Accepted Manuscript

The mechanism of mixing and mixing energy for oil and gas wells cement slurries: A
literature review and benchmarking of the findings

Fatemeh K. Saleh, Catalin Teodoriu

PII: S1875-5100(16)30917-9
DOI: 10.1016/j.jngse.2016.12.017
Reference: JNGSE 1991

To appear in: Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering

Received Date: 16 August 2016

Revised Date: 14 December 2016
Accepted Date: 20 December 2016

Please cite this article as: Saleh, F.K., Teodoriu, C., The mechanism of mixing and mixing energy for oil
and gas wells cement slurries: A literature review and benchmarking of the findings, Journal of Natural
Gas Science & Engineering (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.jngse.2016.12.017.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The Mechanism of Mixing and Mixing Energy for Oil and Gas Wells Cement Slurries: a
literature review and benchmarking of the findings

Fatemeh K. Saleh: Graduate student, Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological

Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73069

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Catalin Teodoriu: Associate Professor, Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological
Engineering, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73069

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Corresponding Author:
Catalin Teodoriu
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cteodoriu@ou.edu
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ABSTRACT
Well cementing is an integral operation in the oil and gas industry, often considered the
key element of wellbore integrity. Improper cement design can trigger well construction risks
such as de-bonding and leakage pathways in near wellbore and through annulus. Mixing
conditions for cement slurries and how they affect their properties are of great importance which
has often been ignored in the cement design. Typical cement slurry properties such as basic
rheology, thickening time, compressive strength, shear strength, free water and fluid loss can be

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directly influenced/modified when mixing conditions change. It is common knowledge in the oil
and gas industry that the properties of cement slurry obtained in laboratory do not correlate very
well with those in field mixing. This is due to the differences in the mixing equipment, and to the

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procedures following. However, cement properties mainly measured in laboratory are a critical
part of the well integrity assessment process.

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The main objective of this study is to investigate the mixing energy mechanism and
concept in the available literature of oil and gas well cementing, concrete and other industries
and identify the existing gaps. The previous literature shows controversial theories when it
comes to relying on mixing energy only where shear rate can play an important role. The

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differences in laboratory and field results are somehow explained as due to extremely different
shear rate obtained when using laboratory vs. field equipment.
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This study shows that there is currently a big gap in the oil and gas literature on the
mechanism of mixing. Additionally, some factors such as measuring power consumption,
Reynolds number while mixing, kinetic energy, heat dissipation, and effects of the shape of the
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mixer are totally ignored in preparation of oil and gas cement slurry, whereas they are widely
used in mixing non-Newtonian fluid systems in chemical engineering processes and the concrete
industry.
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Key Words: Cement Slurry, Non-Newtonian, Mixing Energy, Shear Rate, Thickening Time
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INTRODUCTION
Well Integrity Management relies today on numerical methods to calculate stresses
around the wellbore and identify the weak spots. A good numerical model will require reliable
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input data like cement properties, which cannot be directly measured in the field. Therefore,
laboratory investigations are the key to provide cement properties. Mixing conditions for cement
slurries and how they affect their properties are of great importance which has been often
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ignored in the cement design. It is critical to emphasize that cement has a complex non-
Newtonian behavior similar to some other fluids used in chemical engineering processes, civil
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industry and biological applications. In general, mixing non-Newtonian fluid is quite different
from mixing Newtonian fluids due to the influence of their viscosity upon shear stress. In
addition, these properties are affected by many factors such as mixing conditions, mixer type,
speed and mixing time. Furthermore, other properties inherent to cement slurry including fluid
loss, UCS and thickening time can be significantly altered.
The objective of a well cementing operation is to achieve zonal isolation in order to
restrict the movement of fluids and gases from one zone to another and to bond and support the
well casing at each interval. Debonding problems and ineffective zonal isolation and/or a weak
bond between the casing and the cement sheath and between the cement sheath and formation
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may lead to short and long term leakage pathways (Teodoriu et al., 2013). This indicates the
importance of an optimum cement design for each downhole application. The design includes
rheological properties, thickening time, fluid loss, strength, and other mechanical and chemical
properties. There are often challenges in obtaining good zonal isolation with cement. Associate
problems to well integrity include mechanical failure, chemical attacks, durability issues,
sustained casing pressure, shrinkage and leakage. Poor cement-formation bond may arise as a
result of mud cake which compromises the purpose of well cement integrity. In the downhole

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environment, Portland cement undergoes reduction in strength (strength retrogression) over time
as it is exposed to high temperature and pressure. Such situation creates a loss of zonal isolation
which eventually affects the life span of the wellbore (Gibson et al., 2011). It is often a challenge

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to obtain a good isolation at high pressure and temperature. Pressure and thermal dynamic loads
occur during well’s life and are other factors triggering wellbore integrity problems (Teodoriu et
al., 2010) and require a good estimation of in situ cement mechanical properties. Sustained

