15.Explain working principle of Yagi-Uda antenna.

What
are its advantages disadvantages and application(MAY-
14)

ans :- Yagi-Uda antenna is the most commonly used type of antenna

for TV reception over the last few decades. It is the most popular and
easy-to-use type of antenna with better performance, which is famous
for its high gain and directivity

Frequency range

The frequency range in which the Yagi-Uda antennas operate is

around 30 MHz to 3GHz which belong to the VHF and UHFbands.

Construction of Yagi-Uda Antenna

A Yagi-Uda antenna was seen on top of almost every house during the
past decades. The parasitic elements and the dipole together form this
Yagi-Uda antenna.

The figure shows a Yagi-Uda antenna. It is seen that there are many
directors placed to increase the directivity of the antenna. The feeder is
the folded dipole. The reflector is the lengthy element, which is at the
end of the structure.

The figure depicts a clear form of the Yagi-Uda antenna. The center rod
like structure on which the elements are mounted is called as boom. The
element to which a thick black head is connected is the driven

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element to which the transmission line is connected internally, through
that black stud. The single element present at the back of the driven
element is the reflector, which reflects all the energy towards the
direction of the radiation pattern. The other elements, before the driven
element, are the directors, which direct the beam towards the desired
angle.

Designing
For this antenna to be designed, the following design specifications
should be followed.

They are −

ELEMENT SPECIFICATION

Length of the Driven Element 0.458λ to 0.5λ

Length of the Reflector 0.55λ to 0.58λ

Length of the Director 1 0.45λ

Length of the Director 2 0.40λ

Length of the Director 3 0.35λ

Spacing between Directors 0.2λ

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Reflector to dipole spacing 0.35λ

Dipole to Director spacing 0.125λ

If the specifications given above are followed, one can design an Yagi-
Uda antenna.

Radiation Pattern
The directional pattern of the Yagi-Uda antenna is highly directive as
shown in the figure given below.

The minor lobes are suppressed and the directivity of the major lobe is
increased by the addition of directors to the antenna.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Yagi-Uda antennas −

• High gain is achieved.

• High directivity is achieved.

• Ease of handling and maintenance.

• Less amount of power is wasted.

• Broader coverage of frequencies.

Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Yagi-Uda antennas −

• Prone to noise.

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 • Prone to atmospheric effects.

Applications
The following are the applications of Yagi-Uda antennas −

• Mostly used for TV reception.

• Used where a single-frequency application is needed.

10.With suitable diagram explain log periodic antenna

its application(DEC-13,DEC-14,MAY-12,MAY-13,MAY-14)
Ans. The Yagi-Uda antenna is mostly used for domestic purpose.
However, for commercial purpose and to tune over a range of
frequencies, we need to have another antenna known as the Log-
periodic antenna. A Log-periodic antenna is that whose impedance is a
logarithamically periodic function of frequency.

Frequency range
The frequency range, in which the log-periodic antennas operate is
around 30 MHz to 3GHz which belong to the VHF and UHFbands.

Construction & Working of Log-periodic

Antenna
The construction and operation of a log-periodic antenna is similar to
that of a Yagi-Uda antenna. The main advantage of this antenna is that it
exhibits constant characteristics over a desired frequency range of
operation. It has the same radiation resistance and therefore the same
SWR. The gain and front-to-back ratio are also the same.

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The image shows a log-periodic antenna.

With the change in operation frequency, the active region shifts among
the elements and hence all the elements will not be active only on a
single frequency. This is its special characteristic.

There are several type of log-periodic antennas such as the planar,

trapezoidal, zig-zag, V-type, slot and the dipole. The mostly used one is
log-periodic dipole array, in short, LPDA.

The diagram of log-periodic array is given above.

The physical structure and electrical characteristics, when observed, are

repetitive in nature. The array consists of dipoles of different lengths and
spacing, which are fed from a two-wire transmission line. This line is
transposed between each adjacent pair of dipoles.

The dipole lengths and seperations are related by the formula −

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 R1R2=R2R3=R3R4=T=l1l2=l2l3=l3l4R1R2=R2R3=R3R4=T=l1l2=l2l3=l3l4

Where

• т is the design ratio and т<1

• R is the distance between the feed and the dipole

• l is the length of the dipole.

The directive gains obtained are low to moderate. The radiational

patterns may be Unidirectional or Bi-directional.

Radiation Pattern
The Radiation pattern of log-periodic antenna can be of uni-directional or
bi-directional, depending upon the log periodic structures.

