SEA - Practical Application of Science

Volume II, Issue 1 (3) / 2014

Rada Cristina IRIMIE,

The Doctoral School The European Paradigm, Faculty of European Studies, Babeş-Bolyai
University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania

DAILY LIFE UNDER Theoretical

Article.
COMMUNISM.
Case Study
THE CASE OF ROMANIA

Keywords
Communism
Eastern Europe
Repression
Daily life
Legacies
Romania

JEL classification
N44

Abstract

After the Second World War, Central and Eastern Europe was discovering the
communist influence. The communist ideology changed the political regimes of the countries
from the region, but most important it changed the society and the mentality of the people
living in Central and Eastern Europe. The countries experienced censorship, lack of private
property, repression, secret police abuse, religious bans, poverty, food rationalization, lack
of privacy, massive industrialization and many other abuses which are typical for a
totalitarian regime.
This article focuses on daily life aspects during communist Romania, because it is one
of the most revealing cases of the post-communist countries. Romania had one of the most
abusive and obsolete communist regime.
The methodological approach is based on the case study method, which will be
validated with empirical data. This article will also emphasize the legacies of the totalitarian
recent past over the contemporary evolution of the Central and Eastern European societies,
with an accent on the Romanian case.

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Introduction methods. Special attention will be given to

During the second half of the 20th the relationship between state and society,
century, the political events in the and between everyday life and political
countries of Europe took a dramatic pace. theory. Our scope is to provide an
In the summer of 1944, the Red Army empirical inquiry that studies the historical
entered Eastern Europe in its westward phenomenon of communism within its
push towards Berlin. The Soviets freed real-life context, using individual citizen
these territories from the Nazis, but did not experiences.
leave them behind. On the contrary, taking In our study, we will first examine
the help of local communists, they some propositions of classical theories as
implemented the communist system they apply to the history of communism.
patterned on the Soviet model. In the For this purpose, we are going to revisit
countries that the Red Army liberated, the theoritical approaches of nationalism,
communist-dominated governments took marxism and rational choice, which
over the power. They made sure that they provide us with the conceptual perspective
established control over the army, set up a of the historical events to follow.
secret police force and hunt their Nationalism, on one hand, emerged as a
opponents. By 1949, all the governments modern phenomenon in the aftermath of
of Eastern Europe, except Yugoslavia, the French Revolution and was regarded
were strict Stalinist regimes. as "the existence of symbols and beliefs
Romania, initially part of the which are either propagated by elite
former Soviet Bloc, in the 1950s asserted groups, or held by many of the members of
progressive independence from the Soviet regional, ethnic, or linguistic categories of
Union and established a “national” path to a population and which imply a
Communism. The communist government community between them" (Giddens,
went through different phases before its 1981). Marxism, on the other hand, early
collapse in the late 1980s. What is it so suggested the inescapability of a
special about the Romania’s case? For communist society, which would emerge
most of the countries, communism when economic forces caused the class
represented no more than a political war; marxist ideas soon came to rule left-
movement. Romanian people saw wing thought and went forward under the
communism as a way of life, for some it name of socialism. Lastly, the
was their archenemy, for others it is still development of the rational choice
that enormous force that have passed theoryadvocated the actions taken by
through Romania and affected their rational individual decision-makers can
relatives, their models, their principles. All interact in different ways to generate stable
in all, communism is a page of history that collective outcomes. To the extent that our
has drastically influenced the lives of effort is successful, this study will give us
many Romaniancitizens. the opportunity to make comparisons, to
How was communism perceived find a better fit between theory and facts
by the average Romanian citizen? What and to reach to a conclusion that
was the daily life of Romanians during this anticipates future political systems.
time in history? By focusing on the Recent studies showed that nearly
country of Romania, this article will 25 percent of the young Romanian people
address the key aspects of the daily life as surveyed say they have never discussed
experienced by its citizens. A case study as the communist period in Romania in
a method of research will facilitate our school (Bran, 2012). All post-communist
understanding on communism through real societies faced major problems in
life situations and it can provide the basis confronting their traumatic past. An
for the application of ideas and further efficient democracy, though, cannot be

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based on lies, denial, and amnesia. Revolutionary communism

