BIOPSYCHOLOGY

UNIT-1

 Biological psychology, or biopsychology, is the application of the principles

of biology to the study of mental processes and behaviour that is the study of
psychology in terms of bodily mechanisms.

 The view that psychological processes have biological (or physiological)

correlates, is the basic assumption of the whole field of biological
psychology. Through a variety of research methods, psychologists in this
field hope to uncover information that enriches human understanding of their
own mental processes, as well as providing valuable data that enable those in
medical fields to better treat patients with a variety of disorders, both
physical and mental.

 Biopsychology has been a prominent field of psychology from the start in

Europe and North America and remains a major area of research and
instruction in many countries.

 In the last two centuries, biopsychology has found new ways to answer old
questions, has tackled important new questions, and has abandoned some
problems as poorly defined. Carefully designed behavioural experiments and
innovative biomedical techniques have been essential to its progress.

 SCOPE

 The current scope of biological psychology includes the following themes:

 Evolution of brain and behaviour;
 Development of the nervous system and behaviour over the life span;
 Psychopharmacology;
 Sensory and perceptual processes;
 Control and coordination of movement and actions;
 Control of behavioural states (motivation),
  Including sex and reproductive behaviour, and regulation of internal
states;
 Biological rhythms and sleep;
 Emotions and mental disorders;
 Neural mechanisms of learning and memory, language and cognition; and
 Recovery of function after damage to the nervous system.

 Developing from biological psychology and overlapping with parts of it are

such fields as behaviour genetics as well as hormones and behaviour.
Through all these methods, biological psychology is a hopeful domain, one
that has much to offer in terms of improving the quality of life of the healthy
as well as those suffering from disorders.

 EVOLUTION OF THE HUMAN BRAIN

 Humans are known for sporting big brains. On average, the size of primates'
brains is nearly double what is expected for mammals of the same body size.
Across nearly seven million years, the human brain has tripled in size, with
most of this growth occurring in the past two million years.

 Determining brain changes over time is tricky. We have no ancient brains to

weigh on a scale. We can, however, measure the inside of ancient skulls, and
a few rare fossils have preserved natural casts of the interior of skulls. Both
approaches to looking at early skulls give us evidence about the volumes of
ancient brains and some details about the relative sizes of major cerebral
areas.

 For the first two thirds of our history, the size of our ancestors' brains was
within the range of those of other apes living today. The species of the
famous Lucy fossil, Australopithecus afarensis, had skulls with internal
volumes of between 400 and 550 ml, whereas chimpanzee skulls hold
around 400 ml and gorillas between 500 and 700 ml. During this
time, Australopithecine brains started to show subtle changes in structure
and shape as compared with apes. For instance, the neo-cortex had begun to
expand, reorganizing its functions away from visual processing toward other
regions of the brain.

 The final third of our evolution saw nearly all the action in brain size. Homo
habilis, the first of our genus Homo who appeared 1.9 million years ago, saw
a modest hop in brain size, including an expansion of a language-connected
 part of the frontal lobe called Broca's area. The first fossil skulls of Homo
erectus, 1.8 million years ago, had brains averaging a bit larger than 600 ml.

 From here the species embarked on a slow upward march, reaching more
than 1,000 ml by 500,000 years ago. Early Homo sapiens had brains within
the range of people today, averaging 1,200 ml or more. As our cultural and
linguistic complexity, dietary needs and technological prowess took a
significant leap forward at this stage, our brains grew to accommodate the
changes. The shape changes we see accentuate the regions related to depth of
planning, communication, problem solving and other more advanced
cognitive functions.

 With some evolutionary irony, the past 10,000 years of human existence
actually shrank our brains. Limited nutrition in agricultural populations may
have been an important driver of this trend. Industrial societies in the past
100 years, however, have seen brain size rebound, as childhood nutrition
increased and disease declined. Although the past does not predict future
evolution, a greater integration with technology and genetic engineering may
catapult the human brain into the unknown.

 RESEARCH METHODS OF BIOPSYCHOLOGY

 Most methods used to study the Brain are also implemented for clinical
purposes as either diagnostic or treatment oriented.

 Prior to the 1970's biopsychology was limited by the inability to obtain

images of the living human brain

1. Conventional X-ray photography: was useless for obtaining images of the

living brain or information about its structures.

2. Contrast X-ray Techniques: involve injecting a substance into the body

that absorbs X-rays either less than or more than the surrounding tissue. It
then heightens contrast between the compartment and the surrounding tissue.

a) Cerebral Angiography: A contrast technique which uses radio-opaque

dye injected into the cerebral artery to visualize the cerebral circulatory
system during x-ray photography.

 Is useful for localizing vascular damage & displacement of blood

vessels can indicate location of a tumour.
b) Computed tomography (CT): Developed in the early 70's, is computer
assisted X-ray procedure that can be used to visualize the brain and other
internal structures of the living body. Patient lies on table, with their
head in the centre of a large cylinder. An x-ray tube projects an x-ray
beam through the head to an x-ray detector.

 Info in each CT scan is combined by a computer to one horizontal

section. The process is repeated numerous times to provide a 3D
representation of the Brain.

 The CT scan stimulated development of other techniques.

c) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): A procedure where high

resolution images are constructed from the measurement of waves that
hydrogen atoms emit when they are activated by radio frequency waves
in a magnetic field.

 MRI provides clearer images of the brain than a CT.

 High Spatial Resolution: the ability to detect and represent

differences in spatial location.

 MRI can produce 3D & 2D images

d) Positron Emission Tomography (PET): was the first brain imaging

technique to provide images of Brain Activity (functional Brain images)
rather than images of Brain Structure (structural brain images).

 Common version of PET uses radioactive (2-DG) which is injected into

the patient's Carotid Artery. The similarity between 2-DG and glucose
allows it to be rapidly taken up by active cells. Because it cannot be
metabolized it accumulates in the active neurons, and scans can therefore
create images of the brain where it is most active.

