If we take 𝑉 = 100 𝑉, then the value of 𝜆 can be given as

𝜆 = 1.226 Å

Therefore, the wave length associated with an electron accelerated by the potential
difference of 100𝑉 is 1.226 Å.
2.Describe in detail, the Davisson and Germer's experiment to show that particles behave
like waves.
Ans: The first experimental evidence of matter wave was given by two American physicists.
Davisson and Germer in 1927. They also succeeded in measuring the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with slow electrons. Davisson and Germer were studying the reflection of electrons
from nickel target. Accidentally the nickel target was subjected to such a heat treatment that
the reflection became anomalous. Now the reflected intensity showed striking maxima and
minima. Thus they suspected that electrons are diffracted like X-rays i.e., they behave like
waves under certain conditions.

Schematic of Davisson and Germer's experiment

The apparatus consists of electron gun 𝐺 where the electron are produced and obtained in a
fine pencil of electron beam of known velocity. The electron gun consists of a tungsten
filament 𝐹 heated to dull red so that electrons are emitted due to thermionic emission. Now
the electrons are accelerated in the electric field of known potential difference. After this the
electrons are collimated by suitable slits to obtain a fine beam. The beam of electrons is
directed to fall on a single crystal of nickel, known as target 𝑇.

The electrons, acting like wave, are diffracted in different directions. The angular distribution
is measured by an electron detector (Faraday cylinder 𝐶) which is connected to a galvanometer.
The Faraday cylinder can move on a circular graduated scale 𝑆 between 20° and 90° to receive
the reflected electrons. The Faraday cylinder consists of two walls which are insulated from
each other. A retarding potential is maintained between them so that only fast moving
electrons coming from electron gun may enter inside it. The secondary electrons produced by
collision with atoms from nickel target are reflected by Faraday cylinder. In this way the
galvanometer deflection is only due to electrons coming from electron gun.
 (a) (b)

(a)Variation of number of scattered electrons (b)Braggs angle from X-Ray analysis

with 𝜃

The Faraday cylinder was moved on the circular scale and for a given accelerating voltage
𝑉, the scattering curve showed a peak in a particular direction 𝜗. With the electron beam
incident perpendicular to the crystal surface, the pronounced scattering direction was found to
be 50° for electron accelerated to 54 volts. Under these conditions, the surface rows of atoms
act like the ruling of a diffraction grating, producing the first order spectrum of 54 volts
electrons at 𝜗 = 50° .

According to de-Broglie electron wave

12.26
𝜆= = 1.67 Å
√54

From X-rays analysis, it is known that a nickel crystal acts as a plane diffraction grating
with grating space 𝑑 = 0.909 × 10−10 𝑚, according to the experiment. we have diffracted
electron beam at 𝜃 = 50° . The corresponding Bragg's angle is 𝜃′ =
180−50
= 65°
2

Using the Bragg's formula, 2𝑑 sin 𝜃′ = 𝑛𝜆

2 × 0.909 × 10−10 sin 65° = 1𝜆. [∵ 𝑛 = 1]
∴ 𝜆 = 1.65 × 10−10 𝑚 = 1.65 Å

As the two values are in good agreement, hence confirms the de-Broglie concept of
matter waves.
3.Describe in detail, the G.P.Thomson experiment to show that particles behave like waves.
Ans: G.P.Thomson performed experiment with electrons accelerated from 10,000 to 50,000
volts. In his experiments, he observed diffraction patterns exactly similar to X=rays patterns.
Moreover, he was able to determine the wavelengths associated with electrons. Thomson
experiments supported the concept of matter waves since the diffraction pattern is possible
only if the waves are associated with material particle.

Experimental arrangement for beam diffraction

The high energy electron beam is produced by the cathode 𝐶. The beam is excited with
potentials up to 50,000 volts. A fine pencil of electron beam is obtained by passing it through
the slit 𝑆. The accelerated fine beam of electrons fall on a film 𝐺 made up of gold (or) aluminum
having very small thickness (nearly 10−6cm). The photograph of the beam from the thin foil is
recorded on a photographic 𝑃. The total set up is placed in vacuum chamber, so that the
electrons may not lose their energy due to the collisions with the molecules of the gas.

central spot Diffraction pattern

°Electron diffraction pattern with the gold foil

After developing the plate, a symmetrical pattern consisting of concentric rings about a
central spot is obtained. This pattern is similar as produced by X-rays. In order to make sure
that this pattern is due to the electrons and not due to X-rays, the electron beam in the
discharge tube is deflected by external magnetic field. A shift in the electron beam direction has
been observed with the applied magnetic field. It shoes that the pattern is produced by
electrons and not by X-rays.
 The observed rings can be interpreted only by considering the diffraction pattern of the
electron beam which is due to the gold/aluminum foil. As the diffraction pattern can only be
produced by waves and not by the particles, Thomson concluded that the electrons behave like
waves.

