UNIT w®

SIG NAL GENERATORS

SIA GROUP

PART~A
SHO RT QUE STIO NS WIT H SOL UTIO NS
Q1. Explain the necessity of signal generators. ~-- -~~ ---- -~- ---~ --
Ans:
Model Paper-II, Q1(c)
Signal generators plays an important aspect in electronic development. These
finds a wide applications in various fields
~~
.
l. Testing of radio receivers and transmitters.
2. Po:,ver is used as source for measuring the parameters like gain, bandwidth,
ratio etc. Signal-to-Noise ratio (SIN), standing wave
3. Research laboratories.
4. Calibration of frequency respons in amplifiers.
s. Evaluating the electronic devices7at sll!all powers. •
Different types of signal generators are function generators, pulse generators,
sweep generators, pulse frequency generators,
oscillators etc. Generally, oscillators are sine-wave generators that are used
in audio frequency and radio frequency ranges.
Oscillators are most commonly used electrical and electronic equipment which
provides only a sinusoidal output signal. At
particular frequencies, these converts a signal from D.C source into A.C source.
Q2. What are the requirements of a signal generator?
. . .
Ans:
The requirements of ~ignal generators are common to all ot~er_signal generat
ors. They are,
l. The frequency signal must be stable at a wider range of frequencies i.e., from
Hertz to Giga Hertz.
2. It has controllable output amplitude, whose range is variable over small values
to larger v~lues. This can be adjusted by
using attenuators in the circuit.
3. The output signal of a signal generator should be free from distortion.
4. Jhe stability corresponding to the amplitude and frequency should hold good_
even with the changes in temperature.
Q3. Write short n~tes on fixed frequency AF oscillator.
Ans: . '
Model Paper-Ill, Q1(c)
Many instrument circuits contain oscillator as one of its integral parts to provide
output signal within the specified fixed
audio frequency range. This specified audio frequency range can be l kHz signal
or 400 Hz signal. The 1 kHi frequency- signal
is used to excite a bridge circuit and 400 Hz frequency signal is used for audio
testing. A fixed frequency AF oscillator employs
an iron core-transformer. Due to this, a positive feedback is obtained through
the inductive coupling placed bet;ween the primary
winding and secondary winding of the transformer and hence fixed frequency
oscillations are generated.
Q4. Write short notes on variable frequency AF oscillator.
Ans:
It is a general purpose oscillator used in laboratory. It generates oscillations
within the entire audio frequency range i.e.,
from 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This oscillator provides a pure, constant sine wave output
throughout this AF range. The examples of

-
variable AF oscillators ~sed in laboratory are RC feedback oscillator, beat frequen

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QS. MentJon few specifications of AF oscillator (sine and square wave).

Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(d)

Few specifications of AF oscillator (sine and square wave) are as follows,

(i) Power required: 7 W o.t 220 V, 50 Hz

(ii) Frequency range: 10 Hz to l MHz (Variable over 5 decades)
(iii) Amplitude of sine wave: 5 mV to 5 V (r.m.s value)
E
(iv) Amplitude ofsquare wave: 0 V to 20 V (Peak value)
(v) Square wave symmetry: 30% to 70%
(vi) Low output impedance: 600 .Q {Taken from push pull amplifier).
Q6. Mention the appllcatlons of function generators.
Ans: ' I

The applications of function generator are as follows,

(i) Function generator is used to test the bandwidth of the 3:udio frequency amplifier. This process is known as "square wave
testing".
(ii) Function generator acts as source in the alignment of receivers.
(iii) Function generator plays an important role in the trouble shooting different an~log and digital circuits.
Q7. What la the Importance of shleldlng In RF generators and why it is done? ' J

Ii
Ans:
The RF signal generators are well shielded to prevent any leakage. This leakage is produced when the A.C signal is fed
to the amplifier input present in the RF generator because the level of oscillator is much greater than the A.C signal supplied to
amplifier input Thus. this leakage causes errors in the measurement and the result are inaccurate. To obtain accurate results this
leakage ex.ceed a value of 20 dB below the required signal power.

Thus to prevent this leakage, the RF signal generator along with its associated circuit is kept in a completely shielded box.
The leakage from the ventilating or shaft holes can be reduced by attaching metal tubes which form cut-off wave guides.
Q8. What la the need for Inserting Isolation between signal generator output and oscillator in signal generator?

Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(c)

An oscillator of a simple signal generator needs to be isolated from the output of the signal generator because ahy variations
in the load (output circuit of signal generator) will affect the output characteristics (i.e., amplitude, frequency, etc) of an oscillator.
Usually, the frequency of an oscillator should be very stable when the oscillator is operating~at high frequencies of the order of
MHz, because even a small variation in the frequency will give rise to errors. Hence, an isolation of 20 dB or more (ba~ed upon
the type of oscillator circuit) should be introduced between oscillator and signal generator·output.

Q9. What do you understand by sweep generator.

Ans: Model Paper-Ill, Q1(d)

· Sweep generator is a type of signal generator, which generates a sinusoidal voltage signal whose frequency varies (swepts)
continuously over a known frequency range. · .
Sweep generator consists of a Voltage Tuned Oscillator {VTO) and a ramp voltage gen~rator. The output frequency of a
VTO can be varied by varying (tuning) its input voltage. The output of ramp generator is applied as input to the VTO. When a
ramp voltage is applied to the VTO, the output frequency ofVTO sweeps from low to high frequency over the frequency range ·
of ramp signal, as the instantaneous value of ramp signal increases from zero to its final value. ·
f . l \l f
Sweep generator is usually employed for analyzing the frequency response of amplifiers, filt~s, etc.

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 t.JNIT-2 Signal Generators 2.3
QiO, What is meant by arbitrary waveform?

· jns: Model Paper-I, Q1(d)

Arbi~rary waveform can be defined as a waveform which does not have a particular predefined shape or characteristics.
The amplitude andJrequen_cy ?~ an arbitrary waveform vary in a random manner. An arbitrary waveform may possess periodicity
at some times and non-penodicity at other times. It may also include transients, noise components etc.
An arbitrary waveform can be generated by superimposing either noise or-D.C offset voltages upon a standard signal or by
. troducing gaps between waveform bursts or by performing various modulations (such as amplitude, frequency, phase modula-
:~ons) on a standard signal.
Arbitrary ~aveform~ are used as test signals to determine whether the test equipment is functioning prope~ly and also _to
detect any faults if present m the equipment. In this respect, arbitrary waveform is applied as input to the test equipment and its
response is analyzed as the arbitr,u-y waveform progresses through the eqt1ipment.

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_ _•_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __::E~LE~C:_:T_::R:_O~
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PART-B
SOLUTIONS
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH ,l

•2.1
AF, RF SIGNAL GENERATqRS
Q11. What i t block diagram.
s a standard signal generator? Explain with a nea
Ans•
.
Stnndard d controllable voltages is known as a standard . ·~
-~
Model p,.P

gcncrntor. Signal Generator: A signal generator that generates known an 81 &lla1

The block· d'iagram of a standard signa~ · · th e fioure below.

generator is shown m 0

Range:;, :;; Frequency

I I

RF
oscillator

Wide-band Output
amplifier attenuator
ExtemaJ
oscillator
Modulation
oscillator
' '
''
0 ''
I
..!. '
Modulation % mcxlulation
frequency
Figure: Standard Signal Generator
Thi.1 ha:.ic l·kmcnts ofa conventional standard signal generator are RF oscillator, wide-band amplifier and output attenuator. ,
An A11111I it11dc Modulutcd (AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM) signal can be obtained at the output of the generator through
a 11\ll~lulut10n c11cu1t (cxtcrnul osc11lutor and modulation oscillator). The modulation of the carrier frequency is indicated by a
,nckr , 'rht· c:111ic1 fh•qucncy c:un he modulated with either a sine wave, triangular wave, pulse wave or a square wave.
An osl·all:1101 whkh prnducl'!i u constant output over al)Y frequency range such as a highly stable RF oscillator employing
011I C innk crrcut1 is usc.'d to gl.'nl.'r:itc a carrier frequency. The frequency of oscillations of this carrier wave/signal can be adjusted
hy 1lw frcqul·ncy r.rngi: l'<lnttnl ,111tl the \:Cmrer dinl settmg.
'I ht' c'\INnnl oseill:rtor or an inil·mal sine wa\'e generator can be used for Amplitude Modulation (AM) of the carrier signal.
1 he ll\l\dt1l:1tilm prooe,s is c:uried out in .in output amplifier circuit. The modulated carrier is then fed to the output attenuator.
F1 nnlly, the le, d of the output, oltngc can be read through an output meter. ~