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casing pressure is another critical problem in oilwell cementing. Rocha-Valadez et al. (2014)
discussed the issue of sustained casing pressure in their research where data were analyzed and
modeled for qualitative analysis of sustained casing pressure. Sustained casing pressure occurs
when pressure regenerates in the well after the pressure has been released. Poor bonding between

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cement and casing or between cement and formation leads to gas leakage which can eventually
cause sustained casing pressure.
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In addition to the discussed problems, the properties of the cement mixed in the field are
often not similar to the ones observed in the laboratory which indicates mixing as another key
factor that needs further research and consideration.
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Researchers in other industries (not oil and gas) have conducted rheological, power
consumption, macroscopic and microscopic analysis to evaluate mixing performance. Some have
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concluded shear rate by the mixer as a key factor in determination of overall mixing efficiency.
In addition, kinetic energy and heat dissipation while mixing are among other key factors often
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ignored for oil and gas cement slurries.

As of today, the relationship between mixing energy and cement slurry operational
variables is still unclear. Therefore, the goal of this paper is to present a comprehensive review of
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the literature of oilwell cementing as well as of similar context in the concrete industry and other
chemical engineering applications. The reviews in this paper are presented in two categories: oil
and gas cement slurry literature and concrete and other industries. A useful discussion at the end
of this paper comprises the missing key research procedures related to oil and gas cement slurry
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applications.
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Literature Review of Mixing Energy in Oil and Gas Cementing Operations

Mixing conditions for cement slurries and their impact on slurries’ properties are of great
importance, but they have often been ignored in the cement design. Typical cement slurry
properties such as basic rheology, thickening time, compressive strength, shear strength and fluid
loss can be directly influenced when mixing conditions change. In addition, mixing equipment
and laboratory conditions are two other issues rarely investigated. Although API standards
govern the mixing procedures for oilwell cements, it is either difficult to follow standards in field
conditions or sometimes challenging to keep mixing procedures consistent from one laboratory
to another.
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A theory for mixing energy was developed and proposed by Orban in 1986 (Orban et al.,
1986). It was further used and emphasized in others works such as Hibbert et al. (1995) and
Vidick and Schlumberger (1990). Initial effects of mixing energy on cement slurry were first
evaluated by conducting rheological measurements according to API 10A specifications. Then, a
Bingham rheological model was used to describe the results. Finally, the well-known formula of
mixing energy was developed and presented as:

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× × × × ×
= = ………………………………………………………………Equation 1
×

was experimentally found to be 6.4 10-9 N.m/kg.m-3/rpm

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The major advantage/benefit of this theory was to have consistent properties for the
slurry mixtures with same mixing energies. This is of critical importance when having mixtures

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under laboratory conditions and using them for operational practice with slurry keeping identical
properties. According to Orban, “the properties of cement slurries and set cements, API
Specification 10, Second Edition, June 15, 1984 :’API Specification for Materials and Testing
for especially rheology, free water and fluid loss, are found Well Cements’ to vary a lot with the

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intensity of mixing”. He further connects this to the deflocculation process in which mechanical
stresses during mixing process were found to be critical.
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Although Orban’s work was groundbreaking in acknowledging the mixing energy
concept, some others were in disagreement with the concept and application of this theory. For
instance, Padget et al. (1996) highlights the importance of shear rate as a phenomenon impacting
properties rather than mixing energy. He presents new laboratory experiments and field
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observations for the effects of the shear rate on the mixing system. He further shows that slurries
designed with high shear rate equipment may result in selecting wrong combinations of mix
design and additives. He first indicated erratic results of change in some properties such as
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rheology, free water and settling due to mixing energy; however, this occurred in some samples.
Second, he indicates fluid loss and thickening time as slightly affected by the mixing energy
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(Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Thickening time vs. mixing energy (Padget et al., 1996). Thickening time results slightly
responsive to mixing energy

Third and most important, it was observed that rather the properties than the mixing
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energies changed more significantly when different mixing equipments were used. This was
more obvious for free water results which is much higher under field conditions. Furthermore, it
was found that compressive strength is not a function of mixing energy. His work concluded
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little use of the mixing energy concept. These results were in contradiction with Orban’s work.
Padget explained the differences in laboratory and field results as due to extremely different
shear rate used in the equipment. While the shear rate of centrifugal pumps under operational
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conditions is generally less than 2,000 Sec-1, the laboratory equipment relying on API standards
generates more than 30,000 Sec-1. He further recommended a new equation for mixing energy
which is directly related to the shear rate as:
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= × × ……………………………………………………..…………………Equation 2

where is the viscosity and is the shear rate. The concluding remark from using this new
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equation according to Padget is “ if the residence time is increased, a low shear device (jet mixer,
batch mixer) can exert same amount of mixing energy into a slurry as a high-shear device
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(laboratory blender). However, because it is shear rate that is more important, the properties
will not necessarily be the same”
Vidick highlighted in 1990 the importance of both chemical and physical phenomena and
deflocculation as a crucial step in the mixing process. In addition, he revealed time as an
important factor in slurry’s yield value as a longer mixing period increases the yield value.
Figure 2 shows the dual influence of mixing time and rotational speed (rpm). His results
indicated mixing time more critical than rpm.
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90