For uni-directional Log-periodic antenna, the radiation towards

shorter element is of considerable amount, whereas in forward direction,
it is small or zero.

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The radiational pattern for uni-directional log-periodic antenna is given
above.

For bi-directional Log-periodic antenna, the maximum radiation is in

broad side, which is normal to the surface of the antenna.

The figure given above shows the radiational pattern for a bi-directional
log-periodic antenna.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Log-periodic antennas −

• The antenna design is compact.

• Gain and radiation pattern are varied according to the requirements.

Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Log-periodic antennas −

• External mount.

• Installation cost is high.

Applications
The following are the applications of Log-periodic antennas −

• Used for HF communications.

• Used for particular sort of TV receptions.

• Used for all round monitoring in higher frequency bands.

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 1.Explain principle of pattern multiplication with suitable
example and its application in linear and non linear
array(DEC-10,DEC-11,DEC-14,MAY-11,MAY-12,MAY-
14(Example with λ))

The basic methodology for analyzing an array of identical elements

is established.

enter image description here

As shown in Fig.5 (a), let us consider an array of N identical

elements. The position vector of the ith element is given by ri. The
excitation of ith element is given Ciejsi; where Ci and ai are
respectively the relative amplitudes and phases.

Let the electric field radiated by an element, when placed at the

origin and with an unity excitation is given by

E(r)=f(θ,ϕ)e−jk0r4πr...................(1)

The distance from the ith element to the far field point of interest is
Ri=r−a^rrifor phase variation and Ri=r for amplitude variation.

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 The total electric field at the point P is given by

E(r)
=∑Ni=1Ciejaif(θ,ϕ)ejk0(r−a^r.ri)r=f(θ,ϕ)ejk0rr∑Ni=1Ciej(ai+k0a^r
.ri)...............(2)

As can be seen from (2), the total radiation field is given by the
product of the radiation field of the reference element and the term

∑i=1NCiee(ai+k0a^r.r)

The term F(θ,ϕ)=∑Ni=1Ciej(ai+k0a^r.ri)...............(3)

The directivity of the array D(θ,ϕ)∞|f(θ,ϕ)|2|F(θ,ϕ)|2. Thus we find

that the radiation pattern of an array is the product of the function
of the individual element with the array pattern function. This
termed as principle of pattern multiplication.

If we consider isotropic elements then f(θ,ϕ)=1; hence the radiation

pattern of the array depends only on the array factor |F(θ,ϕ)|.
Further, it is worth mentioning here that while discussing the
properties of array we are neglecting the effect of radiation of one
element on the source distribution of the other, i.e., we assume
that mutual coupling effect among the elements of the array are
neglected. Such effects are included when very accurate
characterization of arrays is required.

1.Explain types of horn antenna. Find its directivity and

beamwidth(DEC-10,DEC-13,MAY-

Ans :-To improve the radiation efficiency and directivity of the beam,
the wave guide should be provided with an extended aperture to make
the abrupt discontinuity of the wave into a gradual transformation. So

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that all the energy in the forward direction gets radiated. This can be
termed as Flaring. Now, this can be done using a horn antenna.

Frequency Range
The operational frequency range of a horn antenna is around 300MHz to
30GHz. This antenna works in UHF and SHFfrequency ranges.

Construction & Working of Horn Antenna

The energy of the beam when slowly transform into radiation, the losses
are reduced and the focussing of the beam improves. A Horn
antenna may be considered as a flared out wave guide, by which the
directivity is improved and the diffraction is reduced.

The above image shows the model of a horn antenna. The flaring of the
horn is clearly shown. There are several horn configurations out of which,
three configurations are most commonly used.

Sectoral horn
This type of horn antenna, flares out in only one direction. Flaring in the
direction of Electric vector produces the sectorial E-plane horn.
Similarly, flaring in the direction of Magnetic vector, produces
the sectorial H-plane horn.

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Pyramidal horn
This type of horn antenna has flaring on both sides. If flaring is done on
both the E & H walls of a rectangular waveguide, then pyramidal horn
antenna is produced. This antenna has the shape of a truncated
pyramid.

Conical horn
When the walls of a circular wave guide are flared, it is known as
a conical horn. This is a logical termination of a circular wave guide.

The above figures show the types of horn configurations, which were
discussed earlier.

Flaring helps to match the antenna impedance with the free space
impedance for better radiation. It avoids standing wave ratio and
provides greater directivity and narrower beam width. The flared wave
guide can be technically termed as Electromagnetic Horn Radiator.

