Rapid Revision & Formula Book Chemistry by Aakash

Chapter 1
Some Basic Concepts

of Chemistry
MOLE CONCEPT
1 mole is represented in the form of atoms, molecules and ions as :
For atoms 1 gm atom
For molecules 1 gm molecule
For ions 1 gm ion
Moles can be calculated in following manner :
Weight of substance (in g)

(a) Number of moles of molecules =
Molecular weight

(b) Number of moles of atoms =
Atomic weight
Volume of gas at NTP (in litres)

(c) Number of moles of gases =
22.4
(1 mole of any gas occupies a volume of 22.4 litres at N.T.P., N.T.P. Corresponds to 0ºC and 1 atm
pressure)
Number of atoms / molecules / ions

(d) Number of moles of atoms/molecules/ions =
Avogadro constant
(Avogadro constant is equal to 6.022 × 1023).
LIMITING REAGENT
In the given reaction if number of quantities (either in gm/mole/molecules) are present with exact
co-efficients, chemical reaction goes to completion without any reactant left unused.
However if exact proportion is not present then the one which gets totally consumed is known as
limiting reagent (Limiting reagent decides the product quantity for given information).
e.g., 2H2 + O2 2H2O
In above e.g. 2 moles of H2 reacts exactly with 1 mole of O2 to give 2 moles of H2O. If given moles of H2 are
4 moles and that of O2 are 0.5, then 0.5 moles O2 will act as limiting reagent as it is in minimum amount
and product formation is given w.r.t. O2 i.e., 1 mole of H2O.
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2 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
EQUIVALENT WEIGHT
Equivalent weight of substance is defined as number of parts by weight of given substance which combines
or displaces 1 part by weight of hydrogen (11.2 L of H2 at STP), 8 parts by weight of oxygen (5.6 L of O2
at STP), 35.5 parts by weight of chlorine (11.2 L of Cl2 at STP).
Atomic weight
1. Equivalent weight of element =
Valency
Molecular weight of acid

2. Equivalent weight of acids =
Basicity
Molecular weight of base

3. Equivalent weight of bases =
Acidity
Molecular weight of salt

4. Equivalent weight of salts =
Total ve or ve charge
Molecular weight
5. Equivalent weight of reducing agent =
Number of e lost by one molecule
Molecular weight
6. Equivalent weight of oxidising agent =
Number of e gained by one molecule
n-FACTOR OR VALENCE FACTOR

n-factor is very important for both redox and non redox reactions through which we predict the following two
informations:
(a) It predicts the molar ratio of the species taking part in reactions i.e. reactants. The reciprocal of
n-factor's ratio of the reactants is the molar ratio of the reactants.
For example : If X (having n-factor = a) reacts with Y (having n-factor = b) then its n-factor's ratio is
a : b, so molar ratio of X to Y is b : a.
It can be represented as bX aY Pr oducts

(nf a ) (nf b )
Molecular weight Atomic weight

(b) Equivalent weight = or
n factor n factor
LAW OF EQUIVALENCE
According to law of equivalence, for each and every reactant and product,
Equivalents of each reactant reacted = Equivalents of each product formed.
For example :
Suppose, the reaction is taking place as under
A+B C + D.
Then according to law of equivalence,
Equivalents of A reacted = Equivalents of B reacted
= Equivalents of C produced
= Equivalents of D produced
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 3

Equivalents of any substance =
Equivalent weight
= Normality (N) × Volume (V) (In litre)

Normality (N) = n-factor × Molarity (M)
Normality and molarity are temperature dependent. Since on changing the temperature, the volume of solution
changes, so normality and molarity change.
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

(a) Empirical Formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of elements
constituting its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing empirical formula is
called empirical formula mass.
(b) Molecular Formula of a compound shows the actual number of the atoms of the elements present in
its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing molecule is called molecular
mass.
(c) Relationship between Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
Molecular formula = n × empirical formula where n is a simple whole number having values of 1, 2, 3... etc.
Also, n = Molecular formula mass/Empirical formula mass.
Weigh Weigh Calculate moles Calculate C : H Calculate

sample CO2 and H2O of C and H mole ratio empirical formula
% of free SO3 in Oleum

Strength of oleum is expressed in percentage e.g., oleum sample is 109%, It means 100 g of this oleum
reacts with H2O to form 109 g of H2SO4
H2 SO4 SO3 H2O H2SO4

100 g 109 g
1
Actually SO3 react with H2O to form H2SO4. Here 9 g H2O or mole H2O react with SO3.
2
1
So, moles of SO3 in sample = mole
2
SO3 + H2O H2SO4
1
So, wt. of SO3 = 80 (molecular weight of SO3) = 40 g
2
% free SO3 = 40%
 Percentage labelling -100 

Note : Moles of H2O =  
 18 

Chapter 2
States of Matter
(Gases, Liquids and Solids)
GASEOUS STATE
MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF GASES

1. Volume : Gases have tendency to occupy all available space.
So, volume of gas is equal to volume of container.
2. Temperature : It is degree of hotness and coldness.
Conversion of °C to K
K = °C + 273.15
3. Pressure : It is force exerted by gas per unit area
F
P N/m2
A
Note : 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr = 1.01 105 Pa

1 bar = 105 Pa
BOYLE’S LAW
1
P at constant n and T.
V
CHARLES' LAW
V T at constant n and P.
 t 
Vt V0  1 
 273 
AVOGADRO’S LAW
V n (P and T constant); 1 mole of every gas at STP occupies volume = 22.4 lit.
Ideal Gas Equation
On combining the Boyle’s law, Charles' law and Avogadro’s law we get an equation known as ideal gas equation
which correlates P, V, T, of a gas.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank States of Matter (Gases, Liquids and Solids) 5
PV = nRT ideal gas equation where R is a constant known as universal gas constant or molar gas
constant.
Numerical value of R
R = 0.0821 litre atm K–1 mol–1
= 8.314 J K–1 mol–1
= 1.987 2 cal K–1 mol–1
Other form of ideal gas equation.
W
Ö PV = RT
M
dRT
Ö P=
M
; (where M is the molecular weight)
DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

The total pressure exerted by a mixture of two or more chemically non-reacting gases in a definite volume
is equal to the sum of individual pressures or partial pressures where p1, p2 etc. are partial pressures of
individual gases which each gas would exert if it occupies the same volume at a constant temperature
PTotal = p1 + p2 + p3 . . . ., where p1, p2 etc. are partial pressures of individual gases
RT
PTotal = (n1 + n2 + .......)
V
Partial pressure of a gas = Mole fraction of that gas × Total pressure
no. of moles of gas

= Total no. of moles of all gases × Total pressure
By Dalton’s law of partial pressure.
Note : P (moist) = P (dry gas) + P (H2O vapours)

P (dry gas) = P (moist) – aq. tension.
GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

(a) Diffusion is the ability of gas to spread and occupy the whole volume.
(b) Under identical conditions of temperature and pressure, the rate of effusion/diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to square root of its density.
(c) Rate of diffusion/effusion for two gases are related as
r1 V1 / t 1 n1 t1 M2 d2
r2 V2 / t 2 n2 t 2 M1 d1
Effect of Pressure on Rate of Diffusion :
r1 P1 M2
r2 P2 M1 where, V = volume , t = time, M = molar mass, d = density, n = number of moles, P = pressure
6 States of Matter (Gases, Liquids and Solids) Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

The postulates
(1) The gaseous molecules are considered to be point masses.
(2) The volume of a molecule is negligible as compared to total volume of the gas.
(3) There is no force of interaction among the gas molecules.
(4) The collisions are perfectly elastic i.e. there is no loss or gain of energy during the molecular collisions.
(5) The average kinetic energy of molecules is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.
(6) The effect of gravity on molecular motion is negligible.
Based on Kinetic-Molecular Theory
1
PV mNu2
3
m = Mass of one molecule
N = Number of molecules in the container
u2 = Mean square velocity
3 3
KE of n moles = nRT, for n = 1 KE RT
2 2
3 RT 3
Average KE per molecule = 2 N kT , k = Boltzmann’s constant
0 2
DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS
3RT
(i) Root mean square velocity (urms) =
M
8RT
(ii) Average velocity(uav) =
M
2RT
(iii) Most probable velocity (ump) =
M
Note : urms : uav : ump : : 1.732 : 1.596 : 1.414 : : 1.224 : 1.128 : 1
Hence, urms > uav > ump
Maxwell Boltzmann's curve

Ump
Uav
N Urms
N
Velocity
DEVIATION FROM IDEALITY AND van der Waal’s EQUATION
A plot of PV- P at constant temperature for a number of gases shows deviations from ideal behaviour. Therefore
PV = nRT cannot be applied to these gases. Thus another equation must be sought in order to correlate P,V,
T for these gases; which is van der waal’s equation.
 n2a 
P V nb nRT
 V 2 

H2
He N2
CO
Z 2
1.0 Ideal
Causes of Deviation
There are two objectionable postulates in kinetic theory of gases.
(1) The volume of a molecule is negligible as compared to total volume of the gas. Actually, gas molecules do
posses some volume which account for the deviation. Hence total volume of gas is not equal to volume of
the vessel.
(2) There is no intermolecular force of attraction between gaseous molecules.
(There exists force of attraction between gaseous molecules otherwise liquefaction of gases would be
impossible).
By correcting these two postulates, we get an equation which can be applied to the gases which deviate
from ideal behaviour. The deviation of a gas from ideal behaviour can also be expressed in terms of
compressiblity factor (Z).
PV
Z [for 1 mole]
RT
for ideal gas Z = 1
for real gas Z > 1 or Z < 1
LIQUID STATE
A liquid is composed of molecules that are constantly moving about at random, each undergoing billions of
collisions per second. However strong attractive forces of the dipole-dipole, H-bonds, prevent them from moving
as freely and as far apart as in a gas.
(a) Vapour pressure : It is the pressure exerted by vapours on surface of liquid at equilibrium. Vapour
pressure does not depend on surface area and volume but it depend on temperature and nature of liquid.
Vapour pressure increases with rise in temperature.
(b) Viscosity : Liquids flows as if they were divided into layers flowing over one another. Resistance offered
to this flow is due to friction between two liquid layers and is called viscosity. Reciprocal of viscosity is
called fluidity. Viscosity of a liquid decreases with rise of temperature.
(c) Coefficient of viscosity : The force in newtons per square metre required to maintain a difference of velocity
of one metre per second between two parallel layers of the liquid at a distance of one metre from each other.
It is expressed in kg m–1 s–1. Liquids having stronger attractive forces are more viscous.
(d) Surface tension : The force that acts at right angles to an imaginary line of unit length at the surface
of the liquid at rest. It is expressed in J m–2 or N m–1. Surface tension generally decreases with the rise
of temperature. Liquids exhibit capillary action and make spherical drops. This can be explained on the
basis of surface tension.
IMPORTANT POINTS
(1) Critical temperature (Tc) :
It is the temperature above which a real gas cannot be liquefied whatever applied pressure may be
8a
Tc =
2 7R b
(2) Critical pressure (Pc) :

It is the minimum pressure required to liquefy the gas at critical temperature
a
PC
27b 2
(3) Critical volume (Vc) :

The volume occupied by 1 mole of the gas at critical temperature and critical pressure is known as
critical volume.
VC 3b
Vc 3 4 Vm 12 Vm (Since b = 4Vm)
Vm = Volume of one mole of gaseous molecule.

(4) Critical coefficient of a gas :
RTc
It is ratio of P V which is equal to 2.66 and remains constant for all the gases.
c c
(5) Boyle's temperature (TB) :

The temperature at which a real gas obeys ideal gas equation at very low pressure is known as Boyle’s
temperature.
a
TB
Rb
Boyle's temperature of a gas is always higher than its critical temperature (Tc)
(6) Inversion temperature (Ti)
If a compressed gas is allowed to pass through a fine hole, it may show cooling or heating or no change
in temperature depending upon the temperature of the gas. For each gas, there exists a characteristic
temperature known as inversion temperature (Ti)
If T > Ti heating is produced
If T < Ti cooling is produced
If T = Ti neither heating nor cooling
2a
Ti 2TB
Rb
(7) Excluded volume (b) :

The van der Waal constant ‘b’ is known as excluded volume. It is 4 times greater than the actual volume
of the gas molecule.
b = 4NAV (where V is the volume of one molecule)
SOLID STATE
ELEMENTS OF SYMMETRY
The total no. of planes, axes and centre of symmetries possessed by a crystal is termed as its elements of
symmetry. A simple cubical crystal possesses a total of 23 elements of symmetry.
In a Cube
Planes of symmetry = 3 + 6 = 9
Axis of symmetry = 3 + 4 + 6 = 13
Centre of symmetry = 1
Total number of symmetry elements = 23
TYPES OF CUBIC UNIT CELL
Number of atoms Total number Radius of

Type of unit cell of atoms per ion/atom
At corners Within body On faces unit cubic cell a = edge length
1 a
1. Simple cube 8 1 0 0 1 r
8 2
2. Body centred 1 3a
8 1 1 0 2 r
cube (BCC) 8 4
3. Face centred 1 1 2a
8 1 0 6 3 4 r
cube (FCC) 8 2 4
 r+ 
Radius ratio  - 
r 
r+/r– Geometry Co-ordination Example

number
r+
0.155 < 0.225 Triangular planar 3 B2O3
r–
r+
0.225 < 0.414 Tetrahedral 4 ZnS
r–
r+
0.414 < 0.732 Octahedral 6 NaCl
r–
r+
0.732 <1 Cubic 8 CsCl
r–
STRUCTURE OF SIMPLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

AB type : Consisting positively and negatively charged ions in the ratio 1 : 1
These compounds can have any one of the following structures
(a) Rock salt (NaCl) type structure
Characteristics
(i) It has fcc or ccp arrangement in which Cl– ions occupy the corners and face centres of a cube while
Na+ occupy body centres and edge centres (Octahedral voids).
(ii) This structure has 6 : 6 coordination number.

(iii) A unit cell of NaCl consist of 4Na+ ion and 4Cl– ions.
1   1 
i.e., Number of Cl– ions  8  2 6 4
8   
1 
Number of Na+ ions  12  1 4
4 
Examples : Alkali metal halides (except Cs), Halides of Ag (except AgI).
(b) Caesium chloride (CsCl) type structure
Characteristics
(i) It has bcc arrangement
(ii) This structure has 8 : 8 coordination number
(iii) The unit cell of CsCl consists of one Cs+ ion at body centre and eight Cl– ion at each corner i.e. one
CsCl formula unit per unit cell.
Example : CsBr, Csl, CsCN, TlCl, TlBr, TlI, TICN
(c) Zinc blende (ZnS) type structure
Characteristics
(i) It has ccp arrangement in which S2– ions are present at the corners as well as at the centre of each
face of the cube.
(ii) Zn+2 ion are present at alternate tetrahedral void [50% of tetrahedral void.]
(iii) This structure has 4 : 4 coordination number.
Example : CuCl, CuBr, CuI, AgI, and BeS

Chapter 3
Structure of Atom
BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL

The model is based on the quantum theory of radiation and the classical concept of physics.
Postulate
(a) The path of electron is circular. The force of attraction between nucleus and electron is equal to centrifugal
force of the moving electron.
h
(b) Electron can revolve only in those orbits whose angular momentum is an integral multiple of . i.e.,
2
nh
mvr . (m = mass of electron, v = velocity of electron, r = radius of orbit)
2
(c) Electron remains in stationary orbit where it does not lose energy.
(d) Each stationary orbit is with definite amount of energy (E) and E 1 < E 2 < E 3 .......... Similarly
(E2 – E1) > (E3 – E2) > (E4 – E3).
The Energy of Electron
Total energy (E) = K.E. + P.E.
2 2 Z2me 4 2
En ·K
n2h2
where, n = 1, 2, 3 .......
E = Energy of electron in nth orbit
Z = Nuclear charge
e = Charge of electron
m = Mass of electron
h = Planck’s constant
Z2
i.e., E n E1 for H-like atom
n2
H like atoms means atom which consists of one electron.
12 Structure of Atom Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
19
21.79 10 Z2
i.e., E J/atom
n2
13.6
Z 2 eV per atom
n2
313.6 Z2
= 2 kcal/mol
n
1312 Z2
= kJ/mol
n2
Potential energy = 2 × E
Kinetic energy = – E
Total energy = E
Note : If an atom consists more than one electron, then we take shielding effect into account.
Radii of Orbits
n2
r 0.529 Å
Z
For H-like atoms. Thus rn = r1 × n2
Velocity of Electron
Z
v = 2.188 × 108 × cm/s
n
Number of revolution per second (Frequency)
V Z2
N 6.6 1015
2 r n3
Rydberg Equation
The wavelength ( ), wave number ( ) for the electromagnetic radiation can be calculated by Rydberg equation.
1 1 1
RH Z2  2 
 n1 n22 
Z = Atomic number
RH = Rydberg constant = 109677 cm–1
n2 = Higher orbit
n1 = Lower orbit
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Structure of Atom 13
Total number of spectral lines
n(n 1)
(i) when electron jumps from nth level to ground level.
2
(n 2 n1 ) (n 2 n1 1)
(ii) when electron returns from n2 to n1.
2
(iii) n2 – n1 when electron returns from n2 to n1.

(iv) n2 – n1 number of spectral line in a particular shell.
Note : Remember in this case n1, n2 are energy level or orbit number. If we have given nth excited
state then formula will be different.
n(n 1)
formula is applicable, if hydrogen sample contains several number of H atoms.
2
DUAL NATURE OF MATTER : de-Broglie Equation

(a) Louis de Broglie proposed that the material particles are also associated with wave nature, just as radiations.
h
(b) The wavelength of the wave associated with a particle mass 'm' moving with velocity 'v' as .
mv
where = de-Broglie wavelength

h = Planck’s constant = 6.62 × 10–34 J-s.
Note : The waves associated with material particles or objects in motion are called matter waves
or de-Broglie waves.
Velocity v
(c) Number of revolutions per second by an electron in a shell may be given as =
2 r 2 r
(d) de-Broglie’s equation and K.E.

Let K.E. of the particle of mass ‘m’ is E
1
E mv 2
2
2 Em m2 v 2
2Em mv P
h h
P 2Em
Suppose an electron makes n wave in one complete circle, then 2 r n
14 Structure of Atom Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
QUANTUM NUMBERS
The set of four integers required to define the state of electron in an atom are called quantum numbers. The
quantum numbers are
(1) Principal quantum number (n)
(2) Azimuthal quantum number (l)
(3) Magnetic quantum number (m)
(4) Spin quantum number (s)
(1) Principal quantum number, (n), relates to the amplitude (i.e., size) of an electron wave and also the total
energy of the electron. It has integral values of 1, 2, 3, 4 ... etc., also denoted as K, L, M, N .... etc.
(2) Azimuthal quantum number, (l), tells us about the subenergy shell of electron. For each main energy
shell there can be ‘n’ number of subenergy shells. These subenergy shells are designated by different
values of l. For each value of n, l can have values from 0, 1, 2, 3 ... n – 1.
(3) Magnetic quantum number, (m), explains the behaviour of an electron in the external magnetic field or in
other words it tells us about orbitals of the electrons. The values of m gives the number of orbitals associated
with a particular sub shell in shell. For each value of l, m can have values from –l to +l including zero.
e.g., when l = 1, m = –1, 0, +1; l = 2, m = –2, –1, 0, +1, +2
(4) Spin quantum number, (s), gives an idea about the electron spinning on its axis. Each spinning electron
1 1
can have two values of or – .
2 2

Chapter 4
Chemical Bonding and
Molecular Structure
TYPES OF BONDS
1. Ionic Bond
2. Covalent Bond
3. Co-ordinate Bond
4. Hydrogen Bond
Ionic Bond
An ionic bond is formed by complete transfer of one or more electrons from the valency shell of one atom to the
valency shell of another atom. In this way both the atoms acquire the stable electronic configurations of the noble
gases. The atom losing the electrons becomes a positive ion and the atom which gains electron becomes
negative ion.
FAJAN’S RULE
Covalent character in ionic bonds
When oppositely charged ions approach each other, there is not only the attraction between the positively
charged cation and the negatively charged anion but also simultaneous repulsion between their nuclei. Thus
there is distortion, or deformation or polarization of anions. The electronic charge of anion does not remain
spherical but gets distorted.
+ – + –
No polarization Polarization of anion
(1) Polarizing power of cation increases with
(i) High charge on cation
(ii) Small size of cation
(iii) Pseudo (18) electronic configuration in outermost shell of cation
16 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(2) Tendency of an anion to get polarized increases with
(i) High charge on anion
(ii) Large size of anion
This polarization of ion results in a electric charge concentration between the two nuclei resulting in a
covalent bond with a large degree of charge separation.
The extent of polarization depends upon
(1) Polarizing power of cations.
(2) Tendency of an anion to get polarized (polarizability)
FORMAL CHARGE
Total number of valence   Total number of  1 Total number of 

FC =  –  –  –   
 e in free atom (v)  non-bonding e (u) 2 bonding e – (s) 
DIPOLE MOMENT ( )
Dipole moment is product of the magnitude of charge developed on any one of the two atoms and the distance
between the atoms. ( = q × d), where q = charge developed and d = distance between two atoms. The unit
of dipole moment is debye (D). 1 debye = 1 × 10–18 esu cm = 3.34 × 10–30 coulomb metre (Cm)
1e– charge = 4.8 × 10–10 esu = 1.6 × 10–19 coulomb
(a) Dipole moment is a vector quantity.
(b) Molecule with more than one bond will have more than one bond dipole moments. The resultant of bond
dipole moments of the molecule containing two bonds is given as
2 2
res. 1 2 2 1 2 cos
(c) Dipole moment predicts whether a molecule is polar or non-polar.
(d) Dipole moment is zero for symmetrical and planar species.
(e) Dipole moment helps to determine percentage ionic character and can be calculated as
Observed dipole moment

% ionic character = 100
Calculated dipole moment assuming 100% ionic bond
% ionic character = 16|XA – XB| + 3.5 [XA – XB]2, where XA and XB are the electronegativity of A and B
element.
VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY (VSEPR)

(a) A number of physical and chemical properties of molecules are affected by the geometry and shape of
molecules.
(b) VSEPR theory gives the information of shape of molecules.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 17
(c) The arrangement of bond pair electron and lone pair electron is done to minimize the repulsion i.e.,
Lone pair – lone pair > lone pair – bond pair > bond pair – bond pair.
(d) These repulsion - effects result in deviations from idealized shape and alterations in bond angles in
molecules.
HYBRIDIZATION & SHAPES OF MOLECULES
S.No. Type of No. of Bond pair Lone Geometry Shape Examples

hybridisation hybridised orbitals Pair
1. sp 2 2 – Linear Linear CO2,

BeCl2
3 – Trigonal Planar Trigonal Planar BF3
2. sp2 3
2 1 Trigonal Planar V-shape SO2
4 – Tetrahedral Tetrahedral CH4

3 1 Tetrahedral Pyramidal NH3
3. sp3 4
2 2 Tetrahedral V-shape H2O
5 – Trigonal Trigonal PCl5

bipyramidal bipyramidal
4 1 Trigonal See-saw SF4
3
bipyramidal
4. sp d 5
3 2 Trigonal T-shape ClF3
bipyramidal
2 3 Trigonal Linear ICl2–
bipyramidal
6 – Square Square (octahedral) SF6

bipyramidal bipyramidal
5. 3
sp d
2
6 5 1 Square Square IF5
bipyramidal pyramidal
4 2 Square Square XeF4
bipyramidal Planar
7 – Pentagonal Pentagonal IF7
3 3 bipyramidal bipyramidal
6. sp d 7
6 1 Pentagonal Distorted octahedral XeF6
bipyramidal
MOLECULAR ORBITAL THEORY

Types of Covalent Bond
s – s overlap (Sigma Overlap)
+
Bonding
+
S S
1s 1s 1s
– Antibonding
+ –
* 1s
ψ1s
1s
18 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
p – p overlap (Sigma Overlap)
Bonding
+
2pz 2pz 2 pz
Antibonding
– + – +
* 2 pz
2 pz 2 pz
p – p Overlap Lateral ( - overlap)

+
+
Bonding
+
– –
2py
2py 2py
+ –
Antibonding
– +
*2py
2py 2py
(a) Linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO) method is used for the formation of molecular orbitals.
(b) For two atomic orbitals A and B, whose wave function is given as A and B. Then molecular
orbitals (MO) are given as MO = A ± B.
(c) The molecular orbital formed by the addition of atomic orbitals is called bonding molecular orbital. And
molecular orbital * formed by the subtraction of atomic orbitals is called antibonding molecular orbital.
(d) Molecular orbital configuration for diatomic molecules upto 14 electrons.
1s *1s 2s *2s { 2px = 2py} 2pz { *2px = *2py} *2pz
(Increasing order of energy)
(e) Molecular orbital configuration for diatomic molecules with more than 14 electrons.
1s *2s 2s *2s 2pz { 2px = 2py} { *2px = *2py} *2pz
(Increasing order of energy)
(f) Molecular orbitals are arranged with increasing order of energy level.
(g) 2px and 2py similarly *2px and *2py have same energy and follow Hund’s rule.
1
(h) Bond order = [Bonding electrons – Antibonding electrons].
2
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 19
1
(i) Bond order Bond strength Bond length .
e.g., N2 = 14 electrons
Molecular orbital configuration
1s2 *1s2 2s2. *2s2 2p 2x , 2p 2y 2p 2z * 2p x , * 2p y *2pz
1
B.O = [10 – 4] = 3
2
As no unpaired electron hence N2 is diamagnetic.

Chapter 5
Chemical Thermodynamics
EXTENSIVE AND INTENSIVE VARIABLES
(a) Extensive property of a system are those whose magnitude depends on the amount of matter present
in the system. These are additive in nature. For example, volume, internal energy, enthalpy, entropy, mass
etc. Sum, subtraction and multiplication of two extensive property is extensive.
(b) The property whose magnitude does not depend upon quantity of matter present in a system is known
as intensive property of the system. It is not an additive property. Examples are : temperature, pressure,
density etc. Sum, subtraction, multiplication division of two intensive properties is intensive.
INTERNAL ENERGY (U)
It is the energy associated with a system by virtue of its molecular constitution and motion of its molecule.
Such motion may be translational, rotational, vibrational etc.
Internal energy is a state function and an extensive property.
Heat supplied to system is denoted by q.
(1) When q > 0, heat has been supplied to system.
(2) When q < 0, system has rejected heat.
(3) When q = 0, no heat exchange ; process is adiabatic.
Work done on system (W)
(1) When W > 0 work is done on system.
(2) When W < 0 work is done by system.
Processes :
When a change is observed in the properties of system, a process is said to be taking place. This may be
a chemical reaction or a physical process, like crystallization. Processes are of two types.
(1) Reversible : No change in entropy of universe.
(2) Irreversible : Entropy of universe increases.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Thermodynamics 21
q and W for some simple processes
Table for ideal gases (only)
Reversible Process q W
Vf Vf
Isothermal expansion nRTln nRTln
Vi Vi
Vi = Initial volume
Vf = Final volume
Isobaric expansion nCP T –P V

nR
[T2 –T1 ]
Adiabatic expansion 0 –1
Isochoric heating nCV T 0
HESS’S LAW OF CONSTANT HEAT SUMMATION

The enthalpy change for a reaction is the same whether it occurs in one step or in a series of steps.
If a reaction is the sum of two or more constituent reactions, then H for the overall process must be sum of
the H of the constituent reactions.
H
A D
H1 H3
B H2 C
For A D, H = H1 + H2 + H3.
ENTROPY AND ENTROPY CHANGE

Entropy is a measure of randomness. Higher the disorder, higher is the entropy.
Entropy for solid < liquid < gas
qrev
S
T
where qrev = Heat absorbed when the process is carried out reversibly and isothermally.
Entropy change is given in unit of J/K or JK–1.
Vf
Example : For reversible isothermal expansion of an ideal gas S nRln .
Vi
GIBB’S ENERGY AND SPONTANEITY OF REACTION

Gibbs defined a function by the relation.
G = H – TS
22 Chemical Thermodynamics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Use :
(i) At a given pressure and temperature if for an anticipated change dG for system is negative, process is
spontaneous and if positive, process is spontaneous in reverse direction. Also if dG = 0, system is in
equilibrium with respect to the given reaction or process.
(ii) –dG = maximum work done by system on non-expansion surrounding e.g., cell doing electrical work on
circuit.
Spontaneity of the reaction
H S G= H–T S Reaction Spontaneity

– + – Spontaneous at all temperature
– – – or + Spontaneous at low temperatures

where H outweighs T S (T S < H)
Non-spontaneous at high temperatures

where, T S outweighs H
+ – + Non-spontaneous at all temperatures
+ + – or + Spontaneous at high temperatures

where T S outweighs H (T S > H)
Non-spontaneous at low temperatures

where H outweighs T S
IMPORTANT POINTS
(1) Relation between G and G°
G = G° + 2.303RT logQ (Q = reaction quotient)
(2) G° and equilibrium constant :
At equilibrium, G = 0 and Q = K
Gº = –RT logeK
= –2.303 RT log10K

Chapter 6
Solutions
SOLUTIONS
A homogeneous mixture of two or more non-reacting substances is known as solution. Homogeneity or
heterogeneity depends upon particle size and states of matter present in the solution. Every solution is made
up of a solvent (present in larger quantity) and one or more solute (present in smaller quantity).
UNITS OF CONCENTRATION
(i) Molarity (M)
It is the number of moles of solute present per litre of solution.
n w W 1000
M
V Mw Vin litre Mw Vin cc
W
M × Vin cc = M 1000
w
 M × V (ml) = millimoles
Molarity changes with temperature of the solution. Increase in temperature generally decreases the molarity.
It is the most convenient method to express concentration of the solution. On dilution, molarity decreases.
(ii) Molality (m) :
Number of moles (n) of solute present per kg of solvent
n w w
m 1000
W in kg M Win kg M Win g solvent
It is independent of temperature since no volume factor is involved in the equation.