80

70
Yield Value (lbs/100sqft)

60

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50 15 Sec at 6000 rpm

40 15 sec at 12000 rpm

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50 sec at 6000 rpm
30
50 sec at 12000 rpm
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Consistometer time (min)
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Figure 2. Effect of mixing time and rotational speed on yield value (Vidick, 1990)
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He further explained his observations due to the growth of hydrates during a longer
mixing period. These hydrates will absorb more dispersants over time, therefore increases the
yield value. In contrast to Padget, Vidick showed that thickening time is responsive to mixing
energy for measurements conducted at 150 oF in atmospheric consistometer (Figure 3).
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Although, once deflocculation occurs, there is no further change in thickening time by increase
in mixing energy. It is worth to mention that thickening time tests under laboratory conditions
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were not reported by Paget; therefore, it is difficult to confirm whether both experiments were
conducted under similar conditions, acknowledging the fact that temperature has a significant
effect on thickening time.
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Class G, 15.8 ppg with Retarder at 65 C

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Tickening Time (min)

300
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260

240

220

200
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Mixing Energy (kJ/kg)
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Figure 3. Effect of mixing energy on thickening time (Vidick, 1990)

Heathman et al. (1993) studied the effects of mixing energy on cement slurries using field
equipment and coil tubing. One important aspect of his work was the investigation of wetting
efficiency of the cement particles upon their initial contact with cement particles. His results
indicated erratic changes in cement properties due to the lack of adequate cement particle wetting

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efficiency in the mixing time As a result he recommended a minimal energy consumption for
wetting cement particles in order to ensure consistent cement properties. In addition, he
concluded that there is no significant difference in cement properties from the energy added

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through batch mixer or pumped through coil tubing. His work further implied that “slurry
performance is not affected by batch size, mixing pumps, nor pumping through coil tubing”.
Vorkin et al. (1993) presented a study on slurry properties of mixtures pumped through

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coil tubing. This study also included investigations of filter cake generated by squeeze. The study
also highlighted the importance of shear energy when plastic viscosity, yield point, filter cake
height, fluid loss and slurry consistency had stabilized after reaching a certain level of shear
energy. Figure 4 shows rheological properties measured for a co-polymer system at 170o F for a

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mixing time at 12000 rpm. This indicates the effect of shear energy on these properties up to 120
seconds, whereas there were no changes in the measured properties afterwards. It should be
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mentioned that these measurements were conducted for mixture slurries including either latex or
co-polymer system and these results may not be true for slurries with different mixtures.
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120

100
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PV(cP)-Ty (lbs/sqft)

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60
Yield Point

40 Plastic Viscosity
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20

Mixing Time at 12,000 rpm

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0
0 100 200 300 400
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Mixing time at 12000 rpm

Figure 4. Rheology measurements conducted for a co-polymer system at 170o F (Vorkin et

al., 1993)
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Recent changes in operational conditions such as shifting from batch mixing to

continuous mixing require a reevaluation of previous studies and additional tests using new
equipment.
Another study in the literature which has got little attention is the effect of vibration,
hydration conditions and additives on slurry properties. The study was conducted by Chow et al.
(1988). The study used a dynamic oscillatory testing technique to study the viscoelastic behavior
of cement slurries. Dynamic elastic modulus G’ and dynamic viscosity were measured and

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compared for different conditions. The study further indicated the effect of temperature on
rheological structure of hydrating cement slurries (Figure 5).
200

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180
Characteristic Shear Modulus

160

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140
(dynes/sqcm)

120
50 F
100
77 F
80

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120 F
60
150 F
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40
20
0
0 100 200 300 400
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Hydration Time , min

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Figure 5. Effect of temperature on rheological properties of class H cement (Chow et al.,

1986)
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Hibbert et al. (1994) studied the effect of mixing energy levels during batch mixing of
cement slurries. He reported significant erratic differences between properties under
conventional laboratory vs. operational conditions. The study concluded by considering mixing
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energy as a parameter in cement design, in addition to pressure and temperature. Furthermore, it

recommended API appropriate mixing energy levels in order to achieve and keep slurry
properties consistent where high levels of mixing energy were found to be detrimental to the
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thickening time (Figure 6). It was also noted, that a very short thickening time was reported
when the mixing energy had exceeded the API recommended level (5.9 KJ/Kg). For the same
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slurry, the thickening time shortened to less than four hours at a mixing energy of 17.7 kJ/Kg.
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08:24

07:12
Tickening time (hr:min)
06:00

04:48

03:36

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02:24

01:12

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00:00
0 5 10 15 20 25
Mixing energy (KJ/Kg)

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Thickening time-slurry 1 Thickening time-slurry 2

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Figure 6. Effect of mixing energy on thickening time of different slurries (after Hibbert et
al., 1994).
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Some other recent laboratory experiments concluded similar results to those reported by
Orban’s on the effect of mixing energy on thickening time, whereas Kwelle and Mofunlewi
(2008) reported a decrease in the thickening time as mixing energy increases (Figure 7). Their
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study also highlighted the effect of deflocculation. Once the slurry is deflocculated, there will be
no further effect of mixing energy.
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Figure 7. Effect of mixing energy on thickening time reported by Kwelle and Mofunlewi
(2008)