Flare angle, Φ of the horn antenna is an important factor to be

considered. If this is too small, then the resulting wave will be spherical
instead of plane and the radiated beam will not be directive. Hence, the

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flare angle should have an optimum value and is closely related to its
length.

Combinations
Horn antennas, may also be combined with parabolic reflector antennas
to form special type of horn antennas. These are −

• Cass-horn antenna

• Hog-horn or triply folded horn reflector

In Cass-horn antenna, radio waves are collected by the large bottom

surface, which is parabolically curved and reflected upward at 45° angle.
After hitting top surface, they are reflected to the focal point. The gain
and beam width of these are just like parabolic reflectors.

In hog-horn antenna, a parabolic cylinder is joined to pyramidal horn,

where the beam reaches apex of the horn. It forms a low-noise
microwave antenna. The main advantage of hog-horn antenna is that its
receiving point does not move, though the antenna is rotated about its
axis.

Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of a horn antenna is a Spherical Wave front. The
following figure shows the radiation pattern of horn antenna. The wave
radiates from the aperture, minimizing the diffraction of waves. The
flaring keeps the beam focussed. The radiated beam has high directivity.

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Advantages
The following are the advantages of Horn antenna −

• Small minor lobes are formed

• Impedance matching is good

• Greater directivity

• Narrower beam width

• Standing waves are avoided

Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Horn antenna −

• Designing of flare angle, decides the directivity

• Flare angle and length of the flare should not be very small

Applications
The following are the applications of Horn antenna −

• Used for astronomical studies

• Used in microwave applications

5.Describe parabolic reflector and Explain different types of feed

systems for paraboloid reflector.

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Parabolic Reflectors are Microwave antennas. For better understanding
of these antennas, the concept of parabolic reflector has to be discussed.

Frequency Range
The frequency range used for the application of Parabolic reflector
antennas is above 1MHz. These antennas are widely used for radio and
wireless applications.

Principle of Operation
The standard definition of a parabola is - Locus of a point, which moves
in such a way that its distance from the fixed point (called focus) plus its
distance from a straight line (called directrix) is constant.

The following figure shows the geometry of parabolic reflector. The

point F is the focus (feed is given) and V is the vertex. The line joining F
and V is the axis of symmetry. PQ are the reflected rays
where L represents the line directrix on which the reflected points lie (to
say that they are being collinear). Hence, as per the above definition, the
distance between F and L lie constant with respect to the waves being
focussed.

The reflected wave forms a colllimated wave front, out of the parabolic
shape. The ratio of focal length to aperture size (ie., f/D) known as “f
over D ratio” is an important parameter of parabolic reflector. Its value
varies from 0.25 to 0.50.

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The law of reflection states that the angle of incidence and the angle of
reflection are equal. This law when used along with a parabola, helps the
beam focus. The shape of the

parabola when used for the purpose of reflection of waves, exhibits some
properties of the parabola, which are helpful for building an antenna,
using the waves reflected.

Properties of Parabola
• All the waves originating from focus, reflects back to the parabolic axis.
Hence, all the waves reaching the aperture are in phase.

• As the waves are in phase, the beam of radiation along the parabolic axis will
be strong and concentrated.

Following these points, the parabolic reflectors help in producing high

directivity with narrower beam width.

Construction & Working of a Parabolic

Reflector
If a Parabolic Reflector antenna is used for transmitting a signal, the
signal from the feed, comes out of a dipole or a horn antenna, to focus
the wave on to the parabola. It means that, the waves come out of the
focal point and strike the Paraboloidal reflector. This wave now gets
reflected as collimated wave front, as discussed previously, to get
transmitted.

The same antenna is used as a receiver. When the electromagnetic wave

hits the shape of the parabola, the wave gets reflected onto the feed
point. The dipole or the horn antenna, which acts as the receiver antenna
at its feed, receives this signal, to convert it into electric signal and
forwards it to the receiver circuitry.

The following image shows a Parabolic Reflector Antenna.

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The gain of the paraboloid is a function of aperture ratio (D/λ). The
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) of an antenna is the multiplication of the
input power fed to the antenna and its power gain.

Usually a wave guide horn antenna is used as a feed radiator for the
paraboloid reflector antenna. Along with this technique, we have another
type of feed given to the paraboloid reflector antenna, called as
Cassegrain feed.

Cassegrain Feed
Casse grain is another type of feed given to the reflector antenna. In this
type, the feed is located at the vertex of the paraboloid, unlike in the
parabolic reflector. A convex shaped reflector, which acts as a
hyperboloid is placed opposite to the feed of the antenna. It is also
known as secondary hyperboloid reflector or sub-reflector. It is
placed such that its one of the foci coincides with the focus of the
paraboloid. Thus, the wave gets reflected twice.