(iii) Mole fraction (x)
It is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles present in the solution.
For a system having two components A and B,
nA nB
XA , XB
nA nB nA nB
XA XB 1
Mole fraction is also independent of temperature.
24 Solutions Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(iv) In terms of %
Wt.of solute
% by weight = 100
Wt.of solution
Wt.of solute
% weight by volume 100 (In case of solid dissolved in a liquid)
Vol.of solution
Volume of solute
% by volume 100 (In case of liquid dissolved in another liquid)
Volume of solution
No. of parts of solute

PPM 106
No. of partsof solution
% by weight is independent of temperature while % by volume are temperature dependent.
HENRY’S LAW
Solubility of a gas at a given temperature in a solvent is directly proportional to its partial pressure. If P is the
partial pressure of a gas and Xg is its mole fraction in solution. Then P = KHXg where KH is Henry's law constant
for that gas
VAPOUR PRESSURE AND RAOULT’S LAW

The pressure exerted by the vapours at the free surface of liquid (provided system is closed) is known as its
vapour pressure. The V.P. of a pure liquid is always greater than its solution (In case of non-volatile solute).
(a) Raoult’s Law for a solution having non-volatile solute
 x solute Mole fraction of solute in solution 

Po Ps  
X solute
Po P V.P. of pure solvent 
 Ps V.P. of solution 
i.e., relative lowering of vapour pressure is equal to the mole fraction of solute.
(b) Raoult’s Law of miscible liquid-liquid solution
For ideal solution the partial vapour pressure is directly proportional to their mole fraction at constant
temperature. For two components A and B in liquid solution.
PA XA
PB
 PA PA X A PA + P°A
P°B P=
PB XB V.P
X
 PB PB XB
The total pressure P = PA + PB = P°A XA + P°B XB.

Most of the solutions show appreciable deviations from ideal behaviour known as real or non ideal solution.
In some cases the deviation is +ve while in some cases deviation is –ve.
IDEAL AND NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS

The solutions which obey Raoult’s law are ideal solutions and those which do not obey Raoult’s law form
non-ideal solution.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Solutions 25
Non-Ideal Solution
Ideal Solution
Positive Deviation Negative Deviation
1. Obey’s Raoult’s law 1. Disobey Raoult’s law 1. Disobey Raoult’s law

2. pA = p°A. A 2. pA p°A. A 2. pA p°A. A
pB = p°B B pB p°B. B pB p°B. B
ptotal = pA + pB ptotal pA + pB [Ptotal > PA + PB] ptotal pA + pB [Ptotal < PA + PB]
3. Hmix = 0 Gmix = –ve 3. Hmix = +ve Gmix = –ve 3. Hmix = –ve Gmix = –ve
Vmix = 0 Smix = +ve Vmix = +ve Smix = +ve Vmix = –ve Smix = +ve
4. Interaction 4. Interaction 4. Interaction

A– B=A–A=B – B A – B < A – A and B – B A – B > A – A and B – B
e.g., Chlorobenzene + e.g., CH3OH + H2O e.g., CH3COCH3 + CHCl3
Bromobenzene
ptota
p°A l =p p°A p°A
A +p
B p°B p°B
p°B
=1 A =0 =0
=1 =0
A
A =1 A
A A
B = 0 B =1 =1
B =0 B
B = 0 B = 1
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
A colligative property of a solution is one that depends on the number of particles of solute in solution.
p ps
(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure, solute .
p
(b) Osmotic pressure, = CRT.

(c) Elevation of boiling point, Tb = kbm.
(d) Depression in freezing point, Tf = kfm.
(a) Relative lowering of V.P. : The relative lowering in V.P. of an ideal solution is equal to the mole fraction
of solute at that temperature.
poA pA n2 n2  w2 M1 
= =   for dilute solutions.
poA B n1 n 2 n1  M2 w1 
Determination of molecular masses by relative lowering in vapour pressure.
po p A w M

poA m W
w = Wt. of solute
m = Mol. wt. of solute
W = Wt. of solvent
M = Mol. wt. of solvent
26 Solutions Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(b) Osmotic pressure : The excess pressure which must be applied on a solution to prevent the passage
of solvent into it through a semipermeable membrane.
Determination is done using Barkley-Hartley method:
Semipermeable membrane egg membrane;
Chemical Semipermeable membrane cupric ferrocyanide.
= CRT = n/V. RT; V = nRT : Van’t Hoff equation for dilution solutions
w2 w 2 .RT
n M
M2 ; 2 V
For isotonic solutions 1 = 2
Molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant, Kb. It is the increase in boiling point when
the molality of the solution is unity.
Tb = Kbm, when, m = 1, Tb = Kb
WB 1000
MB = Kb
Tb WA
MRTb2
Kb
1000 H vap
Molal depression constant. or cryoscopic constant (Kf). It is the decrease in freezing point when the
molality of solution is unity
Tf = Kf.m
when, m = 1, Tf = Kf
WB
MB = 1000 Kf
Tf WA
MRTf2
Kf
1000 H fusion
Kb and Kf are intensive properties of solvent and do not depend upon the quantity and nature of solute.
ABNORMAL MOLECULAR MASS AND Van’t HOFF FACTOR (i)
Experiment al values of Colligative property

i
Calculated value of colligative property
Observed value of Colligative property

Normal value of the same property
Normal moleculer mass

Observed moleculer mass
Mcal
Mobs
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Solutions 27
Since,
1
Colligative property
Molecular mass of solute
if i = 1, no molecular association or dissociation takes place

if i < 1, molecular association takes place
if i > 1, molecular dissociation takes place.
For substances undergoing association or dissociation in the solution.
∆Tb iK b m
∆Tf iK f m
i CRT
Relation between degree of association or dissociation ( ) & Van’t Hoff’s factor (i)
1  n(i 1)
For association i = 1 +  n 1 or 1 n
 
where n = Number of particles that associate.
i 1
For dissociation i = 1 + (n – 1) or =
n 1
where n = Number of particles obtained on dissociation.

Chapter 7
Equilibrium
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN Kp AND Kc

ng
Kp K c (RT)
where, ng = np – nr
= no of moles of gaseous product – no. of moles of gaseous reactant.
if ng 0; K p K c ; Example : N2 (g) O 2 (g) 2NO(g).
if ng 0; K p K c ; Example : PCl5 (g) PCl3(g) + Cl2(g)
if ng 0; K p K c ; Example : N2 (g) 3H2 (g) 2NH3(g)
Unit of Kp and Kc
ng
Unit of Kp = (atm )
ng
Unit of Kc = (mol L 1 )
If ng 0, no unit of Kp and Kc
But now a days Kp and Kc are taken to be as unitless quantites.
Relation between degree of dissociation ( ) and Vapour density

For equilibrium reaction
(i) PCl5 (g) PCl3 (g) + Cl2 (g)
(ii) N2O4(g) 2NO2(g)
For a reaction A nB
or P aA bB cC ...
where a + b + c .... = n
D d
(n 1) d
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Equilibrium 29
For (i) & (ii)
n=2
D
1
d
D = Vapour density of the gas before dissociation = Molecular weight/2
d = Vapour density of equilibrium mixture
n = Total number of moles obtained after dissociation from 1 mole of dissociating molecule.
Relation between Equilibrium Constant (K) and Standard free energy Change ( G°)
G 2.303RT log K c
G 2.303 RT log K p
LE-CHATELIER’S PRINCIPLE
It states that, if a system in equilibrium is disturbed by any external agency such as pressure, temperature,
concentration etc. then equilibrium will get shifted to counter balance the effect of that disturbance.
Factors affecting Equilibrium

(1) Concentration
Addition of any reactant or removal of products leads to forward reaction or vice-versa.
(2) Temperature
In an endothermic reaction, ( H ve ) increase in temperature favours the forward reaction, while

decrease in temperature favours backward reaction.
For exothermic reaction, ( H ve ) increase in temperature favours backward reaction, while decrease in
temperature favours forward reaction.
(3) Pressure
Effect of pressure is mainly applicable to gaseous reactions, since liquids & solids are incompressible in
nature.
If ng 0 pressure has no effect on equilibrium constant.
ng 0 then on increasing pressure, equilibrium will get shifted in the backward direction.
ng 0 then on increasing pressure, equilibrium will shift towards forward direction.

(4) Catalyst
A catalyst has no effect on state of equilibrium but it enables the state of equilibrium to reach very quickly.
(5) Inert gas
The introduction of inert gas to any equilibrium is visualized under the condition of constant volume and
constant pressure.
(a) At constant volume
If ng 0
ng 0 no effect on equilibrium on addition of inert gas
ng 0
30 Equilibrium Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(b) At constant pressure
If ng 0 no effect on equilibrium
Equilibrium will get shifted in that direction where no. of moles are more.
if n g 0 In forward direction


n g 0  In backward direction
IONIC EQUILIBRIUM
Dissociation of weak acids or weak bases and Ostwald's dilution law

When weak acid or weak base is dissolved in aqueous medium equilibrium exists between dissociated ions
and undissociated molecules.
CH3COOH CH3COO– + H+
Initially C 0 0
At equilibrium C(1- ) C C
where, is the degree of dissociation.
C C 2
Ka C [If << 1]
C(1 )
Ka Ka
or Ka V and H C C. K aC
C C
Here V is the volume in litre containing 1 mole of electrolyte.

Similarly for weak base,
Kb Kb
or Kbx V and [OH ] C C. K b .C
C C
Here V is the volume in litre containing 1 mole of electrolyte.
BUFFER SOLUTIONS
Types of Buffer Solutions

Acidic buffer : A mixture of weak acid and its conjugated base form acidic buffer. e.g.,
CH3 COOH CH3 COONa
HCOOH HCOONa
C6H5 COOH C6H5 COONa
[Salt]
pH pK a log
[Acid]
Basic buffer : It is a mixture of weak base and its conjugate acid.

Ex. (1) NH4OH + NH4Cl
(2) Cu(OH)2 + CuCl2
(3) Mg(OH)2 + MgSO4
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Equilibrium 31
[Salt ]
pOH pK b log
[Base]
 [Salt] 
pH= 14 – pOH = 14 –  pK b log 
 [Base] 
 [Salt] 
pH = pKw –  pK b log 
 [Base] 
SALT HYDROLYSIS
Consider the salt BA, which on hydrolysis will give acid and base inside the aqueous solution.
BA + H2O BOH + HA
(a) Salt made up of strong acid, strong base will not hydrolyse it will simply ionise. And pH of aqueous
solution will be neutral. The pH of aqueous solution is independent with dilution i.e., pH = 7. e.g., NaCl,
Na2SO4.
(b) Salt made up strong acid and weak base will hydrolyse, e.g., NH4Cl.
Kw 1
Kh pH = [pKw – pKb – logC]
Kb 2
(c) Salt made up of weak acid and strong base, e.g., CH3COONa.
Kw 1
Kh pH = [pKw + pKa + logC]
Ka 2
(d) Salt made up of weak acid and weak base. The pH and h of these salt solutions depend on Ka and Kb
but independent with concentration, e.g., CH3COONH4.
Kw 1
Kh pH = [pKw – pKb + pKa]
K a .K b 2
Kh
Note : Kh = Ch2, h , where h = degree of hydrolysis.
C
SOLUBILITY PRODUCT
When a sparingly soluble salt is dissolved in water, it forms saturated solution but concentration of salt is very
low. Therefore in saturated solution of such electrolytes, solid electrolyte is in equilibrium with the ions as
represented below:
AgCl Ag+ + Cl–
Applying Law of chemical equilibrium
[ Ag ] [Cl ]
K
[ AgCl]
K[AgCl] = [Ag+] [Cl–]
K sp [ Ag ] [Cl ]
32 Equilibrium Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
where Ksp is a constant known as solubility product. It remains constant at constant temperature for a given
salt and defined as the product of ionic concentration of a sparingly soluble electrolyte in a saturated solution.
if Ksp = I.P. (Ionic product) then solution is said to be saturated
if Ksp > I.P. then solution is said to be unsaturated
if Ksp < I.P. then solution is said to be supersaturated (Condition for precipitation)
Relation between Solubility and Solubility Product

For binary electrolyte; (for AB type salt)
Ksp = S2 (AgCl, AgBr)
for ternary electrolyte; (for AB2 or A2B type salt)
Ksp = 4S3 (CaF2, BaCl2)
for Quarternary Electrolyte; (for AB3 or A3B type salt)
Ksp = 27S4
Solubility in presence of common ion

e.g. AgCl(s) is dissolve in xM Ag NO3
S = Ksp / x
x >> S and x + S x
AgNO3 Ag NO3
x x

AgCl(s)
Ag (aq) Cl (aq)
(S x) (S)
[Ag+]Total = (x + S)
Ksp = (x + S) S
In general due to common ion effect solubility of salt decreases.

Chapter 8
Redox Reactions
and Electrochemistry
REDOX REACTIONS
CONCEPT OF OXIDATION & REDUCTION
Oxidation Reduction
(i) Loss of electron (i) Gain of electron
(ii) Loss of hydrogen (ii) Gain of hydrogen
(iii) Gain of oxygen (iii) Loss of oxygen
(iv) Increase in oxidation number (iv) Decrease in oxidation number
OXIDATION NUMBER
Oxidation number change is defined as the change (real or imaginary) which an atom appears to have undergone
when it is present in redox reaction. There are certain rules laid down in order to determine the oxidation number.
(a) Oxidation number of an atom in free elements is zero.
(b) Oxidation number of oxygen is –2, while in peroxides it is –1, in OF2 it is +2.
(c) Oxidation number of hydrogen is +1, while in metal hydrides it is –1.
(d) Oxidation number of an ion is equal to the electrical charge present on it.
(e) Oxidation number of group IA elements is +1 and that of group IIA elements is +2.
(f) For complex ions, the algebraic sum of oxidation numbers of all the atoms is equal to the net charge
on the ion.
(g) In case of neutral molecules the algebraic sum of the oxidation number of all the atoms present in the
molecules is zero.
(h) Oxidation number of an atom never be greater than its valence electron. e.g., valence electron for Cr is 6.
Increase in oxidation number of an element in a reaction is known as oxidation while decrease in oxidation
number of an element in a reaction is known as reduction.
Besides +ve and -ve values, fractional values of oxidation number (as average) are also possible.
Balancing of H2O can also be done as per the medium given
34 Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(1) Acidic Medium : Add H2O on that side of reaction where oxygen are deficient and double number of H+
on opposite side of reaction.
(2) Basic Medium : Add H2O on that side of reaction where oxygen are excess and double number of OH–
on opposite side of reaction.
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIAL
Standard Electrode Potential : The potential difference developed between metal electrode and the solution
of its ions of unit molarity (1 M) at 298 K is called standard electrode potential.
Note : Standard reduction potential = – (Standard oxidation potential)

or Standard oxidation potential = – (Standard reduction potential)
Standard Hydrogen Electrode – (SHE)

SHE Half Reaction Electrode Potential
H2 2H+ + 2e– 0.0 V (anode)
2H+ + 2e– H2 0.0 V (cathode)
With the help of SHE - the SRP values of all the electrodes has been determined and are placed in
electrochemical series.
Note : ECell = O.P. of anode + R.P. of cathode.
or ECell = R.P. of cathode – R.P. of anode.
ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES
Table in which the standard reduction potentials of various electrodes have been arranged in the increasing order
is called electrochemical series or activity series or electromotive series.
Electrode Electrode reaction E°(volts)
Li+/Li Li+ + e– = Li – 3.045 (Lowest)
Zn+2/Zn Zn+2 + 2e– = Zn – 0.763
H+/H2, Pt 2H+ + 2e– = H2 0.0 (Standard)
Cu+2/Cu Cu+2 + 2e– = Cu + 0.34
F2/F–, Pt F2 + 2e– = 2F– + 2.887 (Highest)
Applications of Electrochemical Series :

The important applications of electrochemical series are:
(a) Relative strength of oxidising and reducing agents. In the series, the elements are arranged in the
increasing order of reduction potentials or decreasing order of oxidation potential. Therefore, the elements
at the top are good reducing agents while those at the bottom are good oxidising agents.
(b) Calculating e.m.f. of the cell : The e.m.f. of the cell can be determined by knowing the standard electrode
potentials from the series as:
Ecell
º
E(ºcathode ) E(ºanode ) (If standard reduction potential are given)
Ecell
º
E(anode)
º
E(cathode)
º
(If standard oxidation potential are given)
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Redox Reactions and Electrochemistry 35
(c) Predicting feasibility of a redox reaction : In general, a redox reaction is feasible only if the species
which has higher reduction potential is reduced i.e., accepts the electrons and the species which has lower
reduction potential is oxidised i.e. loses the electrons. Otherwise, a redox reaction is not feasible. In other
words, the species to release electrons must have lesser reduction potential as compared to the species
which has to accept electrons.
(d) To predict whether a metal can liberate hydrogen from acid or not, only the metals which have negative
reduction potentials, can liberate hydrogen from the acids.
EMF OF GALVANIC CELL

In galvanic cells, current is generated as a result of a spontaneous chemical reaction that occur in the cell.
The main characteristics of galvanic cell are given below
Cathode Anode
(i) Sign Positive Negative
(ii) Half reaction Reduction Oxidation
(iii) Direction of electron Into the cell Out of the cell
movement
Note : Flow of currrent from cathode to anode.
GIBB’S ENERGY CHANGE AND CELL POTENTIAL

The electrical work done from the cell = nFE
– G = nFE
G = –nFE
or Gº = – nFEº
where, G = Gibb’s energy change
Gº = Standard Gibb’s energy change
E = emf of cell/electrode potential
Eº = Standard emf of cell/standard electrode potential.
Type of Electrode Potential

1. Oxidation Potential
2. Reduction Potential
1. Oxidation Potential : When electrode is negatively charged w.r.t. solution then it acts as anode, and
oxidation takes place.
M M+n + ne–
EOX
2.303RT
Eox E ox . log [M n ]
nF
2.303RT +n
Intercept = E°ox and Slope log [M ]
nF
2. Reduction Potential : When electrode is positively charged w.r.t. solution then it acts as cathode, and
reduction takes place.
M+n + ne– M
2.303RT 1
Ered E red . log
nF [M n ] Ered
2.303RT
Ered E red . log [M n ]
nF
Intercept = E°red
+n
log [M ]
2.303RT
Slope = .
nF
Various Types of electrodes

Different types of half cells are used to make complete cell with spontaneous reaction in forward direction.
1. Hydrogen Electrode : The standard hydrogen electrode (S.H.E.) consists of a Pt electrode coated with
Pt black. The electrode dipped in a solution of 1 M and hydrogen gas bubbled through it at 1 bar.
H2(g)
(at 1 atm)
+ Pt black
H3O (aq)
electrode
(1 M)
Hydrogen electrode
Pt, H2(gas)|H (aq). 1M
1 bar
H2(g) 2H+ + 2e–

E°SHE = 0
0.059 0.059
E logH E pH
1 1
2. Metal-Metal ion Half Cell :
Ag | Ag+(aq)
Ag(s) Ag+(aq) + e–
E = E° – 0.0591 log [Ag+]
3. Metal-Metal-Insoluble Salt anion Half Cell :
Ag | AgCl | Cl–(aq)
Ag + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s) + e–
1
E = E° – 0.0591 log
[Cl ]
E = E° + 0.0591 log [Cl–]
4. Calomel Electrode :
Hg, Hg2Cl2 | Cl–(aq)
2Hg(l) + 2Cl–(aq) Hg2Cl2(s) + 2e–
0.0591 1
E E . log
2 [Cl – ] 2
E = E° + 0.0591 log [Cl–].

5. Metal-Metal Oxide Hydroxide Half Cell :
Hg,HgO | OH–(aq)
Hg(l) + 2OH–(aq) HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e–
0.0591 1
E E . log
2 [OH – ] 2
E = E° + 0.0591 log [OH–].

6. Oxidation-Reduction Half Cell :
Pt | Fe+2(aq), Fe+3(aq)
Fe+2(aq) Fe+3(aq) + 1e–
0.0591 [Fe 3 ]
E E . log .
1 [Fe 2 ]
7. Quinhydrone Half Cell :

Pt | Quinhydrone | H+(aq)
OH O
+ –
+2H + 2e
OH O
Hydroquinone Quinone
0.0591
E E . log [H ] 2
2
0.0591
E E . log [H ].
1
ELECTROLYSIS
(a) The decomposition of the electrolyte due to the passage of electricity is known as electrolysis.
(b) During electrolysis, electrical energy changes into chemical energy.
(c) To have electrolysis we must use direct current.
(d) Electrolysis is a redox phenomenon.
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis

(a) First Law : The weight of substance deposited at the electrode is directly proportional to the
quantity of electric charge passed through the electrolytic solution
W Q W = Weight in g
Q = Quantity of charge
 W = ZQ Z = Constant known as electrochemical equivalent
 W = ZIt I = Current in ampere
t = Time in second
E(equivalent mass)
Z
96500
(b) Second law : If the same quantity of current is passed through different electrolytic solutions then
the weights of different substances deposited at the respective electrodes is directly proportional to
their chemical equivalents.
Weight of electrolyte (A) Weight of electrolyte (B)

Eq. wt. of (A) Eq. wt. of (B)
ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTION
Molten true electrolyte and the aqueous solution of electrolytes contain free ions and conduct electricity due
to the movement of ions.
According to Ohm's law,
l l
R or R
a a
a
R
l
1 1 l
R a
where R = Resistance of solution

l = Length
a = Area of cross-section of the solution
= Resistivity of solution
If l = 1 unit of length and a = 1 unit of area
then R
1
Conductance (G) =
R
Unit of conductance = ohm–1 or siemens (S)
1 1 l Cell constant l
Specific conductance (K) = ( is called cell constant)
R a Resistance a
K = Conductance if l = 1 unit (length) and a = 1 unit (area)

S.I. Unit of K = Sm–1
Note : Specific conductance is now-a-days called conductivity.
MOLAR CONDUCTIVITY ( m )
The conducting power of all the ions furnished by one mole of an electrolyte in any solution is termed as its
molar conductivity
–1
Conductivity (K) [ cm–1 ]
m . Unit of = ohm–1 cm2 mol–1
Concentration of solution in moles per unit volume (cm3 ) m
Molar conductivity of weak electrolyte increases with increase in dilution or decrease in concentration due
to increase in ionisation but specific conductivity decreases with increase in dilution because number of ions
per cm3 of solution decreases.
Strong electrolyte
Weak electrolyte
KOHLRAUSCH’S LAW
It states that at infinite dilution the molar conductivity of an electrolyte [known as limiting molar conductivity]
can be expressed as the sum of the contribution from its individual ions.
o o o
m V V (where V+ and V– are the number of cations and anions per formula unit of electrolyte
o o
respectively and and are limiting molar conductivities of the cation and anion respectively).
Application
Some typical applications of Kohlrausch's law are
o
(i) Determination of m for weak electrolyte
(ii) Determination of degree of dissociation ( ) of a weak electrolyte

c
m
o
m
(iii) Determination of ionisation constant of weak electrolyte of (AB) type

c 2
C( m )
K o o c
m ( m m)
(iv) Determination of solubility of a sparingly soluble salt
1000.K salt
Concentration of sparingly soluble salt (Cm ) o o
(V V )
IMPORTANT POINTS
(1) Degree of dissociation ( ) can be related with conductance. i.e., m

o
m
(2) G° = –nF Ecell n = Number of electrons
F = Faraday
(3) Concentration cells are made up of same electrode but dipped in different concentration of its own ion.
e.g., Cu | Cu( 02.01M) || Cu( 02.2M) | Cu
(4) For spontaneity of reaction, Ecell > 0 i.e., G < 0.
(5) Primary Cells : The reaction occurs in one direction only and the cell cannot be recharged.
e.g., Mercury cell.
(6) Secondary Cells : The cells that can be recharged by passing current through it. e.g., Lead storage cell.
Fuel Cell : Energy is obtained by combustion of fuels.
(7) Rusting of iron is the example of corrosion which is a electrochemical process.

Chapter 9
Chemical Kinetics
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION

(i) Nature of the reactant : Different amount of energies are required for breaking of different bonds and
different amount of energies are released in the formation of different bonds.
(ii) Concentration of the reactant : Greater the concentration of reactants, faster is the reaction.
(iii) Surface area of the reactant : Rate of reaction increases with increase in surface area.
(iv) Presence of light : Some reactions do not take place in dark but take place in presence of light. Such
reactions are called photochemical reactions.
(v) Temperature : The rate of reaction increases with an increase in temperature. For every 10°C rise in
temperature the rate of reaction becomes twice or thrice for a homogeneous reaction. The temperature
coefficient is defined as the ratio of the specific reaction rates of a reaction at two temperatures differing
by 10°C.
K t 10
Temp. coefficient between 2 or 3.
Kt
The rate constant (K) and temperature are related by Arrhenius equation given by
Ea /RT
K e
–Ea
logK slope =
2.303R
1/T
Ea
Ea
Arrhenius equation, K = Ae RT
i.e., ln k ln A .
RT
Ea
log10 K log10 A
2.303 RT
1
By plotting graph log K vs activation energy can be determined.
T
(vi) Presence of catalyst : The positive catalyst lowers down the activation energy. The greater the decrease
in activation energy higher will be the reaction rate.
42 Chemical Kinetics Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
CONCEPT OF ACTIVATION ENERGY

The minimum amount of energy required by reactant molecules to participate in a reaction is called activation
energy
Activation energy = Threshold energy – average kinetic energy of reacting molecules
Threshold energy = Initial potential energy of reactant molecules + activation energy.
Activation Energy
Exothermic Endothermic
(Ea)f ETH (Ea)b (Ea)f ETH (Ea)b
Energy Energy
H H
HR
HR HP
HP
Progress of reaction Progress of reaction
ETH = Threshold Energy, HR = Enthalpy or Energy or Potential of reactants.

HP = Enthalpy or Energy or Potential of product, (Ea)f = Activation energy for forward reaction.
(Ea)b = Activation energy for backward reaction.
ORDER OF REACTION
A. Zero order reaction : A reaction is said to be of zero order if the rate of reaction is independent of
concentration of the reactant.
Rate Expression :
Let A Product
[K is a constant called Rate Constant]
x
K
t
Characteristics :
(a) Unit of K = mol L–1 time–1
(b) Half life period : Time required for the completion of half of the reaction.
Half life for zero order reaction is directly proportional to initial concentration of the reactant
t 1/ 2 a
(c) The concentration of reactant decreases linearly with time.

B. First Order Reaction :
A first order reaction is one whose rate is determined by the variation of one concentration term only.
All radioactive disintegration reactions are of the first order.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Chemical Kinetics 43
Rate Expression
Let A Product
initially a 0
after time t (a – x) x
2.303 a
K log
t (a x )
Characteristics
(a) Unit of K = time–1
(b) Half-life period : The half life period is independent of initial concentration of the reactant.
0.693
t1/ 2
K
(c) On plotting a graph between log of concentration and time we get
log C
t
K
The slope of this line gives the value of from which K can be calculated.
2.303
General expression of unit of rate constant K = mole1–n litren–1 time–1, where n is the order of reaction
RATE CONSTANTS FOR DIFFERENT ORDER OF REACTION
Reaction Order Rate law eqn. Rate constant Half life period
1 [A 0 ]
A product 0 Rate = k k [A 0 ] [A] t1/ 2
t 2k
2.303 [A ] 0.693
A product 1 Rate = k[A] k log 0 t1/ 2
t [A] k
1 1 1  1
2A product 2 Rate = k[A]2 k   t1/ 2
t  [A] [A 0 ]  [A 0 ] k

Chapter 10
Surface Chemistry
ADSORPTION
The phenomenon of attracting and retaining the molecules of a substance on the surface of a liquid or a solid
resulting into higher concentration of the molecules on the surface is called adsorption.
There are two types of adsorption
(i) Physical adsorption
(ii) Chemical adsorption
Physical adsorption Chemical adsorption

or or
Physisorption Chemisorption
1. Enthalpy of adsorption usually 1. Enthalpy of adsorption is of
–1 –1
is of the order of –20 kJ mol the order of –200 kJ mol .
i.e. exothermic.
2. Molecules of adsorbate and
2. Molecule of adsorbate and adsorbent are held by
adsorbent are held by weak chemical bonds.
van der Waal’s interaction.
3. It takes place at relatively
3. It usually takes place at low high temperature.
temperature and decreases with
4. It is highly specific and take
increasing temperature.
place when there is some
4. It is not very specific i.e. all possibility of compound
gases are adsorbed on all formation between adsorbate
solids to some extent. and adsorbent molecule.
5. Multimolecular layers may be 5. Usually monomolecular layer
formed on adsorbent. is formed on the adsorbent.
6. It is reversible in nature. 6. It is usually irreversible in
nature.
7. It does not require activation
energy. 7. It requires activation energy.
ADSORPTION ISOTHERM
A relation or graph between x/m (x are number of moles of adsorbate and m is the mass of adsorbent) and
the pressure (P) of the gas at a constant temperature is called adsorption isotherm.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Surface Chemistry 45
A. Freundlich Adsorption Isotherm
Freundlich gave an equation x/m KP1/n (n > 1) to explain the effect of pressure on amount of gas adsorbed
where K and n are parameters of the equations depending upon the nature of the gas and solid.
x
increases with increase in pressure. Since n > 1, so x/m does not increase, as rapidly as 'P'
m
x 1
log = logK + log P (Taking log on both sides)
m n
1
n
pe=
Slo
log x/m
Intercept = log K
log P
From this graph it is possible to find out value of K and n

B. Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm
Langmuir considered that adsorption consist of the two opposing processes i.e., adsorption and desorption
both take place and dynamic equilibrium established between the above two processes. He also assumed
that the layer of the adsorbed gas was only one molecule thick i.e., unimolecular as in chemisorption.
The Langmuir adsorption isotherm is represented by the relation.
x aP
where a and b are two Langmuir parameters.
m 1 bP
x a
(At very high pressure 1 + bP ~ bP)
m b
x
and = aP (At very low pressure 1 + bP ~ 1)
m
x
So at high pressure of the gas remains constant and nature of graph is linear at very high pressure
m
x/m
Pressure
46 Surface Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
In order to determine the parameters a and b, we may write
m 1 bP b 1
x aP a aP
m 1 1 b
A plot of against gives a straight line with slope and intercept equal to and respectively
x P a a
1
Slope = a
m
x
b
Intercept = a
1
P
COLLOIDS
Colloidal state of matter is a state in which the size of particles is such (10Å – 10000Å) that they can pass
through filter paper but not through animal or vegetable membrane.
CLASSIFICATION OF COLLOIDS
(i) Based on physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium–The physical state of dispersed
phase and dispersion medium may be solids, liquids or gases, eight types of colloidal system are possible.
Dispersed Phase Dispersion Medium Name Examples

Solid Solid Solid Sol Some coloured g lasses, gem stones
Solid Liquid Sol Some paints, cell fluids, muddy water
Solid Gas Aerosol Smoke, dust
Liquid Solid Gel Cheese, butter, j ellies
Liquid Liquid Emulsion Milk, hair cream
Liquid Gas Aerosol Fog, mist, cloud
Gas Solid Solid foam Pumice stone, foam rubber
Gas Liquid Foam Whipped cream, soap lather
Note : A gas mixed with another gas form a homogeneous mixture and not a colloidal system.
(ii) Based on nature of interaction between dispersed phase and dispersion medium–
Divided into two types namely Lyophilic and Lyophobic Colloids
Lyophilic Sols Lyophobic Sols
1. Nature Reversible Irreversible

2. Preparation Prepared by direct mixing with liquid Cannot be prepared directly but by
dispersion medium i.e. solvent loving special method i.e. solvent hating
(greater affinity for solvent) (no affinity for solvent)
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Surface Chemistry 47
3. Stability Quite stable and not easily precipitated Precipitated by adding small amount
or coagulated of suitable electrolyte
4. Hydration Highly hydrated Not much hydrated

5. Nature & These sols are usually formed by the These are usually formed by the
substances organic substances like starch, gum, inorganic materials like metals, their
proteins etc. sulphides etc.
6. Viscosity Much higher than that of medium Almost same as that of medium
7. Surface Lower than that of dispersion medium Nearly same as that of dispersion
tension medium
EMULSIONS AND ITS TYPE

Emulsions are colloids in which both dispersed phase and dispersion medium are liquids and broadly classified
into two types
(i) Oil in water emulsion – In this type of emulsion, oil acts as dispersed phase and water acts as
dispersion medium. Ex.– Milk, vanishing cream etc.
(ii) Water in oil emulsion – In this type of emulsion, water acts as dispersed phase and oil acts as
dispersion medium.
Ex.– Cold cream, butter, cod liver oil etc.
KEY POINTS
1. Colloid is not a substance, it is a state of a substance, which depends upon particle size.
2. Emulsifier : Long-chain hydrocarbons terminating in polar end groups are added to stabilise emulsion.
3. In true solutions, particle size is less than 1 nm and in suspensions, the particle size is more than
1000 nm.
4. The coagulating power of an electrolyte is inversely related to its coagulating value.
5. A phenomenon in which the molecules of dispersion medium are allowed to move under influence of
electric current, whereas colloidal particles are not allowed to move, is called electro-osmosis.
6. The presence of electrical charge (either positive or negative) on colloidal particle is responsible for stability
of colloidal solutions.
7. Gold number of a protective colloid is minimum weight of it in milligrams which must be added to
10 ml of a standard red gold sol so that no coagulation of gold sol (i.e., change of colour from red to
blue) take place when 1 ml of 10% NaCl solution is rapidly added to it. Obviously, smaller the gold number
of a protective colloid, greater is the protective action e.g., gelatin has very small value of gold number.
8. Gold number is assigend to lyophilic colloids only.
9. Multimolecular colloids consist of aggregated atoms or molecule e.g., gold, sulphur sol.
10. Macromolecular colloids have dispersed phase particles as macromolecule or polymers e.g. protein sol.
11. Substances which possess surface activity i.e., property to lower surface tensions of liquids or the
tendency to increase surface area, are called surfactants.
12. The substances which at low concentration in a medium behave as normal strong electrolyte but at higher
concentration exhibit colloidal properties due to formation of aggregated particles are called associated
colloids or micelles. Their formation take place above a particular temperature called kraft temperature (Tk)
and above a particular concentration (CMC – Critical Micelle Concentration), e.g., soaps and detergents.
48 Surface Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
ADDITIONAL POINTS
1. SnO2 forms a positively charged colloidal sol in acidic medium and negatively charged sol in basic
medium.
2. Delta is generally formed as result of coagulation when river meets the ocean.
3. A solid metal in a finely divided state is a better catalyst.
4. H2O is absorbed by anhydrous CaCl2 whereas, it is adsorbed on silica gel.
5. Gases are adsorbed on solid surface (Ni, Co, Pt, Pd etc.) but absorbed in solvent phase.
6. During adsorption, H = –ve, S = –ve hence adsorption is spontaneous at low temperature, when
G = – ve.
At adsorption equilibrium G = 0 and rate of adsorption becomes equal to rate of desorption.
7. Easily liquefiable gases (e.g., HCl, NH3, CO2) are adsorbed to greater extent than others (H2, N2, O2 etc.)
8. The adsorption of gases on finely divided metal surface is also called occlusion.
9. As temperature increases, rate of chemisorption first increases and then decreases.
Physical adsorption Chemisorption

(x/m) (x/m)
Temperature Temperature
10. Freundlich adsorption isotherm is only a special case of Langmuir adsorption isotherm for intermediate
pressures (Freundlich isotherm fails at high pressure of the gas).
11. Catalytic promoters increase the activity of catalyst e.g. Mo acts as promoter for Fe. (catalyst) in Haber
process of formation of NH3.
12. The potential difference set up across the surface of separation of two oppositely charged layers just in
contact with each other on the surface of colloid is known as electrokinetic or zeta potential.