The.• Ii cqul.'ncy :-.tabilit~ dl·JX·ncb on the dcsign of the LC tank circuit of the RF oscillator. As the frequency range switching is
,tl•hit,•, l'<i rhrough selection ofsppropriate capacitors, the instrument requires some time to stabilize at the new resonant frequen~Y·

In high frequency oscill:uors. the oscillator circuit should be isolated from the output circuit so that the oscillator
lhnrnctcristics such as ampli_tude, .frequency distonion etc , are not affected by the changes taking place in output circuit. Buffer
.unplifii:r:. sre used for such isolnt10n purpose.
The sumdard signal generator ~s mostly us~d in test~g of 1:3dio receivers and tr~nsmitters. They are also used as a power
source for the measurement ofproperties such a gam, bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio (SIN) standing wave ratio etc. _____,-
Q12. Discuss the operation of AF sine and square wave generator in detail.
Ans:
As. th e name suggest an AF sine. and square wave generator produces either sine wav tput It ernpJoye 3
e or square wave ou · ent
Wein bridge oscillator, sme wave amplifier, square wave shaper, square wave amplifier and attenuator. The schematic arrangeI11
of these blocks is shown below. ____..;

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_j_
 Signal Generators
2.5

Sine wave
umplifier Attenuator

Wein bridge
o~eillator

Square wa ve Amplifie r
shaper square wave Attenuator

Figure: Block Diagram of AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

The Wein ?ridge oscilla~or operates effectively in audio frequency ranges.
It produqes oscillations whose _fre~uency can
be varied ~y ~arymg th e capacita~ce value of the capacitor of the oscillator.
Also the frequency yalue can be vaned _m steps _by
switching m different value~ ofresi stors ..The oscillations of wein bridge oscillat
or are applied to either sine wave amphfi~,r or sme
'wave shaper through function key. When the key is connected to position 1,
the output oscillations are connected to s~e wave
amplifier and then t~ attenuator. ~ere[o re, the oscillations are amplified and
then attenuated and a pure sine wave is av.aliable at
the output. Depe nd rng on the requirement the amplitude of this sine wave'can
be varied from 5 mV to 5 V (r.m.s value).
When the key is connected to position 2, the oscillations are applied to square
wave shaper which converts the oscillations
into square wave. The square wave signal is amplified and then attenuated and
finally appears as pure square wave at the output.
The amplitude of the square wave can be varied from 0 V to 20 V (peak value).
This generator produces output in the frequency range of 10 Hz to 1 MHz and
it requires power of7 Wat 220 V, 50 Hz. The
front panel of the instrument contains,
. .
(i) ON/OFF switch.
(ii) Frequency Multiplier: To choose the frequency range ovet 5 decades
(from 10 Hz to 1 MHz).
(iii) Amplitude Multiplier: To attenuate sine wave output in 3 decades (x
1, x 0.1 and x 0.01).
(iv) Amplitude : To continuously attenuate the amplitude of square wave output.
(v) Variable Amplitude : To continuously atJenuate the amplitude of sine
wave output.
(vi) Frequency Selector : To select different ranges of frequencies and to vary
the frequ~ncy in a ratio of 1: 11.
(vii) Function Key : To select either square wave or sine ';ave output.
(viii) Symmetry Control : To adjust the symmetry of square wave from 30%
to 70%
(ix) Sync : To synchronize the internal signal with external signal.
Q13. Discuss in detail about RF signal generators operation.
Ans:
RF Signal Generator: A Radio Frequency (RF) signal generator generates
a sinusoidal wavet:orm whose frequency lies irl the
radio frequency range (i.e., 100 kHz to 40 GHz). An RF signal generator is made
up of the elements such as RF oscillator, amplifier,
calibrated attenuator and an output level meter. The block diagram of RF signal
generation is shown in the figure (1) below.
The main element of RF signal generator is the RF oscillator because th!s
element produces the oscillating signal. RF
oscillator is provided with continuous frequency control and frequency range
switch ~o as to obtain a radio frequency signal of
desired frequency,
Output level meter

RF i--__._ ~ Calibrated I-----<> Output (RF signal)

