INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION AND ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE SYSTEM (2020-2021)

CHAPTER 01

INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION SYSTEM

1. INTRODUCTION
The two types of ISA systems, passive and active, differ in that passive systems simply warn
the driver of the vehicle travelling at a speed in excess of the speed limit, while active
systems intervene and automatically correct the vehicle’s speed to conform with the speed
limit. Passive systems are generally driver advisory systems: They alert the driver to the fact
that they are speeding, provide information as to the speed limit, and allow the driver to make
a choice on what action should be taken. These systems usually display visual or auditory
cues, such as auditory and visual warnings and may include tactile cues such as a vibration of
the accelerator pedal. Some passive ISA technology trials have used vehicle modified to
provide haptic feedback, wherein the accelerator pedal becomes more resistant to movement
(i.e., harder to push down) when the vehicle travels over the speed limit. Active ISA systems
actually reduce or limit the vehicle’s speed automatically by manipulating the engine and/or
braking systems. Most active ISA systems provide an override system so that the driver can
disable the ISA, if necessary, on a temporary basis

1.1 Speed and location determining/ verification technology

There are four types of technology currently available for determining local speed limits on a
road and determining the speed of the vehicle.

These are:

1. GPS.
2. Radio Beacons
3. Optical Recognition System
4. Dead Reckoning

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1.2 Global Positioning System (GPS)

GPS is based on a network of satellites that constantly transmit radio signals. GPS receivers
pick up these transmissions and compare the signals from several satellites in order to
pinpoint the receiver’s location to within a few meters. This is done by comparing the time at
which the signal was sent from the satellite to when it was picked up by the receiver.figure1.1
shows GPS system access through car. There are currently 24 satellites making up the GPS
network, and their orbits are configured so that a minimum of five satellites are available at
any one time for terrestrial users. Four satellites is the minimum number of satellites required
to determine a precise three-dimensional position.

Satellite
Dashboard

Radio signals
Local speed
limiter

Fig. 1.1 GPS ACCESS THROUGH CAR

The popularity of GPS in current ISA and in car navigation systems may give the impression
that GPS is flawless, but this is not the case. GPS is subject to a number of fundamental
problems. Many of these problems relate to the accuracy of the determined position. The
receiver still gets the signal from the satellites, but due to satellites' ephemeris uncertainties,
propagation errors, timing errors, multiple signal propagation path, and receiver noises, the
position given can be inaccurate. In most situations this may not matter, but these
inaccuracies can be important in circumstances where a high speed road is located
immediately adjacent to roads with much lower speed limits (e.g., residential streets). It does
not function when the receiver is underground or in tunnel, and the signal can became weak if
tall buildings, trees, or heavy clouds come between receiver and satellite.

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1.3 Radio Beacons

Roadside radio beacons, or bollards, work by transmitting data to a receiver in the car. The
beacons constantly transmit data that the car-mounted receiver picks up as it passes each
beacon. This data could include local speed limits, school zones, variable speed limits, or
traffic warnings. If sufficient numbers of beacons were used and were placed at regular
intervals, they could calculate vehicle speed based on how many beacons the vehicle passed
per second. Beacons could be placed in/on speed signs, telegraph poles, other roadside
fixtures, or in the road itself. Mobile beacons could be deployed in order to override fixed
beacons for use around accident scenes, during poor weather, or during special events.
Beacons could be linked to a main computer so that quick changes could be madefigure 1.2
shows Radio beacons placed on roadside fixture.

The use of radio beacons is common when ISA systems are used to control vehicle speeds in
off road situations, such as factory sites, logistics and storage centres, etc. where occupational
health and safety requirements mean that very low vehicle speeds are required in the vicinity
of workers and in situations of limited or obscured visibility.