 These aren't really images of the brain but a coloured map of the
radioactivity amount accumulated.

e) Functional MRI (FMI): the most influential tool of cognitive

neuroscience, it produces images representing the increase in oxygen
flow in the blood to active areas of the brain.

 This is possible because oxygenated bloods 2 attributes:

  Active areas of the brain take up more oxygenated blood.

 Oxygenated blood has magnetic properties the effect magnetic fields

on the iron in blood.

 BOLD signal is the recorded signal of the Blood-oxygen-level –

dependent signal.

 4 Advantages of fMRI over PET:

1. Nothing has to be injected into the subject.

2. It provides both Structural & Functional Information in the same
image.
3. Its spatial resolution is better.
4. It can be used to produce 3D images of activity over the entire
Brain.

 Disadvantages: It is to slow to capture many neural responses such

as action potentials, since it takes 2-3 seconds to create an fMRI
image.

f) Magneto-encephalography (MEG): measures changes in magnetic fields

on the surface of the scalp that are produced by changes in underlying
patterns of neural activity.

 Major Advantage of MEG vs. fMRI

 Is its Temporal Resolution: It can record fast changes in neural

activity

 Weakness of all imaging techniques: they can be used to show a

correlation between brain activity and cognitive activity but they cannot
prove that the brain activity caused the cognitive activity.

 The best way to support causation is to study people who are lacking a
function of the desired part of the brain, damage to the particular
interested part, or if the part can be turned off

 Trans-cranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): A technique for affecting

the activity in an area of the cortex by creating a magnetic field under a
coil positioned next to the skull.
  It temporarily turns off part of the brain while the effects of
disruption on condition and behaviour are assessed.

 Used to infer Causation

 Psychophysiological Recording methods: (methods for recording

physiological activity from the surface of the body)

 5 Main types of psychophysiological measures:

1. Brain Activity (EEG)

2. Somatic Nervous System Activity

2.1 Muscle tension
2.2 Eye movement

3. Autonomic Nervous System Activity

3.1 Skin conductance
3.2 Cardiovascular activity

1. Brain Activity

 Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG): a measure of the gross

electrical activity of the brain, recorded through large electrodes which
provide EEG activity. It records the sum of electrical events throughout
the head including:

 Action Potentials
 Postsynaptic potentials
 Electrical signals from the: skin, Muscles, Blood & Eyes.
 Its value is the result of EEG wave forms are associated with
particular states of consciousness or particular types of cerebral
Pathology (epilepsy).

 Alpha Waves: regular 8 to 12 per second, high amplitude waves

associated with Relaxed Wakefulness

 EEG signals decrease in amplitude as they spread from their

source which helps indicate the origin of particular waves.

2. Somatic Nervous system Activity

 2.1 Muscle Tension

 Electromyography: The Procedure for measuring muscle tension. The

record Electromyogram (EMG) is created by measuring activity recorded
between 2 electrodes taped to the surface of the skin over the muscle of
interest.

2.2 Eye Movement

 Electrooculography: Technique used for recording eye movement. The

resulting record is an Electro-oculogram (EOG) which is created by the
measurement of eye movements both horizontally and vertically.

3. Autonomic Nervous System Activity

3.1 Skin Conductance:

 Skin Conductance Level (SCL): A measure of the background level of

skin conductance that is associated with a particular situation.

 Skin Conductance Response (SCR): A measure of the transient

changes in skin conductance that are associated with discrete
experiences.

3.2 Cardiovascular Activity

 Blood Pressure: Systole/diastoles Good pressure = 130/70 Hypertension

= 140/90.

 Blood Volume: Plethysmography: various techniques for measuring

changes in the volume of blood in a particular part of the body. E.g.
hands, dick.

 Heart Rate: Electro cardiogram (ECG) or (EKG)

 Invasive Physiological Research Methods: (Mostly conducted on

animals)

 Stereotaxic Surgery: The means by which an experimental device is

precisely positioned in the depths of the brain which requires 2 things
  A Stereotaxic Atlas: used to locate brain structures

 An Instrument: Used for getting to the structures Including

 Head holder
 Electrode holder: holds the device to be inserted

 Techniques fall into 1 of 3 categories:

1. Lesion method
2. Electrical Stimulation Method
3. Invasive Recording methods

1. Lesion methods: A part of the brain is removed, damaged or destroyed, the

behaviour of the subject is carefully assessed in an effort to determine the
functions of the lesioned structure.

 4 Types of Lesions

1. Aspiration Lesions: Used when accessible through the eyes

2. Radio-Frequency lesions: The heat from the radio current destroys the
tissue
3. Knife cuts: Used to eliminate conduction in a nerve or tract
4. Cryogenic Blockade: Coolant is pumped through a probe to cool
neurons till they stop firing

 No structural damage is produced with this method.

 Unilateral lesions: lesions restricted to one half the brain
 Bilateral lesions: Lesions involving both sides of the brain (most
studies employ bilateral.

 4 invasive electrophysiological recording methods

1. Intracellular unit recording provides moment by moment record of the

graded fluctuations in one neuron's membrane potential. (done when
animals are chemically immobilized)

2. Extracellular Unit Recording provides a record of the firing of a

neuron but no info about the neuron's membrane potential. Now possible
to record signals from up to about 100 neurons
 3. Multiple-unit Recording: larger electrode tip used, and picks up signals
from many neurons.

4. Invasive EEG Recording: Large implanted electrodes rather than scalp

electrodes. Recorded through wires attached to stainless steel skull
screws inserted in the head. Pharmacological Research Methods

 Pharmacological Research Methods: Strategy to administer drugs that either

increase or decrease the effects of particular neurotransmitters & to observe
the behavioural consequences

 Routes of Drug Administration

1. Fed (oral)

2. Injected into the stomach (intragastrically)

3. Injected into the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen (intra peritoneal), Into
a muscle (intramuscularly) Fatty tissue beneath the skin
(subcutaneously), & into a surface vein (intravenously)

 Issue with peripheral routes is that many drugs do not pass through the
BBB

 A Cannula: a stereotaxic ally implanted hollow tube allows small

amount of drugs to be given

 Neurotoxins: neural poisons who's affinity to certain components of the

nervous system allow it to target specific areas for lesions to occur, while
leaving neurons close to the area unscathed.