Romania’s exit from communism has Since 1917 and the Bolshevik
resulted in a hybrid quasi-democratic Revolution that emerged in the start of the
regime, with former communists previous century, a new socioeconomic
maintaining influential positions and system featured the world development
opposing a genuine break with the past driven by radical political forces. “The
(Tismăneanu, 2008). This article aims to lines dividing Mensheviks from
define experiences and characteristics of Bolsheviks, Leninists from social
communism in Romania, from the daily democrats, Stalinists from Trotskyists,
reality to people’s obsessions, aided by anarchists from statists, theorists of ‘state
historical narratives. The content of this capitalism’ from theorists of ‘bureaucratic
article also aims to offer examples of the collectivism’, Maoists or anti-Maoists,
past that will help make conslusions for Eurocommunists from traditional
the future. Ultimately, reinventing the past communists, have in large measure been
is an easy way to handle the future. drawn according to whether the Soviet
Union, and the later system of East Bloc
Theoretical Approaches to Social states, were seen as model or as an anti-
Development model, and if the latter, of what kind”
Trying to chart the philosophical (Callinicos, 1990). Accordingly, the
trends developed in Eastern Europe from political transformations that went after the
the beginning of the 20th century will help following decades, derived from, but also
us understand the framework within which challenged the left theory. It is vital here to
major political changes have occurred. We mention that, regardless any intellectual
have chosen to provide an analysis of these differences - and there were many - all
socioeconomic developments through the philosophical diversities found common
theories of Social Marxism, the ground and mutual heritage in Marxism. It
Nationalism and Rational Choice theories. is not an overstatement to say that one’s
This will help us recognize, on a historical analysis of the Eastern Bloc, and the
sequence, the dynamics that enabled the corresponding political events, lay on the
embracement of the Romanian communist analysis of Marxist socialism. The
revolution, the inherent nationalist trends bases of social Marxism lay in Karl
among people that lead to its downfall, as Marx’s most widely read work, the
well as the necessity for modernisation and Communist Manifesto, despite the fact that
social diversity of the society. Social following works of the philosopher
Marxism offers a system of analysis based provide a better and more detailed
on social classes, which is a consistent understanding to his social thought.
way to analyse the Romanian society. Published in 1848, it offers the theoretical
Nationalism provides us with theoretical framework of a society with i.e.
tools to approach issues such as market explanations of how society works, how
freedom and consumer needs. At last, the the form of the productive system is
Rational Choice theory puts the individual determinant to all aspects of the society, he
in the spotlight. All of the above need to draws the relations between the productive
be addressed in our case study. From the forces of the capitalist system and
East European Marxist philosophy, introduces the discussion about social
through Nationalism to Rational Choice, struggle of the classes (Wolff, 2011).
an important number of European states Finally, it envisages the end of world as
experienced a great range of social and became known, when the working classes
economic changes that influenced their unite in a communist revolution that will
lives and marked their national identity. eradicate the ruling classes and eliminate
the class system of the society: "Let the

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ruling classes tremble at a Communistic The wave of national restorations

revolution. The proletarians have nothing followed the gradual collapse of
to lose but their chains. WORKING MEN communist regimes in the late 1980s and
OF ALL COUNTRIES, UNITE!" (Marx, early 1990s, across Eastern Europe and the
1848). former USSR, and it is the most notable
The first impact of Marxism was felt in consequence of the communist recession.
continental Europe already by the late 19th And the consequential disorder has been
century, but the success of the intense and sometimes devastating. Why
revolutionary socialists (thereafter called nationalism sometimes had disastrous
Communists) in the Russian Revolution effects for several states has divided
contributed to its worldwide standing. The scholars and common opinion but is part
establishment of an authoritatian of a different discussion; what they all
communist state in Russia, however, split agree with is the justification of
the philosophical movement to an extend nationalism and its predominance.
that many socialists denounced the Marxist Nationalism can be defined as “an
theory. Communists regarded Marxism as ideological movement for attaining and
their official dogma, and it is mainly due maintaining autonomy, unity and identity
to their labors that it spread through the on behalf of a population deemed by some
world, although its notion of class struggle of its members to constitute an actual or
have helped to determine alternative potential nation” (Smith, 1991). This
policies of welfare and development in definition introduces the concept of the
many nations. However, no matter how ‘nation’, which would occupy the later
useful as a revolutiony moral and also as a world development in several ways. In the
frame of reference and/or policy, Marxism academic context, it mainly indicates “a
has found far less practical application group of people who feel themselves to be
than is often assumed. The a community bound together by ties of
practice of communism developed by history, culture, and common ancestry”
Stalin marked an era of widespread (Kellas, 1998).
authoritarianism, departing from its However, “in common language,
sophisticated origins, featuring a rather the term 'nation' is often used in several
nationalised pronouncement of “socialism other ways - most often as synonymous
in one country”, which he imagined as a with the term ‘state’” (Bollerup &
world economic system (Das, 1988). Many Christensen, 1997). We preserve the idea
scholars recognise the philosophical that is the core of nationalist idealogy,
doctrines of Stalin as the driving force of namely the idea of national autonomy,
the communist system’s maintenance. unity, and identity. The common use of
“Stalinism had one great advantage. It has 'nation' as a state populated by one nation-
as it’s disposal universal world outlook, group, captured by the term nation-state.
claiming to be able to definite answer to The first expression of nationalism
any question in the realm of philosophy, appeared with the French Revolution in
history, the social sciences, political 1789. The political and constitutional
economy, economic planning and even in changes that followed the aftermath of the
many domains of the natural sciences, not French Revolution led to the transfer of
to mention political life. That ominence sovereignty from the monarchy to an
became omnipotence through the fact that assembly of French citizens. The
such definite answers were furnished by revolution declared the direct link between
by a single authority, by means of which the people and the constitution of the
any controversy whatever could be nation, and their influence to the identity
resolved at a word” (Kolakowski, 1970). of the state. The ideas of Liberal
Inevitable nationalism Nationalism, in early 19th century,