The above figure shows the working model of cassegrain feed.

Working of a Cassegrain Antenna

When the antenna acts as a transmitting antenna, the energy from the
feed radiates through a horn antenna onto the hyperboloid concave
reflector, which again reflects back on to the parabolic reflector. The

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signal gets reflected into the space from there. Hence, wastage of power
is controlled and the directivity gets improved.

When the same antenna is used for reception, the electromagnetic waves
strike the reflector, gets reflected on to the concave hyperboloid and
from there, it reaches to the feed. A wave guide horn antenna presents
there to receive this signal and sends to the receiver circuitry for
amplification.

Take a look at the following image. It shows a paraboloid reflector with

cassegrain feed.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Parabolic reflector antenna −

• Reduction of minor lobes

• Wastage of power is reduced

• Equivalent focal length is achieved

• Feed can be placed in any location, according to our convenience

• Adjustment of beam (narrowing or widening) is done by adjusting the

reflecting surfaces

Disadvantage
The following is the disadvantage of a Parabolic reflector antenna −

• Some of the power that gets reflected from the parabolic reflector is
obstructed. This becomes a problem with small dimension paraboloid.

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Applications
The following are the applications of Parabolic reflector antenna −

• The cassegrain feed parabolic reflector is mainly used in satellite

communications.

• Also used in wireless telecommunication systems.

Let us look at the other type of feed called as Gregorian feed for the
parabolic reflectors.

Gregorian Feed
This is another type of feed used. A pair of certain configurations are
there, where the feed beamwidth is progressively increased while
antenna dimensions are held fixed. Such a type of feed is known as
Gregorian feed. Here, the convex shaped hyperboloid of casssegrain is
replaced with a concave shaped paraboloid reflector, which is of course,
smaller in size

These Gregorian feed type reflectors can be used in four ways −

• Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F1.

• Gregorian systems using reflector ellipsoidal sub-reflector at foci F2.

• Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (convex).

• Cassegrain systems using hyperboloid sub-reflector (concave but the feed

being very near to it.)

These are all just to mention because they are not popular and are not
widely used. They have got their limitations.

The figure clearly depicts the working pattern of all the types of
reflectors. There are other types of paraboloid Reflectors such as −

• Cut- paraboloid

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 • Parabolic cylinder

• Pill-box paraboloid

However, all of them are seldom used because of the limitations and
disavantages they have in their working conditions.

Hence, of all the types of reflector antennas, the simple parabolic

reflectors and the cassegrain feed parabolic reflectors are the most
commonly used ones.

7.Explain corner reflector and plane reflector and

explain its applications(MAY-10)

Plane Reflector Antenna

The figure-1 depicts plane reflector antenna type. It consists of

primary antenna and reflecting surface. With this arrangement, it is
useful to radiate EM energy in the desired direction but not possible
to collimate energy in forward direction.
Following parameters depend on position of primary antenna and its
polarization in the plane reflector antenna:
• Radiation Pattern
• Impedance
• Gain
• Directivity
Corner Reflector Antenna

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The figure-2 depicts corner reflector antenna type. It consists of
two or three mutually intersecting conducting flat surfaces. In this
type, feed element can be either dipole or array of collinear dipoles.
Dihedral form is most popular in this type of antenna reflector.
Trihedral forms with mutually perpendicular surfaces are used for
radar target application.
The corner reflector antenna type is used to achieve collimation of
EM energy in forward direction. It is used to suppress radiation in
the backward and in the side directions.

1.Explain working principle of microstrip antenna with help of

transmission line model.Also give its application.(DEC-10,MAY-
10,MAY-11,MAY-12)

Micro strip antennas are low-profile antennas. A metal patch mounted at

a ground level with a di-electric material in-between constitutes a Micro
strip or Patch Antenna. These are very low size antennas having low
radiation.

Frequency Range
The patch antennas are popular for low profile applications at frequencies
above 100MHz.

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Construction & Working of Micro strip
Antennas
Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a
ground plane with a di-electric material in-between. The radiating
element and feed lines are placed by the process of photo-etching on the
di-electric material. Usually, the patch or micro-strip is choosen to be
square, circular or rectangular in shape for the ease of analysis and
fabrication. The following image shows a micro-strip or patch antenna.

The length of the metal patch is λ/2. When the antenna is excited, the
waves generated within the di-electric undergo reflections and the
energyis radiated from the edges of the metal patch,which is very low.