1 - - - ~ Amplifier anenuator
oscillator

--.. Figure (l): Block Diagram of RF Signal Generator

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2 ..6 ELECTRONIC MEASURIN_G INSTRUMENTS [JNTU-HYDERABADJ
The oscillating output of the oscillator is applied to the cali,brated attenuator through the amplifier. An output level m";'
is connected between the amplifier and a_ttenuator as shown ir1 the figure (1). The voltage applied to the •attenuator is set to er
certa.in calibration point with the help of an output amplitude control provided in the amplifier circuit. Whenever the oscillati a
frequency is changed, the output voltage level must be reset to the calibration point in order to make sure that the ·output voltaon
. ge
Ieve Is .md'teated on the calibrated attenuator are correct.
There are two types of oscillators that can be used in RF signal generator. They a,e,
(i) Hartley oscillator
(ii) Colpitts oscillator
The circuitry of these oscillators consists of an amplifier circuit and ~ phase-shifting feedback network. The amplifier
amplifies the input signal as well as shifts the phase of.the signal by 180°. The output of the amplifier is fed back to its input
terminal through the feedback network. The feedback network is so designed that it attenuates the amplified signal and shifts the
phase of the inverted signal by further 180°. Thus, an overall phase shift of360° is achieved. In this manner, the oscillator-exhibits
sustained oscillations as the oscillator circuit meets the following two requirements.
(i) Loop phase shift of 360°
1
(ii) Loop gain of I [since, Gain of amplifier ]
Attenuation of feedback network

❖• The phase shift network of Hartley oscillator consists of two inductors and one capacitor connected in 7t configuration.
❖ The phase shift network of Colpitts oscillator consists of two capacitors and an· inductor, as shown in the figure (3)
below. · •.
The circuit oscillates at resonant frequency of its phase shift _network. Hence, the oscillating frequency is equal to the
resonant frequency which is given by the following equation. . ·
/= 1 .
2n.JLrCr
Where, LT = Total inductance
CT = Total capacitance

BJT
amplifier Oscillating
stage output

~---------------------,
I
I
I
I
I

:' L,
I
I
I
I
~ Phase-shifting
I
I
' feedback network
I
I I

•---------------------'
Figure (2): Hartley Oscillator ·

BJT
amplifier Oscillating
stage output

I
L :
I
I •

c1 c2:
T '-----=--....J
_____________________ ,
T~ :
I
I
I
Phase-shifting
feedback network
•

Figure (3): Colpitts Oscillator

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f 11'-2
s·gnal Generators
I
. 2. 7
.
uN With re 5 pect to construction a d . .
14-
·
.., sine wave generator. n circuit configuration explain how a square wave generator differs
0 ,
frO•"
Mo.del Paper-Ill, Q4
,,,s: Th . .
r G oerator: k d"e crrcuit confi01,r f f . . • ·1 ·
,t111 ve e ci ..... a Ion o a sme wave generator consists of Wern bndge osc1 lator, sme wave amp 1·fi
1 er
· e" Th bloc iagram of ·
-
SI~ attenuator. e stn
a e wave generator is shown in figure (1).
~~
oscillator
.
Sine wave
Attenuator 1----+--
I\ I\
amplifier V V
0utput

Figure 11): Block Diagram of Sine Wave Generator

Wein bridge oscillator _produces an oscillating output which is usually a sinusoidal (sine) wave. Thus, half of the ope~a-
. of a sine wave g~nerator Is done by the Wein bridge oscillator. The frequency of oscillations of this oscillator can be vaned
uonvarYing its capa~1tance and thus a sine wave of desired frequency can be generated. The remaining elements of sine wave
bY erator i.e., amphfier and_attenuator are used as signal conditioners to condition the output of Wein bridge oscillator in rd er
gen •ma sine wave of desrred amplitude.
°
w~ -
square W~ve Ge~era~or: Th~ circuit configuration of a square wave generator consists of the basic elements of a sj.ne wave
generator (i.e., Wern bnd ge oscillator, attenuator) and square wave shaper and square wave amplifier. J;igure (2) shows the block
diagram of a square wave generator. ·
Wein bridge
oscillator
Square
wave shaper
Square wave
amplifier Attenuator 1-----
Output
-9:A:r
•
Figure 12): Block Diagram of S_quare. Wave Generator

Asquare wave is obtained by feeding the sinusoidal output of the Wein bridge oscillator to the square wave shaper circuit.
Toe square wave shaper is usually a sine-to-square wave converter. The square wave is further processed through square wave
amplifier and attenuator in order to obtain a square·wave of desired amplitude. The frequency of the square wave can be varied
by varying the oscillation frequency of Wein bridge oscillator.