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involved concepts of national unity, mobilisation also played independent roles

individualism, equality before the law and in transforming institutions, structures and
freedom of access. The ideas of identities, so that while the collapse of
sovereighty and national identity expanded communism is often portrayed as a
to lead, in memorable cases during the structurally overdetermined dramas its
beginning of the 20th century, in fatal manifestation depended on myriad acts of
national conficts. defiance and contention whose outcomes
Several Western European states themselves were hardly predetermined”
experienced and developed throughout the (Beissinger, 2009). Therefore, not only did
nationalist movement, while Eastern nationalism play a central role in a
Europe found itself under the communist direction which the collapse of
collar, and it is only before the collapse of communism occurred, but also the
the communist demise, in the end of numerous national identity struggles that
1980s, that we notice massive mobilisation trailed the outcome of the collapse remains
towards national identification. As a central for the understanding of individuals
matter of fact, this nationalist force is and their relationship to political power.
identified by scholars as the driving force
that lead to the downfall of the communist Diversity and Rational Choice
regime. “Behind the desire in 1989 for The dominant school of thought in
freedom stood the desire for national political science in the late 20th century
sovereignty. In this sense, 1989 in eastern seems to move towards the rational choice
Europe was not merely a series of revolts theory. For rational choice theorists,
against communism as a repressive history and culture are unrelated to the
political and social system; it was also a explanation of political behaviour; instead,
series of national revolts against Soviet it is important to understand the actors’
domination, and as such closely related to interests and to assume that they pursue
the same revolt that, by autumn 1989, had them rationally. Crucial to all forms of
already become widespread within Soviet rational choice theory is the assumption
society itself. Precisely because that difficult social phenomena can be
nationalism was an underlying factor in explained in terms of the basic individual
the demise of communism, the process of actions of which they are composed. This
collapse largely spread along the two perspective, called methodological
institutional forms that were used to individualism, holds that: “The elementary
structure multinational and international unit of social life is the individual human
control” (Beissinger, 2009). action. To explain social institutions and
Thus, nationalism played a key role in the social change is to show how they arise as
breakdown of the soviet communist the result of the action and interaction of
regime. Mark R. Beissinger, in his work individuals” (Elster, 1989).
Nationalist Mobilisation and the Collapse In rational choice theories, individuals are
of the Soviet State, gives us three reasons seen as motivated by the wants or goals
why: “First, nationalism played an that express their ‘preferences’. “They act
important role in structuring the way in within specific, given constraints and on
which the collapse of communism the basis of the information that they have
unfolded (…) Second, nationalist about the conditions under which they are
mobilisation during this period was not a acting. At its simplest, the relationship
series of individual nationalist stories (…) between preferences and constraints can be
Third, while clearly structured, acts of seen in the purely technical terms of the
nationalist mobilisation did not simply relationship of a means to an end. As it is
reflect a pre-existing logic of institutions, not possible for individuals to achieve all
structures and identities. Rather, acts of of the various things that they want, they

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must also make choices in relation to both choice would be a big deal - a strategic
their goals and the means for attaining union between Russia and the rest of
these goals. Rational choice theories hold Europe - is possible only if the parties try
that individuals must anticipate the to achieve a common goal or find answers
outcomes of alternative courses of action to challenges equally important for both
and calculate that which will be best for partners. The main challenge is the need
them. Rational individuals choose the for a serious revamping of relations
alternative that is likely to give them the between the state and business
greatest satisfaction” (Scott, 2000). (Bordachev, 2008).
But does rational choice theories have any Exploring the work of Western
application in the main political political theorists on social and political
developments, during the last decades of models provided us with a vital tool in
the 20th century. And if so, how do they understanding and interpreting the drastic
help us understand the evolution or events developments that arised in Eastern
before or after the collapse of Soviet European history. Communism as an
Communism? “Rational choice, like answer to authoritarian political systems of
constructivism, should be understood as a the 18th century offered an opportunity for
broad approach to social theory, capable of restoration of the class equilibrium and
generating an array of specific theories and economic equality. When its application
testable hypotheses about range of human led in a totalitarian reality for the entities
behaviors. Over the past two decades, that found themselves under the
rational choice theories have made rapid communist establishment of the Soviet
inroads into the study of EU politics, most Union, an old-new concept of national
notably through the application of rational identity emerged.
choice institutionalism to the study of EU The recent development of political
decision-making” (Pollack, 2007). Thus, a theories reminded us that the concept of
better knowledge of the rational choice ‘nation’ is not sufficient enough to explain
theory facilitate the understanding of such major world developments. A point
European integration and enlargement, of view that takes the individual behaviour
enormous forces that served as a into consideration is vital and evidenced in
counterweight to a nationalist outrage of current political affairs. In the following
Europe in the 21st century. chapter, we refresh our memory of the
In dispute with the rational choice most crucial political events that marked
practice since the formation of the the history of communism in Romania.
European Union, many argue that a
rational choice confines the development Milestones in the History of Romanian
of contructive bilateral relations between Communism
the European Union and post-Soviet Throughout the 1920s and 1930s
Russia. Timofei Bordachev argues that the the Romanian Communist party was rather
EU should broaden up the dialogue with small. “It scored a few but minor successes
Russia, in order to achieve the maintain among railway workers, but on the whole
her as an allie. “A rational choice in it failed to take advantage of the various
conditions of global disorder is not crises of the period” (Chirot, 1978).
openness and orientation toward multi- During World War II Romania sided with
party regimes, but building strong walls, the Germans and invaded the U.S.S.R., so
setting up areas of influence behind them, when the Soviet army sided Romania,
and making periodic forays into ‘enemy because of the country's role as a German
territory’. All this has become part and ally, the Western powers were hardly in a
parcel of both European and Russian position to protest. In 1945, Moscow
politics in recent years (…) A new rational imposed a Communist government on