Purvis et al., (1994) studied the influence of shear rate history on thickening time of
oilwell cements. Previous studies of shear rate effect on thickening time indicated a reduction of
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the API thickening time for low shear rate conditions. The common API mixing paddle used in
the consistometer consists of two vertical blades. Previous literature has shown that cement
slurry is sheared at 800 sec-1, when exposed to a paddle rotating at 150 rpm (Purvis et al., 1993).
This is much higher than common shear rates applied on a slurry pumped into wellbore (shear
rates less than 100 sec-1). Consequently, Purvis et al. proposed an alternative mixing system in
order to see the effect of low shear rate mixing on thickening time. A helical screw paddle was
developed and used inside a high pressure consistometer (Figure 8). The results showed a

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significant difference in thickening time, compared to reference API standard paddle tests. More
than 50% reduction in thickening time was observed when using the new blender. The important
finding from this study was that for shear rates above 100 sec-1, the effect of shear rate on

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thickening time is minor.

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Figure 8. Standard API paddle for thickening time tests in consistometer (left); Helical
Screw Paddle (HSP) for thickening time tests in low shear rates (right).

Summing up, this review of pioneer papers on concept of mixing energy showed that
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both mixing energy and shear rate are very important, because they affect cement properties. It is
recommended to relate these factors to each other and investigate them under field and
laboratory conditions. Shear rate can be considered as a function of mixing energy, where high
shear rate mixing can create high mixing energy. It is also important to note that different
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laboratory equipment and conditions are other factors when comparing results from different
studies. For instance, it is very difficult to evaluate the effect of mixing energy on thickening
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time when one experiment is conducted in an atmospheric consistometer and the other in a high
pressure high temperature consistometer. Deflocculation and change in the cement structure are
other factors that need investigation. Specifically, it has to be studied at what critical mixing
point complete deflocculation occurs and how mixing energy in conjunction with deflocculation
time affects cement slurry properties.

Another aspect of the different results in coil tubing applications can be explained by the
difference in the velocity of the slurry pumped through pipes as outlined by Teodoriu et al.
(2015). He explained the differences as due to the dependence between shear rate and fluid
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velocity. He further showed the rheological properties of three cement slurries using three
different mixing processes (field, API and low shear time dependent method) (figure 9).

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Figure 9. Rheological properties of cement slurries prepared using three different methods
(Teodoriu et al., 2015)

He also outlined the surface area of the cement particles generated by laboratory mixers
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compared to field mixers, where the field slurries will not have the same surface area as the
laboratory mixtures. This could explain the difference in rheological properties and thickening
time and compressive strength.
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It is often believed that smaller particles will create more surface areas, therefore the
hydration process will be accelerated which can cause a shorter thickening time.
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Although many of the previous authors highlighted the importance of mixing and shear
energy on slurry properties, there is still a considerable number of studies that do not fully agree
with this concept. A study conducted by Helge et al. (2000) investigated the effects of time and
shear energy on the rheological properties of the cement slurries. The study used three different
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types of propeller blades and one low shear rate Hobart mixer:
1. Waring Blender propeller blade (WB blade)
2. Hard Metal blender (HM blade)
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3. Short-winged propeller blade

4. Hobart mortar mixer (used for measuring mixing energy at lower shear rate)
The study was conducted on different slurries of class G and P30 Portland cement. A
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significant difference in the mixing energy levels was observed, mainly due to the different size
of the blades. Additionally, differences in the mixing energy levels were observed for P-30 and
Class G. The mixing energy for P30 slurry was higher when using WB and HM blades; however,
there was no difference for the shorter winged blade type (Table 1).

Table 1. Measured mixing energies for class G and P30 Portland cement using three different types of blender
(Helge et al., 2000)
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Propeller type cement slurry Class G (kJ/kg) P-30 (kJ/kg)

WB-blade 5.6 7.6
HM-blade 3.9 4.6
Short-winged propeller blade 1.8 1.8

The differences in mixing energy of P-30 and class G slurries were explained as due to
different particle sizes and surface areas. The P-30 cement has finer particle sizes compared to

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the class G cement; therefore it appears natural for the P30 cement to have a larger viscosity
compared to class G slurries. This indicates that the concept of mixing energy must be cautiously
considered since “to mix a more viscous slurry will require more energy than mixing a less

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viscous slurry”. Similar observations were made for torque measurement, where the P-30 cement
showed higher torque values from the beginning, which indicates a higher input of mixing
energy. The value of critical consistency (30 BC) was reached after 285 minutes for the class G

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cement, and it was above 30 BC for the P30 slurry from the beginning.. The measured gel
strength of class G and P-30 is showed in Figure 10. The results indicate a higher rate of gel
formation for the P-30 slurry compared to class G.