The following conclusions have been drawn from the experiment:

1. Thomson experiment clearly demonstrated the existence of matter waves because

the diffraction pattern can be produced by the waves.
2. Thomson calculated the wavelength associated with the electrons with the help of
diffraction rings.
3. The calculated wavelength obtained by diffraction pattern agree well with
wavelengths obtained by de-Broglie's relation.
4. The associated wavelength depends only on the accelerating voltage and is
independent of the material of the target.

4.State and explain Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

Ans: Due to the nature of material particles, it is very difficult to locate the exact location and
the momentum of the particle simultaneously. This uncertainty was explained by Heisenberg
through his uncertainty principle.

The Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that it is not possible to simultaneously

measure the position and the momentum of a particle to any desired degree of accuracy. In
other words, the product of uncertainty in the measurement of position(∆𝑥) and uncertainty in
the measurement of momentum (∆𝑝) is always constant, and it is at least equal to Plank's
constant (ℎ), i.e.,

∆𝑝. ∆𝑥 = ℎ

If the uncertainty in the measurement of position increases then uncertainty in the

measurement of momentum will decrease and vice versa.

∆𝐸 ∙ ∆𝑡 = ℎ

∆𝐽 ∙ ∆𝜃 = ℎ

where ∆𝐸 and ∆𝑡 are the uncertainties in determining energy and time, respective ∆𝐽 and ∆𝜃
are the uncertainty in the measurement of angular momentum and angle respectively.
It has been experimentally observed that the product of uncertainty in position and
momentum is equal to or greater than ℎ/4𝜋, i.e.,
 ℎ
∆𝑝 ∙ ∆𝑥 ≥
4𝜋

where ℎ is Planck's constant.

5.Explain the physical significance of wave function.

Ans: We know that waves are characterized by certain definite properties. In case of
electromagnetic waves, the electric and magnetic fields vary periodically, whereas in sound
waves, pressure varies periodically. In matter waves, a quantity called wave function, denoted
by Ѱ, varies. Schrodinger described the amplitude of matter waves in terms of wave function
Ѱ.

For the physical interpretation of wave function Ѱ, it was initially consider as an important
observable property of system. In the beginning, it was considered that wave function Ѱ is
merely an auxiliary mathematical quantity employed to facilitate computations relative to the
experimental results. But very soon, it was realised that it is not reasonable, because the
introduction of an isolated mathematical function without enquiring into its physical
significance is not justified.

The simple effort was by Schrodinger himself for the physical interpretation of Ѱ in terms of
charge density. It is well known that in any electromagnetic wave system, if 𝐴 is the amplitude
of the wave, then the energy density is equal to 𝐴2 , so that the number of photons per unit
volume i.e., the photon density = 𝐴2 /ℎ𝑣. If Ѱ is the amplitude of the matter waves at any point
in space, then the particle density at that point will be proportional to Ѱ2 . If 𝑞 is the electric
charge on a particle density is the measure of charge density. Since Ѱ is a complex quantity,
therefore it is usually written as Ѱ∗ Ѱ instead of Ѱ2 , where Ѱ∗ is the complex conjugate of Ѱ.

Although the physical interpretation of wave function Ѱ given by Schrodinger is satisfactory

in most the cases, the difficulty arises when we wish to follow the fight of a single electron or
any material particle. It has been observed that in some cases, Ѱ is appreciable different from
zero in some finite region known as wave packet. Now, the natural question arises "Where is
the particle in relation to the wave packet?". To answer this question, Max Born in1926 and
then Bohr, Dirac, and Heisenberg suggested a new idea about the physical significance of Ѱ,
which is generally accepted till today. According to this idea, ѰѰ∗ = |Ѱ|2 gives the probability
of finding a particle in a volume 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑑𝑥 ∙ 𝑑𝑦 ∙ 𝑑𝑧 at any point 𝑟(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) at time 𝑡 is expressed
as

𝑃(𝑟, 𝑡)𝑑𝜏 = ∫|Ѱ(𝑟, 𝑡)|2 𝑑𝜏

Since the total probability of finding the selected region of space is unity, i.e., particle is
certain to be found somewhere in that space, thus above expression can be given as

∭|Ѱ|2 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 = 1
 𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒
⇒ (1 − )=𝜀
3𝜀0 0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝑁𝛼𝑒
⇒1= +
𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1) 3𝜀0

𝑁𝛼𝑒 1 1
⇒1= (𝜀 + )
𝜀0 𝑟 −1 3

𝑁𝛼𝑒 3
⇒1= (1 + 𝜀 )
𝜀0 𝑟 −1

𝑁𝛼𝑒 𝜀𝑟 +2
⇒1= (𝜀 )
3𝜀0 𝑟 −1

𝜀𝑟 +2 𝑁𝛼𝑒
⇒( ) =
𝜀𝑟 −1 3𝜀0

Hence Claussius–Mossotti’s Relation is obtained.