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Romania. After two years of fairly to tighen up Romania’s relations with

cautious maneuvering to strengthen the China, a line that was followed by his
Communists, waiting to see if the United successor, Nicolae Ceauşescu.
States would intervene in Eastern Europe,
the U.S.S.R. finally imposed full Stalinist Ceauşescu and systemisation
rule in 1947 (Ionescu, 1958). This is when With the death of Gheorghiu-Dej in
the years of fear and oppression began and March 1965, Nicolae Ceauşescu became
which systematically transformed the leader of the party, and then president of
Romanian society. the State Council, in 1967. In August 21st
1965, the name of the country was
From the SovRom to Gheorghiu-Dej changed to ‘Republica Socialistă
In December 30th 1947, the România’ (Socialist Republic of Romania,
official declaration of the Romanian’s RSR) and the party’s old name was
People's Republic (Partidul Muncitoresc restored to ‘Partidul Communist Român’
Român, PMR) followed the forced (Romanian Communist Party, PCR)
resignation of King Michael I. At the (Petrescu, 2009). His government featured
outset, the communist regime kept tight an open and independent foreign policy,
bonds with the Soviet Union by allowing, evidenced by uncommonly good relations
for example, Romania's limited resources with the Western countries (Eyal, 1989;
to be drained by the SovRoms, new tax Ban, 2012). However, it demonstrated a
exempt Soviet-Romanian companies that huge refusal to internal liberal reforms.
aided the Soviet Union to control The secret police (Securitate) maintained
Romania's major sources of income control over the media, and tolerated no
(Chirot, 1978). Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej internal opposition. In the 1980s, a
was the first party Secretary and ruled with considerable amount of Romania’s
Anna Pauker, Vasile Luca, and Teohari agricultural and industrial production was
Georgescu. According to Ionescu (1958), exported in order to cover the foreign debt.
the last three were Soviet agents, and it The enormous volume of exports resulted
was Pauker and Luca, Jewish and in internal shortage and made the everyday
Hungarian, respectively, who were the life of Romanian citizens a fight for
most powerful. Gheorghiu-Dej, an survival (Eyal, 1989). Due to lack of basic
authentic Romanian worker, was at first a consumables, Romanians experienced
‘façade’ secretary-general. In the 1950s, food shortages and reasoning for which a
however, Romania's communist more detailed analysis will follow on the
government began to claim more respective chapter. Beginning in 1972,
independence until the withdrawal of all Ceauşescu instituted a program of
Soviet troops from Romania by 1958. systematization i.e. a program of urban
Gheorghiu-Dej, a firm Stalinist himself planning and re-construction. Sponsoring a
was opposed to Nikita Khrushchev’s national way to build a ‘multilaterally
liberal government of the Soviet Union developed socialist society’, the program
and questioned the supremacy of the of demolition, resettlement, and
Soviet Union, following a rather construction began in the countryside, but
nationalist route (Eyal, 1989). In the culminated with an attempt to completely
domestic sphere, however, his Stalinist- remodel the country's capital (Danta,
inspired industrialisation of the state was 1993). Over one fifth of central Bucharest
not suited to the Romanian economy, was demolished so that the city could be
which caused the standard of living among rebuilt in a socialist style.
workers to stagnate (Roper, 2006). During
the last years of his life, Gheorghiu-Dej Repression and downfall
exploited the Soviet Union-China dispute

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The severe austerity measures high politics in communist countries