Chapter 11
Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry
and Purification and Characterisation of
Organic Compounds
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
It is a series of similarly constituted organic compounds in which members possess the same functional
group, have a similar or almost similar characteristics, can be represented by the same general formula, and
the two consecutive members differ by – CH2 – group in their molecular formula.
e.g., General formula for saturated alcohol is CnH2n+1 – OH
( CH2 ) ( CH2 )
CH3 OH CH3 CH 2 OH CH3 CH2 CH2 OH
Methanol Ethanol Propanol
ISOMERISM
Compounds having same molecular formula but different in their physical and chemical properties are called
isomers. This phenomenon is called isomerism.
They are classified into two types
1. Structural isomerism or constitutional isomerism
2. Stereo isomerism
1. Structural isomerism : When same molecular formula represents two or more compounds which differ in
the arrangement of atoms within the molecule, then such compounds are called structural isomers and the
phenomenon is called structural isomerism. It is of the following types :
(i) Chain isomerism : When the same molecular formula represents two or more compounds which differ
in the nature of carbon chain (straight or branched), the isomers are called chain isomers and the
phenomenon is known as chain isomerism.
Example : CH3—CH2—CH2—CH3 and CH 3—CH—CH 3 are chain isomers

CH3
(ii) Position isomerism : Compounds having same structural formulae but differ only in the position of the
substituent atoms or groups on the carbon chain are called position isomers.
Example : C3 H7 OH has two position isomers
CH3 CH2 CH2 –OH and CH3–CH–CH3

|
propan-1-ol
OH
propan-2-ol
50 Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry and Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(iii) Functional isomerism : When any two compounds have same molecular formula but possess different
functional groups, they are called functional isomers and the phenomenon is called functional isomerism.
Examples of functional isomerism are
(a) Alcohol and ether (CH3–CH2–CH2–CH2–OH and CH3–CH2–O–CH2–CH3)
O O
|| ||
(b) Carboxylic acid and ester, etc. CH3–CH2–C–OH and CH3–C–OCH3
(iv) Metamerism : It arises due to different alkyl chains on either side of the functional group in the molecule.
For example ethers, esters, amines, ketones etc. can exhibit metamerism.
Example :
(a) Metamers of C2H5 – O – C2 H5 are
CH3
CH3CH2CH2–O CH3 CH3–O–CH
Methyl propyl ether CH3
Methyl isopropyl ether
O
||
(b) Metamers of CH 3CH 2–C–O–CH 3 are
O O
|| ||
CH3–C–O–CH2–CH3 H–C–O–CH2–CH2–CH3
Ethyl ethanoate Propyl methanoate
O
||
It is to be noted that CH 3CH 2CH 2–C–O–H is not the metamer of above compounds. Because this
compound is an acid while the above compounds are isomeric esters.
(v) Tautomerism : The phenomenon due to which two or more structurally distinct compounds are in dynamic
equilibrium due to shift in the position of an atom or group in a molecule is known as tautomerism and the
structural isomers are known as tautomers. Tautomerism may be catalysed by an acid, a base or traces
of transition metal ions etc.
Structural Requirement for Tautomerism
O
|| O
When unsaturated functional group (e.g., –C– , N , –N = O) have -hydrogen, the compound may
O
exhibit tautomerism.
A– B=C A= B– C
H H
Tautomers
In simple keto-enol tautomerism generally keto form is more stable, the stability of enol form may increase
due to extended conjugation, aromaticity or intramolecular hydrogen bonding.
H H
e.g., CH2 – C = O CH2 = C – O
H H
More stable > 99% Less stable < 1%
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Some Basic Principles of Organic Chemistry and Purification and Characterisation of Organic Compounds 51
2. Stereo isomerism : The compounds that have the same constitution and sequence of covalent bonds but
differ in relative positions of their atoms or groups in space are called stereoisomers and this type of
isomerism is known as stereoisomerism. This isomerism can be further classified as geometrical
isomerism and optical isomerism.
COOH COOH
Ph Ph Ph H C C
HO H and H OH
C=C and C=C
H H H Ph
CH3 CH3
Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers
Geometrical isomerism : When stereoisomerism arises due to restricted rotation (because of the
presence of double bond or ring), then it is known as geometrical isomerism.
H3C CH3 H3C H
C=C and C=C
H H H CH3
cis trans
These are geometrical isomers because they have different spatial arrangement due to the presence of
restricted rotation (due to double bond).
Note : (i) Geometrical isomers may be named as cis-trans isomers, E-Z isomers or syn-anti
isomers.
(ii) Geometrical isomers are also known as diastereomers (stereoisomers which are not
the mirror images of each other). Therefore geometrical isomers have different physical
properties and similar chemical properties.
(iii) Geometrical isomers do not rotate plane polarised light (unless they also happen to be
chiral).
Enantiomers : Nonsuperimposable mirror images are known as enantiomers. They have similar physical
and chemical properties in symmetric environment. But they may behave differently in asymmetric
environment. They also rotate plane polarised light in opposite directions but the magnitude of rotation
is identical. Specific rotation of S-alanine is +8.5 while that of R-alanine is –8.5, while melting point of
both the enantiomers are 297°C.
Dextrorotatory substances : Those substances which rotate the plane polarised light in clock-wise
direction are known as dextrorotatory substances. The rotation is labelled as (+).
If the rotation is counterclockwise, the compound is called Laevorotatory. No relationship exists
between D and L (represents relative configuration) and dextrorotatory and laevorotatory substances. A
compound with D configuration may be (+) or (–). This information can be obtained only by putting the
molecule in Polarimeter (instrument used to obtain direction and extent of rotation of plane polarised light).
Specific rotation : Specific rotation of a chiral compound is a constant at a particular temperature and
wavelength (589 nm).
observed rotation (in degree)
Specific rotation c concentration (g/ml)
l
c l
l length of sample tube (dm)
Racemic mixture : A mixture containing equal amount of two enantiomers is called racemic mixture or
racemate. A racemic mixture is optically inactive due to external compensation. Racemic mixture can be
resolved into optically pure form by several methods.
Percentage enantiomeric excess : It tells us how much one enantiomer is present in excess of the
racemic mixture.
% ee % of one enantiomer % of the other enantiomer
Number of Possible optical isomers in Compounds having n-chiral Carbon Atoms :

Case - I : When there is no symmetry in the structure of molecule.
Number of d and l forms = 2n
Number of meso forms = 0
Total number of optical isomers = 2n
Case - II : When the molecule is structurally symmetric and n is even
Number of d and l forms = 2n – 1
Number of meso forms = 2n/2 – 1
Total number of optical isomers = 2n – 1 + 2n/2 – 1
Case - III : When the molecule can be divided into two identical parts and n is odd
n 1
Number of d and l forms = 2n – 1 – 2 2
n 1
Number of meso forms = 2 2
Total number of optical isomers = 2n – 1
BOND FISSION
In any reaction, bond between the reactant molecule is broken, Bond fission in organic molecules can take
place in one of the two ways.
1. Homolytic Bond Fission
R1 R1
R2 C X R2 C + X
R3 R3
Result of homolytic fission is free radical. (Alkyl free radical may be sp2 or sp3 hybridised)
2. Heterolytic Bond Fission
(a) In the heterolytic bond fission bonding electron pair may move away from carbon, which results into
the formation of carbocation.
R1 R2
Heterolysis
R2 C X R1 C + X [X is more electronegative than carbon]
R3 R3
(b) When bonding pair moves towards carbon
R1
R2 C Y C + Y [Y is less electronegative than carbon]

R3 R1 R3
R2
This results in formation of carbanion. (Alkyl carbanion is sp3 hybridised)

ELECTROPHILE
Electrophiles are electron loving species having at least one vacant orbital in valence shell.
1. Charged electrophiles X , R
2. Neutral Electrophiles : e.g., BH3, SO3, AlCl3
Note : Electrophiles are Lewis acids.
NUCLEOPHILE
Nucleophiles are nucleus loving, they are electron rich having at least one non-bonding pair of electrons in
valence shell.
It can be of three types.
1. Charged Nucleophiles - H , O–H , I etc.
2. Neutral Nucleophiles - N H
H , R O
3
3. Ambident Nucleophiles - C N , O–C N (both atoms are nucleophilic centre)
ELECTRONIC EFFECTS
Electronic Effects
Inductive Hyperconjugation Electromeric Mesomeric or

Resonance effect
1. Inductive Effect :
The permanent displacement of electrons in a bond towards the more electronegative element is called
inductive effect. The effect provides polarity to the molecule. The property of electron withdrawal shown
by an atom or group is its (–I) effect and that of donation is called (+I) effect. Electron donation or electron
withdrawal is compared with respect to H.
δδδ δδ δ δ–
CH3 CH2 CH2 CH2 Cl
As shown above the charge decreases from to to position. Hence inductive effect decreases as
number of bonds increases.
Order of –I effect : (CH3)3 N > –NO2 > –CN> –F > –COOH > –Cl > –Br > –I > –OR > –OH > –NH2 > C6H5– > –H
Order of +I effect : (CH3)3C– > (CH3)2CH– > CH3–CH2– > –CH3 > –H
Uses of Inductive Effect :
(i) Stability of ions: Stability of ions can be explained by using the concept of inductive effect and
hyperconjugation.
(a) Stability of Carbocation
e.g., (CH3)3C (CH3)2 CH CH3CH2 CH3
(b) Stability of Carbanions
O O
(CH3 )3 C O (CH3 )2 CHO CH3 CH2 CH3 (groups with +I effect decrease the stability of anion)
(ii) Acidic Properties : It is possible to compare the acidic strength of various organic compounds using
the inductive effect concept, e.g., in carboxylic acid
The strength of an acid depends upon the ease with which it can ionize to give proton or on the stability of the
conjugate bases formed, i.e. if the conjugate base formed is more stable, then the acid is more acidic.
Name of Acid Formula Ka Conjugate Base
Fluoroacetic acid (most acidic) FCH2 COOH 217 × 10–5 FCH2COO– (most stable)
Chloroacetic acid ClCH2 COOH 155 × 10–5 ClCH2–COO–
Bromoacetic acid BrCH2COOH 138 × 10–5 BrCH2COO–
Iodoacetic acid ICH2 COOH 75 × 10–5 ICH2COO–
Acetic acid (least acidic) CH3COOH 1.8 × 10–5 CH3 COO (least stable)
Increasing stability of conjugate base increases the acidity of acids.

Furthermore, the inductive effect in di and trihalogenated acids is still more marked with the result they
are progressively more acidic than the corresponding monohalogenated acids.
e.g., CHCl2 – COOH ; Ka = 514 × 10–5
CCl3 – COOH ; Ka = 12100 × 10–5
In general, dicarboxylic acids are stronger acids than monocarboxylic acids, since one of the –COOH
group shows –I effect.
2. Hyperconjugation : It is also known as no-bond resonance. It involves delocalisation of -electrons
of C – H bond of an alkyl group directly attached to an atom of unsaturated system or to an atom with
an unshared orbital (p or d orbital). Depending on the number of -H, various hyperconjugative structures
are possible. Greater the number of hyperconjugative structures, higher would be the stability of given
system. It is also a permanent effect.
sp3
H CH3
H C C
CH3
H
Less effective overlap (responsible for hyperconjugative effect).

Stability of substituted alkenes, alkyl carbocations, and free radicals can be explained on the basis of
hyperconjugation.
H H H H
H C CH = CH2 H C = CH – CH2 H C = CH – CH2 H C = CH – CH2
H H H H
°
H H H H
° °
H C CH2 H C = CH2 H C = CH2 H C = CH2
H H H H
°
H H H H
H C CH2 H C =CH2 H C = CH2 H C = CH2
H H H H
3. Electromeric Effect : The temporary electron density charge in substrate in presence of attacking reagent
facilitate the attack of attaching reagent is called electromeric effect.
+E effect: When electron density pilled on centre to which attacking reagent attacks then electromeric
effect is +E effect, observed in presence of electrophile.
+
e.g., E
C—C C—C
+
Electron density
E migration
–E effect: When electron density is removed from the centre to which attacking reagent attacks then
electronic effect is –E effect, observed in presence of nucleophile.
e.g., Nu
C—O C—O
Electron density
Nu migration
4. Mesomeric or Resonance Effect : The effect involves permanent delocalization of conjugated electrons
in a conjugated system. Intermediate structures formed are called resonating structures. The structure
that collectively represents all resonating structures is called the resonance hybrid.
Resonating structures are imaginary having no physical significance. The average structure i.e. resonance
hybrid represents the actual molecule. Resonance is also known as -electron delocalisation, which is
a permanent effect, it is distance independent effect. Normally this effect is more powerful than
hyperconjugative effect.
Resonating structures must be valid Lewis structures, they must have same position of atomic nuclei,
same number of paired and unpaired electrons and the part of molecule taking part in resonance must
be planar.
O O H
O O
CH3– C C –CH3
CH CH3– C C –CH3
CH
H
Position of H atom is changing Invalid resonating structure
H H H H
C=C H C–C H
H C=C H C–C
H H H H
Invalid resonating structure
Number of unpaired
electrons is changing
Extent of contribution of various resonating structures:

(a) Resonating structures having maximum number of covalent bonds are more contributing
R–C=O R–C O
Less contributing More contributing
(b) Non charge separated resonating structures are more contributing than charge separated resonating
structures.
X H X H
C=C C–C
H H H H
More contributing Less contributing
(c) Resonating structure which places negative charge on more electronegative atom is more contributing
as compared to resonating structure which places negative charge on less electronegative atom.
O O
C=C C–C
More contributing Less contributing
The difference between energies of most stable resonating structure and the resonance hybrid is
called the resonance energy of the molecule.
Electron Donating Mesomeric Effect (+M Effect) : Groups with +M effect releases -electron towards
unsaturated system. This effect makes certain positions in the molecule of high electron densities. This
effect in chlorobenzene is shown as
Cl + Cl + Cl + Cl Cl
+M Effect
Electron Withdrawing Mesomeric Effect (–M Effect) : This effect is observed when the displacement
of -electrons from unsaturated system is towards the atom or group. This effect in benzaldehyde is
shown as
–M Effect H O H O H O H O H O
C C C C C
REACTION INTERMEDIATES
Carbocations :
Structure :
R1
R2 R3
2
sp hybridised
Trigonal planar
Stability: Carbocations are stabilised by electron donating groups and are destabilised by electron withdrawing
groups.
CH3
|
H2C = CH CH3 CH3 – CH2 CH3 – CH CH3 – C
| |
CH3 CH3
Increasing order of stability with increasing number of electron donating groups
CH2 H2C = CH – CH2
Decreasing order of stability
Carbanions :
Structure :
C
R1 R3
R2
Pyramidal
Carbon bearing the negative charge is sp3 hybridised, when lone pair on carbon not involve in resonance.
Stability: Carbanions are stabilised by electron withdrawing groups and they are destabilised by electron
donating groups
CH3 CH3
CH3 CH2 – CH3 CH C CH3
CH3 CH3
CH2 H2C = CH – CH2 CH3 – CH2
Carbon Free Radicals

Free radicals are obtained through homolysis of a bond. They have unpaired electron associated with
carbon.
Structure : The exact type of hybridisation of the carbon atom bearing an unpaired electron depends on the
nature of the substituent. Generally alkyl radicals are planner and as electronegativity of bonded group increase
it adopts pyramidal shape e.g., CF3 is pyramidal. In presence of resonance it surely adopts planner shape.
R2
Unpaired electron is
R1 C present in unhybridised Unpaired electron is
px orbital C present in sp3
R3 F F hybridised orbital
Trigonal planar F
Stability : Free radicals are stabilised by resonance, hyperconjugation and steric effect. Both electron donating
and electron withdrawing groups stabilize free radicals.
CH3
CH3 CH3 – CH2 CH3 – CH CH3 – C
CH3 CH3
Increasing stability
Ph3C > H2C = CH – CH2 > CH3 – CH

CH3
Decreasing stability
(a) A free radical combines with other free radical
R R R—R
(b) Free radicals may give disproportionation reaction
2CH 3 C H2 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3 CH 3
DETECTION OF ELEMENTS (Qualitative Analysis)
Element Sodium Fusion Extract (S.E) Confirmed Test Reactions
Nitrogen Na + C + N NaCN S.E + FeSO4 + NaOH, FeSO4 + 6NaCN

(S.E) boil and cool, + FeCl3 Na4[Fe(CN)6] + Na2SO4
+ conc. HCl Prussian 3Na4[Fe(CN)6] + 2Fe2(SO4)3
blue or green Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3 + 6 Na2SO4
Prussian blue
(Ferri Ferrocyanide)
Sulphur 2Na + S Na2S (i) S.E + Sodium nitroprusside Na2S + Na2[Fe(CN)5NO]

(S.E) Deep violet colour Na4 [Fe(CN)5NOS] deep violet
(ii) S.E + (CH3COO)2Pb Na2S + (CH3COO)2Pb

Black ppt. PbS + 2CH3COONa
(black ppt)
Halogens Na + Cl NaCl S.E + AgNO3 AgX (X=Cl, Br, I)

(S.E) (i) White ppt soluble in NH3(liq)
Cl confirms
(ii) Pale yellow ppt partially soluble NaX + AgNO3 AgX
in NH3(liq) ppt
Br confirms
(iii) Yellow ppt, insoluble in NH3(liq)
I confirms
Nitrogen Na + C + N + S NaCNS As in test for nitrogen instead of 3NaCNS + FeCl3

and (S.E) green or blue colour, blood red Fe(CNS)3 + 3NaCl
Sulphur colouration confirms presence blood red (Ferric thiocyanate)
together of N and S both
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATION OF ELEMENTS IN ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Element Technique Formula
Carbon (Method) 12 × wt. of CO2 × 100

and Liebig’s Method C CO2 %C=
12g 44g 44 × weight of organic compound
Hydrogen
2 × wt. of H2O × 100
2H H2O %H=
2g 18g 18 × wt. of organic compound
Nitrogen (i) Duma's method (i) 2N N2(g)

(ii) Kjeldahl method 28 × V × 100
22.4 L at S.T.P. % N =
22.4 × wt. of organic compound
where V is the volume of N2 gas in L
at S.T.P.
(ii) N NH3 H2SO4

1.4 N1V1
%N=
wt. of organic compound
where, N1V1 is the meq. of H2SO4 used
Sulphur Carius method S H2SO4 BaSO4 32 × wt. of BaSO4

%S= × 100
32g 233g 233 × wt. of org. comp.
Halogens Carius method Cl AgCl 35.5 × wt. of AgCl × 100

% Cl =
35.5g 143.5g 143.5 × wt. of organic comp.
Br AgBr 80 × wt. of AgBr × 100

% Br =
80g 188g 188 × wt. of organic comp.
I AgI 127 wt. of AgI

%I= × × 100
127g 235g 235 wt. of organic comp.
Oxygen 100 – (sum of % of all elements)
62 wt. of Mg 2 P2 O7 formed
Phosphorus Carius method %P= × × 100
222 wt. of organic comp.
EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

(i) Empirical Formula of a compound is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of elements
constituting its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing empirical formula
is called empirical formula mass.
(ii) Molecular Formula of a compound shows the actual number of the atoms of the elements present in
its one molecule. The sum of atomic masses of the atoms representing molecule is called molecular
mass.
(iii) Relationship between Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula
Molecular formula = n × empirical formula where n is a simple whole number having values of 1, 2, 3...
etc.
Also, n = Molecular formula mass/Empirical formula mass.
Weigh Weigh Calculate moles Calculate C : H Calculate

sample CO2 and H2O of C and H mole ratio empirical formula

Chapter 12
Hydrocarbons and
Environmental Chemistry
HYDROCARBONS
ALKANES
Methods of Preparation :
I. Reactions where number of carbon atoms are increased
1. Wurtz Reaction
dry ether
2R X 2Na R R 2NaX
Here other metals in the finely divided state may also be used such as Cu, Ag etc.
(i) Methane cannot be prepared by this method.
(ii) Only symmetrical alkane with even number C-atoms can be prepared by this method in good
yield.
(iii) The reaction fails with 3°-alkyl halides.
(iv) Alkenes are produced as by products.
2. Corey-House Synthesis:
R-X 2Li RLi LiX
2RLi CuI R2LiCu + LiI
(i) R2LiCu also known as Gilman reagent.

(ii) This reaction proceeds via SN2 mechanism.
(a) R 2LiCu 2R X 2R R LiX CuX (R – X may be 1° or 2° only)
(b) R 2LiCu 2R X 2R R LiX CuX (R – X may be 1° or 2° only)
It can be used for preparing both symmetrical and unsymmetrical alkanes.

3. Kolbe’s Electrolytic Decarboxylation
electrolysis
2RCOONa (aq) R-R 2NaOH 2CO H
2 2
62 Hydrocarbons and Environmental Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Mechanism:
RCOONa RCOO– + Na+
2H2O 2H+ + 2OH–
Anodic Reaction
2RCOO– 2RCOO• + 2e–
2RCOO• R - R + 2CO2
Cathodic Reaction
2H+ + 2e– H2
(i) Methane cannot be prepared by this method
(ii) Unsymmetrical hydrocarbon (alkane) cannot be prepared
II. Reactions where number of carbon atoms are retained
1. Sabatier-Senderen’s Reduction
H H
Raney Raney | |
C=C + H2 Ni C–C ; –C C – + 2H2 Ni
—C—C—
200 - 300°C
| | 200 - 300°C | |
H H H H
2. Reduction of Alkyl Halides
HCl
(a) R X Zn R H HX
Zn – Cu and C2H5OH or Na and alcohol can also be used
(b) 4R–X + LiAlH4 4RH + LiX+AlX3

This is a nucleophilic substitution reaction with the nucleophile H– coming from LiAlH4.
(c) R – X + (n – C4 H9)3SnH R – H + (n –C4H9)3SnX. (This reaction follows free radical
mechanism)
3. Reduction of Alcohols, Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids with HI/Red P.
(a) ROH + 2HI

Red P
R H I2 H2 O
150 C
R
Red P
C = O + 4HI R–CH3 + H2O + 2I2
(b) 150°C
H
R1
2H 2H
Re d P
C = O + 4HI R1 – CH2 R2 H2O 2I2
150 C
R2
2H
O
2H
(c) R—C 6HI Re d P
R CH3 2H2O 3I2
H 150 C
OH
H
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Hydrocarbons and Environmental Chemistry 63
(d) Clemmensen’s Reduction
R R H
Zn Hg/HCl
C=O 4H C + H2O
R H
R
Zn Hg / HCl
R1 C R2 4H H2O R1 CH2 R2
||
O
When acid sensitive group is present in a compound, Clemmensen's reduction is not used.
(e) Wolff-Kishner’s Reduction:
R R R H
KOH Glycol
C = O + NH2 – NH2 C=N + H2O C + N2
453K 473K
R R NH2 R H
When base sensitive groups are present in the compound, Wolff-Kishner's reduction is not used.
4. (a) Using Grignard’s Reagent
ether
R - X + Mg RMgX
RMgX + H – OH R – H + MgX(OH)
+ H – NH2 R – H + MgX(NH2)
+ H – OR R – H + MgX(OR )
+
H–O–C–R R–H + MgX (O–C–R )
|| ||
O O
(b) Using Alkyl lithium compound
R NH2 + R–Li (R NH) Li + R – H.
III. Reaction where number of carbon atoms are decreased
Decarboxylation by sodalime
CaO
RCOONa + NaOH 630 k R – H + Na2CO3
R R
CaO
CH – CH2 – COOH + NaOH CH – CH3 + Na2CO3
630 K
R R
IV. Some other methods of preparation

(1) Methane from carbides
(a) Al4C3 + 12H2O 4Al(OH)3 + 3CH4
(b) Be2C + 4H2O 2Be(OH)2 + CH4
(2) Methane from carbon monoxide
Ni C
CO + 3H2 250 C
CH4 + H2O
This is also called Sabatier Senderen’s reduction
Physical Properties
Boiling Point (B.P.)
B.P. increases with the increase of molecular mass. Among the isomers, straight chain alkanes have higher
b.p. than branched chain alkanes.
Melting Point (M.P.)
The melting points do not show regular variation with increase in molecular size. The even number members
have higher m.p. as compared to next alkanes with odd number of carbon atoms (ALTERATION EFFECT).
Solubility
They are soluble in non-polar solvents. Hence, insoluble in polar solvents such as water.
Chemical Properties
Alkanes are generally inert towards acids, bases, oxidising and reducing agents but they give following reactions:
(1) Halogenation. Alkanes undergoes substitution reaction with halogen. Cl2 and Br2 only in presence of
ultra violet light or high temperature (573 – 773K).
Decreasing order of reactivity of halogens towards alkanes.
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
Fluorination and chlorination are less selective as these reagents are more reactive, while bromination
of alkane is more selective (less reactive).
Liquid phase For higher alkanes – Fuming HNO3, at 413 K

(2) Nitration : e.g., : C6H13 – H + HONO2 C6H13NO2 + H2O
Vapour phase For lower alkanes – conc. HNO3, at 670-750 K
e.g., : CH3 H HO NO2 CH3NO2 H2O
(3) Oxidation :
Cu
(a) 2CH4 O2 2CH3 OH
573 K /100 atm
(b) Mo2 O3
CH4 O2 HCHO H2O
O
Manganese acetate
(c) 2R – CH3 + 3O2 2R – C – OH + 2H2O
373-430 K
or
Ag2O
(4) Isomerization :
CH3
AlCl3 + HCl
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 200°C, 35 atm
CH3 – CH – CH3
AlCl3 + HCl
CH3(CH2)4 – CH3 CH3 – CH – CH2 – CH2 – CH3 + CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2 – CH3
CH3 CH3
2-methyl pentane 3-methyl pentane
(5) Aromatization :
Cr2O3
CH3 ( CH2)4 CH3 + 4H2
773K, 10-20 atm
Benzene
CH3
Cr2O3
n-heptane + 4H2
773K, 10-20 atm
Toluene
(6) Reaction with steam :
Ni
CH4 H2 O CO 3H2
Conformations of Alkanes
When different three dimensional arrangements are possible for a compound due to rotation along a single
bond, then these different arrangements are known as conformers and the phenomenon is known as
conformation. In fact C–C rotation is hindered by an energy barrier of 1 to 20 kJ mol–1. There are infinite
number of conformers possible. Out of infinite number of conformers, extremes can be discussed as
Conformers of ethane :
H H H H
H
H H
H H
H H H
H H
H H
H H H H H
H H H
Eclipsed Staggered Eclipsed Staggered
Sawhorse projection Newmann projection
(i) It may be noted that one extreme conformation of ethane can be converted into other extreme conformer
by rotation of 60° about C–C bond.
(ii) Skew conformers have energy in between staggered and eclipsed.
P.E. eclipsed
12.55 kJ/mol
Staggered
0 60º 120º 180º

dihedral angle
Staggered > Skew or Gauche > Eclipsed

Conformers of propane :
CH3 CH3
H
H H
H
H H
H H H H
Eclipsed Staggered
Conformers of Butane :
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3CH3

H CH3
H H H
60º 60º 60º
H H
H H H CH H H H H H H
CH3 3 H
(I) (II) (III) (IV)
Staggered Partially eclipsed Gauche Fully eclipsed
CH3 CH3
H
H CH3
60º 60º
CH3
H H H H H
H
(V) (VI)
Gauche Partially eclipsed
Stability order : I > III V > II VI > IV

Conformers of Ethlene glycol (HO – CH2 – CH2 – OH):
OH H
H H OH
OH
H OH H OH
H H HO H
H
H H H
(a) (b) (c)
[Gauche] [Eclipsed] [Anti]
(Intramolecular (Have also intramolecular hydrogen
hydrogen bonding) bonding but also have torsional strain)
Stability order : Gauche > Anti > Eclipsed
ALKENES
Preparations of Alkenes
From Alcohols: When alcohol is treated with conc. acids (H2SO4, H3PO4) at higher temperature alkene is obtained.
CH3 CH3
H
+H
H3C C O H2C = C + H2O
CH3 CH3
Acid catalyzed dehydration of alcohol is a reversible reaction. Alcohols can be converted to alkene in the
presence of conc. H+, while alkenes can be converted to alcohol in the presence of dilute H+.
The ease of dehydration of alcohols depends on the stability of carbocations formed. Hence, the order of
reactivity of alcohols is ter–> sec–> pri– because the incipient carbocation stability is
ter–> sec–> pri–
Note : Since the carbocation stability is the primary criteria, so, the initially formed carbocation
undergoes molecular rearrangement to give more stable carbocation.
Hydride shift
Example (Hydride shift)
H2SO4
CH3 – CH – CH – CH3 CH3 – C = CH2 – CH3 + CH 2 = C – CH 2 – CH 3
170°C
CH3 OH CH3 CH3
(Major) (Minor)
(i) Dehydration of alcohols follow Saytzeff’s rule.