Radiation Pattern
The radiation pattern of microstrip or patch antenna is broad. It has low
radiation power and narrow frequency bandwidth.

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The radiation pattern of a microstrip or patch antenna is shown above.
It has lesser directivity. To have a greater directivity, an array can be
formed by using these patch antennas.

Advantages
The following are the advantages of Micro strip antenna −

• Lighteweight

• Low cost

• Ease of installation

Disadvantages
The following are the disadvantages of Micro strip antenna −

• Inefficient radiation

• Narrow frequency bandwidth

Applications

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The following are the applications of Micro strip antenna −

• Used in Space craft applications

• Used in Air craft applications

• Used in Low profile antenna applications

3.Explain sky wave propagation.(DEC-10,DEC-14)

Sky wave Propagation

In communication system electromagnetic waves are used. When these

electromagnetic waves hits the ionosphere containing ions they are reflected back
towards the surface of the earth.

Lower frequency electromagnetic wave is reflected by a lower layer with less

ionisation strength, while higher frequency electromagnetic wave is reflected by a
higher layer with high ionisation strength. Upto a certain value of frequency the
wave can be reflected back and the wave beyond that frequency will not be
reflected instead it escape in space.

The frequency range for sky wave propagation is from 3 MHz to 32 MHz

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The phenomenon responsible for sky wave propagation is reflection due to
ionosphere and the type of reflection is total internal reflection.

Advantages

Sky wave propagation can be used for long distance communication.

7.Explain ionospheric propagation.Define critical frequency,MUF

and OWF.(DEC-12,DEC-

Ionospheric Propagation

The ionosphere exists between about 90 and 1000 km above the earth’s
surface. Radiation from the sun ionizes atoms and molecules here,
liberating electrons from molecules and creating a space of free electron
and ions. Subjected to an external electric field from a radio signal, these
free and ions will experience a force and be pushed into motion. However,
since the mass of the ions is much larger than the mass of the electrons,
ionic motions are relatively small and will be ignored here. Free electron
densities on the order of 1010 to 1012 electrons per cubic metre are
produced by ionization from the sun’s rays. Layers of high densities of
electrons are given special names called the D, E, and F layers Electron
density as a function of altitude, and various ionospheric layers Radio
waves below 40 MHz are significantly affected by the ionosphere,
primarily because radio waves in this frequency range are effectively
reflected by the ionosphere. The E and F layers are the most important
for this process. For frequencies beyond 40 MHz, the wave tend to
penetrate through the atmosphere versus being reflected.

0
a) Critical frequency:

It is that highest frequency radio wave, which sent normally towards layer
of ionosphere gets reflected back & returns to the earth.

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fαN−−√f=gN−−√f=g(Nmax)12fαNf=gNf=g(Nmax)12
where, N → free electron density

b) Maximum usable frequency (MUF):

It is that highest frequency of radio waves which when sent at some angle
towards ionosphere, gets reflected and returns to the surface of the earth.

MUF=fccosiMUF=fc.sec(i)Also,MUF=fc1−D24h2−−−−−−−√MUF=fcc
os⁡⁡iMUF=fc.sec⁡⁡(i)Also,MUF=fc1−D24h2
Where , D → skip distancei → Angle between normal and direction
of incident wave.D → skip distancei → Angle between normal and
direction of incident wave.
c) Optimum working frequency (OWF):

The frequency normally used for ionosphere transmission is known as

optimum working frequency. Usually, it is taken as 15% of MVF.

10.Explain ground wave propagation(DEC-13,MAY-14)

Ground wave propagation

Ground wave propagation is used for transmitting low frequency signals. In this
propagation the signal wave is parallel to ground. While this transmission there is

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oscillation of wave, so they induce another wave in the surface of the earth as in
figure.

The induced wave in the ground attenuate electromagnetic wave at a short range,
hence ground wave propagation is only used for short range communication.

The attenuation of surface waves increases very rapidly with increase in frequency,
hence ground wave propagation is used for low frequency and large wavelength
i.e. AM waves.

The range of frequency is from a few KHz to few MHz (5 MHz).

Advantages

As the ground wave propagation support large wavelength, the wave can bend
round the corners/obstructions more efficiently.

Disadvantages

• Ground wave propagation can only be used for short range.

• As it is amplitude modulated, it gathers noise while transmission.
• As the frequency range is also small only a limited number of transmitters can
be used.

As ground wave propagation works with low frequency range and short distance,
so it is not suitable for radio signal transmission hence, the use of ground wave
propagation is very limited.

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