 E.g. 6-OHDA is taken up by neurons that release Norepinephrine or

dopamine.

 2 Techniques for Measuring Chemical Activity in the Brain

1. The 2-Deoxyglucose Technique: The 2-DG is radioactive and similar to

glucose so it is absorbed readily by active cells. They then allow the
animal to engage in an activity of interest, kill the animal and slice up the
brain. The slices are subjected to Autoradiography; which is like
developing film (brain slices). The density of accumulation is then colour
coded
 2. Cerebral Dialysis: A method of measuring the extracellular
concentration of specific neurochemicals in behaving animals. Instead of
having to kill the animal, a device is implanted in the brain so that the
permeable tip can absorb intracellular chemicals from the structure. After
collection they can be froze for later use, or measured immediately in a
Chromatograph to decipher the contents.

 Immunocytochemistry: Is a procedure for locating particular neuroproteins

in the brain by labelling their antibodies with a dye of radioactive element
and then exposing slices of brain tissue to the labelled antibodies.

 Accumulation of the dyes in the brain mark the locations of the target
neuro-protein.

 Since enzymes are proteins, and only particular enzymes are required
for NT synthesis, researchers are able to locate neurotransmitters
through this method.

 In Situ Hybridization: Technique for locating peptides and other proteins in

the brain.

 Genetic Engineering

 Gene Knockout Techniques: Are procedures for creating organisms that lack
a particular gene under investigation. Used to clarify the neural mechanisms
of behaviour.

 Melanopsin knockout Mice: (gene for Melanopsin has been deleted)

were used to see the function of melanopsin in regulating circadian
control. Its deletion reduced to the ability of the circadian rhythm but did
not completely disrupt it, suggesting that it plays a role in it but is not the
sole reason.

 Gene Replacement Techniques: Pathological genes from human cells are

inserted in other animals such as mice.

 Green Fluorescent Protein (GFP): A protein that exhibits bright green

fluorescence when exposed to blue light.

 Behavioural Research Methods of Biopsychology

 Behavioural Paradigm: A single set of procedures developed for the
investigation of a particular behavioural phenomenon.

 Each behavioural paradigm comprises a method for producing the

behavioural phenomenon and a method for objectively measuring it.

 Species-common Behaviours: those that are displayed by virtually all

members of a species, or at least by all those of the same age and sex.

 e.g. grooming, swimming, eating, drinking, copulating, fighting, nest

building

 Traditional Conditioning Paradigms

 Pavlov Ian Conditioning Paradigm: A neutral stimulus is paired with

an unconditioned stimulus causing it to become a conditioned
stimulus resulting in a conditioned
 response

 Operant conditioning paradigm: the rate at which a particular

voluntary response is emitted is increased by reinforcement or
decreased by punishment

 Semi natural Animal Learning Paradigms

 Conditioned taste Aversion: conditioned response to avoid food

whose consumption is followed by illness

 Radial Arm Maze: Spatial abilities of rats to navigate are not simply
based on smell but on memory.

 Morris Water maze: The rats are forced to swim until they reach a
submersed platform. After a few trials they learn to swim directly to
it, regardless of where the starting point is positioned, because of
spatial cues. They used BRAIN-LESIONED or DRUGGED animals.
 UNIT-2
NERVOUS SYSTEM:

The Structure of a Neuron:

 The most distinctive feature of neurons is their shape, which varies
enormously from one neuron to another. Unlike most other body cells,
neurons have long branching extensions. The larger neurons have these
components: dendrites, a soma (cell body), an axon, and presynaptic
terminals.

 The tiniest neurons lack axons, and some lack well-defined dendrites. A
motor neuron has its soma in the spinal cord. It receives excitation from
 other neurons through its dendrites and conducts impulses along its axon to a
muscle.

 A sensory neuron is specialized at one end to be highly sensitive to a

particular type of stimulation, such as light, sound, or touch. The sensory
neuron shown in Figure 2.6 is a neuron conducting touch information from
the skin to the spinal cord. Tiny branches lead directly from the receptors
into the axon, and the cell’s soma is located on a little stalk off the main
trunk.

 Dendrites are branching fibres that get narrower near their ends. (The term
dendrite comes from a Greek root word meaning “tree.” A dendrite branches
like a tree.)

 The dendrite’s surface is lined with specialized synaptic receptors, at which

the dendrite receives information from other neurons. The greater the surface
area of a dendrite, the more information it can receive.

 Some dendrites branch widely and therefore have a large surface area. Many
also contain dendritic spines, the short outgrowths that increase the surface
area available for synapses.
 The cell body, or soma (Greek for “body”; pl.: somata), contains the
nucleus, ribosomes, and mitochondria. Most of the metabolic work of the
neuron occurs here.

 Cell bodies of neurons range in diameter from 0.005 mm to 0.1 mm in

mammals and up to a full millimetre in certain invertebrates. Like the
dendrites, the cell body is covered with synapses on its surface in many
neurons.

 The axon is a thin fibre of constant diameter, in most cases longer than the
dendrites. (The term axon comes from a Greek word meaning “axis.”)

 The axon is the neuron’s information sender, conveying an impulse toward

other neurons or an organ or muscle.

 Many vertebrate axons are covered with an insulating material called a

myelin sheath with interruptions known as nodes of Ranvier. Invertebrate
axons do not have myelin sheaths.

 An axon has many branches, each of which swells at its tip, forming a
presynaptic terminal, also known as an end bulb or bouton (French for
“button”). This is the point from which the axon releases chemicals that
cross through the junction between one neuron and the next.