programmed to repay Romania’s national received little attention. It is at the social
debt caused large-scale and widespread level where the meaning of communism
poverty and made Ceauşescu unpopular for the citizenry is most directly and
(Petrescu-Petrescu, 2005). The December constantly evident. In the present chapter,
of 1989 was marked by a series of events we will examine the different aspects of
that became well known as the Romanian the society that were influenced by the
Revolution. The Romanian Revolution gradual social control of the communist
started in the city of Timisoara, but rapidly governments.
spread all over the country. On December
17th, Ceauşescu's regime ordered regular Propaganda, Censorship and Freedom
military forces and the secret police to fire of Press
on anti-Communist demonstrators in the Most of the communist regimes of
city of Timişoara, an event that led to his the 20th century in Eastern Europe
24 years-rule to collapse five days involved policies of censored mass
afterwards (Ban, 2012). Following communication. The communist rhetoric
Ceauşescus’ joint trial and execution, a sees this tactic as a form of protection
new political structure emerged. The from the Western, capitalist ethics. In a
National Salvation Front government broad sense, the term ‘press’ means any
under Ion Iliescu, a former member of the means of mass communication, whether
communist party, assumed control over the it’s about journals or periodicals (written
state with its protagonist maintaining media), or radio or television (audio-visual
central role in the political scene until the media). The press is the most appropriate
beginning of the 21st century (Pop- and also the most used field for expressing
Eleches, 2008). The decades that followed the freedom of expression (Rădulețu,
1989’s demise were featured by increasing 2008). During communism the one and
press freedom. “From a sociological point only press owner was the communist
of view it can be seen that a free press party. First, in order to gain total control
creates a society where people feel they over mass media, the totalitarian party
can share their ideas, opinions, without obtained the “in amonte” power by
being punished for it, this issue being a big nationalising mass communication means.
plus in any state” (Quffa, 2012). In the Therefore, the state-party started to use its
following chapter, we will examine in monopoly over press material and
detail the sectors of the Romanian society financial basis (Coman, 2010).
challenged by the communist The Romanian Communist Party,
administration and we will focus on the along with Nicolae Ceauşescu, have
aspects of daily life that influenced successfully taken advantage of the power
Romanian lives and shaped their culture they had over the press, regardless of its
and identity. form, and have used it especially to
indoctrinate the Romanian people. As long
Aspects of Daily Life in Communist as, at that time, the freedom of the press
Romania didn’t exist, the right to information was
The history of Romania since the also absent, because the individuals
establishment of the communist regime in received as news only the things agreed by
1947 led the country but also the society the leader, actually not having an accurate
through diversified phases that challenged and solid information (Quffa, 2012).
both its national history and identity. Before the revolution of December 1989,
Whether or not we can review a the press was subject to the interests of the
communist political system based on the party and of the head of state. Romania
politics sphere is difficult to say, since had many cases to the European Court of

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Human Rights for violations to freedom of genius he was, how the entire world spun
expression. Cases of convictions against around him and how the entire Romanian
journalists that criticised the communist people loved their president. This kind of
government were revealed in the post- propaganda was present even in schools,
communist era (Predescu & Udroiu, 2008). where children learnt songs that glorified
After 1989, the Romanian society suffered president Ceausescu” (Bacanu, n.d.).
a series of transformations - and the press “The cultural life was strangled by
was one of the things that have changed the political regime. It was almost
considerably; it suddenly became free, impossible to find a good thing to see on
having the possibility of not being subdued TV. The censorship was present even in
to a party, an idea or a personality, but music. The communist authorities rejected
however developing chaotically (Quffa, different kinds of music (rock, for
2012). example), not necessarily for political
Razvan T. Coloja, a Romanian reasons; they just did not like them (i.e.
writer, describes his experience as a child rock artists). Consequently, they were very
raised in communist Romania: “I rare in TV or radio programmes. The
remember the propaganda. Each morning, history was falsified in schools and
as students, we had to stand up facing the newspapers. One direction of falsifying
portrait of Nicolae Ceausescu that was history was to increase the role of the
hanging in each public room of each communist party and president Ceauşescu
institution and chant our national anthem. in some historical events. Old books were
Each manual I had in school had the same not available in libraries, exactly for the
picture on the very first page. Almost reason of hiding the past. Even literature
every poem we learned had something to was censored. Writers whose works were
do with the glory of our nation, the bravery not ‘politically correct’ from the
of soldiers, the working class or the future communist point of view were not allowed
of our communist youth that will bring on to print their books. Translations from
the flame of science and hard work. About other languages were very few, and of
twice a year, every schoolchild had to course, only ‘politically correct’ works
attend public marches and hold up signs were translated. Because of the strict
bearing either the portrait of our beloved control over everything that was printed
leader, either slogans praising the there was a shortage of good books to read
Communist Party. We didn't know what or good movies to see, even about themes
they meant but we were hearing them a lot not related with politics. Even the classic
so we took them for granted” (Coloja, Romanian writers were forbidden”
2011). (Bacanu, n.d.).
From Petre Mihai Bacanu’s point Correspodent of Deutsche Welle,
of view, a journalist that was sentenced to Zack Baddorf, interviewing Anca Sandu
prison, for the publishing of an ‘illegal’ that lived in communist Romania reports:
newspaper, political propaganda was “The problem was that we weren't allowed
inescapable: “Political freedom was not access to information. We weren't allowed
allowed in Romania during the communist to read writers who didn't have
regime. Neither was freedom for press or Ceausescu's approval. We weren't allowed
speech. The television programme lasted to travel abroad, or have friends from
only two hours every day and was full of abroad. On some days, we weren't even
political propaganda. The personality cult allowed to drive” (Baddorf, 2009).
of president Ceauşescu was omnipresent. Another unknown consequence of
The TV and radio programmes and the the communist propaganda was the
newspapers were full of comments about influence on athletic life. During the
how good president Ceauşescu was, what a communist rule, sports were used as a

