Limestone: Limestone Is A Common Type of Carbonate Sedimentary Rock. It Is
Limestone: Limestone Is A Common Type of Carbonate Sedimentary Rock. It Is
Limestone: Limestone Is A Common Type of Carbonate Sedimentary Rock. It Is
Limestone
Limestone is a common type of carbonate sedimentary rock. It is
composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are Limestone
Sedimentary rock
different crystal forms of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Limestone
forms when these minerals precipitate out of water containing
dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and
nonbiological processes, though biological processes have likely
been more important for the last 540 million years.[1] Limestone
often contains fossils, and these provide scientists with information
on ancient environments and on the evolution of life.[2]
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Description
Limestone is composed mostly of the minerals calcite and aragonite, which are different crystal forms of
calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Dolomite, CaMg(CO3)2, is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and siderite
or other carbonate minerals are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of
magnesium. Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the
dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite
mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant
magnesium.[7] Most limestone is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with clastic sediments (mainly fine-
grained quartz and clay minerals) making up less than 5%[8] to 10%[9] of the composition. Organic
matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%.[10]
Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or siliceous skeletal fragments
(such as sponge spicules, diatoms, or radiolarians).[11] Fossils are also common in limestone.[2]
Limestone is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be
almost black in color, while traces of iron or manganese can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red
color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone
to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3. Although relatively soft,
with a Mohs hardness of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 MPa.[12] For
comparison, concrete typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa.[13]
Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in
texture.[14] However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because
limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that is deposited close to
where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content.[8]
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Grains
Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially lithified carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are
limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from
outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone, which is clusters of peloids cemented
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together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by
other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a turbidity
current.[25]
Mud
The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest
fraction of an ancient carbonate rock.[22] Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 microns in
length is described as micrite.[26] In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles,
which may precipitate directly from seawater,[27] be secreted by algae,[28] or be produced by abrasion of
carbonate grains in a high-energy environment.[29] This is converted to calcite within a few million years
of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar, with grains from 5 to 15 microns
in diameter.[27]
Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm, that are
described as sparry calcite or sparite. Sparite is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20
microns and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent
crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its
characteristic crystal shapes. [30]
Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by
recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement was likely deposited in pore space
between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud.
Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment.[30]
Other characteristics
Limestone outcrops are recognized in the field by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs
hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously
when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the
presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers.[8] Impurities (such as
clay, sand, organic remains, iron oxide, and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different
colors, especially with weathered surfaces.
The makeup of a carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute
hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite
grains. The latter can be identified by their rhombohedral shape.[8]
Crystals of calcite, quartz, dolomite or barite may line small cavities (vugs) in the rock. Vugs are a form
of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by a change in environment that increases the
solubility of calcite.[31]
Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous Portoro
"marble" of Italy is actually a dense black limestone.[32] True marble is produced by recrystallization of
limestone during regional metamorphism that accompanies the mountain building process (orogeny). It
is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and the formation of distinctive
minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone.[33]
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Classification
Folk classification
Dunham classification
A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the
classification scheme.[37]
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Chalk is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such
as foraminifera, while
marl is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments.[39]
Formation
Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite precipitate out of water containing dissolved calcium, which
can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes.[40] The solubility of calcium
carbonate (CaCO
3) is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved carbon dioxide (CO
2) in the water.
This is summarized in the reaction:
CaCO
3 + H
2O + CO
2 → Ca2+ + 2HCO−
Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved CO2 and
precipitate CaCO
3. Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of CaCO
3, by several orders of
magnitude for fresh water versus seawater.
[41]
Near-surface water of the earth's oceans are oversaturated with CaCO3 by a factor of more than six.[42]
The failure of CaCO3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved
magnesium ions with nucleation of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation
of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in the water.
Although ooids likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of CaCO3 precipitation in the
oceans is the result of biological activity.[43] Much of this takes place on carbonate platforms.
Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the Phanerozoic,
the last 540 million years of the Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms
in the Precambrian, prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more
important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the
modern ocean.[47]
Diagenesis
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Diagenesis is the process in which sediments are compacted and turned into solid rock. During
diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example,
aragonite is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths,
concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 millimeters (0.039 to 0.394 in) in diameter found in
some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit
together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments.[48]
Macrostylolites in a limestone.