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Figure 10. Gel strength for class G (right) and P30 Portland cement (left) (Helge et al.,
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2000).

The authors conclude that the concept of mixing energy can only be valid for class G,
when slurries are mixed using an original Waring Blender at high speed; otherwise, it needs to be
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cautiously considered. They also highlighted the importance of cement hydration for consistency
values (thickening time).
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Literature Study of the Mixing Energy Concept in Other Industries

A review of the mixing energy concept in other industries, mainly concrete, is presented
as follows. This review shows that the concept is well covered and studied in non-petroleum
applications, but not adapted for oilfield cements. One of the earliest reference papers on the
concept of mixing non-Newtonian fluids goes as far as 1957 and was written by Lee et al.
(1957). As pointed out by the authors, the slow evolvement of the non-Newtonian fluids study
compared to Newtonian is due to their complexity. In non-Newtonian fluids, the mixing blender
can affect the total energy consumption due to the dependence of viscosity upon the shear stress.
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The paper showed that in the process of mixing polymeric non-Newtonian fluids, the gradients in
viscosity will lead to a poor mass and heat transfer. The study used the Reynolds number and the
power number to combine mixing parameters such as geometric, kinematic and dynamic. .
Further, the study used plots of mixing times versus Reynolds number to study the impact of
different mixing impellers on the mixing process (Figure 11). These plots were found very useful
in studying mixing efficiencies for non-Newtonian fluids. Furthermore, these plots helped to find
out the specific impeller speed (rpm) to attain a designed mixing time.

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Figure 11. Mixing time-Reynolds number plot to investigate the effect of various shaped
impellors used by Dow Chemical Researcher (Lee et al., 1957).
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Masiuk and Lacki (1992) studied power consumption and mixing time for Newtonian and
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non-Newtonian liquid mixing using a ribbon mixer (Masiuk and Lacki, 1992). The main
objective of the study was to find out the lowest energy consuming configuration for the ribbon
mixer. The shear stresses generated by different type of mixers are extremely important for
mixing energy and energy consumption. As presented in the study, the power consumption for
the laminar flow inside the mixing container was given as:
. = ………………………………………………………...……………………Equation 3
The dependence of mixing time on other quantities was expressed by introducing a
dimensionless group nt described as:
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.
= .
The relationship between the mixing energy as a function of power consumption and mixing
time was represented as:
. = . ……………………………………………………….……………………Equation 4
The authors conducted experimental studies using different ribbon mixers to see the
effects on power consumption, mixing time and mixing energy. The study concluded a predictive

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equation to calculate the mixing energy by using data obtained from experiments:
= . [22 + 0.125( ) ] ………………………………………………………Equation 5
! !

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W/d defines the geometrical ratio for different mixers. The study results revealed that the shape
of the ribbon mixer has a significant influence on the mixing energy. Furthermore, the mixing
efficiency of various mixers was compared.

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Figure 12. Mixing energy-Reynolds number plot to investigate the effect of various shaped
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ribbon mixers (Masiuk and Lacki, 1992).

All experimental data for power consumption and mixing time were correlated by using
the equations described above. As shown in the figure 12 (right), the mixing energy was first
calculated using the power consumption and the mixing time, and then plotted (vertical axis)
versus Reynolds number (horizontal axis).
Fradette et al. (2007) conducted a similar study to investigate power and mixing time for
impellers used for mixing viscous Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. All flow regimes
including laminar, and turbulent flow regimes were investigated. The results of the study showed
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that power and shear components were very sensitive to variations in the impeller bottom
clearance. Additionally, the study showed that the particular shape of the mixer used (paddle at
the bottom) is very efficient for mixing at low power consumption. The mixing time depends not
only on the pressure drop created by the paddle but also on the friction factor of the impeller.
In addition to mixer shapes, the investigation of residence and mixing time has been topic
of debates in the literature as well. This is due to complex phenomena exhibiting non-ideal flows
in the blender when mixing non-Newtonian fluids (Patel et al., 2013). In the study conducted by

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Patel (2013), researchers used a non-intrusive technique based on Electrical Resistance
Tomography (ERT) to study the effect of operational parameters on mixing efficiency. Of
particular interest was to investigate design parameters such as ratio of residence time to mixing

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time using different impellor types, as illustrated in Figure 13. The residence time of a fluid,
especially non-Newtonian fluids, plays a crucial role in continuous-flow mixing processes.
Residence time is defined as “Time taken by a fluid molecule to reach the outlet from the inlet is

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known as residence time and it is calculated from the ratio of the fluid volume (V) in the vessel to
the feed flow rate (Q)".