Flashing beacon

Pedestrian crossing sign

Control panel

Fig.1.2 Rectangular flashing beacon

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1.4 Optical recognition systems

So far, this technology has been focused solely on recognizing speed signs. However, other
roadside objects, such as the reflective "cats eyes" that divide lanes could possibly be used.
This system requires the vehicle to pass a speed sign or similar indicator and for data about
the sign or indicator to be registered by a scanner or a camera system. As the system
recognizes a sign, the speed limit data is obtained and compared to the vehicle’s speedfigure
1.3 shows the optical recognize system. The system would use the speed limit from the last
sign passed until it detects and recognizes a speed sign with a different limit. If speed signs
are not present, the system does not function. This is a particular problem when exiting a side
road onto a main road, as the vehicle may not pass a speed sign for some distance.

Some ISA systems are equipped with optical recognition systems (e.g. scanners or cameras)
which recognise speed signs (autonomous application). The speed limit data is obtained and
compared to the vehicle’s speed.

Fig.1.3 optical recognition system

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1.5 Dead Reckoning

Dead reckoning (DR) uses a mechanical system linked to the vehicle’s driving assembly in
order to predict the path taken by the vehicle. Dead reckoning requires the vehicle to begin at
a known, fixed point. Then, by combining speed and distance data with factors such as the
angle of the steering wheel and feedback from specialized sensors (e.g., accelerometers, flux
gate compass, gyroscope) it can plot the path taken by the vehicle. By overlaying this path
onto a digital map, the DR system knows approximately where the vehicle is, what the local
speed limit is, and the speed at which the vehicle is travelling. The system can then use
information provided by the digital map to warn of upcoming hazards or points of interest
and to provide warnings if the speed limit is exceeded.

Some top-end GPS-based navigation systems currently on the market use dead reckoning as a
backup system in case the GPS signal is lostfigure 1.4 shows ground tracking in tunnels using
dead reckoning system

Fig 1.4 Ground tracking in tunnels using dead reckoning system

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1.6 Limitations of Intelligent Speed Adaptation

 An initial reaction to the concept of ISA is that there could be negative outcomes,
such as driving at the speed limit rather than to the conditions, but numerous ISA
trials around the World have shown these concerns are unsubstantiated.

 A particular issue is that most ISA systems use a speed database based purely on
information regarding the posted maximum speed limit for a roadway or roadway
segment. Obviously, many roads have features such as curves and gradients where the
appropriate speed for a road segment with these features is less than the posted
maximum speed limit. Increasingly, road authorities indicate the appropriate speed for
such segments through the use of advisory speed signage to alert drivers on approach
that there are features which require a reduction in travelling speed. It is recognized
that the speed limit databases used in ISA systems should ideally take account of
posted advisory speeds as well as posted maximum speed limits. The New South
Wales ISA trial, underway in the Illwarra region south of Sydney currently, is the
only trial that is using posted advisory speeds as well as posted maximum speed
limits.

 Some car manufacturers have expressed concern that some types of speed limiters
"take control away from the driver". This is also unsubstantiated, firstly because ISA
systems do have provision for over-ride by the driver in the event that the set speed is
inappropriate and secondly, the claim is somewhat hypocritical given that cruise
control has been in use on vehicles for many years and forces the vehicle to travel at a
minimum speed unless there is driver intervention.

 Some studies which pre-date the development of ISA systems indicated that drivers
make relatively little use of the speedometer and instead use auditory cues (such as
engine and road noise) to successfully regulate their speed. These studies, however,
remain unverified.

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1.7 Benefits Intelligent Speed Adaptation

Real and perceived benefits of ISA are a reduction of accident risks [citation needed] and
reductions of noise [citation needed] and exhaust emissions

a) Commercial use

Strategic thinking in traffic safety acknowledges that Intelligent Adaptation Systems (IAS)
and in-vehicle technologies in particular, hold promise as safety measures to counter the risk
of road crashes and the trauma arising from crashes. However, road safety practitioners have
been hesitant in embarking on vigorous pursuit of emerging technologies in crash avoidance
and occupant protection. This is perhaps best described as a combination of appropriate
caution, bureaucratic reluctance, tinged perhaps with historical bias and lack of knowledge. It
is recognized that it is difficult indeed to identify just which of a number of future or
proposed technologies will prove to be viable, and to identify those future or proposed
technologies that will not, as time progresses, result in significant commercial

b) Implementation

Perhaps it is because of such concerns that the development of ISA systems under research
and development programs funded by governments has remained at the prototype or trial
stages, despite positive experiences and strong endorsement of ISA technologies for more
than a decade.