CaCO
3 + H
2O + CO
2 + H
4SiO
4 → SiO
2 + Ca2+ + 2HCO−
3 + 2 H2O
Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of
deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming hardgrounds.
Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater
infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just a few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with
groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of
thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can
infiltrate over 100 kilometers (60 mi) into sediments beneath the continental shelf.[50]
As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and
mechanical compaction of the sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by pressure
solution of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and
redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to
80% to less than 10%.[51] Pressure solution produces distinctive styolites, irregular surfaces within the
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limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of a
considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 kilometer (0.62 mi), burial
cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce styolites.[52]
When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis
takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater
infiltrating the beds. This may include the formation of vugs, which are crystal-lined cavities within the
limestone.[52]
Occurrence
About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock,[2] and most of this is limestone.[16][2]
Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years.[57] However, the compositions
of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern
carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite.[58] The aragonite needles in
carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within a few million years, as this is the most
stable form of calcium carbonate.[27] Ancient carbonate formations of the Precambrian and Paleozoic
contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic.
Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of
aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This
may indicate a lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times.[59] This magnesium depletion may
be a consequence of more rapid sea floor spreading, which removes magnesium from ocean water. The
modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas".[60]
Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as continental shelves or platforms.
Such environments form only about 5% of the ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in
continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters,
which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower
concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with
very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in the relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms
are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder
silicate grains.[61] Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments
originating at or near the place of deposition.[62]
Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a
limestone formation are interpreted as ancient reefs, which when they appear in the geologic record are
called bioherms. Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen
in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix.
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Limestones may also form in evaporite depositional environments.[70][71] Calcite is one of the first
minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites.[72]
Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible
for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, stromatolites are mound-shaped
structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of cyanobacteria that accumulated carbonate
sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones.[73] Organisms precipitate limestone both
directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from the water by
photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate.[69]
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The cyanobacterium Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the green alga Eugamantia
sacculata and the fungus Ostracolaba implexa.[76]
Micricitic mud mounds are subcircular domes of micritic calcite that lacks internal structure. Modern
examples are up to several hundred meters thick and a kilometer across, and have steep slopes (with
slope angles of around 50 degrees). They may be composed of peloids swept together by currents and
stabilized by Thallasia grass or mangroves. Bryozoa may also contribute to mound formation by helping
to trap sediments.[77]
Mud mounds are found throughout the geologic record, and prior to the early Ordovician, they were the
dominant reef type in both deep and shallow water. These mud mounds likely are microbial in origin.
Following the appearance of frame-building reef organisms, mud mounds were restricted mainly to
deeper water.[78]
Organic reefs
Organic reefs form at low latitudes in shallow water, not more than a few meters deep. They are complex,
diverse structures found throughout the fossil record. The frame-building organisms responsible for
organic reef formation are characteristic of different geologic time periods: Archaeocyathids appeared in
the early Cambrian; these gave way to sponges by the late Cambrian; later successions included
stromatoporoids, corals, algae, bryozoa, and rudists (a form of bivalve mollusc).[79][80][81] The extent of
organic reefs has varied over geologic time, and they were likely most extensive in the middle Devonian,
when they covered an area estimated at 5,000,000 square kilometers (1,900,000 sq mi). This is roughly
ten times the extent of modern reefs. The Devonian reefs were constructed largely by stromatoporoids
and tabulate corals, which were devastated by the late Devonian extinction.[82]
Organic reefs typically have a complex internal structure. Whole body fossils are usually abundant, but
ooids and interclasts are rare within the reef. The core of a reef is typically massive and unbedded, and is
surrounded by a talus that is greater in volume than the core. The talus contains abundant intraclasts
and is usually either floatstone, with 10% or more of grains over 2mm in size embedded in abundant
matrix, or rudstone, which is mostly large grains with sparse matrix. The talus grades to planktonic fine-
grained carbonate mud, then noncarbonate mud away from the reef.[79]
Limestone landscape
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Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This
process is known as bioerosion. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the fossil
record.[85]
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands.