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Figure 13. Different type of impellers such as axial and radial flow used to investigate the
effect of operational parameters on mixing efficiency for non-Newtonian fluid types (Patel
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et al., 2013)

Previous studies by Ein-Mozaffari et al. (2003), Patel et al. (2011, 2012a, b), Saeed et al.
(2008), showed the impact of various operating parameters and design factors on mixing
efficiency. These include impeller types, impeller speed (rpm), fluid rheology, fluid flow rate,
impeller size, fluid height and others. These studies concluded that: i) by increasing the fluid
yield stress due to the increase in concentration of the polymers, the ratio of residence time to
mixing time increases; ii) the similar ratio (residence to mixing time) was higher for axial flow
impellers with high solidity ratio; iii) the study showed that for ideal mixing conditions, the ratio
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of the residence time to mixing time should be higher than 8.2 for the continuous-flow mixing of
non-Newtonian fluids.
Many aspects of the mixing process are important in other industries such as chemical
engineering. In a study conducted by Masiuk et al. (2008), researchers investigated the effect of
rotational and reciprocating movements on mixing energy. The rotational agitator generally
generates high shear stress which is suitable when the chemical process requires complete
destruction of the mix, whereas the reciprocating agitator generates low shear stress which is

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desirable for biochemical processes. Prior to Masiuk et al. (2008), the effects of rotational or
reciprocating movements of the agitator on the power consumption, mixing time, mixing energy
and density of mixing energy were almost unknown. Masiuk et al. (2008) used tow experimental

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set ups with angle inclined blades for their investigations (Figure 14). The study introduced two
sets of analytical solutions for rotational and reciprocating movements. Also, it showed that
reciprocating movement created significantly lower energy consumption compared to rotational

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movement.

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Figure 14. Effect of rotational and reciprocating movements on dimensionless mixing

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energy.
The effect of shape and size of the mixer has never been considered in the context of
mixing energy. If mixing energy is highly affected by shear stresses, then different
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configurations of the mixer currently used in different labs can have significant impacts on final
cement properties. A recent paper by Assaad et al. (2016) has investigated the effect of mixing
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vane configurations on yield stress of cement pastes. The study includes the understanding of
shear stress caused by the different configuration of the vanes. The study has investigated eleven
types of vanes containing 2 to 6 blades with various height/diameter ratio (H/D) and various
shapes (Figure 15). The results of the tests indicated that mixing vanes made with reduced H/D
and conical shape led to increased shear stress (Figure 15)
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Figure 15. Different mixing vanes for measurement of shear stress. (Assaad et al., 2016)

Similar studies can be conducted to see the effect of different oilwell cement blender’s shape on
shear stress and shear energy. This can answer whether the shape of the mixer can change slurry
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properties and how sensitive the mixing energy will be to the shape of mixing blenders.
Many studies related to mixing concrete can be relevant to cements in oil and gas
application. Prior works have conducted rheological analysis, power consumption analysis,
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macroscopic and microscopic analysis. Some have concluded shear rate by the mixer as a key
factor in the determination of overall mixing efficiency (Jezequel and Collin, 2007). In addition,
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kinetic energy and heat dissipation while mixing are among other key factors often ignored for
oil and gas cement slurries.
A study published by Julliand et al. (2011) investigated the effect of mixing on early
hydration of Portland cements in concrete applications. The study indicates the kinetics of
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hydration as an important factor sensitive to mixing procedure. High shear mixing can cause
higher kinetics at an early stage compared to low shear conditions, for instance by hand. The
study used an isothermal calorimeter to investigate the effect of mixing on kinetics. Another
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study conducted by Takahashi et al., (2011) investigated the effect of mixing energy on
hydration kinetics of grouting mortars. The study used X-ray diffraction techniques and
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Scanning Electron Microscopy to evaluate the effect of several mixing parameters on fluidity,
hardening characteristics, shrinkage and heat of hydration. The materials consisted of Portland
cement, silicious aggregates and superplasticizers. This was the first study in the literature of
concrete and cement highlighting the effect of mixing time on shrinkage values, and it showed a
decrease of shrinkage values by mixing time, as illustrated in Figure 16. The study also measured
early and late stage compressive strength. The longer the mixing time, the higher is the early
compressive strength; however, there was no significant difference for compressive strength
measured after 7 and 28 days. The initial setting time was also increased by raising the mixing
time. SEM and X-ray studies also revealed the effect of mixing time on hydrate formations. The
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results showed that the hydrates are dispersed more homogenously when the mixing time
becomes longer. A shorter mixing time causes the formation of surface layers with increased
water content (Figure 17). Although this study has been conducted for concrete industry
applications, similar procedures can be conducted for oilwell cement applications to investigate
the effect of mixing time on early and late slurry properties such as compressive strength and
change in microstructure and cement hydration phases by mixing time.

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Figure 16. Effect of mixing time on shrinkage values for Portland cement concrete
(Takahashi et al., 2011)
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Figure 17. Effect of mixing time on formation of hydrates for Portland cement concrete
(Takahashi et al., 2011).
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In order to better understand the effect of mixing time and condition on properties of
cement, one must consider intense chemical reactions as cement goes from liquid to solid state
(Gauffinet--Garrault, 2012). Cement is composed of many different phases that dissolve and
bring various ions to the pore solution of the cement. A kinetic study of cement hydration can be
very useful to investigate how different reactions can occur due to mixing conditions. The study
conducted by Gauffinet-Garrault shows the correlation between the chemical process and the
rheological changes in the cement. As cement mixes with water molecules, a supersaturated

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solution of different hydrates is formed. These hydration processes follow thermodynamic laws.
It has been often assumed that a hydration process is simple, but this is generally a very complex
one, primarily temperature dependent.