 A neuron can have any number of dendrites. It has only one axon, but that
axon may have branches far from the. Axons can be a meter or more in
length, as in the case of axons from your spinal cord to your feet. That is, in
many cases the length of an axon is enormous in comparison to its width—
like that of a narrow highway that stretches across a continent.

 Other terms associated with neurons are afferent, efferent, and intrinsic. An
afferent axon brings information into a structure; an efferent axon carries
information away from a structure.

 Every sensory neuron is an afferent to the rest of the nervous system, and
every motor neuron is an efferent from the nervous system. Within the
nervous system, a given neuron is an efferent from one structure and an
afferent to another. (You can remember that efferent starts with ‘e’ as in exit;
afferent starts with ‘a’ as in admit.) For example, an axon might be efferent
from the thalamus and afferent to the cerebral cortex.
 If a cell’s dendrites and axon are entirely contained within a single structure,
the cell is an interneuron or intrinsic neuron of that structure. For example,
an intrinsic neuron of the thalamus has its axon and all its dendrites within
the thalamus.

Function

 Although nerves are functionally classified into three main groups (sensory,
motor and intermediate neurons) they are all involved in the transmission of
information which in turn ensures the appropriate response.
 They are involved in the signal reception, integration of the incoming signal
as well as the communication of the signal.
 Here, the different parts of the cells (cell body, dendrites, axons etc.) play
different roles which in turn allow the cell as a whole to effectively carry out
its functions:
 Receptive functions of a neuron - Neurons come into contact with other
cells at sites known as synapses. This is the site at which the nerve endings
of the cells come in contact allowing for successful communication.
 In this case, neurons play a receptive function by receiving information
that originated from the stimuli. It is this receptive function of the
neurons that ensures the effective transmission of information and
consequently the appropriate response to stimuli.
 The postsynaptic cell is involved in the receptive function (This will be
discussed in detail in the next section).
 Integrative function of a neuron - The integrative function occurs in the
dendrites (receptive components) as well as the cell body of the neuron. For
the most part, it involves the summing up of excitatory and inhibitory
responses (this being integration of incoming signals) in order to determine
whether certain information should be transmitted.
 Impulse initiation - For a majority of the neurons, nerve impulses are
initiated when the membrane potential of the neuron is sufficiently
depolarized and reach a certain threshold. This allows some of the neurons to
initiate impulses and thus information to specific targets. Not all neurons are
capable of impulse initiation.
 Transmission - Transmission from one neuron to another is either electrical
or chemical.
 In electrical transmission, a neuron is influenced by another through
passive electrical means.
 In chemical transmission, it's the potential change in one of the neurons
that results in the release of a chemical neurotransmitter which in turn
diffuses another neuron.

Types:
 A brief summary of the three main types of neurons in the body:
1. Sensory neurons - These are the type of neurons that are activated by
external physical or chemical stimuli. This, therefore, involves sensory
activation of any of the five senses (feel, smell, sound, sight, hear).
 The stimuli may be physical or chemical.

 A majority of the sensory neurons have been shown to be pseudo-

unipolar (described above) - As such, their axons split into two at the end.
2. Motor Neurons - Motor neurons are the type of neurons in the spinal cord
that connects the organs, muscles and different types of glands in the body.
As such, they function to transmit impulses from the Central Nervous
System to the organs, glands, and muscles. This, in turn, controls the
movement of different types of muscles as well as the activity of organs and
glands in the body. Motor neurons are composed of multipolar neurons.
 There are two types of motor neurons. These include the lower motor
neurons (from the spinal cord to the muscle) and the upper motor neurons
that travel between the spinal cord and the brain. 
 
3. Intermediate neurons - These are the type of neurons that connect the
motor neurons to the sensory neurons thus allowing for signals to be
transmitted between the two. Like motor neurons, this system is composed
of multipolar neurons. 
 SPINAL CORD:
 The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular bundle of nerves that is an extension
of the central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected
by the bony vertebral column. The main function of the spinal cord is
transmission of neural inputs between the periphery and the brain.

Structure
 The spinal cord is the main pathway for information connecting the brain
and peripheral nervous system. The length of the spinal cord is much shorter
than the length of the bony spinal column. The human spinal cord extends
from the medulla oblongata and continues through the conus medullaris near
the first or second lumbar vertebrae, terminating in a fibrous extension
known as the filum terminale.

 It is about 45 cm long in men and 43 cm long in women, ovoid-shaped, and

is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions. In cross-section, the
peripheral region of the cord contains neuronal white matter tracts
containing sensory and motor neurons. Internal to this peripheral region is
the grey, butterfly shaped central region made up of nerve cell bodies. This
central region surrounds the central canal, which is an anatomic extension of
the spaces in the brain known as the ventricles and, like the ventricles,
contains cerebrospinal fluid.

 The three meninges that cover the spinal cord -- the outer Dura mater,

the arachnoid mater, and the innermost pia mater -- are continuous with that
in the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres. Similarly, cerebrospinal fluid is
found in the subarachnoid space. The cord is stabilized within the Dura
mater by the connecting denticulate ligaments which extend from the
enveloping pia mater laterally between the dorsal and ventral roots. The
Dural sac ends at the vertebral level of the second sacral vertebra.

Spinal cord segments

 The human spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments, with motor
nerve roots exiting in the ventral aspects and sensory nerve roots entering in
the dorsal aspects. The ventral and dorsal roots later join to form
paired spinal nerves, one on each side of the spinal cord.

 There are 31 spinal cord nerve segments in a human spinal cord:

1. 8 cervical segments (cervical nerves exit spinal column above C1 and below

C1-C7).

2. 12 thoracic segments (thoracic nerves exit spinal column below T1-T12).

3. 5 lumbar segments (lumbar nerves exit spinal column below L1-L5).

4. 5 sacral segments (sacral nerves exit spinal column below S1-S5).