7. Explain the frequency dependence of different polarizations.

Ans : The dielectrics constant is given in terms of total polarisation
𝑃⃗(𝑃⃗ = 𝑃⃗0 + 𝑃⃗𝑖 + 𝑃⃗𝑒 ). The variation of polarisation in different frequency regions can be
explained as follows:

(i) Below the frequency of 106 Hz: The dielectric constant of a material depends on its
total polarisation, i.e., 𝑃⃗ (𝑃⃗ = 𝑃⃗0 + 𝑃⃗𝑖 + 𝑃⃗𝑒 ) . It has been observed that below the
frequency of 106 Hz, the polarisation is able to follow the alteration (i.e., change in
cycle from positive to negative and vice versa) of the field without any significant
time lag. Thus, the dielectric constant of the material is almost constant and is
equal to its static value.
The behavior of dielectric constant inn this frequency region could be explained
the basis of the relaxation time of electric dipoles. At low frequency, the dipoles get
sufficient time to orient themselves according to instantaneous direction of the
field. The average time taken by the dipole to orient themselves in the field
direction in one complete cycle is known as relaxation time (t). The reciprocal of
relaxation time is called relaxation frequency. The frequency of the applied field
(< 106 Hz)is in good agreement with the relaxation frequency of electric dipoles.
Hence, the dipoles easily follow the direction (charge) of electric at low
frequencies.

(ii) In radio frequency range or microwave band region(106 -1014 Hz) :In this frequency
region, dipoles fail to follow the field reversal, i.e., the orientation polarisation
ceases. Hence, the total polarisation is due to ionic and electronic polarisation
(i.e. P = Pi + Pe). As a result, dielectric constant decreases rapidly.

(iii) Infrared region(1011 - 1014 Hz) :It is observed that up to infrared region, the dipoles
follow ionic polarisation. But at higher frequencies, usually in the frequency range
10 - 1014 Hz, the relatively heavy positive and negative ions fail to follow the field
11

reversal. Hence, the contribution of ionic polarisation becomes zero in this

frequency region. In this way, only electronic polarisation contributes to total
polarisation (i.e., P = Pe).

(iv) Optical region :In this range, the electron clouds follow the field variation. Thus, the
dielectric copnstant is almost entirely due to electronic polarisation. The relative
permittivity or the dielectric constant in this constant in this region is equal to the
square of refractive index n of the dielectric, i.e., 𝜀𝑟 in optical region = n2
In infrared region (~1015 Hz), only electronic polarisation contributes to polarisation.
The variation of dielectric connstant with frequency shoe a bell -shaped profile.

(v) Ultraviolet frequency region (> 1015 Hz) : In this frequency region, the electron
clouds toobecom unable to follow the field reversal. Thus, electronic contribution to
polarisation becomes zero. In this way, the total polarisation becomes zero
(i.e., P = 0). Now, according to the equation, 𝜖𝑟 = 1 + 𝑃/𝐷 , the dielectric
constant becomes unity.

8. Mention the applications of dielectric materials in various fields.

Ans : Dielectric materials have a large number of applications in the field of engineering,
medicine, industries and research. Some important applications are as follows:

(i) Dielectric materials having low dielectric constant are widely used in engineering,
microelectronics, industries, computers, and medical equipments, etc.

(ii) Dielectric materials having high value of dielectric constant are frequently used in
semiconducting manufacturing processes in which silicon dioxide is not suitable.

(iii) Dielectric materials having high value of dielectric constant are commonnly in
microchips, integrated circuits, microprocessors, computers, and so onn.
(iv) The heating property of dielectric materials is widely used inn dehydrationn of food,
tobacco, etc.

(v) They are also used in microwave ovens and other home appliances.

(vi) The use of dielectric materials as an insulator is onne of its most popular and
important applications.

(vii) Dielectrics also have wide applications in ceramics.

(viii) Dielectric heating is used to laminate important documents, in photostat machines,

and to stick the layers of transparent plastic for protection of sheets used in the
production of usable items.

(xi) Liquid dielectric are used as a filling medium for transformers, circuit breakers, etc.

9. If the radius of hydrogen atom is 0.55 nm, then calculate the electronic
polarizability and relative permittivity. Given that the number of atoms in
hydrogen gas is 9.8 × 1026 atoms/cm3.
Ans :
we Know that the electronic polarisability

𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
where R is the radius of atom
𝛼𝑒 = 4 × 3.14 × 8.85 × 10−12 × (0.055 × 10−9 )3
𝛼𝑒 = 1.849 × 10−41 𝐹𝑚2

In order to calculate relative permittivity, let us start with the expression

𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
𝛼𝑒 =
𝑁

𝜀0 (𝜀𝑟 −1)
where 𝛼𝑒 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 3 =
𝑁

𝜀𝑟 = 1 + 4𝜋𝑁𝑅3
= 1 + 4 × 3.14 × (9.8 × 1026 /𝑚3 ) × (0.055 × 10−9 )3
= 1.002048

10. If a non-polar dielectric sample has its dielectric constant 4 and refractive
index 1.5, then calculate the ratio of its electronic and ionic polarizabilities.