Product (A) is the major product because it is more substituted alkene.
(ii) Dehydration by passing over alumina (Lewis Acid)
Al2O3
CH3 – CH2 – OH 350°C
CH2 = CH2 + H2 O
Al2O3
(CH3)3 C – OH CH3 – C = CH2
250°C
I. Dehydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
alc KOH
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – Br CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH2
(i) The base used may be strongly basic anions like OH–, RO–, C2H5O–.... (CH3)3CO– etc.)
(ii) Alkyl substrates with good leaving group (X–, etc) give good yield of elimination product.
(iii) One may also use sulphonates.
II. Dehalogenation reactions of vicinal dihalide :
Br
Zn/AcOH
or
C C C=C
NaI in Acetone
Br
III. Dehalogenation of Geminal dihalide :
Br
2R — CH + Zn R — CH = CH — R
Br
IV. By heating Quaternary ammonium hydroxide again Hofmann elimination occurs and less
substituted alkene is formed as the major product :
– H3C
–
(A) (B) OH (A)
HO
CH3 H2C = CH2 + N — CH2 — CH2 — CH3
Major
H H
H3C
H2C — CH2 — N — CH2 — CH — CH3
H3C
CH3
H2C = CH — CH3 + N — CH2 — CH3
Minor
H3C
V. By catalytic hydrogenation of alkyne :
H H
Pd/BaSO4 + H2
R—C C—R Quinoline
C=C
R R
cis alkene
Lindlar's catalyst = Pd supported on BaSO4 or CaCO3 and poisoned with quinoline.
P–2-Catalyst = Nickel boride (Ni2B) is known as P-2 catalyst.
VI. Under the presence of alkali metals in liquid ammonia, substituted alkynes are converted into
trans-alkene. It is important to remember that terminal alkynes do not give this reaction.
H R
Na/ liq.NH3
R—C C—R C=C
R H
trans-alkene
VII. Kolbe’s Electrolysis
CH2COONa electrolysis
| + 2H2O CH2 = CH2 + 2CO2 + 2NaOH + H2
CH2COONa
Sodium succinate
Mechanism follows free radical pathway.
VIII. Pyrolysis
CH3CH2CH2CH3 CH3–CH=CH2 + CH4

770 K
CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2CH3 CH3CH=CH2 + CH3CH2CH3 + .........

770 K
Physical Properties
Solubility
They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents.
Boiling point
The boiling point of cis–alkenes is usually higher than corresponding trans–alkenes (More polarity).
Melting point
The melting point of trans-alkenes is usually greater than cis-alkene. (trans form is more symmetrical).
Chemical Properties
Electrophilic addition reaction is the most important reaction of alkenes and alkynes. Beside electrophilic
addition reaction, it also gives Free radical addition, hydrogenation and oxidation reactions.
C=C +X—Y C–C
X Y
1. Addition of Hydrogen halide (HX)
R R R X
–
X
C = CH2 C — CH3 C — CH3
R H—X R R
Planar Racemic mixture
As the reaction proceeds through cabocationic intermediate it results into racemization.

HI (strong acid) is most reactive while HF is least reactive.
2. Acid catalysed hydration of alkenes :
H3C H3C
+
H /H2O
C = CH2 C — CH3
H3C H3C
OH
This reaction also involves carbocation reactive intermediate.

3. Halogenation of alkenes :
This reaction proceeds through cyclic halonium ion complex and hence it is a stereoselective reaction.
Note : Trans-symmetrical alkenes give meso-dibromo product
4. Addition of Hypohalous Acid (HOX) :
H2 O Br2 HOBr
In this reaction, X2 or X acts as an electrophile and H2O acts as nucleophile
Kharasch - Mayo Effect (Anti-Markownikoff’s rule)

If the above reaction is carried out in the presence of some peroxide then addition takes place contrary to
Markownikoff’s Rule.
HBr
CH3 – CH = CH2 CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – Br
Peroxide
Note : Only HBr adds to unsymmetrical double bond according to anti-Markownikoff's rule. Other
HX (HF, HCl and HI) do not give peroxide effect.
5. Oxy-Mercuration-Demercuration
O Hg(OAc)
R R R
1. Hg (O — C — CH3) 2 , Oxymercuration NaBH4
C = CH2 C — CH2 C — CH3
H2O Demercuration
R R R
OH OH
6. Addition of Oxygen:
Ag CH2 CH2
CH2 = CH2 + ½ O2
570 K
O
7. Ozonolysis:
O
CCl4 Zn/H2O
C=C + O3 C C 2 C=O
– H2O2
O O
8. Hydroboration Oxidation
0°C H2 O2
R CH CH2 B 2H6 ether
(R CH2 CH2 )3 B OH–
R CH2 CH2 OH H3BO3
Hydroboration oxidation reaction gives overall anti-Markownikoff's product. There is no rearrangement in

this reaction.
9. Oxidation Reactions
(a) Reaction with Baeyer’s Reagent (Cold dilute Alkaline KMnO4, syn-dihydroxylation.)
C=C + alk KMnO4 C–C

| |
OH OH
The addition is a syn addition to form vicinal dihydroxy compounds.
Note : Decolorization of Baeyer’s reagent is also used as a test for unsaturation.
(b) With hot KMnO4 or acidic KMnO4
[O]
CH2 CH2 2HCOOH 2CO 2 2H2 O
Hot KMnO 4
KMnO 4
CH3 CH CH2 CH3 COOH CO 2 H2 O
H
Hot CH3
(CH3 )2 C C(CH3 )2 2 C=O
KMnO4 CH3
10. Substitution Reaction
CH3–CH = CH2 + Cl2 500 600 C Cl–CH2–CH=CH2 + HCl–
This type of reaction takes place at a carbon atom attached to double bond carbon. This is called allylic
substitution.
11. Wohl Ziegler Reaction
CH3 – CH = CH2 + Br2 Low conc. of Br2 CH2 = CH–CH2–Br
The low concentration of Br2 is obtained from NBS

12. Addition of Carbenes
H
CH3 – CH = CH2 + C h CH 3 – CH – C H2
2
CH2
13. Isomerization :
700 - 970 atm
CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – CH = CH2 or Al (SO ) ; 470 K CH3 – CH2 – CH = CH – CH3
2 4 3
14. Polymerization :
Pressure
CH2 = CH2 ( CH2 – CH2)n
O2
CF2 = CF2 ( F2C – CF2)n

O2
ALKYNES
Preparation of Alkynes
1. From Dehydrohalogenation of vicinal or geminal dihalides
Br Br
(i) NaNH2 (2equ.)
(a) CH3 — C — CH3 CH3 — C C—H
(ii) H+
Br
(i) NaNH2 (2equ.)
(b) R — C — CH3 R—C C—H
(ii) H
Br
2. Dehalogenation Reaction
X X
| |
Zn dust
(a) –C–C– –C C– + 2ZnX2
| |
X X
X
Zn dust
(b) 2R – C X R–C C – R + 3ZnX2
X
3. Kolbe’s Electrolytic Decarboxylation
R COOK
C Electrolysis
|| + 2H2O R–C C – R + 2KOH + 2CO2 + H2
C
R COOK
cis or trans
4. Formation of Higher alkyne
NaNH2
(i) CH CH CH C Na
CH C Na + CH3Cl CH C – CH3 + NaCl
(ii) R–C CH + NaNH2 RC CNa + NH 3
R–C C Na + R X R–C C–R + NaX

Chemical Properties
Alkynes undergo electrophilic addition generally but in the presence of salt of heavy metals which forms
complexes with multiple bonds they undergo nucleophilic addition reaction.
1. Addition Reaction
Electrophilic addition reaction :
(i) Addition of halogen
H3 C Br Br Br
Br2/CCl4 Br2/CCl4
CH3 – C CH C=C CH3 – C – C – H
Br H Br Br
Trans-1, 2-dibromopropene 1, 1, 2, 2-tetra bromo
propane
(ii) Addition of halogen acids

HCl HCl
HC CH CH3COOH
CH2 = CHCl CH3COOH
CH3CHCl2
Vinyl chloride Ethylidene chloride
(iii) Addition of H2O or hydration of alkyne or Kucherov reaction
+ 2+
OH O
H , Hg tautomerise
R–C C – H + H2O R – C = CH2 R – C – CH3
Ketone
2. Reaction of Acidic H Atom
(i) Alkynes having acidic H atom react with metals like Na, K to evolve H2 gas.
CH C – Na
+ Na + 1/2 H2
CH (1 mol) C–H
Monosodium
acetylide
CNa C – Na
+ Na + 1/2 H2
C–H C – Na
Disodium acetylide
NaNH2
HC C H NaNH2 HC CNa NH3 NaC CNa NH3
(ii) Reaction with Tollens reagent : When terminal alkyne reacts with Tollen's reagent (Ammoniacal
AgNO3 solution) white precipitate of silver acetylide is obtained,
C–H +
C – Ag
+ 2 [Ag(NH3)2] + 2NH4Cl + 2H2O
C–H C – Ag
(White precipitate)
These acetylides are not decomposed by H2O like acetylide of Na but by mineral acids like dil HNO3.
C – Ag CH
+ 2HNO3 2AgNO3 +
C – Ag CH
(iii) Reaction with Ammonical Cuprous Chloride :
HC CCu
+ Cu2Cl2 + 2NH4OH + 2NH4Cl + 2H2O
HC CCu
(red ppt)
dicopper acetylide
These reactions are used to distinguish terminal alkynes from other alkynes.
3. Polymerization Reaction
(i) When acetylene is passed through red hot Cu tube, benzene is obtained.
CH 773K
3 C6H6
CH
CH3
red hot Cu or Fe tube
Similarly, CH3 – C CH
H3C CH3 (Major)
(Mesitylene)
Cl
CH CuCl/NH4Cl HCl
(ii) 2 or CH2 = CH – C CH CH2 = CH – C = CH2
CH Cu2Cl2/NH4Cl Vinyl acetylene Chloroprene
Chloroprene on polymerization gives polymer called neoprene; used as artificial rubber.
AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS
Huckel's rule of Aromaticity : Cyclic, conjugated, planar and having (4n + 2) electrons.
where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... (Any positive integer including zero)
Few Examples of Aromatic Species :
, , , ,
–
Aromatic ions are more stable than corresponding acyclic non-aromatic ions.
Antiaromatic Compounds :
Antiaromatic compounds are cyclic, conjugated, planar and contain 4n electrons (where n is a positive
integer) Anti-aromatic compounds are less stable than acyclic counter part.
Examples :
–
, ,
It is important to note that cyclooctatetraene is a nonaromatic compound because it is non-planar.
Incorrect Tub shaped

structure (correct structure)
Nonaromatic
Stability order : Aromatic Non-aromatic Anti-aromatic

Preparation of Benzene :
Red hot
1. 3HC CH Cu Tube
2. When phenol is treated with Zn dust, benzene is obtained :
OH
Zn-dust
3. From the decarboxylation of benzoic acid :

O
C
OH (NaOH + CaO)
+ Na2CO3
4. Deamination of aniline through benzene diazonium chloride will give benzene.
NH2 N NCl H
NaNO 2 /HCl H3PO2
5. Through Grignard reagent.
Br H
–
Mg H3O Br
MgBr + Mg
Ether OH
1. Electrophilic Aromatic substitution reactions in Benzene : (EAS)

Benzene and its homologues readily undergo EAS. As a consequence of complete delocalization of
electrons in benzene, it has electron cloud above and below -plane allowing it to interact with
electrophiles and give electrophilic substitution reaction. It resists addition because it wants to maintain
its aromatic character.
General Mechanism :
H
+ E
E –H
Slow E Fast
-complex
(Resonance stabilized)
(i) Halogenation
Cl
FeCl3
+ Cl2 dark + HCl
Benzene
Reaction with I2 is reversible.
I
HIO3
+ I2 + HI
Hence, it is carried out in the presence of conc. nitric acid or HIO3 to oxidise the Hydrogen Iodide
formed.
(ii) Nitration
NO2 NO2
H2SO4 conc. H2SO 4 conc.
+ HNO3 330K
H2O HNO3 363 373K
NO2
Nitro benzene meta-dinitrobenzene

(iii) Sulphonation : Sulphonation of benzene is a reversible reaction
SO3H SO3H
+ H2SO4 + SO3 Heat H2O or + ClSO3H Heat HCl
Chloro Sulphuric Acid Benzene sulphonic acid
(iv) Friedel Crafts Reaction

Alkylation : Reactive intermediate is carbocation which can undergo rearrangement.
CH 3
+ CH3Cl Anhydrous AlCl3 + HCl
H3C CH3
CH
+ CH3CH2CH2Cl Anhydrous AlCl 3

 O 
 
Acylation : Reactive intermediate is acylium ion  R–C+ which cannot undergo rearrangement.
COCH3
+ CH3 – COCl Anhydrous AlCl3 + HCl
Acetyl chloride Acetophenone
.. .. ..
Ortho and para substitution : Electron releasing groups like - R (alkyl) – O .. H, – O
.. R, – NHR,
..
– NHCOR are activating groups i.e., they increase electron density at ortho and para position,
therefore, are ortho and para directing towards electrophilic substitution reactions.
Meta substitution : Electron withdrawing groups such as – NO2, – CHO, – COOH, – COCH3, – CN,
– SO3H, – COOR are called deactivating groups. They decrease electron density at ortho and para-
position, therefore, electrophilic substitution takes place at meta-position.
2. Halogenation of side chain :
CH3 CH2Cl CHCl2

Sun light h Cl2
+ Cl2 + Cl2 h
Toluene Benzyl chloride Benzal chloride
or Methyl Benzene or chlorophenyl methane or dichlorophenyl methane
CCl3
+ HCl
Benzotrichloride
or trichlorophenyl methane
3. Oxidation :
O O
H C–OH H C
V2O 5 Heat
+ 5O2 P2O5 O + H2O
770 K
Benzene H C–OH H C
O O
Maleic acid Maleic anhydride
2-Butene-1,4-dioic acid
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS
Any substance which causes pollution in the environment is known as environmental pollutant. It can be
atmospheric, water and soil pollution.
WATER POLLUTION
The quality of drinking water is very important for human welfare. The pollution of water by sewage has been
linked with the spreading of diseases such as cholera and typhoid fever.
In addition, water is also contaminated by industrial wastes, like :
(i) Heavy Metals : Such as Cd, Pb and Hg may be present.
(ii) Detergent and Fertilizers : They may contain PO 4–3 as additives which encourages the growth of algae
that reduces the dissolved oxygen concentration of water. This process is known as Eutrophication.
(iii) Acid Polluted Water (pH < 3) : This is deadly to most forms of aquatic life.
(iv) Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) : PCBs are resistant to oxidation and their release into the environment
causes skin disorders in humans. They are reported to be carcinogenic.
Determination of quality of waste water : It is done through BOD and COD.

Biological Oxygen demand (BOD) - It is the amount of oxygen required for biological oxidation by microbes
in any unit volume of water. This test is done for at least 5 days. BOD values generally approximates the
amount of oxidisable organic matter.
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) : BOD measurement takes few days, so another parameter called COD
measurement is required. In COD measurement sample of fixed volume is treated with oxidising agent
(usually K2Cr2O7 in acidic medium). The reagent oxidises most of the polluting substances including those
which are resistant to microbial oxidation.
AIR POLLUTION
Air is very essential for life, particularly oxygen which is needed for breathing. But at the same time air is
polluted due to various human activities. Man made, pollutants such as gases like CO, NO, NO2 , SO2 ,
H2SO4, hydrocarbons and aerosols etc are being constantly released in the atmosphere leading to air pollution.
Atmospheric Pollution
Tropospheric pollution : Troposphere extends upto height of 10 km from sea level. It contains 80% of total
mass of air and water vapour. Pollution is also caused by SO2, SO3, NO2 etc.
Stratospheric pollution : Extends (10–50) km above sea level. It contains N2, O2 and ozone.
Table : Sources of Air Pollution
Sl. No. Class Aerosols Gases and Vapours
1. Combustion processes Dust, fumes, smoke SO2, NO2, CO, Organic vapours
2. Chemical processes Dust, fume, mist Process dependent
(cement and fertilizers) (CO2, SO2, CO, NH3, NO2
organic vapours)
3. Petroleum operations Dust, mist SO2, H2S, NH3, CO,

hydrocarbons mercaptans
4. Metallurgical processes Dust, fumes SO2, CO, fluorides, organic vapours
(Al-refineries, steel plant)
5. Mineral processing Dust, fumes Process dependent
6. Food and feed operation Dust, mist Odorous materials
7. Agricultural activities Dust, mist, Organic phosphates, chlorinated
crop spraying, field burning smoke, fly ash hydro sulphur oxide, organic vapours
8. Nuclear energy programme Dust Fluorides, I-131, Ar-41
(i) Fuel fabrication radioactive gases
(ii) Ore preparation ( Sr-90, Cs-137, C-14 etc. )
(iii) Bomb explosion
Smog
It is a combination of smoke and fog. This is the best known example of air pollution. Smog is of two types:
(1) Classical smog : Occurs in cool humid climate and is chemically reducing smog and has high
concentration of SO2.
(2) Photochemical smog : Occurs in warm, dry and sunny climate. It is an oxidising smog. Major component
of photochemical smog is NO.
Acid Rain
Rain water normally has pH of 5.6 due to the formation of H+ ions from the reaction of rain water with CO2
present in atmosphere.
H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2H+(aq) + CO3–2 (aq) .
When pH of rain water drops below 5.6 it becomes acidic. Acid rain caused by the presence of oxides of
sulphur and nitrogen in the atmosphere. Oxides of sulphur are released into the environment largely because
of fossil fuel combustion, ore smelting etc. Nitrogen oxides emitted into the atmosphere mainly from automobile
exhausts and fossil fuel combustion. SO2 and NO2 after oxidation and reaction with water are major contributors
to acid rain.
2SO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2H2SO4(aq)
4NO2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HNO3(aq).
Acid rain is toxic to vegetation and aquatic life. It damages building and statues and dissolves heavy metals
from soils, rocks etc. The heavy metals such as Cu, Pb, Hg, Al etc leached from soil enters well water and
produce a variety of toxic effects.
SOIL POLLUTION
It is caused by pesticides and other chemicals which are added to the soil to grow better crops. Solid wastes
are another cause of land pollution.
Pesticides are used to kill unwanted organisms. Synthetic pesticides are of great concern for us. Pesticides
affect human being through eating, drinking and so on.
Insecticides : Control of insects by insecticides help to curb disease for example (malaria and yellow fever)
and protects crops. e.g., organochlorine like DDT.
Bhopal gas tragedy occurred on 2nd Dec. 1984 in Bhopal (Union Carbide Ltd.).
Methyl iso-cyanate (MIC) was used to manufacture the insecticide called Carbyl or Sevin (commercial name).
There were three tanks in the plant that stored MIC. Due to increase of pressure in one of the tanks valve
was released, hence MIC escaped into atmosphere. This MIC was
(a) Hydrolysed due to presence of water in surrounding ponds.
CH3 — N = C = O + H2O CH3NH2 + CO2 + Heat
MIC
(b) Impurities of metals present in water caused polymerisation reaction
O
CH3 CH3
N N
3 CH3–NCO Catalyst + Heat
O N O
CH3
Both reactions are exothermic in nature. So escaping tendency of MIC increased and caused immense loss
of life and injury to people and livestock.

Chapter 13
Organic Compounds
Containing Halogen
ALKYL HALIDES
General Methods of Preparation

1. From Alcohols
(a) By the action of halogen acids
Anhyd.ZnCl2
C 2H5 OH HCl(g) C 2H5 Cl H2O
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl chloride
(Ethanol) (Chloroethane)
The order of rate of reaction is 3° alcohol > 2° alcohol > 1° alcohol.

(b) By the action of phosphorus halides
(i) ROH PCl5 RCl HCl POCl3
Alcohol Alkyl Phosphoryl
chloride chloride or
Phosphorus
oxychloride
(ii) 3ROH PBr3 3RBr H3PO 3

Alcohol Alkyl Phosphorus
chloride acid
(c) By the action of thionyl chloride (SOCl2)- Alkyl chlorides can be prepared by heating alcohol (1° or 2°)
and thionyl chloride in the presence of pyridine (base). (Darzen's Reaction)
Pyridine
ROH SOCl 2 RCl SO 2 HCl
Alcohol Thionyl Alkyl Gaseous by
(1 or 2 ) chloride chloride product
2. From Alkenes
H2 C CH2 HX CH3 CH2 X

Ethylene Ethyl halide
3. From Alkanes
CH 4 Cl2 Light or
CH Cl 3 HCl
Methane 250–400 C Methyl chloride
(Chloromethane)
C2H6 Br2 Light or

C H Br
2 5 HBr
Ethane 250 400 C Ethyl bromide
(Bromoethane)
The mechanism is a free radical mechanism. The reactivity of halogen depends upon the nature of halogen
used to abstract hydrogen hence F2 > Cl2 > Br2 >I2
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Organic Compounds Containing Halogen 81
4. From silver salts of fatty acids (Borodine - Hunsdiecker Reaction)
CCl 4
C 6H5 COOAg Br2 C 6H5Br AgBr CO 2
Silver benzoate Reflux Phenyl
bromide
5. By halogen exchange
(a) C 2H5Br NaI

CH3OH or Acetone
C 2H5I NaBr
Ethyl bromide Ethyl iodide
The reaction is possible because sodium iodide is soluble in methanol and acetone whereas sodium
chloride and sodium bromide are insoluble
(b) Reaction of Grignard's reagent with I2.
RMgX I 2 R I MgXI
(where, X Cl or Br)
6. From Alkyl hydrogen sulphate

Alkyl iodides can be prepared by treating alkyl hydrogen sulphates with an aqueous solution of potassium
iodide.
C 2H5HSO 4 KI C 2H5I KHSO 4

Ethyl hydrogen Ethyl iodide
sulphate
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Lower members such as CH3Cl, CH3Br, CH3F, C2H5Cl etc are colourless gases at room temperature. Other
alkyl halides upto C18 are colourless sweet smelling liquids and higher members are solids.
2. B.P. of haloalkanes decrease in order RI > RBr > RCl (for same size of alkyl group)
3. B.P. of haloalkanes with same halogen atom increase with increasing size of alkyl groups.
4. For isomeric haloalkanes, b.p. decrease with increasing branching i.e. 1° > 2° > 3°
Example : n-butyl chloride > isobutyl chloride > tert butyl chloride
5. Chloroalkanes are lighter than water whereas bromides and iodides are heavier. Their densities decrease
in order of RI > RBr > RCl
6. Dipole moments of halomethanes decreases in order of CH3 Cl CH3F CH3Br CH3I

1.86 D 1.847 D 1.83 D 1.636 D
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Halogen derivatives of alkanes are highly reactive as the halogen atoms are easily replaced. These derivatives
especially the alkyl halides are widely used in the synthesis of many organic compounds.
The Chemical reactions of alkyl halides may be classified into three types :
(A) Nucleophilic substitution reactions.
(B) Elimination reactions.
(C) Miscellaneous reactions.
82 Organic Compounds Containing Halogen Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Nucleophilic substitution reactions

I. SN2 (Nucleophilic Substitution, Bimolecular) mechanism.
II. SN1 (Nucleophilic Substitution, Unimolecular) mechanism.
Kinetics of nucleophilic substitution SN2

For the given Nucleophilic substitution reactions :
CH3Br KOH(aq) CH3 OH KBr

Methyl bromide Methyl alcohol
rate was found to be, rate = k [CH3Br][KOH]
Overall order of the reaction is two and it is one with respect to CH3Br and one with respect to OH .
Note : (i) This reaction takes place in one step without involving any reactive intermediate.
(ii) INVERSION of CONFIGURATION takes place if leaving group X– and Nu are of same
priority.
(iii) Rate of reaction of alkyl halides towards SN2 reaction is governed by steric hindrance in alkyl
halide.
SN1 Reaction
This reaction involves more than one steps.
This SN1 reaction is independent of nature and concentration of nucleophiles.
Alkyl halides which give more stable carbocations are more reactive towards SN1 reactions.
SN1 reactions involve racemization with partial inversion.
Factors affecting the rate of SN1 and SN2 reactions :

1. Structure of substrates
(A) For SN1 reaction
Alkyl halides which give more stable carbocation are more reactive towards SN1 reaction
(CH3)3 C — Br > (CH3)2 CH — Br > CH3 CH2 Br > CH3 Br
Decreasing order of reactivity

CH2—Br Br
> > > CH3 — Br > H2C = CH2 — Br
Br
Decreasing order of reactivity

(B) For SN2 reaction
Lesser the steric hindrance, greater the reactivity of alkyl halide towards SN2 reactions.
CH3 Br > CH3 — CH2 — Br > CH3 — CH — Br > (CH3)3 C — CH2 — Br > (CH3)3 C — Br
CH3
Decreasing reactivity towards SN2 reaction
2. Strength and concentration of nucleophile :
for SN1 : As nucleophile does not participate in rate determining step, therefore there is no effect of concen-
tration and strength of nucleophile on rate of reaction.
for SN2 : Increasing the concentration of nucleophile increases the rate for SN2, a better nucleophile will yield
better products.
3. Solvent Effect : Polar protic solvent favours SN1 whereas polar aprotic solvent favours SN2 mechanism.
4. Nature of leaving group : Good leaving group always increases rate of nucleophilic substitution reactions
for the same reason the order of reactivity for SN reactions of halides follow the given trend :
RI > RBr > RCl > RF
Miscellaneous reactions
1. Reaction with magnesium (formation of Grignard's reagent).
Dry ether
R – X + Mg RMgX
For a given alkyl group, the ease of formation of Grignard’s reagent is of the order :
iodide > bromide > chloride
2. Reduction (formation of alkanes)
Alkyl halides are reduced to alkanes by any of the following reducing agents :
(a) H2 in the presence of Ni, Pt or Pd (catalytic hydrogenation).
(b) Lithium-aluminium hydride (LiAlH4).
(c) Nascent hydrogen obtained from Zn-Cu couple and alcohol or Zn and HCl or Sn and HCl or Na and
alcohol.
Friedel Craft’s reaction
Formation of Alkyl benzene
Anhydrous AlCl3
C 6H 6 CH3 CH2 Cl C 6H5 CH2CH3 HCl
Ethyl benzene
Vinylic halides and aryl halides do not give a silver halide precipitate, when treated with alc. AgNO3 because
vinylic and phenyl cations are very unstable and therefore, do not form readily.
ARYL HALIDES
General methods of Preparation
1. From arenes by direct halogenation
FeCl3 , 298K
(i) C6H6 Cl2 C6H5 Cl HCl
Benzene Chlorobenzene
FeBr3 ,
C6H6 Br2 C6H5Br HBr
Benzene Bromobenzene
If excess of halogen is used, dihaloderivatives are formed.

Chlorination of toluene in the presence of iron (using equimolar quantities) gives a mixture of o- and
p- chlorotoluenes.
CH3 CH 3 CH3
Cl
Fe
+ Cl2 +
Cl
(ii) Preparation of aryl iodides

Aryl iodides cannot be prepared by direct iodination because the reaction is reversible and hydriodic acid
formed being a strong reducing agent reduces C6H5I to C6H6.
C6H6 + I2 C6H5I + HI
To overcome this difficulty, iodination is carried out in the presence of oxidizing agent such as nitric acid,
mercuric oxide (HgO) or iodic acid, which oxidizes hydriodic acid to iodine and thus the reaction proceeds
in the forward direction.
(iii) Aryl fluorides cannot be prepared by this method because fluorine is highly reactive and the reaction is
very violent and uncontrollable.
2. Direct Halogenation
When calculated amount of chlorine is passed through boiling toluene in presence of sunlight or ultra-violet
light and in the absence of halogen carrier, benzyl chloride is formed.
CH3 CH2Cl
Sunlight
+ Cl2 Boil
+ HCl
Toluene Benzyl chloride
3. With NBS
When toluene is treated with NBS (N-bromosuccinimide) in the presence of peroxides, benzyl bromide is formed.
CH2CO CH2CO
C 6H5 – CH3 + NBr Peroxides C 6H5 – CH2Br + NH
Toluene CH2CO Benzyl bromide CH2CO
NBS Succinamide
4. From Diazonium salts
(a) Sandmeyer’s reaction
(i) Preparation of chlorobenzene
+
N2 Cl Cl
CuCl / HCl + N2
Benzenediazonium Chlorobenzene
chloride
(ii) Preparation of bromobenzene

–
C6H5 N2 Cl CuBr /HBr
C H Br
6 5 HCl N2
Benzenediazonium Bromobenzene
chloride
(b) Preparation of iodobenzene
–
C6H5 N2 Cl KI CHI6 5 HCl N2
Benzenediazonium Iodobenzene
chloride
(c) Preparation of fluorobenzene (Balzschiemann reaction).