5. 1 coccygeal segment (coccygeal nerves exit spinal column at coccyx).

 Because the vertebral column grows longer than the spinal cord, spinal cord
segments do not correspond to vertebral segments in adults, especially in the
lower spinal cord. In the foetus, vertebral segments do correspond with
spinal cord segments. In the adult, however, the spinal cord ends around the
L1/L2 vertebral level, forming a structure known as the conus medullaris.
For example, lumbar and sacral spinal cord segments are found between
vertebral levels T9 and L2.

 Although the spinal cord cell bodies end around the L1/L2 vertebral level,
the spinal nerves for each segment exit at the level of the corresponding
vertebra. For the nerves of the lower spinal cord, this means that they exit the
vertebral column much lower (more caudally) than their roots. As these
nerves travel from their respective roots to their point of exit from the
vertebral column, the nerves of the lower spinal segments form a bundle
called the cauda equina.

 There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:

a) Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial

plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord
segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement
are roughly the same (C4 to T1).

b) Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral

plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal
cord segments from L2 to S3, and is found about the vertebral levels of
T9 to T12.

Embryology

 The spinal cord is made from part of the neural tube during development. As

the neural tube begins to develop, the notochord begins to secrete a factor
 known as sonic hedgehog or SHH. As a result, the floor plate then also
begins to secrete SHH and this will induce the basal plate to develop motor
neurons. Meanwhile, the overlying ectoderm secretes bone morphogenetic
protein (BMP). This will induce the roof plate to begin to also secrete BMP
which will induce the alar plate to develop sensory neurons. The alar plate
and the basal plate are separated by the sulcus limitans.

 Additionally, the floor plate will also secrete netrins. The netrins act as
chemo-attractants to decussation of pain and temperature sensory neurons in
the alar plate across the anterior white commissure where they will then
ascend towards the thalamus.

 Lastly it is important to note that the past studies of Viktor Hamburger and
Rita Levi-Montalcini in the chick embryo have been further proven by more
recent studies which demonstrated that the elimination of neuronal cells by
programmed cell death (PCD) is necessary for the correct assembly of the
nervous system.
 Overall, spontaneous embryonic activity has been shown to play a role in
neuron and muscle development, but is probably not involved in the initial
formation of connections between spinal neurons.

Functions:
 Somatosensory Organization 

 Somatosensory organization is divided into the dorsal column-medial

lemniscus tract (the touch/proprioception/vibration sensory pathway) and
the anterolateral system, or ALS (the pain/temperature sensory pathway).

 Both sensory pathways use three different neurons to get information from
sensory receptors at the periphery to the cerebral cortex. These neurons are
designated primary, secondary and tertiary sensory neurons. In both
pathways, primary sensory neuron cell bodies are found in the dorsal root
ganglia and their central axons project into the spinal cord.

 In the dorsal column-medial leminiscus tract, a primary neuron's axon enters

the spinal cord and then enters the dorsal column. If the primary axon enters
below spinal level T6, the axon travels in the fasciculus gracilis, the medial
 part of the column. If the axon enters above level T6, then it travels in
the fasciculus cuneatus, which is lateral to the fasiculus gracilis.

 Either way, the primary axon ascends to the lower medulla, where it leaves
its fasiculus and synapses with a secondary neuron in one of the dorsal
column nuclei: either the nucleus gracilis or the nucleus cuneatus, depending
on the pathway it took.

 At this point, the secondary axon leaves its nucleus and passes anteriorly and
medially. The collection of secondary axons that do this are known
as internal arctuate fibers.. The internal arcuate fibers decussate and continue
ascending as the contralateral medial leminiscus.

 Secondary axons from the medial leminiscus finally terminate in the ventral
posterolateral nucleus (VPL) of the thalamus, where they synapse with
tertiary neurons. From there, tertiary neurons ascend via the posterior limb of
the internal capsule, and end in the primary sensory cortex.

 The anterolateral system works somewhat differently. Its primary neurons

enter the spinal cord and then ascend one to two levels before synapsing in
the substantia gelatinosa. The tract that ascends before synapsing is known
as Lissauer's tract. After synapsing, secondary axons decussate and ascend in
the anterior lateral portion of the spinal cord as the spinothalamic tract.

 This tract ascends all the way to the VPL where it synapses on tertiary
neurons. Tertiary neuronal axons then travel to the primary sensory cortex
via the posterior limb of the internal capsule.

 It should be noted that some of the "pain fibers" in the ALS deviate from
their pathway towards the VPL. In one such deviation, axons travel towards
the reticular formation in the midbrain. The reticular formation then projects
to a number of places including the hippocampus (to create memories about
the pain), to the centromedian nucleus (to cause diffuse, non-specific pain)
and various parts of the cortex.

 Additionally, some ALS axons project to the periaqueductal gray in the

pons, and the axons forming the periaqueductal gray then project to
the nucleus raphe magnus, which projects back down to where the pain
signal is coming from and inhibits it. This helps control the sensation of pain
to some degree.
 Motor Organization 

 The corticospinal tract serves as the motor pathway for upper motor neuronal

signals coming from the cerebral cortex and from primitive brain stem motor
nuclei.

 Cortical upper motor neurons originate from Brodmann areas 1, 2, 3, 4, and

6 and then descend in the posterior limb of the internal capsule, through
the crus cerebri, down through the pons, and to the medullary pyramids,
where about 90% of the axons cross to the contralateral side at the
decussation of the pyramids. They then descend as the lateral corticospinal
tract. These axons synapse with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns of
all levels of the spinal cord. The remaining 10% of axons descend on the
ipsilateral side as the ventral corticospinal tract. These axons also synapse
with lower motor neurons in the ventral horns. Most of them will cross to the
contralateral side of the cord right before synapsing.