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In a study conducted by Han and Ferron (2015), the effect of the mixing method on the
microstructure and rheology of the cement paste was investigated. Although the study
investigates ASTM mixing standards, it can be further expanded to API and oilwell cement

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applications. ASTM C1738 uses a high shear mixer for the sample preparation, whereas ASTM
C305 uses a planetary mixer for more homogenized cement samples. The study used different
mixing methods and revealed a significant difference, not only in rheological properties, but also
in kinetics and microstructure. Figure 18 shows the two mixers used, Chandler high shear mixer

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blade set up for ASTM C1738 and Hobart mixer paddle and set up for ASTM C305. The ASTM
C138 is based on mixing cement at 4000 rpm for 60 sec., then mixing at 12000 rpm for 30 sec.,
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resting for 150 sec., and finally mixing at 12000 rpm for 30 sec. On the other hand, ASTM C305
is based on an initial mixing at 140 rpm for 30 sec., a resting for 15 sec. and a final mixing at 285
rpm for 60 sec. The study showed much higher viscosity and Yield stress values for the slurries
prepared according to high mixing ASTM protocol using Chandler high shear mixing blade.
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Similar observations were made for the yield stress. These results further prove the effect of
mixing procedure and shear rate on slurry properties (Figure 19). The study explains “the
increase in the plastic viscosity and yield stress that occurred when samples were prepared using
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a high shear mixer suggests that the fresh microstructural state tend towards a more
agglomerated state as the mixing time or mixing speed is increased”. Samples with more
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polymers showed higher increase in rheological properties.

Several experiments performed calorimeter measurements in order to understand the
effect of mixing methods on the rate of hydration … It was found that the samples prepared in
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the high shear mixer displayed accelerated hydration kinetics compared to those prepared in the
lower shear mixer.
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Figure 18. Study of different mixers and mixing methods and their influence on rheological
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properties and microstructure of cement (Han and Ferron, 2015). Two different ASTM
mixing protocols were used in this study. One using high shear mixer (top) and one low
shear mixer (bottom)
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Figure 19. Study of different mixers and mixing methods on viscosity and yield stress (Han
and Ferron, 2015)..
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A recent paper by Han and Ferron (2016) on the impact of mixing speed on rheology, hydration
and microstructure of cement paste concluded that contrary to previous studies, the rheological
properties of cement paste can increase once a certain mixing speed is achieved. The increase in
rheological properties is associated with changes in the chemical and physical structure of the
cement paste. For instance, the study used mixing speeds from 1000 rpm to 12000 rpm, and it
was shown that “when the sample preparation mixing speed increased from 1000 rpm to 4000
rpm, the apparent viscosity did not increase (it generally decreased or remained the same for all

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the mixtures). However, when the mixing speed increased above 4000 rpm, various behaviors
were observed. Additionally, it was observed that a mixing energy in the range of 1000-4000
rpm is sufficient to disperse the mixing particles, and above a threshold limit, increasing the rpm

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didn’t change the viscosity of the mixture. In addition, the study showed that, as the mixing
speed increased, the cement hydration was accelerated and the overall heat evolved during this
time period increased (Figure 20). The study highlighted the importance of mixing procedures on

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the rheological properties of the slurry. It is important to keep in mind the effect of different
additives on the cement. Having more polymers can cause more changes in their rheological
properties compared to samples with no polymers.

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Figure 20. Effect of mixing speed on rheological behavior’s of cement paste (left), effect of
mixing speed on heat of hydration for cement pastes (right).
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A study conducted by Banfil and Swift (2004) showed the effect of shear rate on
rheological properties of cement based materials. The research investigated the effect of high and
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low shear mixing. The results showed that at very low shear rates (less than 30 sec-1), the mixing
energy has a large effect on the yield stress of the mix, whereas at high shear rate (above 30 sec-
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) the impact is insignificant, as illustrated in Figure 21.
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Figure 21. Effect of shear rate and yield stress (Banfil and Swift, 2004)