+ +
N2 Cl N2 BF4
HBF4
CHF
6 5 N2 BF3
HCl Fluorobenzene
Benzenediazonium Benzenediazonium
chloride fluroborate
5. By Hunsdiecker Reaction :
COOAg Br
Distillation
+ Br2 + AgBr + CO2
CCl4, 350 K
Physical Properties
(i) They are colourless stable liquids.
(ii) Insoluble in water but soluble in inorganic solvent.
(iii) Boiling and melting points : Their boiling and melting point is higher than alkyl halides. Boiling point increases
with increasing size of halogen.
F Cl Br I
< < <
Boiling points of isomeric dihalo benzenes are very nearly the same but the melting point of para isomers is
higher than ortho and meta isomer.
Chemical Properties
Haloarene gives SN reaction rarely only under drastic conditions because of partial double bond character between
C–X bond. i.e., at high temp. & pressure and in presence of certain catalyst.
(i) Replacement by hydroxyl group (Formation of phenols) (Dow’s process)
Cl ONa OH
623 K HCl
+ NaOH + NaCl
aqueous 300 atm
Chlorobenzene Sod. Phenoxide Phenol
(ii) Replacement by amino group (Formation of aryl amines)
Cl NH2
473 K
2 + 3NH3 + Cu2O 60 atm
2 + Cu2Cl2 + H2O
Chlorobenzene Aniline
C6H5 Cl
KNH
Liquid NH3
C6H5NH2 KBr
2
Bromobenzene 240 K Aniline
(iii) Replacement by cyanide group (Formation of aryl cyanides)
Pyridine
2C 6H5Br Cu 2 (CN)2 2C 6H5 CN 2CuBr
Bromobenzene 470 K Cyanobenzene
(Benzonitrile)
(iv) Replacement by methoxy group
473
C 6H5 Cl CH3 ONa C 6H5 OCH3 NaCl
Sod. methoxide Cu salts Anisole
Activation of halogen atoms

(a) Presence of electron-withdrawing groups e.g., – NO2, –CN, –SO3H, –CHO, –COOH, etc. especially at
the o- or p- position but not at m-position w.r.t. the halogen increases the ease of replacement of
halogen by nucleophile.
(b) While electron donating groups like –NH2, –OH, –OR etc. at o- or p- position with respect to halogen
atom donates electron due to resonance and thus reduce positive charge on the C-atom of C–Cl bond
and thus decreases the reactivity of aryl halides.
(v) Reactions due to benzene nucleus (electrophilic substitutions)
Aryl halides undergo electrophilic substitution reactions to give o- and p-substituted derivatives.
(a) Halogenation
Cl Cl Cl
Cl
FeCl3
+ Cl2 HCl
+
Cl
o- p-
Dichloro benzene
(b) Nitration
Cl Cl Cl
NO2
H2SO 4 ,∆
+ HNO3 +
H2O
NO2
o- p-
Nitrochlorobenzene
(c) Friedel - Craft alkylation reaction
Cl Cl
Cl
CH3
AlCl3
+ CH3Cl +
HCl
CH3
o- p-
Chloro toluene or Tolyl chloride
(d) Friedel Craft acylation reaction
O
Cl Cl
Cl
C – CH3
AlCl3
+ CH3 COCl +
HCl
Acetyl chloride
COCH3
o- p-
Chloro acetophenone
Some Important Halogen Compounds
DDT : On heating with chloral in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid, chlorobenzene forms
(p, p' - dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane (commonly known as DDT-a powerful insecticide.)
But it is not biodegradable because it contains halogen atoms attached to the benzene rings.
Cl H H Cl Cl H Cl
Cl – C – C = O + Conc. H2SO4
Cl – C – C
H2O
Cl H Cl Cl Cl
Chloral Chlorobenzene DDT
(2 molecules)
2, 2-bis-(p-chlorophenyl)
1, 1, 1-trichloroethane

Chapter 14
Organic Compounds
Containing Oxygen
ALCOHOLS
Molecules containing –OH group are termed as alcohols. Classification of alcohols they are classified
as primary, secondary or tertiary alcohol according to the carbon that is bonded with –OH.
Again when any molecule contain 1, 2 or 3 –OH groups then it is called mono, di or tri hydric alcohols
OH OH OH OH OH
respectively. (as in case of alkyl halides) CH3 – CH2OH CH2 – CH2 CH2 – CH – CH2
Ethyl alcohol Ethylene glycol Glycerol
(monohydric) (dihydric) (trihydric)
GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION

1. From Alkenes :
(i) By Acid catalyzed hydrolysis :
OH
H2SO4
CH3 – CH = CH2 + H2O CH3 – CH – CH3
(ii) Oxymercuration followed by demercuration :
OH OH
Hg (OAc)2 NaBH4
CH3 – CH = CH2 + H2O THF
CH2 – CH – CH2 OH–
CH3 – CH – CH3
Hg(OAc)
Overall result of above reaction is Markownikoff addition of water without rearrangement

(iii) Hydroboration followed by oxidation :
OH
B2H6 H2O2/OH
6CH3 – CH = CH2 2(CH3 – CH2 – CH2 –)3B 6CH 3 – CH2 – CH2 + 2H3BO3
Overall result of above reaction is anti Markownikoff addition of water with no rearrangement.
(iv) Oxo process followed by hydrogenation :
O
[Co(CO)4]2
CH3 – CH = CH2 + CO + H2 high temperature CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – C – H
and high pressure H2/Pd
CH3 – CH2 – CH2 – CH2 – OH

Product has one more carbon.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen 89
2. From Alkyl Halides :
When alkyl halides are treated with aq. KOH or aq. NaOH or moist Ag2O, alcohols are formed.
R X OH R OH X –
3. Reduction of Carbonyl Compounds, Carboxylic Acids and their Derivatives :
O
LiAlH4 or NaBH4
R–C–H R – CH2OH
O OH
LiAlH4 or NaBH4
R–C–R
O
(i) LiAlH4
R – C – OR (ii) H3O
+ R – CH2OH + R – OH
O
(i) LiAlH4
R–C–X (ii) H3O
+ R – CH2OH
O O
(i) LiAlH4
R–C–O–C–R (ii) H3O+ 2R – CH2OH
Table : Reducing nature of different reagents
Group Product LiAlH4/H2O NaBH4/C2H5OH B2H6/THF H2/Pt
O
– CH2 – OH Yes Yes Yes Yes
–C–H
C=O CH – OH Yes Yes Yes Yes
– COOH – CH2OH Yes No Yes Yes
O
– C – Cl – CH2OH Yes Yes No Yes
O
(R – C – O)2O R – CH2OH Yes No Yes Yes
O
– CH2OH + Yes No Yes Yes
– C – OR R – OH
C=C CH – CH No No Yes Yes
(LiAIH4 reduces)
C = C only
when it is
conjugated with
Phenylic system
Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley Reduction (MPV Reduction) :

Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols with aluminium isopropoxide in 2-propanol solution.
OH
R [(CH3)2CHO]3Al R
C = O + CH3 – CH – CH3 CH – OH + (CH3)2C = O
R
90 Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
4. Using Grignard Reagent :

(i) From aldehydes or ketones :
O OMgX OH
H2O/H+ OH
– C – + R – MgX –C–R – C – R + Mg
X
In this reaction
Formaldehyde gives 1°-alcohol
Other aldehydes give 2°-alcohol
Ketones give 3°-alcohol
(ii) From carboxylic acid and their derivatives :
O O
Z
R – C – Z + R – MgX R – C – R + Mg
X
O OMgX OH
H3O+
R – C – R + R – MgX R–C–R R–C–R
R R
(iii) From epoxides :
O OMgX OH
H2O/H+ OH
CH3 – CH — CH2 + R – MgX CH3 – CH – CH2 CH3 – CH – CH2 + Mg
X
R R
5. Hydrolysis of Ether :
Ethers undergo acid hydrolysis with dilute H2SO4 under pressure to give corresponding alcohols.
dil. H2SO 4
R O R H2 O R OH R OH
Physical Properties
(i) Physical state : At ordinary temperature, lower members are colourless liquids with burning taste and
pleasant smell.
(ii) Boiling Point : The boiling point of alcohols rise regularly with the rise in the molecular weight. Amongst
isomeric alcohols, the boiling point decrease in the order.
1° > 2° > 3°
Alcohols have high boiling point then hydrocarbons and haloalkanes of similar molecular mass due to
intermolecular hydrogen bonding.
(iii) Solubility : The extent of solubility of any alcohol in water depends upon the capability of its molecules
to form hydrogen bonds with water molecule.
(iv) Alcohols are lighter than water, however, the density increases with the increase in molecular mass.
Chemical Properties
1. Reactions involving cleavage of O – H Bond
Alcohols are acidic in nature but they are less acidic than water hence they do not give H+ in aqueous
solution. They do not change the colour of litmus paper.
Their acidic strength increases by increasing–I strength of the groups attached and decreases by increasing
+I strength of the groups.
(i) Alcohols do not react with aqueous alkali, as they do not give H+ in aqueous solution.
(ii) Action of active metal : When alcohols are treated with active metal they form alkoxides with the
liberation of H2 gas.
2ROH 2Na 2R O N a H2
(iii) Esterification : When carboxylic acid is treated with alcohols in the presence of acid as catalyst,
esters are formed.
Alcohol reactivity order 1° > 2° > 3°.
O O
H+
R – C – OH + H – O – R R – C – OR + HOH
Its acid catalysed revsersible reaction.
Note : (a) OH is removed from carboxylic acid and H is removed from alcohol.
(b) Overall reaction is SN2 in which alcohol acts as nucleophile.
(iv) Reaction with Grignard Reagent : When Grignard reagents are treated with alcohol (or any proton
donor) they form alkanes.
R – MgX + H – OR R – H + R – OMgX
Other proton donors can be carboxylic acids, phenols, alkynes, H2O, Amines, NH3 etc.
2. Reactions Involving Cleavage of C– O Bond
(i) Reaction with HX : Most alcohols undergo SN1.
Anhyd. ZnCl2
(a) R OH HCl(g) R Cl H2 O
Note : HCl + anhyd. ZnCl2 is called Lucas reagent. Lucas test is used to distinguish primary,
secondary and tertiary alcohols.
H / H2SO 4
(b) R OH HBr conc .
R Br H2O
H / H2SO 4
(c) R OH HI conc .
R I H2 O
Reactivity order of HX is
HI > HBr > HCl
(ii) Alkyl chlorides can also be prepared by following methods :
R – OH + PCl5 R – Cl + POCl3 + HCl
3R – OH + PCl3 3R – Cl + H3PO3
R – OH + SOCl2 R – Cl + SO2 + HCl (Darzen's process)
Darzen’s process is the best method as the other by-products are gases.
3. Reduction :
Alcohols are reduced to alkanes when they are treated with red P + HI.
HI red P
R OH R H ZnO
4. Oxidation :
O O
[O] [O] [O]
CH 3OH H–C–H H – C – OH CO2
3°-alcohols can’t be oxidised.

(i) Strong oxidising agent like KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7 cause maximum oxidation as above.
(ii) PCC (Pyridinium chlorochromate) is used to convert primary and secondary alcohol into corresponding
carbonyl compound.
(iii) 2°-alcohol can be converted to ketone best by PCC + CH2Cl2 or CrO3 or H2CrO4 in aq. acetone
(Jones reagent).
(iv) MnO2 selectively oxidises the –OH group of allylic and benzylic 1° and 2° alcohols to aldehydes and
ketones respectively.
5. Action of Heated Copper :
O
Cu
(i) CH3 – CH2 – OH CH3 – C – H + H2 (Dehydrogenation)
573K
OH O
Cu
(ii) CH3 – CH – CH 3 573K CH 3 – C – CH 3 + H 2 (Dehydrogenation)
(iii) Tertiary alcohols undergo dehydration to give alkene under similar condition.
CH3 CH2
Cu
CH3 – C – OH 573 K
CH3 – C + H2O
CH3 CH3
Distinction Between 1°, 2° and 3° Alcohols

Lucas Test :
Any alcohol is treated with Lucas reagent (HCl + anhyd. ZnCl2) at room temperature if
(i) Solution becomes cloudy immediately, alcohol is 3°.
(ii) Solution becomes cloudy after 5-min, alcohol is 2°.
(iii) In solution cloud does not form at room temperature, alcohol is 1°.
PHENOLS
OH
and their derivatives are called phenols. In phenol R– of alcohol is replaced by aryl ring.
Comparison of bond Angles in Phenols, Alcohols and Ethers :

.. 109° ..
H O H H O
..
..
.. H
H–C H O
.. H–C C
108.5° 111.7° H
H H H
Bond angle increases with the increase in hindrance.
Method of Preparation
1. From Aryl Sulphonic Acids (Industrial Method):
When aryl sulphonic acids are fused with NaOH at 570 – 620 K followed by hydrolysis phenols are formed.
SO3H SO3Na ONa OH

+
H /H2O
+ NaOH
2. From Haloarenes : (Dow's process)

+
Cl ONa OH
623 K H+
+ NaOH (aq.) 320 atm
Note : Condition of reaction become less vigorous when –M groups are present at ortho or para or
both position to the chlorine atom.
3. From Benzene Diazonium Salts (Lab Method) :
+
NH2 N2 Cl OH
NaNO2 + HCl H2O
+ N2 + H–Cl
0 – 5°C H2SO4
Note : In the absence of H2SO4 diazocoupling will also take place.

+
N2 Cl– OH OH
+ + HCl
N=N
4. Cumene Process :
CH3 CH3
CH3 C H CH3 C–O–O–H OH
H O
+
H3PO4 light H /H2O
+CH3 – C = CH2 O2 + CH3—C—CH3
Propene
Benzene Cumene Cumene hydroperoxide
5. Grignard's Synthesis :
1 H2O / H
OH
C6H5MgBr + O2 C6H5OMgBr C6H5OH + Mg
2
Br
6. From Salicylic Acid :
OH OH OH
COOH COONa NaOH(CaO)/
+ NaOH –Na2CO3
Chemical Properties
NaOH & Na2CO3

C6H5ONa
CH3COOH & CH3COCl
CH3COOC6H5
(CH3CO)2O
C6H5COOH / H +
C6H5COOC6H5
Zn /
C6H6
CH2N2
C6H5OCH3
NH3 / ZnCl2
C6H5NH2
NaOH CH3I
C6H5OCH3
PCl5
C6H6 + POCl3 + HCl
NaOH / C2H5I
C6H5OC2H5
C6H5SO2Cl
C6H5SO2OC6H5
(Hinsberg reagent)
OH
Br2, water
2, 4, 6 tribromophenol
dil. HNO3
or o & p nitrophenol
(ArOH)
HNO3 / H2SO4
2, 4, 6 trinitrophenol (minor) + [Major is oxidative cleavage]
HNO2 / H2SO4
p-nitroso phenol
COCH3
(1) CH3COCl
OH + Para product
(2) D
SO3H
H2SO4
HO3S OH
–
(i) OH (ii) CH2O CH2O
HO CO2OH excess Bakelite
–
COOH
(i) OH HCl
OH
(ii) CO2
+
HCN / HCl H
OH CHO
AlCl3
CHCl3 / KOH
Salicylaldehyde
Pthalic anhydride
Phenophthaline
H2SO4 /
OH OH
CH3COCl AlCl3 COCH3
+
COCH3
CHCl3 / NaOH / D H2O
Salicylaldehyde
–
(i) OH (ii) C6H5N2Cl
N N OH
Ni / 3H2
OH
ETHERS
Ethers are those organic compounds which contain two alkyl groups attached to an oxygen atom, i.e.,
R–O–R. They are regarded as dialkyl derivatives of water or anhydrides of alcohols.
–2H
H–O–H R–O–R H2O
R – OH HO – R
Water 2R Ether Alcohol ( 2 moles )
Ethers may be of two types : (i) Symmetrical or simple ethers are those in which both the alkyl groups
are identical and (ii) unsymmetrical or mixed ethers are those in which the two alkyl groups are different.
CH3–O–CH3; C6H5–O–C6H5 CH3–O–C2H5; CH3–O–C6H5
Symmetrical (simple) ethers Unsymmetrical (mixed)ethers
Like water, ether has two unshared pair of electrons on oxygen atom, yet its angle is greater than normal
tetrahedral (109°28´) and different from that in water (105°). This is because of the fact that in ethers the
repulsion between lone pairs of electrons is overcome by the repulsion between the bulky alkyl groups.
Preparation of Ethers :
1. By dehydrating excess of alcohols : Simple ethers can be prepared by heating an excess of primary
alcohols with conc. H2SO4 at 413K. Alcohol should be taken in excess so as to avoid its dehydration to
alkenes.
Conc . H2SO 4
C 2H5 – OH HO – C 2H5 C 2H5 – O – C 2H5 H2 O
Ethanol ( 2 molecules ) 413 K Diethyl ether
Dehydration may also be done by passing alcohol vapours over heated catalyst like alumina under high
pressure and temperature of 200 – 250°C.
2. By heating alkyl halide with dry silver oxide (only for simple ethers) :
C 2H5I Ag2O IC 2H5 C 2H5 OC 2H5 2AgI

Dry
Remember that reaction of alkyl halides with moist silver oxide (Ag2O + 2H2O = 2AgOH) give alcohols
C2H5I + Ag2O (moist) C2H5OH + AgI
3. By heating alkyl halide with sod. or pot. alkoxides (Williamson synthesis):
C2H5ONa + ICH3 C2H5OCH3 + NaI
ONa + BrCH3 OCH3 + NaBr
Sod. phenoxide Methoxybenzene

(Anisole)
CH3 CH3
| |
+
However CH3–Cl + NaO–C–CH3 CH3–O–C–CH3 + NaCl
| |
CH3 CH3
If alkyl halide is other than methyl halide and it is treated with tertiary alkoxide ion, Hofmann elimination
takes place instead of Williamson's ether synthesis.
Cl CH3
| |
+
CH3–CH2–CH–CH3 + NaO–C–CH3 CH3–CH2–CH=CH2 + HCl
|
CH3 (Major)
Limitations :
1. In this reaction alkoxide ion may be 1°, 2°, 3°.
2. Alkyl halide must be 1°.
3. In the case of 3° alkyl halide elimination occurs to produce alkene as major product.
4. In the case of 2° alkyl halide both elimination and substitution products are obtained.
Chemical Properties :
A. Properties due to carbon-oxygen bond :
1. Hydrolysis :
H2SO 4
C 2H5 – O – C 2H5 H2 O 2C 2H5 OH
Ethyl alcohol
The hydrolysis may also be effected by boiling the ether with water or by treating it with steam.
Note : Ethers can never be hydrolysed in alkaline medium.
2. Action of conc. sulphuric acid :

C 2H5 – O – C 2H5 H2SO 4 (conc.) C 2H5 OH C 2H5HSO 4
Ethyl alcohol Ethyl hydrogen sulphate
C 2H5 OH H2SO 4 (conc.) C 2H5HSO 4 H2 O

3. Action of hydroiodic or hydrobromic acid :
In cold, ether react with HI or HBr to give the corresponding alkyl halide and alcohol. In case of mixed
ethers, the halogen atom attaches itself to the smaller alkyl group.
C 2H5 – O – C 2H5 HI C 2H5I C 2H5 OH

Ethyl ether Ethyl iodide Ethyl alcohol
The order of reactivity of halogen acids is :

HI > HBr > HCl
If one of the group around oxygen is aryl group then I– will always attack on the group other than aryl
group.
O–CH3 OH
+ HI + CH3I
CH3
| CH3
O–C–CH3 |
OH
| + HI + I–C–CH3
CH3 |
CH3
B. Properties Due to Benzene Nucleus :
Alkoxy group, being o-, p- directing, anisole undergoes substitution in o- and p- positions. However,
–OR group is less activating than the phenolic group.
(i) Nitration :
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3
NO2
conc. HNO3
+
conc. H2SO4
Methylphenyl ether Methyl 2-nitrophenyl NO2

(Anisole) ether or o-Nitroanisole Methyl 4-nitrophenyl
ether or p-Nitroanisole
(ii) Bromination :
OCH3 OCH3
Br Br
Br2/Fe
Anisole
Br
2, 4, 6, Tribromoanisole
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3
CS2 Br
+ Br2 +
Anisole 2-Bromoanisole
Br
4-Bromoanisole
(iii) Sulphonation :
OCH3 OCH3 OCH3

SO3H
H2SO4
SO3
Anisole
SO3H o-Methoxybenzene
sulphonic acid
p-Methoxybenzene
sulphonic acid
GENERAL METHODS OF PREPARATION OF ALDEHYDES AND KETONES

1. From Alcohols :
(i) By Oxidation : Primary alcohols gives aldehydes, while secondary alcohols give ketones.
CrO3 acetone
CH3 .CH2 OH CH3 .CHO H2O
Ethyl alcohol Acetaldehyde
(Primary Alcohol)
CH2OH CHO
MnO2
[O],
Benzyl alcohol Benzaldehyde
Controlled oxidation of 1°- alcohol and 2° - alcohol with PCC + CH2Cl2 or CrO3 forms aldehyde and
ketone respectively.
Ketones in good yield can be prepared by Oppenauer oxidation of secondary alcohols.
R CH3 R CH3
[(CH3)3CO]3Al
CHOH + C=O (Aluminium C=O + CHOH
R´ CH3 t-butoxide) R´ CH3
Sec. alcohol Acetone Ketone Isopropanol
(ii) By catalytic dehydrogenation of alcohols : 1° Alcohols yield aldehyde in this method.
Cu
CH3 OH HCHO H2
573 K
Methanol Formaldehyde
Secondary alcohols, on similar treatment, give ketones.
CH3 Cu
CH3
CHOH C = O + H2
573 K
CH3 CH3
Isopropanol Acetone
2. From Alkynes :
dil. H2SO 4
CH CH H2 O [CH2 CHOH] CH3 CHO
Acetylene HgSO 4 Vinyl alcohol Acetaldehy de
(Unstable )
OH O
H2SO4 Tautomerisation
CH3C CH + H2O CH3.C CH2 CH3 C CH3
HgSO4
Unstable Acetone
3. From Grignard Reagents :
CH3 CH3
H2O
CH3 – C N + CH3 MgI CH3 – C = NMgI CH3 – C = O + NH2MgI
Acetone
4. Methods giving only Aldehydes :

(a) From Acid Chlorides (Rosenmund Reduction) :
O
H2/Pd + BaSO4, S
R C Cl R CHO + HCl
Boiling xylene
Acid chloride
O
Pd/BaSO4,S
CH3 C Cl CH3 CHO + HCl
Boiling xylene Acetaldehyde
Acetyl chloride
(b) From nitriles (Stephen's reduction) :

–
1. SnCl2 + HCl H2O/OH
CH3.C N –
CH3.CH = NH CH3CHO + NH3
2. OH
Methyl cyanide Aldimine
5. Methods for Aromatic Aldehydes and Ketones :

(a) Aromatic Aldehydes :
CH3 CH(OCOCH3)2 CHO

CrO3 hydrolysis
+ CH3COONa + H2O
(CH3CO)2O
(b) Aromatic Ketones : (Friedel-Craft's acylation)
anhy.
(i) C 6H6 CH3 COCl C 6H5 COCH3 HCl
Benzene AlCl3 Acetophenone
Here instead of acid chloride we can use anhydrides also
anhy.
(ii) C 6H 6 C 6H 5COCl C 6H5 COC 6H 5 HCl
AlCl3 Benzophenone
Trend of Boiling Point

O
||
CH3–CH3–OH > CH3CH2CHO > CH3CCH3 > CH3–O–CH2–CH3 > CH3–CH2–CH2–CH3
Chemical Properties
Both aldehydes and ketones contain a carbonyl group in the structure and hence show marked similarity in
their chemical behaviour.
(a) Nucleophilic addition reactions
Reactivity of carbonyl compounds towards nucleophilic addition reaction is governed by ELECTRONIC
FACTOR and STERIC FACTOR. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones.
O
HCHO > CH3CHO > CHO > CH 3 — C — CH 3
Decreasing reactivity
(1) Addition of hydrogen cyanide : Aldheydes and ketones react with hydrogen cyanide to form cyanohydrins.
CH3 CH3 OH
C = O + HCN C
H H CN
Acetaldehyde Acetaldehyde cyanohydrin
CH3 CH3 OH
C = O + HCN C
CH3 CH3 CN
Acetone Acetone cyanohydrin
C6H5 C6H5 OH
C = O + HCN C
CH3 CH3 CN
Acetophenone Acetophenone cyanohydrine
Benzophenone does not react with hydrogen cyanide because of steric hindrance. On the other hand,
aromatic aldehydes (e.g., C6H5CHO) when refluxed with alcoholic potassium cyanide solution undergo
dimerization to form benzoin.
OH O
–
CN
2C6H5CHO C6H5 – CH – C – C6H5
ethanol
Benzaldehyde Benzoin
Above reaction is known as benzoin condensation.
(2) Addition of sodium bisulphite : Aldehydes and methyl ketones react with a saturated aqueous
solution of bisulphite to form crystalline sodium bisulphite derivatives.
CH3 CH3 OH
C = O + NaHSO3 C
H H SO3Na
Acetaldehyde Sod. bisulphite Acetaldehyde sod. bisulphite
C6H5 C6H5 OH
C = O + NaHSO3 C
H H SO3Na
Benzaldehyde Benzaldehyde sod. bisulphite
Aromatic ketones and aliphatic ketones having higher alkyl groups do not react with sodium bisulphite.
This is due to the fact that the large SO23 ion cannot attack the carbonyl carbon atom when it is
surrounded by larger substituents (steric hindrance).
Thus C2H5COC2H5, C6H5COCH3, C6H5COC6H5 do not react with sodium bisulphite. Methyl ketones give
this reaction.
(3) Addition of Grignard reagents :
H H CH3 H CH3
H2O
C = O + CH3MgI C C
H H OMgI H OH
Formaldehyde Ethyl alcohol (primary alcohol)
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3

H2O
C = O + CH3MgI C C
H H OMgI H OH
Acetaldehyde Isopropyl alcohol (Sec. alcohol)
CH3
H3C H3C CH 3 H2O
|
C = O + CH3MgI C CH3 C OH
H3C H3C OMgI |
Acetone CH3
ter. butyl alcohol (ter. alcohol )
(4) Addition of alcohols (Acetal formation) : Aldehydes (not Ketones) react with alcohols in presence
of dry HCl gas to form hemi-acetals (hemi means half) which being unstable immediately react with
another molecule of alcohol to form stable acetals. For example,
CH3 dry HCl gas CH3 OC2H5 CH3 OC2H5
C2H5OH
C=O + C2H5OH C C
H H OH dry HCl H OC2H5
(–H2O)
Acetaldehyde hemiacetal Acetaldehyde acetal
(1-Ethoxyethanol) (1, 1-diethoxyethane,
Gem diether)
3
R R O — CH2
HO — CH2 2
C = O + C
—
—
1 (cyclic compound)
R HO— CH2 R O — CH2
Ethanol Ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol acetal
(5) Reduction by metal hydrides such as lithium aluminium hydride
CH3 CH3 H
LiAlH4
C=O C or CH3CH2OH
H H OH
Acetaldehyde Ethyl alcohol

Similar product are also formed by NaBH4 , H2 — Pt, H2 — Ni or metal-acid.
However, aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to the corresponding alkanes by means of red
phosphorus and hydroiodic acid, or amalgamated zinc and concentrated hydrochloric acid
(Clemmensen reduction) or reacting hydrazine solution followed by treatment with alkaline solution
of ethylene glycol (Wolff-Kishner reduction). The basic reaction in all these reductions is the
reduction of carbonyl group to methylene group.
(1) Replacement of Carbonyl Oxygen :
(i) Reaction with Ammonia Derivatives : Aldehydes and ketones react with a number of ammonia
derivatives like NH2OH, NH2NH2, C6H5NHNH2 etc. in weakly acidic medium.
Such reactions take place in slightly acidic medium and involve nucleophilic addition of the
ammonia derivative followed by dehydration.
H H
+ –H2O
C = O + :N Z —C—N—Z –C=NZ
H –O H
Ammonia der. Addition product

Ammonia derivatives Final products
H2N — OH Hydroxylamine C = NOH Oximes
H2N — NH2 Hydrazine C = NNH2 Hydrazones
H2N — NHC6H5 Phenylhydrazine C = NNHC6H5 Phenylhydrazones

H2N — NHCONH2 Semicarbazide C = NNHCONH2 Semicarbazones
NH2—NH— —NO2 2, 4 DNP C=N–NH NO2 2, 4 Dinitrophenyl hydrazones

(also known as ( These are yellow or orange or red solids)
Brady's reagent) NO 2
NO2
(ii) Reaction with thioalcohols (mercaptans) : Aldehydes and ketones react with thioalcohols and
form thioacetals (mercaptals) and thioketals (mercaptals) respectively.
(2) Reactions involving -hydrogen of carbonyl groups :
Aldol condensation :
H
| –H2O
dil alkali
CH3–C + HCH2–CHO CH3–CH–CH2CHO CH3–CH=CH—CHO
|| | Heating
O OH Aldol condensation product
-hydroxybutyraldehyde -unsaturated aldehyde
(Aldol)
Addition product
Perkin reaction : Condensation of an aromatic aldehyde with acid anhydride in presence of base
(sodium salt of the acid from which the anhydride is derived) to form , -unsaturated acid is known
as Perkin reaction. For example,
CH3COONa
C6H5 CHO (CH3 CO)2 O C6H5 CH CHCOOH CH3 COOH
Benzaldehyde Acetic anhydride Cinnamic acid
(a) Oxidation reactions :

Aldehydes are oxidised not only by strong oxidising agents like KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 but also by much
milder oxidising agents like bromine water, Tollen’s reagent, Fehling’s solution and Benedict’s solution.
Tollen’s reagent : Tollen's reagent is Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution
–
R.CHO 2[Ag(NH3 )2 ]OH RCO ONH4 2Ag H2 O 3NH3
(Tollen's reagent) Silver mirror
Fehling solution : [Alkaline solution of copper sulphate containing sodium potassium tartarate
(Rochelle salt)]
R–CHO + 2Cu2+ + 5OH– R–COO– + Cu2O + 3H2O

(Reddish brown)
Benedict Solution : Its a solution of CuSO4, sodium citrate and sodium carbonate. When heated
with aldehyde it gives a reddish brown ppt. of Cu2O.
Note : Benzaldehyde although reduces Tollen’s reagent, it does not reduce Fehling and
Benedict solutions
Ketones are not oxidised by mild oxidising agents.