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means of propaganda and the regime often demanded a radical revision of the five-
assumed athlete’s achievements. In 1976, year plan that would make the early
at the Summer Olympics in Montréal, payment of foreign debt the chief priority
Nadia Comăneci became the first gymnast of economic policy. As investment in
to be awarded a perfect 10 in an Olympic industrial expansion was set to continue,
competition. She also won several other all imports had to be cut drastically and the
golden medals for the individual all- export volume increased. That led living
around, beam and bars titles. Following standards to collapse. This owed to the fact
her performance, the Bucharest regime that all strategies meant to amass the
awarded her with the title of “Hero of dollars necessary for eliminating foreign
Socialist Labor”. Multiple Olympic, debt by the end of the 1980s were on the
European and international champion, table, including the engineering of a
Nadia Comăneci retired in 1980 and massive drop in domestic supply of staples
remains one if the best athletes of the 20th and consumer goods. Overall, between
century. Unable to follow her dreams 1981 and 1989 the supply of food staples
under an abnormal political regime, Nadia was nearly halved (Ben Ner & Montias,
flees the country in November 1989 and 1991). The production of consumer goods
asks for political asylum in the United was also nearly halved during the same
States (Istoria Comunismului ȋn România, period and, to make matters worse, its
2011). share in exports was increased.
The practical outcome of the
Collectivization, Industrialisation and macroeconomic planning was food
Trade shortage and rationing: “I remember food
Starting from 1949 the process of shortages. Basic food that westerners took
agriculture collectivization takes place. for granted was handed out in rations
This process represented theconfiscation during the Romanian Communist regime.
of private agricultural properties and their About twice a month my father would get
merging in state-run farms. For Romanian up at 4 a.m. in the morning, get dressed,
peasant - obliged to surrender the land, get a bag and start his way to the closest
animals and equipment held - this meant food distribution center were a long line
the dispossession of land ownership and was already forming. By 5 in the morning,
rights for which he had fought in two there were at least 30 people standing in
world wars. Many peasants (both wealthy line to get their rations of sugar, milk, rice
and poorer) opposed this action and the or cooking oil. Cooking oil was especially
communist government resorted to violent hard to get by 1988. Bananas were sold
repression, deportation, imprisonment, only on the black market and by the time
confiscation of all fortunes of those the Revolution came I was priding myself
involved, and even summary executions. of having eaten three in my entire life. In
Because of the peasant resistance to the country side, most people have never
collectivization, the operation became even heard of bananas and most thought
much slower in 1953 but resumed in the they were some sort of deformed, yellow
second half of 1950, and at last completed watermelon. Oranges, lemons were also
in 1962 (at which time 93% of the hard to come by, as was any other
agricultural heritage of the country had chocolate that was not Romanian - made
already became state property) (Istoria or imported from Communist China”
Comunismului ȋn România, 2011). (Coloja, 2011).
That allowed Ceauşescu to control Ceausescu refused to draw the
domestic production and even use it as a lessons from this failure. Instead, he
guarantee for the country’s debt resolved to repay his $10bn foreign debt as
repayment. Indeed, in 1971 Ceauşescu soon as possible. The decision to repay the

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debt in accelerated stages was not dictated 60 percent and 70 percent per decade. This
by Romania's financial condition. It was is not to say that the Romanian economy
entirely dictated by the preferences of the has performed poorly, but only that it has
President and the calculation that any not been as miraculous as one might
rescheduling or bridging loans expect from reading the Bucharest press.
negotiations would undoubtedly entail What has been extraordinary has been the
discussions with foreign bankers on emphasis on industry, and the consequent
Romania's investment priorities. Every neglect of other sectors. In social terms,
effort was directed towards repaying the rapid industrialization in Romania has
debt. Exports were maximised with little involved most of the changes that have
reference to prices, profitability and occurred in other industrializing societies,
market targets in a furious attempt to gain but always with an interesting twist
foreign currency. That deteriorated the (Chirot, 1978).
internal market situation even more. Food The second observation that one
was exported at considerable cost to the would make is that despite the common
Romanian consumer. Most import orders assumption that workers and communist
were cancelled, even if this entailed regimes to ‘get along’, they don’t. From
foregoing the purchase of much needed Gdansk to Shanghai, evidence accumulates
machinery for industry (Eyal, 1989). Anca that communist parties find their most
Sandu also remembers: “And then there consistent opposition among their
were the food rations. No more than half a supporters. In 1977 a study of twelve
loaf of bread, not too much meat, or sugar, workers' councils found that all 215
and so on” (Baddorf, 2009). Anca's members were Romanian Communist
husband, Vio, chopped potatoes and Party members(Nelson, 1982). In
cooked them in a frying pan, while Anca Romania, millions of workers attended
was talking to Deutsche Welle’s general assemblies in their enterprises
correspondent. Twenty years ago, if he'd across the country. But their attendance
been cooking at 7:00 pm, he would've proved little other than that their physical
been cooking by candlelight. That's presence in a meeting hall or stadium lends
because the communist government cut off itself to mobilization. But governance, or
electricity from 6:00 - 8:00 pm each night even interest in it, was associated strongly
across the country to preserve energy with party membership (Nelson, 1982).
(Baddorf, 2009). Whether the industrialisation
One would consider the proclaimed policies, to a certain extent, had created
industrialisation as one of the positive new opportunities for the Romanian
attributes of the communist system in citizens is also debatable. A lot of Western
general, and the nationalised communist jobs were non-existent in Communist
system of Romania specifically. However, Romania. “There was almost no purpose
the industrialisation policies started with of learning English since no one was
the Gheorghiu-Dej's government did not allowed to leave the country and no one
result in any considerable economic came in to visit. The few movies in
development. From 1950 to 1974 English were all subtitled or had a
Romanian per capita net national income Romanian narrator that translated
grew at the rate of 5.3 percent per year, or everything the actors said. The computers
68 percent per decade. This is a very good, we had were few and of Russian make and
but not surprising, rate of economic there was no Internet at the time to connect
growth (Chirot, 1978). In other words, the people the way it does today. Basically,
capitalist economies of southern Europe the best job you could have at the time was
grew at about the same per capita rate as either being an engineer or a doctor.
Romania's economy, somewhere between Engineers had high state pay and doctors