It is thus not surprising that the commercialization of ISA systems occurred outside of the
mainstream traffic safety community and with only very limited governmental support.

c) Speed Alert

Speed alert is a passive ISA product marketed by Smart Car Technologies, based in Sydney
NSW. It offers full national speed zoning information embedded within a GPS-based
navigation system, providing drivers with information on speed limits and vehicle speed.

CHAPTER 02

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ACCIDENT AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

Automotive vehicles are increasingly being equipped with collision avoidance and warning
systems for predicting the potential collision with an external object, such as another vehicle
or a pedestrian. Upon detecting a potential collision, such systems typically initiate an action
to avoid the collision and/or provide a warning to the vehicle operator. This system consists
of a distance-measuring system based on ultrasonic sound utilizing the microcontroller and
transmits a burst of ultrasonic sound waves towards the target and then receives the
corresponding echo. An ultrasonic sound sensor is used to detect the arrival of the echo to the
system. The time taken for the ultrasonic burst to travel the distance from the system to the
subject and back to the system is accurately measured by the microcontroller. It also provides
a warning signal to the driver if the distance between vehicle and obstacle crosses a particular
limit. It also monitors the speed of the vehicle and if the speed limit is exceeded

2.1 Systems involved in Accident Avoidance System

1. Emergency Brake Assist

2. Traction control system
3. Anti-lock braking system
4. Electronic Brake force distribution
5. Night Vision

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2.2Emergency Brake Assist

Emergency Brake Assist (EBA) is a safety system in motor vehicles designed to ensure
maximum braking power is used in an emergency stop situation. By interpreting the speed
and force with which the brake pedal is pushed, the system detects if the driver is trying to
execute an emergency stop, and if the brake pedal is not fully applied, the system overrides
and fully applies the brakes until the Anti-lock Braking System (ABS) takes over to stop the
wheels locking up. figure 2.1 shows emergency brake assist.

Research shows that drivers can react too slowly in emergency braking situations. Many
drivers are not prepared for the relatively high efforts required for maximum braking, and nor
are they prepared for the "buzzing" feedback through the brake pedal during ABS operation.
If an emergency develops, a slow reaction and less than maximum braking input could result
in insufficient time or distance to stop before an accident occurs.

EBA is designed to detect such ‘panic stops’ and apply maximum braking effort within
milliseconds – quicker than the blink of an eye. It interprets braking behaviour by assessing
the rate that the brake pedal is activated.

Fig.2.1 emergency brake assist

2.3 Traction Control System

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A traction control system (TCS), also known as anti-slip regulation (ASR), is typically (but
not necessarily) a secondary function of the anti-lock braking system (ABS) on production
motor vehicles, designed to prevent loss of traction of driven road wheels. figure 2.2 shows
traction control system

Fig.2.2 traction control system

2.3.2 Overview of traction control system

The basic idea behind the need of a traction control system is the difference between traction
of different wheels evidencing apparent loss of road grip that compromise steering control
and stability of vehicles. Difference in slip may occur due to turning of a vehicle or
differently varying road conditions for different wheels. At high speeds, when a car tends to
turn, its outer and inner wheels are subjected to different speed of rotation that is
conventionally controlled by using a differential. A further enhancement of the differential is
to employ an active differential that can vary the amount of power being delivered to outer
and inner wheels according to the need (for example, if, while turning right, outward slip
(equivalently saying, 'yaw') is sensed, active differential may deliver more power to the outer
wheel, so as to minimize the yaw (that is basically the degree to which the front and rear
wheels of a car are out of line.) Active-differential, in turn, is controlled by an assembly of
electromechanical sensors collaborating with a traction control unit.