Oxidation in drastic condition
‘a’ cleavage
HCOOH + HOOC – CH2CH3
a O b Methanoic Propanoic
K2Cr2O7 acid acid
CH3 — C — CH2CH3
conc. H2SO4
2-Butanone

‘b’ cleavage
CH3COOH + HOOCCH3  Major
Ethanoic acid (2 moles) 
Oxidation of mixed ketones is governed by Popoff’s rule according to which the carbonyl group of
the ketone goes with the smaller alkyl group. Thus in the above case 'b' type of cleavage will decide
major products.
(b) Reaction with Ammonia :
OH
CH3CH = O + HNH2 CH3CH –H2O
CH3—CH = NH
NH2 Acetaldimine
6HCHO 4NH3 (CH2 )6 N4 6H2 O
Hexamethylene
tetramine
(Urotropine )
(c) Cannizzaro reaction : This reaction is preferentially given by those aldehydes which do not contain -
hydrogen. In Cannizzaro reaction, one molecule of the aldehyde is oxidised to acid at the expense of the
other which is reduced to alcohol i.e., disproportionation reaction takes place. The reaction occurs in the
presence of concentrated solution of any base.
2 HCHO NaOH HCOONa CH3 OH

Formaldehy de Sod. formate Methyl alcohol
(d) Reaction given only by Ketones :

(1) Reduction in Neutral or Alkaline medium :
To form Pinacol which undergoes Pinacol - Pinacolone rearrangement in acidic medium
CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3 |
Mg — Hg/H2O H
C=O+O=C C—C H3 C C C CH3
CH3 CH3 CH3 | | CH3 | ||
OH OH CH3 O
Pinacolone
Ketones can be reduced to secondary alcohols with aluminum isopropoxide in 2-propanol solution
[Me2CHO]3 Al
R 2C O R 2 CHOH (Meerwein Ponndorf's verley reduction)
Me2CHOH
[Me2CHO]3 Al
R 2C O R 2 CHOH
Me2CHOH
(2) Condensation with chloroform :
CH3 CH3 OH
NaOH
C = O + CHCl3 C
CH3 CH3 CCl3
1, 1, 1-Trichloro-2-methylpropanol-2
(Chloretone) used as hypnotic drug
Haloform reaction : Methyl ketones or alcohols which can be oxidized to methyl ketone gives this
test.
O
e.g., R heat
C CH3 + 3Br2 + 4NaOH RCOONa + CHBr3 + 3H2O + 3NaBr
Bromoform
(reddish brown ppt.)
(e) Special Reactions of Aromatic Aldehydes and Ketones :

(i) Reaction with Ammonia :
C6H5CH=O H2NH C6H5CH=N

+ O=CHC6H5 CHC6H5
C6H5CH=O H2NH C6H5CH=N
Hydrobenzamide
(ii) Reaction with amines :
C6H5 CH O H2NC6H5 C6H5 CH NC6H5 H2 O

Benzylidene aniline.
(Benzal aniline )
(iii) Reaction of benzene nucleus
CHO CHO
conc. HNO3
conc. H2SO4
NO2
Benzaldehyde m-Nitrobenzaldehyde
CHO CHO
conc. H2S2O7
SO3H
Benzaldehyde 3-Benzaldehyde
sulphonic acid
COCH3 COCH3 COCH3

conc. HNO3 Br2
conc. H2SO4 AlCl3
NO2 Br
3-Nitroacetophenone Acetophenone 3-Bromoacetophenone
CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Preparation :
1. By the oxidation of primary alcohols and aldehydes
[O] [O]
RCH2OH RCHO RCOOH
Primary alcohol Aldehyde Carboxylic acid
CH2OH CHO COOH

[O] [O]
Benzyl alcohol Benzaldehyde Benzoic acid
RCOCH2R RCOOH R COOH

Mixture of two carboxylic acids
2. By the hydrolysis of cyanides (nitriles)
–
(+H2O) H2O/OH
R–C N RCONH2 RCOO + NH3
+
H
+ R–COOH
H2O/H
R–COOH + NH4 +
3. By the hydrolysis of esters
heat
CH3 COOC 2H5 KOH(aq.) CH3 COOK C 2H5 OH
Ethyl acetate Potassium acetate
CH3COOK(aq.) + HCl(aq.) CH3 COOH (aq.) + KCl(aq.)

Acetic acid
4. By the hydrolysis of trihalogen derivatives of alkanes
Cl OH O
3KOH(aq.)
H – C – Cl (–3 KCl)
H – C – OH –H2O
H–C
Cl OH OH
Chloroform Formic acid
Unstable
5. By heating malonic acid and their derivative acids.
COOH
CH2
heat CH3COOH + CO2
COOH
Malonic acid
6. By the reaction of Grignard reagent with CO2
O
Dry OH
CH3—C—OMgBr H2O
CH3MgBr + CO2 CH3COOH + Mg
ether
Methyl mag.
bromide Br
O
OH
H2O
C 6H5MgBr CO 2 C 6H 5 – C – OMgBr C 6H5 COOH + Mg
Phenyl magnesium
bromide
Benzoic acid
Br
Product in above reactions have one more carbon than that in Grignard reagent taken.
7. By oxidation of alkyl benzenes
R COOH
KMnO4 /OH–
K 2Cr2O7 or conc. HNO3
Benzoic acid
Physical properties
1. The first three members (C1 to C3) are colourless, pungent smelling liquids, the next three (C4 to C6) have
unpleasant odours. Acids with 7 or more carbon atoms have no distinct smell because of low volatility.
Two molecules of carboxylic acids are held together not by one but by two strong hydrogen bonds.
O -- H – O
C6H5 or R – C C – R or C6H5
O -- H – O
Dimers of carboxylic acids
The behaviour of formic acid is exceptional. It exists as a dimer in vapour state and a polymer in liquid
and solid states.
2. In normal carboxylic acids, the even members have markedly higher melting points than the odd members
preceding or following it.
Effect of Substituents on Acidity :
e.g., the acidic strength of the corresponding halogen acids also follows the same order i.e.
FCH2COOH ClCH2COOH BrCH2COOH ICH2COOH

Fluoroacetic acid Chloroacetic acid Bromoaceti c acid Iodoacetic acid
Ortho effect : Among derivative of aromatic carboxylic acid, ortho derivative is the most acidic. This
effect is known as ortho effect.
COOH COOH COOH COOH
OH
e.g., > > >
OH
(–I)
OH (–I < + R)
COOH COOH COOH COOH
CH3
> > >
CH3
(+I) CH3 (+I, + H)
Chemical Properties
Na Metal 1
R – CH2 – COONa + H
(1) 2 2
NaOH
R – CH2 – COONa + H2O
(2)
NaHCO3
R – CH2 – COONa + CO2 + H2O
(3)
CH3MgBr
R – CH2 – COOMgBr + CH4
(4)
NaOH (CaO)
R – CH3 – Na2CO3
(5)
SOCl2
R – CH2 – COOH RCH2COCl + SO2
(6)
PCl5
R – CH2 – COCl
(7)
Na3,
R – CH2 – C – NH2
(8)
O
P2O5,
R – CH2 – C – O – C – CH2 – R
(9)
O O
R OH/H2SO4
R – CH2 – C – OR
(10)
O
(i) P + X2, (ii) H2O
R – CH – COOH
(11)
X
(i) SOCl2 (ii) CH2N2

R – CH2 – CH2 – COOH
(iii) Ag2O (iv) H2O
(12)
Derivatives of carboxylic acids : These are formed by the replacement of –OH group of acid by some other
suitable group e.g. RCOCl, RCONH2, RCOOR and (RCO)2O.
Order of Reactivity Towards Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction :
Carboxylic acid derivatives reacts with a nucleophile through addition/elimination mechanism via tetrahedral
intermediate over all substitution product is obtained.
Properties :
H2O
CH3COOH + HCl Fumes in air
C2H5OH
CH3COOC2H5 + HCl
CH3COCl NH3 CH3CONH2 + NH4Cl

H2, Pd–BaSO4 CH CHO + HCl
3
(CH3)2 Cd CH3COCH3 + CdCl2
AlCl3, Benzene C6H5COCH3 + HCl
Acid Anhydrides : (RCO)2O, prepared by dehydration of carboxylic acid.
H2O
2CH3COOH
C2H5OH
CH3COOC2H5 + CH3COOH
NH3 CH3CONH2 + CH3COOH
(CH3CO)2O
C2H5NH2 CH3CONHC2H5 + CH3COOH
Benzene, AlCl3 C6H5COCH3+ CH3COOH
Esters : RCOOR prepared by reaction of acid with alcohol or acid chloride or anhydrides with alcohol.
H2O/H+
CH3COOH + C2H5OH
NaOH (aq)
CH3COONa + C2H5OH
NH3 CH3CONH2+ C2H5OH
CH3COOC2H5
CH3OH; HCl (aq) CH3COOCH3 + C2H5OH
LiAlH4 CH3CH2OH
OH
(1) 2C2H5 MgBr
CH3—C—C2H5
(2) H2O / H+
C2H5
Acid amides : RCONH2 – It is prepared by reaction of carboxylic acid or its derivatives with NH3. It is
amphoteric in nature.
Acid amides act as weak acids as well as weak bases. Lone pair of N is delocalised with electrons of C = O group.
O O
H H
C—N C N
R H R H
HCl
CH3CONH2.HCl
Na
CH3CONH Na
H2SO4, H2O
CH3COOH + (NH4)2SO4
NaOH
CH3CONH2 CH3COONa +NH3
P2O5,
CH3CN + H2O
(NaNO2 + HCl)
CH3COOH + N2 + H2O
Br2 + KOH
CH3NH2 + K2CO3 + KBr + H2O (Hofmann bromamide reaction)

Chapter 15
Organic Compounds
Containing Nitrogen
CHEMICAL REACTIONS OF ANILINE

HCl + –
[C6H5NH3]Cl
H2SO4 + 2–
[C6 H5NH3 ]2SO4
HAuCl4 + –
[C6H5NH3]AuCl4
H2PtCl6 + 2–
[C6H5NH3]PtCl6
CH3I CH3I +
C6H5NH(CH3) –HI
C6H5N(CH3)3I
–HI
CH3COCl
C6H5NHCOCH3
C6H5COCl
C6H5NHCOC6H5
C2H5MgBr
C2H6
C6H5SO2Cl
C6H5 SO2 NH C6H5
COCl2
C6H5 NH C NH C6H5
O
CS2
C6H5 NH C NH C6H5
NH2
S
CS2/HCl
C6H5 N C S
Aniline
C6H5NH2 Na
C6H5NHNa
C6H5CHO
C6H5CH N C6H5
NaNO2/HCl
O–5º
C6H5N2Cl
Ni/H2
C6H11NH2
Na2Cr2O7
Aniline black
H2SO4
Na2Cr2O7
O O
H2SO4
NH2 NH2
Br2/CS2 Br
+
Br
NH2
Br2/H2O Br Br
Br
HNO2/H2SO4
m-Nitro Aniline
(i) CH3COCl
+ o & p-Nitro Aniline
(ii) HNO3/H2SO4 (iii) H3O
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen 109
DIAZONIUM SALT
1. Preparation of benzene diazonium chloride
NH2 N N
–
NaNO2 + HCl Cl
0° – 5°C
Benzene diazonium chloride

(useful reactive intermediate
in aromatic chemistry)
2. Properties of Benzene Diazonium Chloride (B.D.C.)

A. Substitution Reaction :
Benzene diazonium chloride is used for prepration of several organic compounds.
C2H5OH
+ N2+ HCl + CH3CHO
H3PO2 + H2O
+
+ N2 + HCl + H3PO3
Cu
Cl
HCl/CuCl
+ N2 + HCl
Cu
Br
HBr/CuBr
+ N2 + HCl
Cu
N2Cl CN
NaCN
+ N2 + NaCl
+ CuCN
OR OH
+
N NCl
H2O
H2SO4
I
KI
+ N2 + KCl
HBF4
+ N2 + BF3 + HCl
C6H6
biphenyl
NaOH
B. Coupling Reaction :
Coupling of benzene diazonium chloride with phenol takes place in slightly basic medium while that of
aniline take place in slightly acidic medium. These compounds produce Azo dyes with benzene diazonium
chloride.
110 Organic Compounds Containing Nitrogen Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
OH
N=N OH
(pH 8)
p-Hydroxy azobenzene
(orange dye)
N(CH3)2
N2Cl N=N N(CH3)2

(pH 5)
p-dimethylaminoazobenzene
OH
N=N
OH
Phenylazo- -naphthol
(Red dye)
Formation of Methyl Orange
NaNO2/HCl –
HO3S NH2 HO3S N NCl
0°C
p-sulfanilic acid
Me
N
Me
Me
HO3S N=N N
Me
Methyl orange

Chapter 16
Polymers, Biomolecules,
Chemistry in Everyday Life
POLYMERS
SYNTHETIC POLYMERS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Addition Polymers
Polymer Monomer Application

Polyethylene Ethene CH2 = CH 2 Packing material carry bags, insulation for
electrical wires and cables... etc.
Polypropylene Propene CH 3 – CH = CH 2 Packing of textiles and foods, linears for bags,

heat shrinkage wraps, carpet fibres... etc.
Polystyrene or Styrene C6 H5 – CH = CH2 Plastic toys, house hold wares radio and
Styron television bodies
Neoprene Chloroprene CH2 = C – CH = CH2 shoe heels, stoppers, printing rollers

Cl
Buna-S Styrene CH = CH2, Butadiene Manufacture of tyres, rubber sole, water proof
CH2=CH–CH=CH2 shoes
Polyacrylates Methyl methacrylate Lenses, light covers, light shades, air craft
windows... etc.
CH3
Polyethyl CH2 = C – COOCH3 Latex paints adhesives
acrylate CH2 = CH – COOC2H5
Polyacrylonitrile Acrylonitrile CH 2 = CH – CN For making clothes, carpets, blankets... etc.

(PAN)(orlon)
Polyvinyl Vinyl chloride CH 2 = CH – Cl Good electrical insulator, hose pipes, rain

chloride (PVC) coats, hand bags... etc.
Polytetrafluoro Tetrafluoro ethylene CF2 = CF2 For nonstick utensils coating etc.
ethylene (PTFE)
(Teflon)
112 Polymers, Biomolecules, Chemistry in Everyday Life Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Condensation Polymers
Terylene (i) Ethylene glycol– For wash and wear fabric tyre cords, seat
or dacron HO – CH2 – CH2 – OH belts and sails
(ii) Terephthalic acid –
HOOC COOH
Glyptal or (i) Ethylene glycol – Paints and Lacquers

Alkyd resin HO – CH2 – CH2 – OH
COOH
(ii) Phthalic acid –
COOH
Nylon 6, 6 Adipic acid – Textile fabrics

HOOC –(CH2)4–COOH
Hexamethylenediamine –
H2N –(CH2)6 – NH2
Nylon 6, 10 H2N(CH2)6NH2 Textile fabrics, carpets, bristles for brushes

Hexamethylene diamine
Sebacic acid –
HOOC – (CH2)8 COOH
H
O
N
Nylon 6 Caprolactam – Mountaineering ropes, tyre cords fabrics
OH
Bakelite Phenol Formaldehyde, HCHO As binding glue for wood varnishes, lacquers
Melamine Melamine and Formaldehyde Non-breakable

Formaldehyde NH2
resin N N
and HCHO
NH2 N NH2
Urea (i) Urea NH2 — C — NH2 Buttons, bottle caps, surgical items
formaldehyde
resin (ii) Formaldehyde HCHO
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Polymers, Biomolecules, Chemistry in Everyday Life 113
Biodegradable Polymer
Name Monomer Uses
OH
Poly- -hydroxy (a) CH3 – CH – CH2COOH As packaging
butyrate-Co- 3- hydroxybutanoic acid orthopaedic devices
hydroxy valerate and in controlled
[PHBV]. drug release.
OH
(b) CH3 – CH2 – CH – CH2COOH
3-hydroxypentanoic acid
BIOMOLECULES
Carbohydrates
1. Carbohydrates are mainly compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
2. General molecular formula initially considered was Cx(H2O)y
e.g., glucose – C6H12O6, sucrose C12H22O11 etc.
But many of the compounds which behave as carbohydrates, do not follow the general molecular formula
Cx(H2O)y formula.
3. Thus carbohydrates are the class of compounds that include polyhydroxy aldehydes or polyhydroxy
ketones.
4. Carbohydrates are also known as saccharides.
Classification
The carbohydrates are classified into three major classes
(i) Monosaccharides
(ii) Oligosaccharides
(iii) Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
(i) Monosaccharides are simple sugars with single unit of polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketones.
(ii) General molecular formula CnH2nOn (with some exceptions).
Oligosaccharides
(i) Oligosaccharides are made up of 2-9 units of monosaccharides or simple sugars.
(ii) Oligosaccharides with two, three and four monosaccharides respectively known as disaccharides, and
trisaccharides and tetrasaccharides.
(iii) Sucrose is the example of this class.
H
C12H22O11 H2 O C 6H12O 6 C 6H12O 6
(sucrose) (glucose) (fructose)
Polysaccharides
(i) Polysaccharides are made up of 'n' number of monosaccharide units (above 10 carbon atoms).
(ii) Starch, cellulose and glycogen are the examples of this class.
nH2O
(iii) (C 6H10 O 5 )n nC 6H12 O 6
starch H glucose
(iv) Homopolysaccharides are made up of single type of monosaccharides. Heteropolysaccharide is made up

of two or more different types of monosaccharides.
Note : Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are collectively known as Sugars as they are soluble
in water and sweet in taste. Whereas polysaccharides on other hand are known as
Non-sugars.
Monosaccharide-Glucose
Glucose is known as dextrose and also known as grape sugar.
Preparation
Hydrolysis of cane sugar in presence of alcohol gives glucose (along with fructose)
C12H22 O11 H2O C 6H12 O 6 C 6H12 O 6

sugar glucose fructose
Glucose and Fructose have same molecular formula but different structural formula.
Chemical Properties
(i) Reaction with PCl5 :
CHO CHO
(CHOH)4 + 5PCl5 (CHCl)4 + 5POCl3 + 5HCl
CH2OH CH2Cl
Glucose Penta-chloroglucose
(ii) Reaction with acetic anhydride :
CHO CHO
(CHOH)4 + (CH3CO)2O (CHOCOCH3)4
CH2OH CH2OOCCH3
Penta-acetate glucose
(iii) Reduction :
CHO CH2OH
Na-Hg
(CHOH)4 + 2H (CHOH)4
H2O
CH2OH CH2OH
Sorbitol
(iv) Reaction with Fehling's solution :
CHO COOH
(CHOH)4 + 2CuO (CHOH)4 + Cu2O

CH2OH CH2OH
Gluconic acid red ppt.
(v) Reaction with Tollen's reagent :
CHO COOH
(CHOH)4 + Ag2O (CHOH)4 + 2Ag (mirror)
CH2OH CH2OH
Gluconic acid
(vi) Reaction with HNO3 :
CHO COOH
HNO3
(CHOH)4 + 3[O] (CHOH)4
CH2OH COOH
Saccharic acid
(Glucaric acid)
(vii) Reaction with phenylhydrazine :
CHO + H2NNHC6H5 CH NNHC6H5

(Phenylhydrazine)
CHOH CHOH
(CHOH)3 (CHOH)3
CH2OH CH2OH
D-glucose D-glucose phenylhydrazone
H2NNHC6H5
CH NNHC6H5 CH NNHC6H5
C NNHC6H5 C O
H2NNHC6H5
(CHOH)3
CH2OH
(viii) Lobry de Bruyn-van Ekenstein rearrangement reaction :

Glucose on reaction with dilute NaOH undergoes a reversible isomerisation and is converted into a mixture
of D-Glucose, D-Mannose and D-Fructose.
D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Fructose.
Note : Due to this isomerisation, fructose even it does not contain – CHO group reduces Fehling's
solution and Tollen's reagent in alkaline medium.
Structure of D-Glucose
(i) Open chain structure :
The reaction of glucose with
(a) HI to give hexane
(b) Hydroxylamine to form monoxime
(c) HCN to form cyanohydrin, gives the existence of the open chain structure of glucose
(ii) Cyclic structure of glucose :

The open chain structure of glucose fails to explain
(a) Any reaction with NaHSO3 and NH3 , even though – CHO group is present.
(b) The reaction of glucose with Grignard reagent.
Disaccharides
(i) Disaccharides are composed of two molecules of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic linkage.
(ii) The disaccharides may be reducing or non reducing in nature depending upon linkage.
+
H2O/H
Sucrose (C12H22O11) -D Glucose + -D Fructose
(C1) (C2 )
+
H2O/H -D Glucose + -D Galactose
Lactose (C12H22O11)
(C4 ) (C1)
+
H2O/H -D Glucose + -D Glucose
Maltose (C12H22O11) (C1) (C4 )
Structure of Sucrose, Lactose and Maltose

(i) Sucrose
6 CH2OH
-linkage
5 O O
H H O CH2OH
H 2
4 OH H 1 OH H
HO -linkage
H , -glycosidic linkage
3 2 HOH2C
H OH H OH
Glucose unit Fructose unit
(ii) Lactose
-linkage
CH2OH H OH
3 2
O O
HO H
H OH H
1
OH H 1
-glycosidic linkage
4 H
H H H O OH
5
H OH CH2OH
6
(iii) Maltose
CH2OH CH2OH
O H H O
H H
H H
1 4
OH H OH H
HO O OH -glycosidic linkage
H OH -linkage H OH
Polysaccharides :
In polysaccharides, thousands of monosaccharide units are joined together by glycosidic linkage.
Starch : (C6H10O5)n
+
H /H2O
(C6H10O5)n C12H22O11 C6H12O6
Starch Maltose D-glucose
(i) Starch does not reduce Fehling’s solution or Tollen’s reagent.
(ii) Starch does not form an Osazone.
(iii) Starch is a mixture of two polysaccharides i.e., amylose (15-20%) and amylopectin (80-85%).
Amylose is water soluble and amylopectin is water insoluble component of starch.
Cellulose : (C6H10O5)n
(i) Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide composed of only D-glucose units with 1-4 glucosidic
linkage.
(ii) Cellulose does not reduce Tollen’s reagent or Fehling’s solution.
AMINO ACIDS
Proteins are made up of amino acids. All naturally occurring amino acids are -amino acids, where amine group
is connected with -carbon of carboxylic acid. Amino acids have amphoteric character. A free amino group
is basic, a free carboxyl group is acidic. Lysine and Arginine are Basic Amino Acids because they carry
two amino groups and one carboxyl group is acidic. Glutamic acid (glutamate) and Aspartic acid (aspartate)
contain one amino and two carboxyl groups each and are classified as Acidic Amino Acids. Alanine, glycine,
valine and phenylalanine are Neutral Amino Acids as these contain one amino and one carboxyl group.
R CH COOH R CH COO
–
NH2 NH3
+
Amino acid (R = side chain)
COOH -C COOH
H2N — C — H H2N — C — H
CH2 CH2
CH2 COOH
CH2
Aspartic acid
H2C — NH2
Lysine Side chains
Side chain of a basic and an acidic amino acids

COOH COOH COOH
H2N — C — H H2N — C — H H2N — C — H
CH3 CH2 H2COH

Alanine Serine
(nonpolar) CH2 (polar)
COOH
Glutamic acid
(polar)
Examples of polar and nonpolar amino acids
Amino Acids which occur in Proteins: Glycine, alanine, serine, cysteine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid,
asparagine, glutamine, methionine, threonine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, lysine, histidine, arginine, phenylalanine,
tyrosine, tryptophan and proline.
PROTEINS
Proteins are polyamides formed from amino acids. The -carbon atom of the amino acids is asymmetric
and show optical isomerism (stereo). Proteins consist mainly of L isomers of amino acids. There are 20
commonly occurring amino acids in proteins. Amino acids form zwitter ion. Lack of essential amino acids
in diet can cause diseases such as Kwashiorkor.
Peptide Bond and Structure of Proteins: Amino acids are joined together by an amide linkage called
peptide bond.
Proteins are long polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds (polypeptides). The sequence in which
the amino acids are arranged in a protein is called the primary structure.
The secondary structure arises due to the regular folding of the backbone of the polypeptide chain due
to intramolecular hydrogen bonding in -helix and intermolecular hydrogen bonding in -plated sheet
between the carboxyl and amino groups. Lead to the formation of -helix and -pleated sheet.
Tertiary Structure of Proteins: The tertiary structure of proteins represents overall folding of the
polypeptide chain i.e., fruther folding of the secondary structure. It gives rise to two major molecular
shapes viz fibrous and globular. The main forces which stabilises the 2° and 3° structures of proteins
are hydrogen bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic forces of attraction.
Quarternary structure of proteins : Some of the proteins are composed of two or more polypeptide
chains referred to as sub-units. The spatial arrangement of these sub-units with respect to each other
is known as quaternary structure.
ENZYMES
Enzymes are biological catalysts which increase the rate of biochemical reactions even under mild
conditions of temperature and pH without taking part in reaction.
Properties of Enzymes :
(i) They speed up reactions up to ten million times compared to the uncatalyzed reactions.
(ii) They are very specific in their action on substrates and each enzyme catalyzes only specific type of reaction.
(iii) They are active at moderate temperature and pH.
(iv) The action of enzymes are inhibited by various organic and inorganic molecules.
Enzymes and Diseases : Certain diseases are caused by enzyme deficiencies. The congenital disease
phenylketonuria, is due to a deficiency of the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. Albinism is another
disease caused due to deficiency of an enzyme tyrosinase. Many heart attacks are caused by blood clot
formation in a coronary artery. The enzyme streptokinase is used to dissolve the clot.
NUCLEIC ACIDS
1. Nucleic acids play an essential role in transmission of the hereditary characteristics and the
biosynthesis of proteins.
2. There are two classes of nucleic acids : DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
Nucleic acids are the long polymers in which the monomeric units are nucleotides. The structural
units of nucleotides are made up of three essential components; a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar
(a 5-carbon sugar), and a phosphate group.
3. In nucleic acids, the individual nucleotides are linked through phosphate groups to give rise to long
polynucleotide structures.
Structure of DNA
DNA consists of two strands of polynucleotides coiled around each other in the form of a double helix.
Diameter
20Å
5' 3'
P
P
S C G S Nitrogeneous
P base pair
P T=A
S
3.4 Å S
P
P
S S
Sugar-phosphate backbone
P
P
S S
G C
P
One complete turn 34 Å
P
S A=T S
P
P
G C S
S
P
P
S
A=T S
Major groove
P
SS
P
Minor groove
P
P
C G S
S
P
P
S
T=A S
3' 5'
Functions of Nucleic Acids

Replication : The genetic information of the cell is contained in the sequence of the bases A, T, G and
C in the DNA molecule.
The DNA sequence that codes for a specific protein or polypeptide is called a Gene and thus every protein
in a cell has a corresponding gene. The relation between the nucleotide triplets and the amino acids is
called the GENETIC CODE.
VITAMINS
Vitamins are organic compounds necessary for normal health but cannot be synthesised in human body.
Deficiency of vitamins causes many disorders and diseases. Vitamins B and C are water soluble while
vitamins A, D, K and E are fat soluble.
CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE

Chemicals in medicines
Chemical substances used for treatment of disease and for reducing the suffering from pain are called
medicines or drugs. Chemotherapy is the science in which chemicals are used for the treatment of diseases.
Chemicals used in chemotherapy are frequently classified according to their action. Thus analgesics relieve pain,
antipyretics reduce temperature, anti-inflammatories control inflammation and antibiotics kill bacteria and other
micro-organisms.
Antipyretics
Antipyretics are substances used to bring down body temperature in high fever. e.g. Aspirin, Phenacetin and
Paracetamol.
Aspirin is a common antipyretic. It should not be taken empty-stomach as it generates salicylic acid which may
ulcerate stomach wall and can cause bleeding. Calcium and sodium salts of aspirin are more soluble and less
harmful.
OCOCH3 OH C2H5
COOH
NH — C — CH3 NHCOCH3
O
Aspirin 4–acetamidophenol Phenacetin
(Paracetamol)
Analgesics
These are drugs used for relieving pain. Aspirin and some other antipyretics act as analgesics also. Certain
narcotics (which produce sleep and unconsciousness) are also used as analgesics. Examples of narcotics
are morphine, marijuana, codeine, pethidine and heroin. They are known to be habit-forming.
RO
C6H5 COOC2H5
–
O Cl
N — CH3 N
R = H, Morphine CH3 H
R = CH3, Codeine
Pethidine hydrochloride
Antibiotics
Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi and moulds) that can inhibit
the growth or even destroy other micro-organisms. Penicillin is used against large number of infections caused
by various bacteria. It is an effective drug for pneumonia, bronchitis, sore throat and abscesses. Other
antibiotics like streptomycin and tetracycline are used against diseases caused by bacteria.
Some antibiotics are specific for certain diseases, for example, streptomycin for tuberculosis and
chloramphenicol for typhoid.
Broad spectrum antibiotics are medicines effective against several different types of harmful micro-organisms,
e.g., tetracycline, chloramphenicol. Penicillin has a narrow spectrum. Ampicillin and amoxicillin are derivatives of
penicillin.
Chloramphenicol is a broad spectrum antibiotic. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastro-intestinal tract and hence
can be given orally in case of typhoid, dysentry, acute fever, certain form of urinary infections, meningitis and
pneumonia.
Sulpha drugs like sulphanilamide, sulphadiazine and sulphaguanidine act against micro-organisms like
antibiotics and have been used in place of them.
Tranquilizers
The chemical substances which act on the central nervous system and has a calming effect to reduce anxiety
are specified as tranquilizers. They are used for the treatment of mental diseases they are also used for making
sleeping pills. They are habit forming and should not be taken without proper prescription. They do not add
any energy into the person but help to remove the emotional distress or depression and the person is able to
work to his full capacity. The most commonly used tranquilizers are barbituric acid and its substituted derivatives
such as luminal and seconal.
CHEMICAL IN FOOD
During processing of food, a number of chemicals are added to it to increase its life and also to make it more
attractive. Some of these chemicals which are present in food are discussed below.
1. Chemical preservatives : Growth of micro organisms in a food material can be inhibited by adding certain
chemical substances. Such chemical substances which are added to food materials to prevents their
spoilage are known as chemical preservatives. The most commonly used preservatives includes table salt,
sugar, vegetable oils and sodium benzoate. Sodium benzoate is used in limited quantity salts of sorbic
acid and propanoic acid are also used as preservatives.
2. Artificial sweetening agent : Sugar is the natural sweeting agent. However, excess of sugar leads to
many diseases such as obesity, diabetes. Many artificial sweetening agents have been isolated which are
more sweeter than sugar. Ortho-sulphobenzimide also called saccharin is the first popular sweetening agent.
Some other artificial sweetener are aspartame, sucralose, alitame etc.
CLEANSING AGENT
Two types of detergents are used as cleansing agent. These are soaps and synthesis detergents. These help
in removal of fats which bind other materials to the fabric or skin.
These days detergents are much in vogue and get preference over soaps because they work even in hard water.
Synthetic detergents are classified into three main categories namely anionic, cationic and non-ionic and each
category has its specific use. Detergents with straight chain of hydrocarbons are preferred over branched chain
as the latter are non-biodegradable and consequently cause environmental pollution.