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got more bribes than the guards at the industrialisation and urbanisation of the
border did. In communism, everyone is country have left neither time nor available
taught to be content with what they have investment for such amenities. Rather,
and never yearn for more. So, normally, urban services throughout most of the
doctors didn't try to do their best and had country, and even in the new suburbs of
to be ‘stimulated’ by other means to do the large cities, are aimed at mass needs.
their job. You wanted a kidney examined? Basic schooling and medical care, minimal
You had to shelf out some bills and pass recreation facilities, too few stores with
them to the nurse under the table. Had a too few goods, scattered restaurants with
molar that was bothering you? Pay the bad food and almost no service these have
doctor and he would take care of it, or been provided (Chirot, 1978).
even might throw in some anesthetics”
(Coloja, 2011). Systemisation Means
The communists have utilised the Bucharest had been only
job sector in an effective way of keeping moderately affected by Leninist-Stalinist
control of the society. Any person who planning in 1965 when Ceauşescu came to
wanted a good job had to be a Communist power. He launched a transformation that
Party member. As a result, many people lasted until his downfall in 1989. The first
joined the Communist Party for phase, to 1980, altered the outer zones and
opportunistic reasons, without believing in surrounding villages of the city, changed
the communist ideology. This could be the administrative districts, enlarged
seen during the Romanian Revolution, certain penetration boulevards, and
when members of the Communist Party intensified the construction of standardised
could be found among the people who apartment blocks. During the second
fought against the regime. Of the whole 23 phase, 1980-1989, large areas of the center
millions Romanians, 3 millions were of Bucharest were razed to make way for
members of the Communist Party. As monumental structures and routes, as well
Romania had a state-owned economy, as the completion of the subway system.
almost all jobs were under government Post-revolution Bucharest is burdened
control. In a free-market economy, a with unfinished buildings (Danta, 1993).
person in conflict with his boss has the In urban planning, Ceauşescu's
chance to find a better job somewhere else. main undertaking of the 1980s was the
In communism, the government rules complete transformation of central
everything. A person who is on the ‘black Bucharest. The law of urban and rural
list’ of the authorities has no chance to systematization of 1974 created a real
find a good job, irrespective of his or her estate disaster in the 1980s for Romania.
professional results. It was not necessary The devastating earthquake of 1977 was
to criticise the government openly in order another incentive for Nicolae Ceaușescu’s
to see your name on the ‘black list’. It was urbanistic plans (Istoria Comunismului ȋn
enough to avoid participating in România, 2011). Motivation was threefold.
demonstrations in favour of the regime The first stemmed from socialist ideology,
(Bacanu, n.d.). specifically the concept of monumentality
Part of the economic stability was (i.e. creating buildings that served as
that the rapid industrialisation of the monuments). In this case, monumentality
country had left other services sectors in architecture and art was used to anchor
underdeveloped. Cultural opportunities, collective cultural aspects of the landscape
stores, restaurants, and other services, as an expression of liberation (Church,
including medical care and schooling for 1979). The second aim was to rewrite the
children were distinctly inferior outside of history of the country in Ceauşescu's
a few big cities. The rapid rate of image by destroying the visual past in the

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center of Bucharest (Lykiardopol, 1991). leading po sitions within the communist