 The midbrain nuclei include four motor tracts that send upper motor
neuronal axons down the spinal cord to lower motor neurons. These are
the rubrospinal tract, the vestibulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract and
the reticulospinal tract. The rubrospinal tract descends with the lateral
corticospinal tract and the remaining three descend with the anterior
corticospinal tract.

 The function of lower motor neurons can be divided into two different
groups: the lateral corticospinal tract and the anterior cortical spinal tract.
The lateral tract contains upper motor neuronal axons which synapse on
dorsal lateral (DL) lower motor neurons.

 The DL neurons are involved in distal limb control. Therefore, these DL

neurons are found specifically only in the cervical and lumbosaccral
enlargements within the spinal cord. There is no decussation in the lateral
corticospinal tract after the decussation at the medullary pyramids.

 The anterior cortico-spinal tract descends ipsilaterally in the anterior column

where the axons emerge and either synapse on lower ventromedial (VM)
motor neurons in the ventral horn ipsilaterally or descussate at the anterior
white commissure where they synapse on VM lower motor neurons contra-
laterally .
 The tectospinal, vestibule-spinal and reticulo-spinal descend ipsilaterally in
the anterior column, but do not synapse across the anterior white
commissure. Rather, they only synapse on VM lower motor neurons
ipsilaterally. The VM lower motor neurons control the large, postural
muscles of the axial skeleton. These lower motor neurons, unlike those of the
DL, are located in the ventral horn all the way throughout the spinal cord.

 Spin-o-cerebellar Tracts 

 Proprioceptive information in the body travels up the spinal cord via three

tracts. Below L2 the proprioceptive information travels up the spinal cord in
the ventral spin-o-cerebellar tract. Also known as the anterior spin-o-
cerebellar tract, sensory receptors take in the information and travel into the
spinal cord. The cell bodies of these primary neurons are located in
the dorsal root ganglia.

 In the spinal cord, the axons synapse and the secondary neuronal axons
decussate and then travel up to the superior cerebellar peduncle where they
decussate again. From here, the information is brought to deep nuclei of the
cerebellum including the fastigial and interposed nuclei.

 From the levels of L2 to T1, proprioceptive information enters the spinal

cord and ascends ipsilaterally, where it synapses in Clarke's nucleus. The
secondary neuronal axons continue to ascend ipsilaterally and then pass into
the cerebellum via the inferior cerebellar peduncle. This tract is known as the
dorsal spinocerebellar tract.

 From above T1, proprioceptive primary axons enter the spinal cord and
ascend ipsilaterally until reaching the accessory cuneate nucleus, where they
synapse. The secondary axons pass into the cerebellum via the inferior
cerebellar peduncle where again, these axons synapse on cerebellar deep
nuclei. This tract is known as the cuneocerebellar tract.

1. Injury

 Spinal cord injuries can be caused by trauma to the spinal column

(stretching, bruising, applying pressure, severing, etc... the spinal cord). The
vertebral bones or intervertebral disks can shatter, causing the spinal cord to
be punctured by a sharp fragment of bone. Usually victims of spinal cord
 injuries will suffer loss of feeling in certain parts of their body. In milder
cases a victim might only suffer loss of hand or foot function. More severe
injury may result in paraplegia, tetraplegia, or full body paralysis below the
site of injury to the spinal cord.

 Damage to upper motor neurons axons in the spinal cord results in a

characteristic pattern of ipsilateral deficits. These include hyper-
reflexia, hypertonia and muscle weakness. Lower motor neuronal damage
results in its own characteristic pattern of deficits. Rather than an entire side
of deficits, there is a pattern relating to the myotome affected by the damage.
Additionally, lower motor neurons are characterized by muscle
weakness, hypotonia, hyporeflexia and muscle atrophy.

 The two areas of the spinal cord most commonly injured are the cervical
spine (C1-C7) and the lumbar spine (L1-L5). (The notation C1, C7, L1, L5
refer to the location of a specific vertebra in either the cervical, thoracic, or
lumbar region of the spine.)

THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM:

 The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It is
referred to as “central” because it combines information from the entire body
and coordinates activity across the whole organism.

 The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

 The brain is protected by the skull (the cranial cavity) and the spinal cord
travels from the back of the brain, down the centre of the spine, stopping in
the lumbar region of the lower back.

 The brain and spinal cord are both housed within a protective triple-layered
membrane called the meninges.

 The central nervous system has been thoroughly studied by anatomists and
physiologists, but it still holds many secrets; it controls our thoughts,
movements, emotions, and desires. It also controls our breathing, heart rate,
the release of some hormones, body temperature, and much more.
 The retina, optic nerve, olfactory nerves, and olfactory epithelium are
sometimes considered to be part of the CNS alongside the brain and spinal
cord. This is because they connect directly with brain tissue without
intermediate nerve fibres.

Central Nervous System Function

 Coordination and Movement
 The primary function of the central nervous system is integration and
coordination. The CNS receives input from a variety of different sources, and
implements an appropriate response to the stimuli, in a cohesive manner. For
instance, in order to walk the CNS needs visual and integumentary cues – the
texture of the surface, its incline, the presence of obstacles, and so forth.
 Based on these stimuli, the CNS alters skeletal muscle contraction. Once infants
learn to walk, this happens involuntarily, no longer requiring conscious thought or
concentration. A similar process of receiving complex stimuli and generating a
coordinated response is required for vastly varied activities – whether it is
balancing a bicycle, maintaining a conversation or mounting an immune response.
 Thought and Processing
 The CNS, especially the brain, is considered the physical seat for most higher-
order mental functions. Neuronal connections form the basis for thought and
retention of memory. The brain plays an important role in the development of
speech, language, and communication. These tasks involve an association of
abstract symbols and sounds with concrete objects and emotions. Motivation,
ambition, reward, and satisfaction are also mediated through neuronal connections
in the CNS.
 At the same time, the limbic system of the brain also controls the most basic
emotions and drives, such as pleasure, fear, anger, hunger, thirst, sleepiness
and sexual desire. In addition, involuntary reflexes are mediated by the spinal
cord, providing protection and quickly preventing injury.
 The CNS directly or indirectly influences nearly every internal organ system,
whether related to respiration, digestion, excretion, circulation or reproduction.