Chapter 17
Classification of Elements and
Periodicity in Properties
PERIODIC TRENDS IN PROPERTIES

A. Atomic Size (or atomic radius)
Atomic radius is the size of the atom of an element. Atomic radius is defined as “the distance from the centre
of the nucleus upto the centre of outermost electron.” It is measured in Angstrom unit (Å). It is not possible
to measure exact atomic radius as an atom is unstable and it cannot be isolated to get its radius. Moreover,
the exact position of the outermost electron is uncertain. The values for radii are obtained from X-ray
measurements. Following points are to be noted in this context :
(a) The size of an atom or ion decreases in a horizontal period as we move from left to right.
(b) The atomic radius increases in a group with the rise in atomic number.
(c) A positive ion (cation) is smaller than the corresponding atom : A positive ion or cation is formed
by the loss of one or more electrons from an atom and the number of protons remains the same in the
nucleus. Thus the ratio of the positive charge in the nucleus to the number of electrons i.e., effective nuclear
charge increases. Hence the force of attraction of nucleus to the outer electrons increases thus decreasing
the size of cation. In case of alkali metals, the removal of an electron removes the entire outermost shell.
(d) A negative ion (anion) is bigger than the corresponding atom : In the formation of negative ion (anion)
one or more electrons(s) are added to the atom. This results in the expansion of the size of the nuclear
charge, which in turn decreases the force of attraction and increases the size of an anion or the pull
exercised by the nucleus on the electron becomes less i.e., they move a little farther resulting in an
increase in the ionic size.
Note : Size of Iso-electronic ions : These are such cations or anions which carry the same number
of electrons. The size of such ions depends upon the effective nuclear charge. Greater the
nuclear charge of an ion, greater will be the force of attraction for same number of electrons.
As a result, the size of the ion decreases. For example :
N3–, O2–, F–, Na+, Mg2+ and Al3+ are isoelectronic ions, among these N3– is largest (1.71 A) and
Al3+ is smallest (0.50 A).
B. Ionization Enthalpy
It is the amount of energy required to remove most loosely held electron from the ground state of an Avogadro
number of the isolated atoms, ions or molecules in the gaseous state. The ion formed by loss of first electron
may lose further electrons and thus we may have successive ionization energies for removal of 2nd, 3rd and
4th electrons in the gaseous state.
Ionization is always an endothermic process and ionization energies are therefore always assigned positive
values.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 123
Factors influencing Ionization energy
(1) Successive Ionization - Generally ionization energy increases for successive ionizations.
(2) Atomic size - Ionization energy decreases as the size of atom increases.
(3) Value of Z (atomic number) - Higher the value of Z, higher is the I.E.
(4) Distance of electron from the nucleus - Smaller the distance of the electron from the nucleus, larger
is the ionization energy
(5) Shielding effect - Higher is the shielding of the electron to be removed, lower is the I.E. Shielding effect
of the electrons of different orbitals follows the order s > p > d > f.
(6) Penetration effect - Higher the penetration power of the electron to be removed higher is the I.E. The
penetration power of electrons of various orbitals follow the order s > p > d > f.
(7) Nature of shell - Ionization energy increases if the electron to be ionized from the species belongs to a
half filled shell or a completely filled shell. The relative stability of these configurations follows the order
d 5 < p 3 < d 10 < p 6.
(8) Changes in the quantum shell - During the successive ionization, the electron to be ionized belongs
to the lower quantum shell the I.E. therefore increases many folds. It is the combined effect of (a) effective
nuclear charge (b) stability of completely filled shells (c) closer proximity of the lower shell to the positively
charged nucleus.
Note : I.E1 : Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne

I.E1 : Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl < Ar
I.E2 : O > F > N > C.
C. Electron affinity and Electron gain Enthalpy ( HEG)

It is defined as the energy released when electron is added to the valence shell of the one mole of isolated
gaseous atoms or ions and the enthalpy change accompanying the process is defined as the electron gain
enthalpy ( egH). Electron gain enthalpy provides a measure of the ease with which an atom adds an electron
to form anion, X(g) + e– X(g) . It may be considered to be same as I.E. of corresponding anion. The first
E.A. of active non metals is negative. But the addition of a second electron to an already formed anion makes
the reaction , (X– + e– X2–) endothermic. At the time of formation of oxide or sulphide ion, the effect of 2nd
E.A. is so much that the overall E.A. for the formation of oxide and sulphide ions is endothermic.
Variation of electron affinity

(1) Elements which have higher I.E. have higher E.A. also.
(2) The E.A. values of the second period elements are lower in comparison with the values of third row elements.
This is due to increase in the interelectronic repulsions which are more for the smaller elements because
of higher electron densities.
(3) Effective nuclear sheilding by the 's' electrons and the necessity of using higher energy orbitals to accept
electrons turn the E.A. of group IIA elements negative.
(4) Au because of very high effective nuclear charge has higher electron affinity.
(5) The electron gain enthalpy of the elements having d10s2 configuration are positive as electron is to be
accommodated into the higher energy p orbital.
Note : EA1 : Cl > F > Br > I

EA1 : S > Se > Te > Po > O
EA1 : C > B > Li > Be
EA1 : Si > Al > Na > Mg
EA1 : F > O > N > Ne.
124 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
D. Electronegativity
It may be defined as : “The tendency of an atom to attract shared electron pair towards itself in a molecule”.
The small atoms attract electrons more strongly than larger ones, hence they are more electronegative.
The numerical value of electronegativity depends upon the ionisation potential and electron affinity. Higher
ionisation potential and higher electron affinity both imply higher electronegativity. To measure electronegativity,
an arbitrary scale was developed by Linus Pauling which is known as electronegativity scale. On this scale
fluorine has maximum electronegativity of 4.0 and Li has a value of 1.0 while inert gas have no value
of electronegativity.
The value of electronegativity show periodic variations as given below

Generally, in a group electronegativity decreases from top to bottom due to increase in size of atom.
F Cl Br I At
4.0 3.0 2.8 2.5. 2.2
In a period, electronegativity increases from left to right
Li Be C N O F
1.0 1.5 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
1. Melting point of alkali metal halides follow following order

M – F > M – Cl > M – Br > M – I
NaF > NaCl > NaBr > NaI
2. The order of melting point of chlorides of alkali metals is as follows :
LiCl < CsCl < RbCl < KCl < NaCl
3. The melting point of LiCl is lowest because it is with highest covalent character.
4. The solubility of alkali metal carbonates in water at 298 K increases down the group from Lithium
to Caesium.
5. The basic character of oxides and hydroxides of group 1 and group 2 increases down the group
because metallic character increases down the group e.g., LiOH is least basic whereas CsOH
is most basic. Be(OH)2 is amphoteric, Mg(OH)2 is a weak base, Ca(OH)2 and Sr(OH)2 are
moderately strong bases, Ba(OH)2 is strong base.
6. The solubility of hydroxides of Group 1 and Group 2 in water increases down the group.
7. The solubility of sulphates, carbonates and phosphates decreases down the Group 2 because
lattice energy dominates over hydration energy in Group 2, for example MgSO4 is soluble in
water whereas BaSO4 is insoluble in water.
8. Li2CO3 is thermally unstable whereas other alkali metal carbonates are thermally stable.
9. Thermal stability of carbonates of Group 2 increases down the group. All are thermally unstable.
10. Properties of Li almost similar to that of Mg; Be is almost similar to that of Al and B is almost
similar to that of Si due to diagonal relationship.

Chapter 18
General Principles and Processes
of Isolation of Metals
IMPORTANT ORES AND MINERALS

Iron
(i) Magnetite : Fe3O4
(ii) Haematite : Fe2O3
(iii) Limonite : Fe2O3.3H2O
(iv) Iron pyrite : FeS2
(v) Copper pyrites : CuFeS2
(vi) Siderite : FeCO3
Copper
(i) Cuprite : Cu2O
(ii) Copper pyrites : CuFeS2
(iii) Copper glance : Cu2S
(iv) Bornite : Cu2FeS3
(v) Malachite : CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
(vi) Azurite : [2CuCO3].Cu(OH)2
Zinc
(i) Zincite : ZnO
(ii) Calamine : ZnCO3
(iii) Zinc blende : ZnS
(iv) Willemite : Zn2SiO4
Aluminium
(i) Corundum : Al2O3
(ii) Diaspore : Al2O3.H2O
(iii) Bauxite : Al2O3.2H2O
(iv) Cryolite : Na3AlF6
(v) Feldspar : KAlSi3O8
(vi) Mica : K2O.3Al2O3.6SiO2.2H2O
126 General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Metals Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
ALUMINIUM
Al is most abundant metal in earth crust. Important ores are Bauxite Al2O3.2H2O; Diaspore Al2O3.H2O; Corundum
Al2O3; Feldspar KAlSi3O8; Cryolite Na3AlF6. It is usually extracted from bauxite through the following steps:
Purification of Bauxite
Bayer’s Process
(a) Red bauxite containing the impurity of iron oxide is concentrated by leaching with NaOH.
2NaOH + Al2O3 2NaAlO2 + H2O
(b) Sodium meta aluminate thus obtained is soluble in water while impurities of iron oxides remain insoluble.
The solution is diluted with water and agitated to get a precipitate of Al(OH)3.
NaAlO2 + 2H2O Al(OH)3 + NaOH
(c) On strong heating this precipitate gives alumina.
Hall’s Process
(a) Electrolysis of alumina (Hall Heroult's process) : purified alumina is then mixed with cryolite to lower
down its melting point, cryolite also increases, the conductance and molten cryolite acts as solvent.
Na3AlF6 3NaF + AlF3
AlF3 Al3+ + 3F–
At cathode : Al3+ + 3e– Al
At anode : 2F F2 + 2e–
(b) Aluminium thus obtained is refined by Hoope’s electrolytic process using molten cryolite and BaF2 as
electrolyte.
IRON
Ores : Haematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4; Limonite Fe2O3.3H2O; Iron pyrites FeS2; Siderite FeCO3.
1. Types
(a) Pig iron or cast iron : 2 to 4.5% C with some impurities like S, Si, P, Mn. It cannot be welded.
(b) Wrought iron : purest form of Fe (0.2 - 0.5% C).
(c) Steel : 0.1 to 1.5% C along with some other elements like Cr, Mn, Ni etc.
2. Extraction from Haematite : It is concentrated by washing with water. Then it is roasted with a little of coal
in a reverberatory furnace. During roasting moisture is removed. Impurities of As, S and P are converted into
their gaseous oxides. Roasted mass is then reduced by mixing with coke and limestone in a blast furnace
in the ratio of 8 : 4 : 1 (Smelting).
THERMODYNAMICS OF METALLURGY
The method employed for extracting a metal from its ores depends on the nature of the metals and that of
the ore may be related to the position of the metal in the electrochemical series. In general, metals with
E° < – 1.5 volt yield compounds which are very difficult to reduce and electricity is usually used for the
isolation of such metals. On the other hand, noble metals with E° > 0.5 volt form easily reducible compounds.
A metal higher up in the electrochemical series should be more difficult to reduce to metallic form. As we
move down in the electrochemical series, the reduction becomes more and more easy. E° of metal provides
some idea regarding the selection of an appropriate method for extracting the metal from its compounds.
Free energy is related to standard cell potential
G° = – nF E°cell
n Number of moles electrons
F Faraday constant 96500 C.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Metals 127
In order that the reduction of oxide, halide or sulphide ore by an element may take place simultaneously at
a given temperature and pressure, there is decrease in the free energy of the system (– G).
More the negative value of G, higher is the reducing power of an element. The free energy change ( G) is
related to the heat change ( H) as well as to the product of temperature. [ G = H – T S]
For a reaction, 2M + O2 2MO
G becomes smaller with the increase in temperature. This is because the gaseous reactant oxygen is
consumed in the reaction leading to the decrease in randomness or entropy of the system hence G becomes
negative. With further increase in temperature, T S becomes more negative value. Since the term T S is high
G is less.
Reaction becomes more feasible.
–100
–200 2Cu2O
4Cu + O 2
–300 2FeO
–1
O2
2Fe +
Change in Free Energy G , kJ mol
C + O2 CO2
–400
2CO 2
+ O2
–500 2CO 2C +
O2
o
2CO
2ZnO
–600 O2
2Zn +
–700 A
–800
l O3
2/3A 2
–900 l + O2
4/3A
–1000 2MgO
O2
2Mg +
–1100
–1200
0°C 400°C 800°C 1200°C 1600°C 2000°C

273 K 673 K 1073 K 1473 K 1873 K 2273 K
o
Temperature, C
Ellingham diagram showing the change in free energy G with

temperature for oxides (based on 1 g mole of dioxygen in each case)

Chapter 19
Hydrogen and s-Block Elements
(Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals)
HYDROGEN
Most abundant element of the universe, which was first prepared by Cavendish by the action of acids on
certain metals. Its name hydrogen was proposed by Lavoisier because it produces water when burnt in
oxygen. Hydrogen is the lightest element which is found in nature both in free state and in combined state.
Position of hydrogen in the Periodic Table

The electronic configuration of hydrogen is 1s1, due to which it shows resemblance with alkali metals as well
as halogens.
Resemblance with Alkali Metals

1. Its electronic configuration is similar to alkali metals.
2. It is a good reducing agent like alkali metals.
3. It can lose one electron to form H+ ion like alkali metals.
4. It shows +1 oxidation state like alkali metals when bonded to non-metals.
Resemblance with Halogens

1. It is a non-metal.
2. It forms diatomic molecule.
3. It is gas like F2 and Cl2.
4. It can gain one electron to form H– ion.
5. It is electronegative in nature.
6. Its ionisation energy is high like halogens.
7. It is liberated at anode when NaH is electrolysed.
8. It shows –1 oxidation state when bonded to metal.
9. It forms many covalent compounds like halogens.
On the basis of its marked resemblance with alkali metals and halogens, it is very difficult to place it either
with the elements of group-1 or those of group-17.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Hydrogen and s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) 129
Isotopes of Hydrogen : Hydrogen has three isotopes.
1p 1p
1p
1n 2n
1 2 3
Protium (1H ) Deuterium (1 H ) Tritium (1 H )
Non-radioactive Non-radioactive Radioactive
Physical properties of isotopes are different whereas their chemical properties are same
Physical Properties
Important physical properties of hydrogen are as follows
1. It is colourless, odourless, tasteless gas.
2. Dihydrogen has two nuclear spin isomers called ortho and para-dihydrogen.
e e e e
P P P P
Ortho-Hydrogen Para-Hydrogen
(Parallel nuclear spin) (Antiparallel nuclear spin)
Atmosphere contains 75% ortho-H2 and 25% para-H2. Ortho-H2 and Para-H2 have 1 and 0 nuclear spin
respectively. With the decrease in temperature percentage of para-form increases and it can be upto 100%.
Hard Water and Soft Water : Depending upon the behaviour of water towards soap solution. Water
may be classified as soft and hard water.
The hardness of water may be
1. Temporary hardness – due to presence of bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium.
2. Permanent hardness – due to sulphates or chloride of calcium and magnesium.
Removal of Hardness : Temporary hardness of water can be removed by following methods :
1. By boiling :
Boil
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3 + H2O + CO2
2. By Clark's process :
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3 + 2H2O
Permanent hardness can be removed by any of the following method.
1. Washing Soda : It converts soluble calcium and magnesium compounds into insoluble carbonates.
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2NaCl
2. Permutit : The sodium ions of permutit are exchanged with calcium and magnesium ions when
hard water is passed through it.
Na 2Al 2Si 2O 8 xH 2O + Ca 2+ CaAl 2 Si 2O 8 xH 2O + 2Na +, permutit can be regenerated by
treatment of brine solution.
3. Calgon : Calcium and magnesium salts present in hard water react with calgon to give complex salt.
2CaSO4 + Na2 [Na 4 (PO3 )6 ] Na2[Ca2(PO3)6] + 2Na2SO4

(Calgon)
130 Hydrogen and s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
4. Ion exchange resins : Ion exchange resins are giant organic molecule of high molecular masses
which are of two types :
(a) Cation exchanger [e.g., RSO3Na]
(b) Anion exchanger [e.g., RNH3 –OH ]
Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2)

H2O2 is with half open book like structure with polar O–H bond and non-polar O–O bond.
Preparation : H2O2 is prepared by the following methods
1. By action of acid on peroxides.
Na2O2 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O2
BaO2 + H2SO4 BaSO4 + H2O2 H H
95.0 pm 98.8 pm
2. By electrolysis of 50% H2SO4 or (NH4)2SO4
147.5 pm 111.5° 145.8 pm
90.2°
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4–
94.8° 101.9°
At Cathode :- 2H+ + 2e– H2
H H
At Anode : 2HSO4 H2S2O8 + 2e–
(a) Gas phase (b) Solid phase
H2S2O8 + 2H2O 2H2SO4 + H2O2
3. By catalytic reduction of 2-ethyl (or butyl) anthraquinone to corresponding quinol and oxidising the
latter with oxygen.
O OH O
R R R
H2 /Pd O2
+ H2O2
O OH O
Chemical Properties
1. Oxidising property : Hydrogen peroxide acts as an oxidising agent both in acidic as well as in
alkaline medium.
In acidic medium
H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e– 2H2O; E° = 1.77 V (slow)
In basic medium
H2O2 + 2e– 2OH– ; E° = 0.87 V. (fast)
2. Reducing Property : In presence of strong oxidising agents, hydrogen peroxide behaves as a
reducing agent in both the medium.
Acidic Medium
H 2O 2 2H+ + O2 + 2e–
Alkaline medium
H2O2 + 2OH– 2H2O + O2 + 2e–
3. Acidic property : H2O2 is a weak acid (Ka = 1.55 × 10–12). It has two ionisable H atoms. It forms
two series of salts.
4. Decomposition : H2O2 is an unstable liquid
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Hydrogen and s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) 131
Volume Strength of H2O2
Volume strength of H2O2 solution is defined as volumes of O2 evolved at STP in ml that is obtained per ml of
H2O2 solution after complete decomposition i.e., if 1 litre solution of H2O2 gives 10 liters of oxygen at STP
volume strength of H2O2 is 10 volume.
Volume strength of H2O2 = 11.2 × M or 5.6 × N
Reaction :- 2H2O2 2H2O + O2
s-BLOCK ELEMENTS
Group-1. Alkali Metals
Elements Symbol Atomic number
Lithium Li 3
Sodium Na 11
Potassium K 19
Rubidium Rb 37
Caesium Cs 55
Francium Fr 87
Physical Properties
Important physical properties of Alkali metals are given below :
Flame Colouration
The alkali metals and their salts impart a characteristic colour to the flame.
Li Na K Rb Cs
Crimson red Yellow Violet Red violet Blue
Reducing Power
The reducing power of a metal is related to its oxidation potential which represents the tendency of element to
lose electron and get oxidised.
All alkali metals have low ionisation energy leading to a high oxidation potential.
(a) Reducing nature (in aq. solution) :
Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na
(b) In gaseous state
Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs
Solution in Liquid Ammonia

(a) The alkali metals dissolve in liquid ammonia without the evolution of hydrogen. The colour of the dilute solution
is blue. The solutions are good conductors of electricity and have strong reducing properties.
(b) The dissolution of metal in NH3 yields ammoniated cation and electron.
M M+ + e–
or M + (x + y) NH3 [M (NH3)x]+ + [e (NH3)y] –
solvated electron.
The blue colour of solution is due to solvated ammoniated electrons.
132 Hydrogen and s-Block Elements (Alkali and Alkaline Earth Metals) Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
Chemical Reactivity
Alkali metals are highly reactive due to low ionisation energy.
Metal Hydroxides
(a) Basic strength of hydroxide increases with the increasing electropositivity of metal.
CsOH > RbOH > KOH > NaOH > LiOH.
(b) Solubility of hydroxides increases with increasing ionic character.
CsOH > RbOH > KOH > NaOH > LiOH.
Nature of Carbonates and Bicarbonates

(a) Carbonates are highly stable towards heat and readily soluble in water.
(b) As the electropositive character increases from Li to Cs, the stability of carbonates also increases.
Cs2CO3 > Rb2CO3 > K2CO3 > Na2CO3 > Li2CO3.
(c) Li2CO3 decomposes on heating and it is insoluble in water. [ Li2CO3 Li2O CO2 ]
(d) Aqueous solution of carbonates are alkaline.

(e) Bicarbonates MHCO3 are known in solid state except of lithium.
GROUP-2. ALKALINE EARTH METALS
Elements Symbol Atomic number
Beryllium Be 4
Magnesium Mg 12
Calcium Ca 20
Strontium Sr 38
Barium Ba 56
Radium Ra 88
Oxidation states
All metal show a stable oxidation state of +2.
Flame Colouration
Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra impart a characteristic colour to the flame, whereas Be and Mg do not show flame colouration
due to high ionisation energy.
[Ca – brick red], [Sr – crimson], [Ba – green], [Ra – crimson]
Reducing Nature
(a) The alkaline earth metals have the tendency to loose electrons and change into bivalent cation.
M M2+ + 2e–
Hence they act as strong reducing agents.
(b) The reducing nature increases as the atomic number increases.

Chapter 20
p-Block Elements
BORON FAMILY (GROUP-13 ELEMENTS)
Atomic and Physical Properties

Electropositive Nature : Less electropositive as compared to alkali metals and alkaline earth metals.
The electropositive character increases from B to Al and then decreases upto Tl. It is due to ineffective shielding
caused by d and f electrons which results in the stronger nuclear pull on the electrons of outermost shell.
Compounds of Boron
1. Orthoboric Acid : H3BO3
Preparation :
(a) From Borax
Na2B4O7 + 2HCl + 5H2O 2NaCl + 4H3BO3
(b) By hydrolysis of boron compounds
BN + 3H2O H3BO3 + NH3
Properties :
(a) Boric acid has layer type structure in which planar BO33 units are linked to one another through
Hydrogen bonds.
(b) Boric acid is a weak monobasic acid. It does not act as proton donor but acts as a lewis acid by
accepting electrons from hydroxyl ion.
H2O + H3BO3 H+ + [B(OH4)]–
(c) H3BO3 + NaOH NaBO2 + 2H2O
(d) Effect of heat
H3BO3 100 C
HBO2 H2O 160 C
H2B 4 O7 H2 O Red heat
2B2 O3 H2 O
metaboric acid tetraboric acid
134 p-Block Elements Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
2. Borax : Na2B4O7·10H2O or Na2[B4O5(OH)4] · 8H2O
OH
B
O O
Na2 HO B—O— B OH .8H2O
O O
B
OH
Preparation
4H3BO3 + Na2CO3 Na2B4O7 + 6H2O + CO2
Properties
(a) It hydrolyses in water to form alkaline solution.
(b) Borax bead Test (Test for Transition Elements)
Glassy bead + metal oxide metal metaborate (coloured)
3. Diborane: B2H6
Structure of B2H6 (Diborane)
Boron in B2H6 is sp3 hybridised.
Two bridging B – H > Terminal B – H bond
Boron is dimerised by Banana bond known as 3-centred-2electron (3c – 2e) bond.
pm
H H H H H
4
H
13
B 97° B 120° B B
pm
H H H H H H
9
11
Banana bond
Diborane
Preparation :
(a) 3LiAlH4 + 4BCl3 3LiCl + 3AlCl3 + 2B2H6
Silent Electric
(b) 2BCl3 + 6H2 Discharge
B2H6 + 6HCl
Properties :
(a) Stable at low temperature only, colourless and highly toxic.
(b) B2H6 + 6H2O 2H3BO3 + 6H2
(c) B2H6 + 6Cl2 25 C 2BCl3 + 6HCl
(d) B2H6 + 2NH3 B2H6 .2NH3 (white solid)
450 K
(e) 2B2H6 + 6NH3 2B3N3H6 + 12H2
(f) B2H6 + 6CH3OH 2B(OCH3)3 + 6H2
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank p-Block Elements 135
4. B3N3H6 : Borazole also known as Borazine or Inorganic Benzene.
Preparation
Excess of NH3 450 K

B 2H6 B2H6.2NH3 or [BH2(NH3)2]+ [BH4]– B3N3H6 + H2
1000 temp
B
H H
N N
B B
H N H
5. Alums : General formula, M2SO4 . M'2(SO4)3 24H2O where M is a monovalent ion like Na+, K+, NH4+ while M'
is a trivalent ion like Fe3+, Cr3+, Al3+, K2SO4. Al2(SO4)3. 24H2O-Potash alum; (NH4)2SO4. Fe2(SO4)3. 24H2O-
Ferric alum; K2SO4.Cr2(SO4)3. 24H2O-Chrome alum. Out of all these potash alum is very common. When the
crystals of potash alum are heated it swells and loses water. Anhydrous alum thus obtained is called burnt
alum.
AlCl3 Aluminium chloride exists as a dimer where two AlCl3 units are joined together with the formation
of two dative bonds (co-ordinate bonds) because AlCl3 is electron-deficient (Lewis acid).
Cl Cl Cl
Al Al
Cl Cl Cl
In AlCl3 dimer, four bond length are larger while bond length of four bonds are small.
AlCl3 is used as catalyst in Friedel Craft’s reaction, where it is a Lewis acid.
CARBON FAMILY (GROUP-14 ELEMENTS)
Element Symbol Atomic No.