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2.3.3 Traction control in cornering

Traction control is not just used for improving acceleration under slippery conditions. It can
also help a driver to corner more safely. If too much throttle is applied during cornering, the
drive wheels will lose traction and slide sideways. This occurs as under steer in front wheel
drive vehicles and over steer in rear wheel drives vehicles. Traction control can prevent this
from happening by limiting power to the wheels. It cannot increase the limits of grip
available and is used only to decrease the effect of driver error or compensate for a driver's
inability to react quickly enough to wheel slip.figure 2.3 shows traction control in cornering.

Fig 2.3 traction control in cornering

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2.4 Anti-lock braking system

An anti-lock braking system (ABS, from German: Antiblockiersystem) is a safety system that
allows the wheels on a motor vehicle to continue interacting tractively with the road surface
as directed by driver steering inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up
(that is, ceasing rotation) and therefore avoiding skidding.figure.2.4. shows antilock braking
system.

Fig 2.4 antilock braking system

An ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances on dry
and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like gravel or snow-
covered pavement, an ABS can significantly increase braking distance, although still
improving vehicle control

Since initial widespread use in production cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved
considerably. Recent versions not only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also
electronically control the front-to-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific
capabilities and implementation, is known as electronic brake force distribution (EBD),
traction control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

2.4.2 Antilock braking system on a BMW motorcycle

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In 1988, BMW introduced the first motorcycle with an electronic-hydraulic ABS: the BMW
K100 shown in figure 2.5 Honda followed suit in 1992 with the launch of its first motorcycle
ABS on the ST1100 Pan European. In 2007, Suzuki launched its GSF1200SA (Bandit) with
an ABS. In 2005, Harley-Davidson began offering ABS as an option for police bikes. In
2008, ABS became a factory-installed option on all Harley-Davidson Touring motorcycles
and standard equipment on select models.[citation needed]. Recently (2011) TVS has
launched the first Indian two wheeler with ABS in its much famous bike Apache RTR ABS
(180 cc).

Fig .2.5 BMW K100

2.4.4 Operation of antilock brake controller

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock Brake).A
typical ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel speed sensors, and at
least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The ECU constantly monitors the
rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel rotating significantly slower than the
others, a condition indicative of impending wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce
hydraulic pressure to the brake at the affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that
wheel; the wheel then turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning
significantly faster than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the
braking force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel.

2.4.5 Components of antilock braking system

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There are four main components to an ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a controller.

Fig.2.6 components of antilock braking system

1. Speed sensors

The anti-lock braking system needs some way of knowing when a wheel is about to lock up.
The speed sensors, which are located at each wheel, or in some cases in the differential,
provide this information.

2. Pump

Since the valve is able to release pressure from the brakes, there has to be some way to put
that pressure back. That is what the pump does; when a valve reduces the pressure in a line,
the pump is there to get the pressure back up.

3. Controller

The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each individual
wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to the controller, the
controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the ABS modulator which
actuates the braking valves on and off.

2.4.6 Use of antilock braking controller

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There are many different variations and control algorithms for use in an ABS. One of the
simpler systems works as follows:

The controller monitors the speed sensors at all times. It is looking for decelerations in the
wheel that are out of the ordinary. Right before wheel locks up, it will experience a rapid
deceleration. If left unchecked, the wheel would stop much more quickly than any car could.
It might take a car five seconds to stop from 60 mph (96.6 km/h) under ideal conditions, but a
wheel that locks up could stop spinning in less than a second.