The Brain
 The brain is the most complex organ in the human body; the cerebral cortex
(the outermost part of the brain and the largest part by volume) contains an
estimated 15–33 billion neurons, each of which is connected to thousands of
other neurons.
 In total, around 100 billion neurons and 1,000 billion glial (support) cells
make up the human brain. Our brain uses around 20 percent of our body’s
total energy.

 The brain is the central control module of the body and coordinates activity.
From physical motion to the secretion of hormones, the creation of
memories, and the sensation of emotion.

 To carry out these functions, some sections of the brain have dedicated roles.
However, many higher functions — reasoning, problem-solving, creativity
— involve different areas working together in networks.

 The brain is roughly split into four lobes:

1. Temporal lobe (green): important for processing sensory input and

assigning it emotional meaning. It is also involved in laying down long-
term memories. Some aspects of language perception are also housed
here.

2. Occipital lobe (purple): visual processing region of the brain, housing

the visual cortex.

3. Parietal lobe (yellow): the parietal lobe integrates sensory information

including touch, spatial awareness, and navigation. Touch stimulation
from the skin is ultimately sent to the parietal lobe. It also plays a part in
language processing.

4. Frontal lobe (pink): positioned at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe
contains the majority of dopamine-sensitive neurons and is involved in
attention, reward, short-term memory, motivation, and planning.

 Brain regions

 Next, we will look at some specific brain regions in a little more detail:

a) Basal ganglia: involved in the control of voluntary motor movements,

procedural learning, and decisions about which motor activities to carry
out. Diseases that affect this area include Parkinson’s
disease and Huntington’s disease.
 b) Cerebellum: mostly involved in precise motor control, but also in
language and attention. If the cerebellum is damaged, the primary
symptom is disrupted motor control, known as ataxia.

c) Broca’s area: this small area on the left side of the brain (sometimes on
the right in left-handed individuals) is important in language processing.
When damaged, an individual finds it difficult to speak but can still
understand speech. Stuttering is sometimes associated with an
underactive Broca’s area.

d) Corpus callosum: a broad band of nerve fibers that join the left and
right hemispheres. It is the largest white matter structure in the brain and
allows the two hemispheres to communicate. Dyslexic children have
smaller corpus callosums; left-handed people, ambidextrous people, and
musicians typically have larger ones.

e) Medulla oblongata: extending below the skull, it is involved in

involuntary functions, such as vomiting, breathing, sneezing, and
maintaining the correct blood pressure.

f) Hypothalamus: sitting just above the brain stem and roughly the size of
an almond, the hypothalamus secretes a number of neuro-hormones and
influences body temperature control, thirst, and hunger.

g) Thalamus: positioned in the centre of the brain, the thalamus receives

sensory and motor input and relays it to the rest of the cerebral cortex. It
is involved in the regulation of consciousness, sleep, awareness, and
alertness.

h) Amygdala: two almond-shaped nuclei deep within the temporal lobe.

They are involved in decision-making, memory, and emotional
responses; particularly negative emotions.

Spinal cord
 The spinal cord, running almost the full length of the back, carries
information between the brain and body, but also carries out other tasks.

 From the brainstem, where the spinal cord meets the brain, 31 spinal nerves
enter the cord.
 Along its length, it connects with the nerves of the peripheral nervous system
(PNS) that run in from the skin, muscles, and joints.

 Motor commands from the brain travel from the spine to the muscles and
sensory information travels from the sensory tissues — such as the skin —
toward the spinal cord and finally up to the brain.

 The spinal cord contains circuits that control certain reflexive responses,
such as the involuntary movement your arm might make if your finger was
to touch a flame.

 The circuits within the spine can also generate more complex movements
such as walking. Even without input from the brain, the spinal nerves can
coordinate all of the muscles necessary to walk. For instance, if the brain of a
cat is separated from its spine so that its brain has no contact with its body, it
will start spontaneously walking when placed on a treadmill. The brain is
only required to stop and start the process, or make changes if, for instance,
an object appears in your path.

 White and gray matter

 The CNS can be roughly divided into white and grey matter. As a very
general rule, the brain consists of an outer cortex of grey matter and an inner
area housing tracts of white matter.

 Both types of tissue contain glial cells, which protect and support neurons.
White matter mostly consists of axons (nerve projections) and
oligodendrocytes — a type of glial cell — whereas grey matter consists
predominantly of neurons.

 Central glial cells

 Also called neuroglia, glial cells are often called support cells for neurons. In
the brain, they outnumber nerve cells 10 to 1.

 Without glial cells, developing nerves often lose their way and struggle to
form functioning synapses.
 Glial cells are found in both the CNS and PNS but each system has different
types. The following are brief descriptions of the CNS glial cell types:

 Astrocytes: these cells have numerous projections and anchor neurons to

their blood supply. They also regulate the local environment by removing
excess ions and recycling neurotransmitters.

 Oligodendrocytes: responsible for creating the myelin sheath — this thin

layer coats nerve cells, allowing them to send signals quickly and efficiently.

 Ependymal cells: lining the spinal cord and the brain’s ventricles (fluid-
filled spaces), these create and secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and keep it
circulating using their whip-like cilia.

 Radial glia: act as scaffolding for new nerve cells during the creation of the
embryo’s nervous system.

 Cranial nerves
 The cranial nerves are 12 pairs of nerves that arise directly from the brain
and pass through holes in the skull rather than traveling along the spinal
cord. These nerves collect and send information between the brain and parts
of the body – mostly the neck and head.

 Of these 12 pairs, the olfactory and optic nerves arise from the forebrain and
are considered part of the central nervous system:

 Olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I): transmit information about odours from

the upper section of the nasal cavity to the olfactory bulbs on the base of the
brain.