Discussion and Summary

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The literature study of mixing energy conducted in oil and gas industry cement slurry
shows different competing theories about the importance of cement mixing energy. One group
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recommends including mixing energy in every cement design and looking at this parameter
similar to pressure and temperature. This group sees mixing energy as an important criterion for
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successful cement jobs, as it affects most of the cement properties such as thickening time, fluid
loss, rheology and strength. The other group does not deny the importance of mixing energy;
however, they do not completely agree whether mixing energy has a strong impact on every
cement property. Some highlighted (Padget, 1996, Vidick, 1990) the importance of shear rate or
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deflocculation, cement type, additives or cement wetting efficiency, as well as other parameters
that need to be investigated in conjunction with the mixing energy. A summary of these
observations is shown in Table 2. One study (Helge et al. 2000) recommended considering the
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concept of mixing energy cautiously, since it cannot be extended to all types of cement slurries
such as P30 type. The study also indicated that little is known about the effect of shear rate on
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cement slurry properties. One study in particular showed that shear rates above 100 sec-1 have a
negligible effect on thickening time. As the table 2 shows, there is a big gap in the literature in
understanding the impact of shear rate and mixing energy on various cement properties.
The review of the papers published by other industries such as chemical engineering,
civil and concrete reveals the importance of mixing time, mixing procedure, mixing equipment
and kinetics and microstructure of the cement as key aspects to be considered. The review
showed that, in general, some aspects of mixing non-Newtonian fluids are still a dilemma. The
key is to investigate the power consumption, changes in Reynolds number, the shape of mixers
and mixing modes.
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Table 2. Summary of Prior State Of The Art on the Importance of Mixing Energy and Shear Rate for Oil
and Gas Cement Slurries

Author Impotence of Mixing Importance of Shear Application and

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Energy Rate Variables
Orban et al., 1986 Important NA Rheology, Free
Water, Fluid Loss,

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Thickening Time,
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Vidick et al., 1990 Important Important Rheology and

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Thickening Time
Heathman et al., Important Minimal Coiled Tubing
1993 Applications,
Thickening Time,

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Fluid Loss
Vorkin et al., 1993 Important NA Coiled Tubing
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Applications, Fluid
Loss, Rheology,
Thickening Time
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Purvis et al., 1993, Somehow Important Important Thickening Time

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Hibbert et al., Important NA Batch Mixing
1995 Applications,
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Thickening Time,
Rheology
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Padget et al., 1996 -Somehow Important Important Thickening Time,

for Thickening Time Free Water, Fluid
-Not Important for Loss, Yield Point
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Other Variables
Hodne et al., 2000 Important Important Rheology
Teodoriu et al., Important Important Laboratory and Batch
2015 Mixing, Rheology
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One study (Han and Ferron, 2010) showed an increase in rheological properties by using high
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shear mixers. Another study (Takahashi et al, 2014) highlighted the effect of mixing time on
cement kinetics and some other properties such as shrinkage. The shape of the mixing vanes was
the topic of another study (Aassad et. al, 2016) which indicated that the exerted shear stress can
be very different when having different blender types.
Considering this literature review, there are several aspects of mixing that need further
investigation for optimum design of slurries for oilfield applications. Some of these aspects can
be summarized as:
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1) What is the role of the mixing energy when considering different classes of Portland cement
with a different mix design such as changing water/cement ratio? This will require an
extensive laboratory study comparing properties for various mixture designs using the same
mixing equipment and consistent laboratory conditions.
2) What is the role of the mixing energy considering the microstructure change of the cement
with mixing time? Will changes in the cement microstructure affect the mixing energy
implications? How these change cement kinetics? To answer these questions, some

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laboratory studies using SEM and XRD techniques required to investigate the change in the
microstructure by mixing time. In addition, calorimetric methods can be used to investigate
the cement kinetics during cement mixing.

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3) What is the effect of using different mixing blenders (shape, type) on the cement properties
and how it can be investigated from mixing energy perspective? None of the previous
literature studies have further looked into the effect of various mixing procedures and

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methods on the cement properties.
4) The connection between shear rate and mixing energy is not well understood yet. Specific
areas include a range of shear rates where the mixing energy has more impact on the cement
properties.

Conclusions
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For the first time, a comprehensive review of the mixing energy effect on the cement
properties has been performed.
The paper shows the importance of cement mixing and the energy induced during this
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process, as well as the additional effect of shear.

Based on the analyzed models, we observed that mixing energy and shear rate can both
influence the final properties of the cement; therefore, a manifest of future investigations related
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to mixing energy and shear rate on oilwell cements has been proposed.
Finally, we found that there is currently a big gap in the oil and gas literature on the
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mechanism of mixing. Additionally, some factors such as measuring power consumption,

Reynolds number while mixing, kinetic energy, heat dissipation, and effects from the shape of
the mixer are totally ignored in the preparation of oil and gas cement slurries, whereas they are
widely used in mixing non-Newtonian fluid systems in chemical engineering processes and the
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concrete industry.
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Nomenclature
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Po : Power Number

Re: Reynolds number

Re g : Generalized Reynolds number

P: Power consumption
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w
: Geometrical ratio
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ρ : Density

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The Mechanism of Mixing and Mixing Energy for Oil and Gas Wells Cement Slurries: a literature
review and benchmarking of the findings

Fatemeh K. Saleh a and Catalin Teodoriub

a
Graduate student, Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological Engineering, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73069

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b
Associate Professor, Mewbourne School of Petroleum and Geological Engineering, University of
Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, 73069
e-mail: cteodoriu@ou.edu

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Research Highlights:

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a comprehensive review of the mixing energy effect on cement properties is shown.
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• cement mixing and the energy induced during this process.

• mixing energy and shear can both influence the final properties of the cement.
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• Currently there is a big gap in oil and gas literature on mechanism of mixing.
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• The paper is proposing a manifest about future investigations

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