The ABS controller knows that such a rapid deceleration is impossible, so it reduces the
pressure to that brake until it sees acceleration, then it increases the pressure until it sees the
deceleration again. It can do this very quickly, before the tire can actually significantly
change speed. The result is that the tire slows down at the same rate as the car, with the
brakes keeping the tires very near the point at which they will start to lock up. This gives the
system maximum braking power.

When the ABS system is in operation the driver will feel a pulsing in the brake pedal; this
comes from the rapid opening and closing of the valves. This pulsing also tells the driver that
the ABS has been triggered. Some ABS systems can cycle up to 16 times per second.

2.4.7 Effectiveness of antilock braking system

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A 2003 Australian study by Monash University Accident Research Centre found that ABS:

 Reduced the risk of multiple vehicle crashes by 18 percent,

 Reduced the risk of run-off-road crashes by 35 percent.

On high-traction surfaces such as bitumen, or concrete, many (though not all) ABS-equipped
cars are able to attain braking distances better (i.e. shorter) than those that would be easily
possible without the benefit of ABS. In real world conditions even an alert, skilled driver
without ABS would find it difficult, even through the use of techniques like threshold
braking, to match or improve on the performance of a typical driver with a modern ABS-
equipped vehicle. ABS reduces chances of crashing, and/or the severity of impact. The
recommended technique for non-expert drivers in an ABS-equipped car, in a typical full-
braking emergency, is to press the brake pedal as firmly as possible and, where appropriate,
to steer around obstructions. In such situations, ABS will significantly reduce the chances of
a skid and subsequent loss of control.

In gravel, sand and deep snow, ABS tends to increase braking distances. On these surfaces,
locked wheels dig in and stop the vehicle more quickly. ABS prevents this from occurring.

2.4.8 According to the NHTSA

A June 1999 National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) study found that
ABS increased stopping distances on loose gravel by an average of 22 percent. ABS works
with your regular braking system by automatically pumping them. In vehicles not equipped
with ABS, the driver has to manually pump the brakes to prevent wheel lockup. In vehicles
equipped with ABS, your foot should remain firmly planted on the brake pedal, while ABS
pumps the brakes for you so you can concentrate on steering to safety.

2.5 Electronic Brake force distribution

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Electronic brake force distribution (EBD or EBFD), Electronic brake force limitation (EBL)
is an automobile brake technology that automatically varies the amount of force applied to
each of a vehicle's brakes, based on road conditions, speed, loading, etc.figure 2.7 shows
electronic break force distribution. Always coupled with anti-lock braking systems, EBD can
apply more or less braking pressure to each wheel in order to maximize stopping power
whilst maintaining vehicular control. Typically, the front end carries the most weight and
EBD distributes less braking pressure to the rear brakes so the rear brakes do not lock up and
cause a skid. In some systems, EBD distributes more braking pressure at the rear brakes
during initial brake application before the effects of weight transfer become apparent.

Fig. 2.7 electronic break force distribution

2.5.2Working of electronic break force distribution

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As per SAE technical paper #920646 - Buschmann et al. "The job of the EBD as a subsystem
of the ABS system is to control the effective adhesion utilization by the rear wheels. The
pressure of the rear wheels is approximated to the ideal brake force distribution in a partial
braking operation. To do so, the conventional brake design is modified in the direction of rear
axle over braking, and the components of the ABS are used. EBD reduces the strain on the
hydraulic brake force proportioning valve in the vehicle. EBD optimizes the brake design
with regard to: adhesion utilization; driving stability; wear; temperature stress; and pedal
force."

EBD may work in conjunction with ABS and Electronic Stability Control ("ESC") to
minimize yaw accelerations during turns. ESC compares the steering wheel angle to vehicle
turning rate using a yaw rate sensor. "Yaw" is the vehicle's rotation around its vertical centre
of gravity (turning left or right). If the yaw sensor detects more/less yaw than the steering
wheel angle should create, the car is under steering or over steering and ESC activates one of
the front or rear brakes to rotate the car back onto its intended course.figure 2.8 shows
optimization of break force by EBD. For example, if a car is making a left turn and begins to
under steer (the car plows forward to the outside of the turn) ESC activates the left rear brake,
which will help turn the car left. The sensors are so sensitive, and the actuation is so quick
that the system may correct direction before the driver reacts. ABS helps prevent wheel lock-
up and EBD helps apply appropriate brake force to make ESC work effectively.