Examples include the Rock of Gibraltar,[86] the Burren in County Clare, Ireland;[87] Malham Cove in
North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight,[88] England; the Great Orme in Wales;[89] on Fårö near the
Swedish island of Gotland,[90] the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/United States;[91] Notch Peak in
Utah;[92] the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam;[93] and the hills around the Lijiang River and
Guilin city in China.[94]
The Florida Keys, islands off the south coast of Florida, are composed mainly of oolitic limestone (the
Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of coral reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area
during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.[95]
Unique habitats are found on alvars, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The
largest such expanse in Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Öland, Sweden.[96] Another area with
large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.[97] Huge quarries in northwestern Europe,
such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred
kilometers.[98]
Uses
Limestone is a raw material that is used globally in a variety of different ways including construction,
agriculture and as industrial materials.[100] Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in
Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the Great Pyramid and its
associated complex in Giza, Egypt, were made of limestone. So many buildings in Kingston, Ontario,
Canada were, and continue to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.[101]
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Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. Train stations, banks and other structures from that era
were normally made of limestone. It is used as a facade on some
skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid
blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the Bloomington
area, has long been a source of high-quality quarried limestone,
called Indiana limestone. Many famous buildings in London are
built from Portland limestone. Houses built in Odessa in Ukraine in
the 19th century were mostly constructed from limestone and the
The Great Pyramid of Giza, one of
extensive remains of the mines now form the Odessa the Seven Wonders of the Ancient
Catacombs.[107] World had an outside cover made
entirely from limestone.
Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages
in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and
commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe
are made of limestone. Beer stone was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern
England.[108]
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Limestone is used
worldwide as
building material.
It is the raw material for the manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide), slaked lime (calcium
hydroxide), cement and mortar.[57]
Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (agricultural lime).[114]
Is crushed for use as aggregate—the solid base for many roads as well as in asphalt concrete.[57]
As a reagent in flue-gas desulfurization, where it reacts with sulfur dioxide for air pollution
control.[115]
In glass making, particularly in the manufacture of soda-lime glass.[116]
As an additive toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and
a cheap filler.[117]
To suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.[118]
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Many limestone formations are porous and permeable, which makes them important petroleum
reservoirs.[124] About 20% of North American hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rock.
Carbonate reservoirs are very common in the petroleum-rich Middle East,[57] and carbonate reservoirs
hold about a third of all petroleum reserves worldwide.[125] Limestone formations are also common
sources of metal ores, because their porosity and permeability, together with their chemical activity,
promotes ore deposition in the limestone. The lead-zinc deposits of Missouri and the Northwest
Territories are examples of ore deposits hosted in limestone.[57]
Scarcity
Limestone is a huge industrial material that is in constant demand. This raw material was and has been
essential in the iron and steel industry since the nineteenth century.[126] Companies never had a
shortage of limestone, however it was a concern as the demand continued to increase[127] and in fact is
still in high demand today.[128] The major potential threats back in the nineteenth century were regional
availability and accessibility.[126] The two main accessibility issues were transportation and property
rights. Other problems were high capital costs on plants and facilities due to environmental regulations
and the requirement of zoning and mining permits.[129] These two dominant factors lead to the
adaptation and selection of other materials that were created and formed to design alternatives for
limestone that suited economic demands.[126]
Limestone was classified as a critical raw material however, with the potential risk of shortages, it drove
industries to find new alternative materials and technological systems. This allowed limestone to no
longer be classified as critical and granted a significant impact to the construction of new substances,
minette ores is a common substitute for example.[126]
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure
limit) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory
exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
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has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m3 total exposure and 5 mg/m3 respiratory
exposure over an 8-hour workday.[132]
Graffiti
Removing graffiti from weathered limestone is difficult because it is a porous and permeable material.
The surface is fragile so usual abrasion methods run the risk of severe surface loss. Because it is an acid-
sensitive stone some cleaning agents cannot be used due to adverse effects.[133]
Gallery
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Chalk is a variety of
limestone. It is a
softer, and more
powdery material.
See also
Coral sand
In Praise of Limestone – poem by W. H. Auden
Kurkar – Regional name for an aeolian quartz calcrete on the Levantine coast
Limepit – Old method of calcining limestone
Sandstone – Type of sedimentary rock
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Further reading
Boynton, Robert S. (1980). Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone (https://archive.org/det
ails/rulesdistrictco00distgoog). Wiley. ISBN 0471027715.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone 23/23