Carbon C 6
Silicon Si 14
Germanium Ge 32
Tin Sn 50
Lead Pb 82
O O O
Compounds of Silicon
O Si O Si O Si O
1. Silicon dioxide (SiO2):
SiO 2 is solid at room temperature and has a three O O O
dimensional network structure as shown below O Si O Si O Si O
(a) In this structure, silicon atom is bonded to four O O O
oxygen atom which are tetrahedrally arranged around
it. O Si O Si O Si O
(b) Since Si—O bonds are very strong, silica is relatively O O O

inert and has a very high melting point.
2. Silicones :
Silicones are synthetic organosilicon compounds containing repeated unit of R2SiO held by Si–O–Si
linkages.
Preparation : The silicones are prepared by the hydrolysis of dialkyl dichloro silane (R2SiCl2)
R R
| |
Cl Si Cl + 2H2O HO Si HO
| |
R R
R R R
R R R
R R R
Polymerisation : O Si O Si O Si O
R R R
The hydrolysis of RSiCl3, gives cross linked silicones.
Properties :
(a) Silicones are chemically inert towards oxidation, thermal decomposition or attack by organic reagents.
(b) They are water repellant and heat resistant.
3. Silicates : Silicates are the compounds in which the anions present are either discrete SiO44– tetrahedra
or a number of such units joined together through corners.
Types of Silicates : Silicates are classified into different types depending upon the number of corners of
SiO44– tetrahedron shared with other tetrahedron.
Formula
1. Orthosilicate
Ex. Zircon. SiO4
4–
(ZrSiO4)
2. Pyrosilicates 6–
Si2O 7
Ex. Thortveitite
Sc2(Si2O7)
3. Cyclic silicates (SiO3) n

2n–
Ex. Beryl : Be 3 Al2Si6O18
4. Chain Silicates 2–
(SiO3 )n (Pyroxene)
Ex. Spodumene;
LiAl(SiO3)2
5. Sheet silicates (Si 2O5) n2–

Ex. Clay
6. Three dimensional silicates All the four corners are shared with other
Ex. Quartz tetrahedra (SiO2)
Note : Chain silicates are of two types

(i) Pyroxene
(ii) Amphibole
NITROGEN FAMILY (GROUP-15 ELEMENTS)

Nitrogen N 7
Phosphorous P 15
Arsenic As 33
Antimony Sb 51
Bismuth Bi 83
Characteristics of Hydrides
(a) Basic Strength : All these hydrides act as Lewis bases. They can donate an electron pair to electron
deficient species. (Lewis acids). As we go down the group, the basic character of these hydrides
decreases.
(b) Thermal Stability : Thermal stability of the hydrides of group 15 elements decreases as we go down
the group.
NH3 PH3 AsH3 SbH3 BiH3

(c) Reducing Character : The reducing character of the hydrides of group 15 elements increases from
NH3 to BiH3. Thus, increasing order of reducing character is as follows :
NH3 PH3 AsH3 SbH3 BiH3

(d) Boiling Points : Ammonia (240 K) has a higher boiling point than phosphine (190 K) and then the
boiling point increases down the group because of increase in size.
BiH 3 > SbH3 > NH3 > AsH3 > PH3

Thus boiling point order is
Mol. Mass H–bonding Mol. Mass
Nitric Acid (HNO3) :

Preparation : Nitric acid is mostly prepared by
(a) Birkeland - Eyde Process
Electric arc
N2 + O2 3000 C
2NO
2NO + O2 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
(b) Ostwald’s Process
Pt
4NH3 + 5O2 800 C
4NO + 6H2O
2NO + O2 2NO2
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO
The important reaction of Nitric acid are given below :
Properties :
(a) Reaction with Metals
(i) Mg + 2HNO3 (dil) Mg(NO3)2 + H2
(ii) Mn + 2HNO3 (dil) Mn(NO3)2 + H2
(iii) 3Cu + 8HNO3 (hot and dilute) 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO
(iv) Cu + 4HNO3 (hot and Conc.) Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O + 2NO2
[Ag, Pb and Bi also react as Cu]
(b) Reaction with non-metals and compounds

(i) C + 4HNO3 CO2 + 4NO2 + 2H2O
(ii) 6FeSO4 + 3H2SO4 + 2HNO3 3Fe2(SO4)3 + 2NO + 4H2O
OXYGEN FAMILY-(GROUP-16 ELEMENTS)
OXYGEN
Preparation : Oxygen is mostly prepared by the following methods :
1. In laboratory it is prepared by heating KMnO4 or KClO3 in presence of MnO2.
Heat
2KClO3 (s) MnO 2KCl + 3O2
2
2. It can also be prepared by reaction of H2O on Na2O2

2Na2O2 + 2H2O (l) 4NaOH + O2
Chemical properties : Oxygen reacts with metals and non-metals to form different oxides
Ozone (O3)
Preparation : Ozone is prepared by subjecting pure oxygen to silent electric discharge
3O2 2O3 ; H = + 284.5 kJ mole–1.
Properties :
It is pale blue gas having a strong characteristic smell. It is neutral to litmus. It condenses to blue liquid
(b. pt 161. 2K). It condenses to a violet- black solid (melting point 80.6 K).
The important reactions are given below:
250 C
1. O3 O2 + O
2. H2S + O H2O + S
3. 2Ag + O Ag2O
4. 2Hg + [O] Hg2O (Tailing of Mercury)
5. I2 + H2O + 5[O] 2HIO3
6. It is better oxidising agent as compared to H2O2.
H2O2 + O3 H2O + 2O2
Sulphuric Acid : (H2SO4)

Preparation :
It is manufactured by Contact process. Reaction of the process is as under :
(a) S + O2 SO2 or 4FeS2 + 11O2 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2
723K - 823K 2-3 atmosphere
(b) 2SO2 + O2 2SO3
V2O5 or Pt Catalyst
(c) SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 (oleum)

(d) H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4
Properties : The important properties are
1. It is a strong dibasic acid
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4– 2H+ + SO42–
2. On heating it liberates oxygen and thus it acts as a strong oxidising agent
Cu 2H2SO 4 CuSO 4 SO 2 2H2O

( Conc.)
Oxidation of non-metals
C + 2H2SO4 CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
It liberates iodine from KI
2KI + 2H2SO4 K2SO4 + SO2 + I2 + 2H2O

3. H2SO4 is a powerful dehydrating agent
HALOGEN FAMILY-(GROUP-17 ELEMENTS)
Fluorine F 9
Chlorine Cl 17
Bromine Br 35
Iodine I 53
Astatine At 85
Atomic and Physical Properties:

1. Atomic and Ionic Radii: The halogens have the smallest atomic radii in their respective periods due to
maximum effective nuclear charge.
2. Ionization Energies: The ionization energies of halogens are very high. It decreases from fluorine to iodine
3. Melting and Boiling Points : The melting and boiling points of halogens increases with increase in
atomic number as we go down the group.
4. Electron Affinity
(a) All these have maximum electron affinities in their respective periods.
(b) In general, electron affinity decreases from top to bottom in a group.
(c) Fluorine has unexpectedly low electron affinity than chlorine. Therefore, chlorine has the highest
electron affinity in this group.
Thus, electron affinity among halogens varies as : F < Cl > Br > I
5. Colour : All the halogens are coloured.
Fluorine – Pale yellow, Chlorine – Greenish yellow, Bromine – Reddish brown liquid, Iodine – Greyish black
solid (Deep violet in vapour state).
6. Oxidation States
(a) They all show an oxidation state of –1.
(b) Since fluorine is the most electronegative element, it always show an oxidation state of –1. It does
not show any positive oxidation state.
(c) The other elements also show positive oxidation state of +1, +3, +5 and +7. The higher oxidation
state of chlorine, bromine and iodine are due to the presence of vacant d–orbitals in their valency
shells.
7. Low Dissociation Energies

All the halogen have very low dissociation energies. As a result, they can readily dissociate into atoms
and react with other substance.
Molecule F2 Cl2 Br2 I2

Dissociation energies 159 243 193 151
X2 2X (kJ mol–1)
8. Oxidising Power
(a) Halogens have high electron affinity values and therefore they have strong tendency to take up the
electron :
1
X2 e – X–
2
(b) As a result, they act as powerful oxidising agents.
(c) The decreasing oxidising power of the halogen as we go down the group is shown by their decreasing
reduction potentials.
X2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
ERP (volts) 2.87 1.40 1.09 0.62
OXYACIDS OF CHLORINE
Different oxyacids of chlorine are
Formula Name Corresponding salt
HOCl Hypochlorous acid Hypochlorites

HClO2 Chlorous acid Chlorites
HClO3 Chloric acid Chlorates
HClO4 Perchloric acid Perchlorates
Acidic Character : Acidic Character of the same halogen increases with the increase in oxidation number of
the halogen.
HClO4 > HClO3 > HClO2 > HOCl
Reason : It is because the release of H+ ion in each case would result in the formation of ClO4–, ClO3–, ClO2–,
ClO– ions. More is the stability of resulting ion, greater will be the ease with which the ion is formed. Therefore,
the ease of formation of ions would be.
ClO4– > ClO3– > ClO2– > ClO–
Interhalogen Compounds
The halogens on account of the difference in their electronegativities combine with each other and form binary
covalent compounds of ABn type which are called interhalogen compounds. A is always bigger atom and B
is a smaller atom. n may have value 1, 3, 5 and 7 corresponding to oxidation state of halogens.
3
AB type ClF, BrF, BrCl, ICl, IBr sp hybridization, Linear shape
3
AB3 type ClF 3, BrF 3, ICl3 sp d hybridization, T-shape
3 2
AB5 type BrF5 , IF5 sp d hybridization, distorted square pyramidal shape
AB7 type IF 7 sp3 d3 hybridization, pentagonal bipyramidal shape
NOBLE GASES - (GROUP-18 ELEMENTS)
Element Symbol Atomic Number
Helium He 2
Neon Ne 10
Argon Ar 18
Krypton Kr 36
Xenon Xe 54
Radon Rn 86
Atomic & Physical Properties :

In general, noble gases are not very reactive. Their inertness to chemical reactivity is due to
1. The noble gases have completely filled ns2np6 electronic configurations in their valence shells.
2. The noble gases have very high ionisation energies.
Chemical Properties :
Among group 18 members only Xenon and Krypton show chemical reactivity. The important compounds of
Xe are given below :
1. Fluorides : The common fluorides of xenon such as XeF2, XeF4 and XeF6 can be prepared by the direct
combination of xenon and fluorine under different conditions :
Ni vessel
Xe F2 XeF2
( 2 : 1) 673 K
Ni vessel
Xe 2F2 XeF4
(1 : 5 ) 673 K, 5 6 atm
Ni vessel
Xe 3 F2 XeF6
(1 : 20 ) 573 K, 50 60 atm
2. Oxides : XeO3 is the most common oxide and it is prepared by the hydrolysis of XeF4 or XeF6.
2 XeF4 + 3H2O Xe+ XeO3 + 6HF + O2
XeF6 3H2O XeO3 6HF

3. Oxyfluorides: The oxyfluorides of xenon are prepared by the partial hydrolysis of XeF4 or XeF6.
800 C
XeF4 H2 O XeOF2 2HF
Xenon oxydifluoride
XeF6 H2 O XeOF4 2HF

Xenon oxytetrafluoride

Chapter 21
d and f-Block Elements
The transition elements may be defined as elements whose atoms or simple ions in their most common
oxidation state contain partially filled d-orbitals. This definition does not cover zinc, cadmium and mercury.
However, these are studied with transition elements.
The general electronic configuration of these elements is (n – 1)d1 – 10 ns0 – 2.
ATOMIC AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

The important properties of the transition metals are given below :
1. Metallic Character
(a) Transition elements exhibit good mechanical properties, i.e, they are hard, malleable and ductile. They
have high enthalpies of atomization, high melting and boiling points, they have high thermal and
electrical conductivity as well as lustre.
(b) Their mechanical properties and high melting as well as boiling points indicate the presence of strong
metallic bond.
2. Ionisation Energies
(a) The ionisation energies of transition metals increases as we move across each series though not
quite regularly.
(b) It is evident that first ionisation energies of most of the 5d elements are higher than those of 3d and
4d-elements. This is due to the fact that the outer valence electrons of 5d-elements experience
greater effective nuclear charge due to poor shielding of the nucleus by 4f-electrons.
3. Electrode Potential
In general, transition elements have low negative values of standard reduction electrode potential due to
high ionisation energies, high heat of sublimation which are more than offset with large heats of hydration.
Consequently, transition elements are weak reducing agents and are less reactive than s-block
elements.
4. Variable Oxidation States
(a) Transition metals exhibit a wide range of oxidation states. When 'ns' electrons are involved, then
compounds with lower oxidation states are formed. In compounds with higher oxidation states, (n–1) d
electrons are also involved.
(b) The highest oxidation state exhibited by any transition metal is +8, i.e, Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4)
and Osmium tetroxide (OsO4)
(c) The highest oxidation state are shown by transition metal when they combine with most
electronegative elements such as fluorine or oxygen, i.e., CrO3, Mn2O7 and VF5.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank d and f-Block Elements 143
(d) Maximum number of variable oxidation states are shown by Mn (+2, +3, +4, +5, +6, +7).
(e) The most common oxidation state for first transition series is +2 which arises from the loss of 4s
electrons (except Sc).
(f) In lower oxidation states as +2 and +3, the bonds are mostly ionic while in higher oxidation states
such as +6 or +7, the bonds are essentially covalent as in MnO4– (Mn= +7), Cr2O72– (Cr = +6)
5. Formation of Complexes :
By virtue of their small size, comparatively high nuclear or ionic charge and availability of vacant d-orbitals
of suitable energy, these metals exert strong electrostatic attraction on the ligands. The species formed
on interaction of metal and the ligand (or ligands) is known as a complex.
Formation of Coloured Compounds : The transition metal ions have unpaired d-electrons, which on
absorbing visible light can jump from one d-orbital to another i.e., d-d transitions take place. Thus when
light falls certain visible wavelengths are absorbed. The reflected light appears coloured and gives the colour
of compound. The ions having no d-d transitions are (KMnO4 & K2Cr2O7) coloured due to charge transfer
spectra. Some compounds are coloured due to polarisation e.g., AgI.
6. Catalytic Properties
Most of the transition metals and their compounds are found to act as catalysts.
Transition Metals as Catalyst : Catalytic power of transition metals is believed to operate by the
formation of interstitial compounds to adsorb and activate the reacting substances e.g. hydrogenation of
alkenes in presence of palladium or platinum is thought to take place through this mechanism.
7. Magnetic Properties
(a) Most of the transition elements show paramagnetism. Paramagnetism arises from the presence of
unpaired electrons in atoms, ions or molecules.
(b) The magnetic character is comparable in terms of magnetic moment given as n(n 2) Bohr
magnetons. In general, more is the number of unpaired electrons greater is the magnetic character.
(c) The maximum paramagnetism is seen in d5 cases, having the maximum unpaired electrons.
8. Formation of Nonstoichiometric Compounds and Interstitial Compounds
Transition metals can trap some of the small size atoms like hydrogen, boron, carbon, nitrogen, etc in
the vacant spaces between the crystal lattice forming interstitial compounds.
9. Alloy Formation
(a) Molten transition metals are miscible with one another. Therefore, on cooling a mixture of the
transition metals results in the formation of alloys.
(b) Such alloys are usually harder, have higher melting points and are more resistant to corrosion than
the parent metals.
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS OF TRANSITION METALS
Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7) :

Preparation : From Chromite ore:
The preparation is completed in the following three steps:
(a) Preparation of sodium chromate :
4[FeO.Cr2O 3 ] 8Na 2CO 3 7O 2 8Na 2CrO 4 2Fe 2O 3 8CO 2
144 d and f-Block Elements Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
(b) Conversion of sodium chromate into sodium dichromate :
2Na 2CrO 4 H2SO 4 Na 2Cr2O 7 Na 2SO 4 H2 O
(c) Conversion of sodium dichromate into potassium dichromate :
Na 2Cr2O 7 2KCl K 2Cr2O 7 2NaCl

(less so lub le )
Properties of K2Cr2O7: Potassium dichromate is orange coloured compound. The important reactions are given
below
Heated
K2CrO4 + Cr2O3 + O2
KOH
K2CrO4 + H2O
Conc. Cold H2SO4
KHSO4 + CrO3 + H2O
H2SO4 conc. Heated
K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + O2
+
K2Cr2O7 H ; KI I2
+ ++
H ; Fe 3+
Fe
HCl
Cl2 + KCl + CrCl3 + H2O
SO2
K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O
KCl, H2SO4 (conc.) Heated
CrO2Cl2 + KHSO4 + H2O
Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)

Preparation :
It is prepared by fusing pyrolusite ore (MnO2) with KOH in the presence of atmospheric oxygen or an oxidising
agent like KNO3 or KClO3 to get potassium manganate K2MnO4, (green mass). The green mass is oxidised
to potassium permanganate, electrolytically or by passing chlorine or ozone into the solution.
Step-I:
Heat
2MnO 2 4KOH 2O 2K 2MnO 4 2H2 O
(From KNO 3
or KClO 3 )
Step-II:
Electrolytic Oxidation
At the cathode 2H 2e H2
At the anode MnO24 MnO 4– e –

( Green) (Purple )
Properties of KMnO4 : The important properties are given below:

1. Oxidising Nature in Neutral Medium
[2KMnO4 + H2O 2KOH + 2MnO2 + 3[O]].
In this medium MnSO4 is oxidised to MnO2 and Na2S2O3 to Na2SO4.
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank d and f-Block Elements 145
2. Oxidising Nature in Alkaline Medium :
[2KMnO4 + 2KOH 2K2MnO4 + H2O + [O]].
In this medium KI is oxidised to KIO3 and alkenes are oxidised to glycols.
3. Oxidising Nature in Acidic Medium :
[2KMnO4 + 3H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2MnSO4 + 3H2O + 5[O]].
In this medium it oxidises
H2S + [O] H2O + S
SO2 + H2O + [O] H2SO4
H2C2O4 + [O] 2CO2 + H2O
2FeSO4 + H2SO4 + [O] Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
2KI + [O] + H2O I2 + 2KOH

Chapter 22
Co-ordination Compounds
Different types of salt are formed due to addition of molecular compounds.

1. Double salts : Double salts are those molecular compounds which exists only in crystal lattice but lose
their identity in solution.
e.g., KCl. MgCl2.6H2O K+ + Mg+2 + 3Cl– + 6H2O.
Double salts when dissolved in water ionise.
2. Complex salts : Complex salts are those molecular compounds which retain their identity in solid / crystal
lattice as well as in the solution.
e.g., Potassium ferrocyanide is a complex compound which is formed by adding KCN to a saturated solution
of ferrous cyanide
4KCN + Fe(CN)2 – K4[Fe(CN)6]
K4[Fe(CN)6] is dissolved in water, the resulting solution does not give positive tests for ferrous or cyanide
ions but we get a positive test for [Fe(CN)6]4 –.
CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS
Coordination compound may be defined as a compound that results from the combination of apparently
saturated molecules of different species and retain its identity in the solids as well as in dissolved state.
The formation of a coordination compound involves two components.
1. An acceptor : Which can accept a pair of electrons from the donor. The acceptor is usually a metal with
vacant orbitals available to accept a pair of electrons from one or more neutral molecules or anions.
In [Fe(CN)6]4–, Fe++ ion is an acceptor, which is also called as central metal ion, which acts as Lewis acid.
2. A donor : An atom or a molecule which can donate a pair of electrons is a donor. Such donor atoms or
molecules are electron rich and are called ligands, which act as Lewis bases.
Ligands may be neutral (NH3, H2O, C6H5N) or negatively charged species (:CN–,Cl–, Br–) or positively
charged
Ligand is said to be unidentate if it has only one pair of electrons that it can donate e.g., NH3
Ligand is said to be bidentate if it can bond from two positions
e.g., —
H2C H2N O=C O
H2C H2N O=C O—

2–
ethylene diamine (en) oxalate ion (C2O4 )
Some ligands can be coordinated to the metal or metal ion through either of two sides, they are called
"Ambident" ligands. e.g., nitrite ion, if attached through 'N' (–NO2), it is written as nitro (or nitrito-N), if
attached through O atom (–ONO–) then Nitrito (or nitrito-O).
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Co-ordination Compounds 147
Some Important Points
1. Number of co-ordinate bonds formed with central metal/ion is known as co-ordination number of the
central species. In case of -complexes all the atoms of a -ligand are counted as co-ordination number
as in case of Zeise’s salt [Pt Cl3C2H4] co-ordination number is 5.
2. The molecules or ions bonded directly to the central ion constitute what is often termed as co-ordination
sphere, written within square brackets.
3. One more important point is the oxidation state of central metal ion. It is the charge carried by a complex ion
and is the algebraic sum of charges carried by central ion & the ligands co-ordinated to it.
TYPES OF COMPLEX IONS

The complex ions can be grouped into three classes depending upon the nature of charge they carry :
1. Complex cation : A complex ion that has a net positive charge is called a complex cation, e.g.,
tetraamminecopper (II), [Cu(NH3)4]2+.
2. Complex anion : A complex ion that has a net negative charge is called a complex anion, e.g., hexacyanoferrate
(II), [Fe(CN)6]–4.
3. Neutral Complex : A complex that has no net charge is called a neutral complex, e.g., hexacarbonyl
chromium(0), [Cr(CO)6].
IUPAC Nomenclature of complex compounds

In order to name these compounds certain rules have been suggested by IUPAC.
1. The positive part of a coordination compound is named first and is followed by the negative part.
2. The ligands are named first followed by the central metal. The prefixes di- tri-, tetra- etc, are used
to indicate the number of each kind of ligand present. The prefixes bis (two ligands) tris (three ligands)
etc. used for polydentate ligands.
3. The ligands are named in alphabetical order. Names of the anionic ligands end in O, those of cationic
in ium. Neutral ligands have their regular names except that H2O is named aqua; NH3 ammine; NO
nitrosyl; and CO carbonyl.
4. The oxidation state of the central metal is indicated in roman numbers in a bracket.
5. When a complex species has negative charge, the name of the central metal ends in –ate. For some
elements, the name of ion is based on the latin name of the metal (For example, argentate for silver).
EFFECTIVE ATOMIC NUMBER

Transition metals forms coordination compounds very readily because they have vacant 'd' orbitals which can
accommodate electron pairs donated by ligands. Metal ion in co-ordination compound tends to attain nearest
inert gas configuration by gaining electrons from ligand.
Effective atomic number (EAN) of metal in a complex is given by :
EAN = Z–(O.N.) + 2 × Number of lone pair donated
where Z = atomic number of metal atom
O.N. = oxidation number
BONDING IN CO-ORDINATION COMPOUND

Valence Bond Theory
Important Features of Valence Bond Theory (VBT).
1. The central metal provides empty hybrid orbitals as required by the ligands i.e., coordination number to
form complex.
148 Co-ordination Compounds Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
2. Each ligand should have at least one lone pair of electron.

3. The lone pair of electrons of the ligand overlap with empty hybrid orbital of metal.
4. If d-orbitals are involved in hybridisation that may be either inner viz (n – 1) d-orbital or the outer viz (n)
d-orbital. The compounds formed by these two ways are known as inner orbital and outer orbital compounds
respectively. Generally the inner orbital compounds are low spin and outer orbital compounds are high spin
compounds.
5. If the compound has one or more unpaired electron, the compound is paramagnetic and if it does not
contain unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
6. The magnetic moment of metal complex calculated by using spin only magnetic moment as
n(n 2) Bm , where 'n' is the number of unpaired electrons.
ISOMERISM
1. Structural Isomerism
(a) Hydrate isomerism – Compounds which have same molecular formulae but differ in the number of water
molecule as ligands and as molecules of hydration are called hydrate isomers.
e.g., [Co(H2O)6]Cl3 & [Co(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O
(b) Ionisation isomerism – Compounds which give different ions in solution but have same molecular formulae
are called ionization isomers.
e.g., [Co(NH3)5SO4]Br & [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4
(c) Linkage isomerism – Occurs when more than one atom in a monodentate ligand functions as a donor.
e.g., [Co(NH3)5NO2]Cl & [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl
(d) Co-ordination isomerism – This isomerism is possible when both positive and negative ions of a salt
are complex ion.
e.g., [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6]
(e) Co-ordination position isomerism – This type of isomerism arises in the bridged complexes due to
difference in the attachment of ligands with the metal atom.
OH
e.g., (NH3)4Co Co(NH3)2Cl2 SO4
Cl
OH
and Cl(NH3)3Co Co(NH3)3Cl SO4
Cl
2. Stereoisomerism
(a) Geometrical isomerism is common in square planar and octahedral complexes.
Square planar complexes with general formula; [MA2X2]±n, [MA2XY]±n, [MABX2]±n, [MABXY]±n, [M(AB)2]±n
show isomerism.
Example :
NH3 NH3
Cl Cl
Co Co
Cl NH3
NH3 Cl
Cis Trans
Note : [MABCD ] shows 3 geometrical isomers.
Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism.

Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Co-ordination Compounds 149
(b) Octahedral complexes with general formula, [MA4X2], [MA4XY], trans. [M(AA)2X2] shows geometrical
isomerism.
Cl Cl
NH3 Cl
NH3 NH3
(i) e.g., Co Co
NH3 NH3 NH3 NH3

Cl NH3
Trans-[Co(NH3)4Cl2] Cis-[Co(NH3)4Cl2]
Cl Cl
Cl
en Co en en Co
(ii)
Cl en
Trans-[Co(en)2Cl2] Cis-[Co(en)2Cl2]
(c) The complex with formula [MA3X3] show facial and meridonial isomerism.
A A
A A X
X
M M
A X X X
X A
Fac-[MA3X3] Mer-[MA3X3]
Note : Complex with general formula [M(a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f)] shows 15 geometrical isomers.
3. Optical Isomerism
(a) Tetrahedral complexes with formula [M(a)(b)(c)(d)] or M(AB)2 shows optical isomerism
n
(b) Octahedral complexes having formula [M(a)2 (b)2 (c )2 ] , [M (a)(b)(c)(d)(e)(f) ], [M(AA)3 ] , [M(AA)2 b2 ] ,
[M(AA)2 b2c 2 ] containing symmetrial bidentate ligand will show optical isomerism.
Note : Square planar complexes do not show optical isomerism.

Chapter 23
Principles Related to
Practical Chemistry
ANALYSIS OF ACIDIC RADICALS

Acidic radicals are categorised into three groups. There is no such scheme which permits the separation of
the common anions into major groups. The classification may be studied in two parts :
1. Those involving the identification by volatile products obtained on treatment with acids, and
2. Those dependent upon reactions in solution.
The part (1) is subdivided into
(i) Gases evolved with dilute HCl or dil H2SO4 and
(ii) Gases or vapours evolved with conc. H2SO4.
The part (2) is subdivided into
(i) Precipitation reactions and
(ii) Oxidation and reduction in solution
Group Category of Acid Radicals
Group I :
Radicals which are detected by dilute H2SO4 or dilute HCl, by liberating a gas/volatile material
(i) Carbonate
(ii) Sulphite
(iii) Sulphide
(iv) Nitrite
(v) Acetate
Group II :
Radicals which are detected by concentrated H2SO4
(i) Chloride
(ii) Bromide
(iii) Iodide
(iv) Nitrate
(v) Oxalate
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Principles Related to Practical Chemistry 151
Group III :
Radicals which do not give any characteristic gas with dilute and concentrated H2SO4
(i) Sulphate
(ii) Phosphate
(iii) Borate
(iv) Fluoride
Group Group reagent Group radicals Colour & Observation
Brisk effervescence in cold with evolution of colourless

(i) CO32– and odourless gas i.e. CO2
Colourless gas with suffocating odour (smell of burning
(ii) SO 32–
sulphur) i.e. SO2
Dil. H 2SO4 or
1. (iii) S– 2 A colourless gas with smell of rotten eggs i.e. H 2S
dil HCl
(iv) NO2– A light brown gas i.e. NO2
(v) CH 3COO– Colourless vapours with smell of vinegar.
(i) Cl– Colourless gas with pungent smell which fumes in air.
Reddish brown fumes which intensify on addition of

(ii) Br–
MnO2.
– Violet pungent fumes evolved which intensify on
2. Conc. H2SO4 (iii) I
addition of MnO2 and condense as black.
– Light brown vapours with pungent smell and intensify
(iv) NO3
on addition of Cu turnings.
Colourless, odourless gas burns with blue flame at the
(v) C2O42–
mouth of test tube and turns lime water milky.
BaCl 2 SO 42– White precipitate of BaSO4, insoluble in conc. HNO3.
C 2H5OH and 3–
BO 3 Green edged blue flame of (C2H 5)3 BO3.
conc. H2SO4
3.
Conc. HNO 3 and
PO 43– A canary yellow precipitate of (NH4)3PO4.12MoO3.
(NH 4)2MoO4
Sand and –
Waxy white deposit of silicic acid i.e. H4SiO4 or Si(OH)4.
F
conc. H2SO4
Identification of Acid Radicals

Group : I
Group acidic radicals : CO32–, SO32–, S–2, NO2–
Group reagent : dil. HCl or dil. H2SO4
ANALYSIS OF BASIC RADICALS
Group - II :
Group - II is categorised as group-IIA and Group-IIB. The ions of this group do not react with HCl but precipitate
with H2S in dilute mineral acidic medium.
152 Principles Related to Practical Chemistry Rapid Revision & Formula Bank
The Group-IIA sulphides of these cations are insoluble in ammonium polysulphide. The Group-IIB sulphides of
these cations are soluble in ammonium polysulphide.
Group-IIA Group-IIB
(i) Mercury (II) ion (i) Arsenic (III) ion
(ii) Bismuth (III) ion (ii) Antimony (III) ion
(iii) Copper (II) ion (iii) Tin (II) ion
(iv) Cadmium (II) ion (iv) Tin (IV) ion
Group-III :
Group-III cations do not react with dil. HCl or with H2S in dilute acidic medium.
Group-III cations precipitate with ammonium hydroxide
(i) Iron (III) ion
(ii) Aluminium (III) ion
(iii) Chromium (III) ion
Group-IV :
Group-IV cations form sulphides with H2S in presence of NH4OH, these sulphides are insoluble in NH4OH.
(i) Zinc (II) ion
(ii) Manganese (II) ion
(iii) Cobalt (II) ion
(iv) Nickel (II) ion
Group-V :
Group-V cations give precipitate with ammonium carbonate in presence of NH4Cl in neutral or slightly alkaline
medium.
(i) Barium (II) ion
(ii) Strontium (II) ion
(iii) Calcium (II) ion
Group-VI :
Group-VI cation reacts with Na2HPO4 to form precipitate
(i) Magnesium (II) ion
(ii) Sodium (I) ion
(iii) Potassium (I) ion
(iv) Lithium (I) ion
Group Zero :
Group zero cation i.e. NH4+ reacts with NaOH to give NH3 gas
Rapid Revision & Formula Bank Principles Related to Practical Chemistry 153
Group Group Reagent Basic Colour and Composition

Radicals of Precipitate
+
1. Dil. HCl Ag AgCl — White
+2
Pb PbCl2 — White
2+
Hg2 Hg2Cl2 — White
+2
2. H2S in presence Hg HgS — Black
+2
of dil. HCl Pb PbS — Black
+3
Bi Bi2S3 — Black
+2
Cu CuS — Black
+2
Cd CdS — Yellow
+3
As As2S3 — Yellow
Sb+3 Sb2S3 — Orange
+2
Sn SnS — Brown
+4
Sn SnS2 — Yellow
+3
3. NH4OH in presence Fe Fe(OH)3 — Reddish Brown
+3
of NH4Cl Cr Cr(OH)3 — Green
+3
Al Al(OH) 3 — White
+2
4. H2S in presence Mn MnS — Buff
+2
of NH 4OH Co CoS — Black
Ni+2 NiS — Black
+2
5. (NH4)2CO3 in presence Ba BaCO3 — White
+2
of NH 4OH Sr SrCO 3 — White
+2
Ca CaCO 3 — White
+2
6. Na2HPO4 Mg Mg(NH4)PO4 — White
+
Zero NaOH NH 4 NH3 gas


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Chapter 1

Some Basic Concepts

For atoms 1 gm atom

For molecules 1 gm molecule

For ions 1 gm ion

Moles can be calculated in following manner :

Weight of substance (in g)

Weight of substance (in g)

Volume of gas at NTP (in litres)

Number of atoms / molecules / ions

(Avogadro constant is equal to 6.022 × 1023).

Molecular weight of acid

Molecular weight of base

Molecular weight of salt

n-FACTOR OR VALENCE FACTOR

It can be represented as bX aY Pr oducts

Molecular weight Atomic weight

Weight of substance (in g)

= Normality (N) × Volume (V) (In litre)

EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULA

Weigh Weigh Calculate moles Calculate C : H Calculate

% of free SO3 in Oleum

H2 SO4 SO3 H2O H2SO4

 Percentage labelling -100 

MEASURABLE PROPERTIES OF GASES

Note : 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg = 760 torr = 1.01 105 Pa

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

Partial pressure of a gas = Mole fraction of that gas × Total pressure

no. of moles of gas

By Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

Note : P (moist) = P (dry gas) + P (H2O vapours)

GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION

Effect of Pressure on Rate of Diffusion :

KINETIC THEORY OF GASES

Based on Kinetic-Molecular Theory

u2 = Mean square velocity

DISTRIBUTION OF MOLECULAR SPEEDS

Note : urms : uav : ump : : 1.732 : 1.596 : 1.414 : : 1.224 : 1.128 : 1

Hence, urms > uav > ump

Maxwell Boltzmann's curve

(2) Critical pressure (Pc) :

(3) Critical volume (Vc) :

Vm = Volume of one mole of gaseous molecule.

(5) Boyle's temperature (TB) :

(7) Excluded volume (b) :

TYPES OF CUBIC UNIT CELL

Number of atoms Total number Radius of

r+/r– Geometry Co-ordination Example

STRUCTURE OF SIMPLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

(ii) This structure has 6 : 6 coordination number.

BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL

The Energy of Electron

Total energy (E) = K.E. + P.E.

E = Energy of electron in nth orbit

For H-like atoms. Thus rn = r1 × n2

Number of revolution per second (Frequency)

(iii) n2 – n1 when electron returns from n2 to n1.

DUAL NATURE OF MATTER : de-Broglie Equation

where = de-Broglie wavelength

(d) de-Broglie’s equation and K.E.

1s 1s 2s 2s { 2px = 2py} 2pz { 2px = 2py} *2pz

1s 2s 2s 2s 2pz { 2px = 2py} { 2px = 2py} *2pz

1s2 1s2 2s2. 2s2 2p 2x , 2p 2y 2p 2z * 2p x , * 2p y *2pz