The third aim was to replicate in Bucharest party as well as within the organizational
the symmetrical, artificial landscape he boards and unions” (Jinga, 2008).
had seen in Pyongyang (Behr, 1991). “Second, Elena Ceausescu, the wife of
Andrei Pandele, a 65 year old Nicolae Ceausescu, played a very active
photographer, known as the only role in politics and organizational life. This
photographer who shoot the Ceaușescu era had a strong impact on gender equality in
in Romania during the 1970s and 80s, held Romania, which was in itself a widespread
a vast pictorial archive of the city idea across other communist regimes in
hardship. Talking to a magazine in 2012, Eastern Europe” (Metcalfe & Afanassieva,
Pandele explained that when Ceaușescu 2005). However, in the social sphere
began demolishing churches and whole several legal reforms of the Ceauşescu
neighborhoods, he wanted to immortalize regime led women to a physical and
the Bucharest he loved and it was ethical wretchedness.
disappearing in front of his eyes Three years after becoming the
(Moldoveanu, 2012). As seen inFigure No. country's supreme leader in 1965, Nicolae
1, Figure No. 2 and Figure No. 3the Ceauşescu introduced Article 200, which,
demolition of some of the old buildings together with an earlier sweeping pro-natal
was made for the creation of new programme, was part of a larger campaign
standarized apartment blocks following the to increase the available workforce,
socialist urban planning. regulate sexual behaviour, create the new
socialist man and woman and rid the
Gender Equality, Sexuality and Family country of what he considered
Planning unacceptable behaviour. For decades gays
At first, following the Soviet and lesbians in Romania had to keep their
example, the communist party had a clear sexual orientation secret for fear of
strategy of involving women in the public prosecution, and many endured long
arena, as a practice of the communist rule prison terms for the slightest trespassing of
of equality among all individuals. the communist moral code (Turcescu &
“Although communist political ideologies Stan, 2005).
were similar in many respects, the way Abortion was prohibited in
they were implemented across Eastern September 1966 by the unpopular Decree
Europe was rather diverse. Concerning the no. 770 in order to achieve demographic
position of women, two aspects distinguish targets and fulfil Ceauşescu's
the Romanian context from other megalomaniac ambition of ruling over a
communist countries in Eastern Europe. populous nation. The prohibition of
First, following the Soviet example, the abortion resulted in an almost doubled
communist party had a clear strategy of birthrate in 1969, but the gains were not
involving women in the public arena. sustained in the long run, with most of
Organizational structures parallel to the them being lost by the late 1980s. Lack of
communist party (but closely associated alternative family planning programmes,
with it) were created and women were condoms and pills, sharply deteriorating
offered ample support concerning access living conditions, and the state's
to (higher) education, improved childcare unwillingness to recognise the existence of
systems, and extended maternity leave” family and medical forced Romanian
(Curseu & Boros, 2011). “Another women to undergo illegal abortions, even
institutional norm was that departments at the risk of losing their lives, giving birth
with a large majority of women employees to malformed children or going to jail if
were to be managed by women and that the interrupted pregnancy was discovered
women should have representatives in (Kligman, 1998).

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Adopting Decree 770 of September industrialized, society that has pursued

29th, 1966 to regulate abortion is now such a harsh pro-natalist line (Chirot,
considered the moment of pro-natalist 1978).
policy debut in Romania. Spread over a Nothing illustrates more fully the
period of almost 23 years, this policy Romanian leadership's attempt to mobilise
included several demographic aspects, the population behind its anti-reformist
including: the adoption of repressive laws ideology by encouraging xenophobia than
on abortions, tightening the requirements the message addressed by President
for divorce, income taxes applying to Ceauşescu to a symposium held in
people without children. This regulation Bucharest to mark the centenary of the
has created numerous problems in the death of Romania's national poet, Mihai
medical, social and institutional, Eminescu (Scânteia, 14 June 1989). The
economical and last but not least, morally Romanian President quoted several poems
fields, many of them felt till today. by Eminescu, and the choice was certainly
The deaths of thousands of women not accidental. Citing from Eminescu’s
due to complications caused by illegal ‘Emperor and Proletarian’, Ceauşescu
abortions are the most dramatic seemed to be reiterating his determination
consequence of Ceauşescu's demographic to avoid any deviation from revolutionary
project. The increase of the number of ideology: “Hurl to the earth their scheme
unwanted children, of children abandoned founded on greed and wrong, this system
in orphanages, born with malformations, that divides, making us rich and poor!
with hereditary diseases, as well as the Since there will be no prize in death
spread of AIDS among children in awaited long, demand the rights today that
institutions, the number of the women do to you belong, and let us live in equal
presenting physical and psychological brotherhood secure!” (Shafir, 1989).
trauma, represents the tangible effects of Nowdays, when Romania still
Ceauşescu's demographic policies. confronts its past, critisism over the
Unrealistic natal policies of the communist communist regime has taken place with a
regime in Romania, in the absence of constant view to compromise, consensus,
socio-economic infrastructure necessary to reform, and working through the past
prefer incentives rather than coercive (Tismăneanu, 2008). But the most
means to increase the birth rate, imperative way to achieve a progressive
singularized Romanian case in Central and future is to learn from the blunders of the
Eastern Europe area (Istoria past.
Comunismului ȋn România, 2011).
Conclusions
Xenophobia and Puritanism Ceausescu’s Romania was a unique
The morality imposed on the daily case in Socialist Eastern Europe. That was
social behavior of the population, though it mainly due to the establishment of a
has a great deal in common with the dynastic form of Socialism; heavily reliant
puritanism, even prudery, so common in on his own personality with power
communist societies, is less logically concentrated in the hands of his close.The
connected to Marxism; and in Romania it collapse of Ceausescu's regime was
has been pushed to an extreme unique in significant not only for Romania but for
the European Communist world in at least the entire Eastern Europe in general; and
one respect, demographic policy. We may it’s regarded by historians as the crucial
one day see similar policies adopted in moment of a long process of post-
other European Communist states, but for communist transition for the Romanian
the time being, Romania stands out as the society. The critical uniqueness of the
only European, or even fairly Romanian revolution was that, because of

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Appendices

Figure No. 1. ROMANIA, Mosilor Av., Bucharest,09.1982.

Olari Church is moved and hidden behind a block of flats.
© Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

Figure No. 2. ROMANIA, Drumul Taberei, Bucharest,12.1987.

Sunset between apartment blocks.
© Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

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Figure No. 3. ROMANIA, Calinescu Street, Bucharest, 12.1986.

Demolished neighbourhood - diagonally, to Armeneasca Street.
© Andrei Pandele. Source: EST&OST.

283