) IEC 61511-1 Functional safety - Safety instrumented systems for wikimedia.org. N.p., 2009. Web. 1 July 2016.
the process industry sector
Figure 2.2 Photo courtesy of Kalibra.
International Organization for Standardization (2002) ISO 4266-4:2002 - Petroleum and liquid petroleum
products - Measurement of level and temperature in storage tanks by automatic methods Figure 10.1 “File: Buncefield.Jpg - Wikimedia
Commons”. Commons.wikimedia.org. N.p., 2003.
International Organization for Standardization (2003) ISO 15169:2003 - Petroleum and liquid petroleum products Web. 1 July 2016.
- Determination of volume, density and mass of the hydrocarbon content of vertical cylindrical tanks by hybrid tank
measurement systems Figure 10.3 “File: FEMA - 42315 - Firefighter At The
Puerto Rico Gas Fire.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons”.
Marsh & McLennan Companies (2011) Risk Engineering Position Paper – 01, Atmospheric Storage Tanks. United Commons.wikimedia.org. N.p., 2009. Web. 5 July
Kingdom 2016.

Organisation Internationale de Métrologie Légale (2008) OIML R 85-1 & 2 – Automatic level gauges for measuring All other figures Copyright Emerson © 2016
the level of liquid in stationary storage tanks. Paris.

88 89
References

About the authors

Lennart Hägg
Former Technical Manager, Rosemount Tank Gauging

Lennart Hägg is a former technical manager with Emerson’s Rosemount

Tank Gauging facility in Gothenburg, Sweden. He holds an MSc in Electronics
Engineering from the Faculty of Engineering (LTH) at Lund University and has
worked with radar based tank gauging in the petroleum industry since the
technology was introduced in the 1980’s. Hägg has participated in the API
committee for tank gauging related standards and represented Sweden within
the ISO 4266 standardization of level and temperature measurement in storage
tanks. In addition, Hägg has been working with OIML in their development of
recommendations for legal metrological requirements on level gauging.

Johan Sandberg
Business Development Manager, Rosemount Tank Gauging

Johan Sandberg holds an MSc in Electronics Engineering from the Institute of

Technology at Linköping University, Sweden. His post-graduate engineering
experience includes service as a Research Engineer at the Swedish National
Defense Research Laboratories - Laser Division. Sandberg began working
with high performance microwave based tank gauging in 1987 as a Systems
Engineer at Saab Tank Control. Working on both marine and shore based radar
tank gauging systems, he moved to the USA where he assumed the position of
Technical Manager - North America. Towards the end of the 1990’s, Sandberg
was appointed Managing Director of the USA tank gauging operations in
Houston, Texas. He is currently a Business Development Manager for Rosemount
Tank Gauging based in Gothenburg, Sweden. During his career, Sandberg
has gained vast experience in the field of tank gauging and overfill prevention
solutions for the refinery and tank storage businesses.

Acknowledgements
This handbook is the result of a joint effort between Emerson colleagues and
customers around the world.

Thanks to all the Emerson tank gauging experts who gave their input to this
project, and laid the foundation of the content.

Thank you also to all the unnamed contributors and all the Rosemount Tank
Gauging users out there!

90
 What is tank gauging?

Tank gauging technologies

Engineering standards and approvals

Volume and mass assessment

Accuracies and uncertainties

Temperature measurement

Liquefied gases

Additional sensors

System architecture

Overfill prevention

Appendix: Typical tank gauging

configurations

References
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Facebook.com/Rosemount

Youtube.com/user/RosemountMeasurement

Emerson.com/Rosemount-TankGauging

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00805-0100-5100, Rev BA 02/21