 Optic nerves (cranial nerve II): carry visual information from the retina to
the primary visual nuclei of the brain. Each optic nerve consists of around
1.7 million nerve fibres.

Central nervous system diseases

 Tumours can affect the CNS.
 Below are the major causes of disorders that affect the CNS:

 Trauma: depending on the site of the injury, symptoms can vary widely

from paralysis to mood disorders.

 Infections: some micro-organisms and viruses can invade the CNS; these

include fungi, such as cryptococcal meningitis; protozoa, including malaria;
bacteria, as is the case with leprosy, or viruses.

 Degeneration: in some cases, the spinal cord or brain can degenerate. One
example is Parkinson’s disease which involves the gradual degeneration of
dopamine-producing cells in the basal ganglia.

 Structural defects: the most common examples are birth defects; including

anencephaly, where parts of the skull, brain, and scalp are missing at birth.

 Tumours: both cancerous and noncancerous tumours can impact parts of the

central nervous system. Both types can cause damage and yield an array of
symptoms depending on where they develop.

 Autoimmune disorders: in some cases, an individual’s immune system can

mount an attack on healthy cells. For instance, acute disseminated
encephalomyelitis is characterized by an immune response against the brain
and spinal cord, attacking myelin (the nerves’ insulation) and, therefore,
destroying white matter.

 Stroke: a stroke is an interruption of blood supply to the brain; the resulting

lack of oxygen causes tissue to die in the affected area.

 Difference between the CNS and peripheral nervous system

 The term peripheral nervous system (PNS) refers to any part of the nervous
system that lies outside of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is separate
from the peripheral nervous system, although the two systems are
interconnected.

 There are a number of differences between the CNS and PNS; one difference
is the size of the cells. The nerve axons of the CNS — the slender
projections of nerve cells that carry impulses — are much shorter. PNS
nerve axons can be up to 1 meter long (for instance, the nerve that activates
 the big toe) whereas, within the CNS, they are rarely longer than a few
millimeters.

 Another major difference between the CNS and PNS involves regeneration
(regrowth of cells). Much of the PNS has the ability to regenerate; if a nerve
in your finger is severed, it can regrow. The CNS, however, does not have
this ability.

 The components of the central nervous system are further split into a myriad
of parts. Below, we will describe some of these sections in a little more
detail.

 The Peripheral Nervous System

 The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is the division of the nervous

system containing all the nerves that lie outside of the central nervous system
(CNS). The primary role of the PNS is to connect the CNS to the organs,
limbs, and skin. These nerves extend from the central nervous system to the
outermost areas of the body.

 The peripheral system allows the brain and spinal cord to receive and send
information to other areas of the body, which allows us to react to stimuli in
our environment.

 The nerves that make up the peripheral nervous system are actually the
axons or bundles of axons from neuron cells. In some cases, these nerves are
very small but some nerve bundles are so large that they can be easily seen
by the human eye.

 The peripheral nervous system itself is divided into two parts:

1. The somatic nervous system

2. The autonomic nervous system

 Each of these components plays a critical role in how the peripheral nervous
system operates.
 In the somatic nervous system, the cranial nerves are part of the PNS with
the exception of the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), along with the retina. The
second cranial nerve is not a true peripheral nerve but a tract of
the diencephalon. Cranial nerve ganglia originated in the CNS. However, the
remaining ten cranial nerve axons extend beyond the brain and are therefore
considered part of the PNS. 

 The autonomic nervous system exerts involuntary control over smooth

muscle and glands. The connection between CNS and organs allows the
system to be in two different functional states: 

1. Sympathetic 
2. Parasympathetic

 STRUCTURE:

The Somatic Nervous System

The somatic system is the part of the peripheral nervous system responsible for
carrying sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system.
The somatic nervous system derives its name from the Greek word soma, which
means "body."

The somatic system is responsible for transmitting sensory information as well

as for voluntary movement. This system contains two major types of neurons:

1. Sensory neurons (or afferent neurons) that carry information from the

nerves to the central nervous system. It is these sensory neurons that
allow us to take in sensory information and send it to the brain and spinal
cord. 
2. Motor neurons (or efferent neurons) that carry information from the
brain and spinal cord to muscle fibres throughout the body. These motor
neurons allow us to take physical action in response to stimuli in the
environment.

The Autonomic Nervous System

 The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary responses to
regulate physiological functions.
 The brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system are connected with
organs that have smooth muscle, such as the heart, bladder, and other
cardiac, exocrine, and endocrine related organs, by ganglionic neurons. The
most notable physiological effects from autonomic activity are pupil
constriction and dilation, and salivation of saliva.

 The autonomic nervous system is always activated, but is either in the

sympathetic or parasympathetic state. Depending on the situation, one state
can overshadow the other, resulting in a release of different kinds
of neurotransmitters. There is a lesser known division of the autonomic
nervous system known as the enteric nervous system.

 Located only around the digestive tract, this system allows for local control
without input from the sympathetic or the parasympathetic branches, though
it can still receive and respond to signals from the rest of the body. The
enteric system is responsible for various functions related to gastrointestinal
system.

Sympathetic nervous system

The sympathetic system is activated during a “fight or flight” situation in which
mental stress or physical danger is encountered. Neurotransmitters such
as norepinephrine, and epinephrine are released, which increases heart rate and
blood flow in certain areas like muscle, while simultaneously decreasing
activities of non-critical functions for survival, like digestion. The systems are
independent to each other, which allows activation of certain parts of the body,
while others remain rested.

Parasympathetic nervous system

Primarily using the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) as a mediator,
the parasympathetic system allows the body to function in a “rest and digest”
state. Consequently, when the parasympathetic system dominates the body,
there are increases in salivation and activities in digestion, while heart rate and
other sympathetic response decrease. Unlike the sympathetic system, humans
have some voluntary controls in the parasympathetic system. The most
prominent examples of this control are urination and defecation.