Fig 2.8 optimization of brake force by EBD depends on load

2.6 NIGHT VISION

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About 42% of fatal car accidents happen at night, according to the European Commission for
the Automobile Industry. This figure is extremely worrying bearing in mind that there is
about 60% less traffic during the night. This is largely due to the reduced visual acuity and
field of vision at night as a consequence of the illumination from the headlights these factors
are currently being studied by a group of researchers from the Department of Computer
Architecture and Technology at the University of Granada.

This group created an electronic system that significantly improves driving ability at night by
using information extracted automatically from night visors. Researchers are working within
a European project called DRIVSCO, whose participants include researchers from different
countries who work on real-time vision and its application to the car industry. The study
conducted at UGR developed a microchip which, when installed in a car, makes it easier to
extract the information from cameras to elements involved in driving (bends, pedestrians,
cars, etc.) which may be present on the road. In other words, this system will inform drivers
by means of visual, acoustic or other signs about the obstacles appearing in their way, making
intelligent cars even more sophisticated than is currently the case. figure2.9 shows night
vision system

Fig 2.9 night vision system

CONCLUSION

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ISA technologies do work, are robust and reliable. They are technically simple, much simpler
than other automatic devices such as collision avoidance systems. Delivering and maintaining
the relevant map data for ISA is not a problem either, provided that legislation is there to
ensure action is undertaken in a harmonized way. The differences between EU countries are
no more ofan impediment for ISA than they are in the other policy areas that see frequent
European legislation. The substantial accident reductions to be gained from ISA outweigh its
costs, particularly if ISA fitment was required by law. Doing nothing or achieving speed
reduction by other means will turn out more expensive in the end than implementing ISA
technology. Drivers not the authorities will remain in the driving seat even with ISA. Industry
has already implemented other support systems (advanced cruise control, etc.) that intervene
in vehicle control to assist the driver without being concerned about liability.

A majority of drivers are already in favour of ISA technologies and acceptance increases as
they gain experience of using the technology. The decision whether to rely on legal, market
based Oran industry instrument to apply safety technologies is the domain of policy makers
in general and legislators in particular. There is nothing inherent in ISA technologies to
undermine this.ISA technologies should be viewed as an important element in a wider
approach to improved driving rather than an option to choose instead of other activities. The
application of ISA does not impede progress on the other actions needed, whereas blocking
speed management and ISA impedes improved road safety. A comprehensive systemic
approach to reducing emissions from the road sector should not impede improvements in any
one area, rather it should facilitate greater efforts in all areas including the management of
speed and the application of ISA Having cleared the road of these obstacles we can now drive
forward quickly the implementation process.

REFERENCE

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1. Kojiro Matsuo,Mitsuru Sugihara,Motohiro Yamazaki.Toyota TransportationResearch

Institute, japan2020Hierarchical Bayesian modeling to evaluate the impacts of Intelligent
speed adaptation PP 602-615.

2.S.M.R. Ghadiri, J. Prasetijo .F. Sadullah , M. Hoseinpour,S. Sahranavard.School of Civil

Engineering, University Sains Malaysia (USM), 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia
2012Intelligent speed adaptation: Preliminary results of on-road study in Penang, Malaysia
PP 106-114.

3.Kamarudin AmbakDept. of Civil and Structural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and

Built.Environment Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Selangor, Malaysia.Intelligent Transport
System for Motorcycle Safety and Issues.(2009), PP.600-611.

4. S.P. Bhumkar, Sinhgad Institute Of Technology, Lonavala, Pune, India. Accident

Avoidance and Detection On Highways (2012)

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