Q15. What is the need for inserting isolation between the signal generator output and oscillator in a simple
signal generator? What are the different ways in which this can be achieved?

Ans:

Need for Isolation

For answer refer Unit-II, Q8.
The different ways to achieve an isolation of 20 dB or more between oscillator and signal generator output are,
1. Setting the attenuation of attenuator to 20 dB or more ..
2. Introducing an isolation amplifier between oscillator ~nd attenuator.
1. Setting the Attenuation of Attenuator to 20 dB or More: In a signal generator the output of the oscillator is attenuated
by feeding it to a variable attenuator, in order to obtain a signal of desired amplituqe (or power level). So, if the attenuator
is set to provide and attenuate the oscillator output by 20 dB or more, an isolation of 20 dB will be produced between the,
oscillator and the load. ·
2. Introducing an Isolation Amplifier between Oscillator and Attenuator: In this method of achieving isolation, the
oscillator output is amplified by certain amount using a buffer ~pli_fier. Consecutively, it is attenuated by same amount
?Y a fixed attenuator before feeding the oscillator output to the vanable attenuator of the signal generator. In this way
isolation is achieved without any change in the signal level of oscillator output.
To achieve an isolation of 20 dB or more, a 10 dB gain isolati~n amplifier followed by a 10 dB fixed attenuator is introduced
between the oscillator and variable attenuator as shown in the following figure. The gain of the isolation amplifier and thus
the attenuation of a fixed attenuator depends on the amount of isolation required and also on the attenuation of the variable
-----:,_ttenuator.
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50dB 60 dB 50dB "J
~ I¼ £\7 ~
O scillator
- Isolation
amplifier

lOdB
~
Fixed
attenuator

IOdB
- Variable
attenuator

15 dB
Output

-:----------- ------------- ~F~ig~u:r :_e_ _ _ _

-
Q16 · W hat are the precautionary measures to be taken m · 1 generator application?
:---::-=-::=:-::=~:;:=:~=~---------.. I
a signa '
Ans:
· f generator is
· an ·mstrument,
· • types Of waveforms .such as
A s1gna which can produce vanous . .d sine wave
d . ' square Wave ...
angular :wave, th . . · ty f waveforms 1t 1s w1 e 1y use m appl" . '•!
saw-too wave, pulse trams etc. A~ 1t c~n generate a vane O . . . . _1cattons ~
1
electronic _troubleshootin~ and development, testing the·performance of electroruc equ~pments etc. In such applications a si&nll
generator 1s used to provide known test conditions (i.e., desired signals of known amphtu d e a nd frequency).
Hence, the following precautionary measures should be taken while using a signal generator for an application.
1. The amplitude and frequency of the output of the signal generator should.be made stable and well known.
2. There should be provision for controlling the amp_litude of signal generator output from very small to relatively large ·
values. ·
3. The output signal of generator should not contaiii any distortion and thus, it should possess very low harmonic contents. ·
4. Also, the output of the signal generator should be less spurious.

2.2 SWEEP FREQUENCY GENERATOR "'

Q17. Draw the block schematic of a sweep frequency generator and expl~in its working.
Ans: .(Dec.-11, Set-4, Q6(a) I Model Paper-11,04) .

An instrument whose output is a sinusoidal voltage that varies over a complete frequency band (generally at an audio rate)
slowly and continuously is referred as sweep generator. · •
Marker Display H-sweep Output control
output voltage 0
'
,:
,
Marker Sweep Level control
generator generator circuit

Manual frequency
contro RF master Oscillator and amplifier Output
attenuator

o,,
I
I

l
Range switch

0: Output
- - - • vohage
Figure: Block Diagra"l of a Sweep Generator
10
The frequency sweeper supplies variable modulating voltage to the RF master osc - t d · lifier circuit. pu~cr
.
this the capacitance of this osc1·uator c h anges. ·The approxrmate
. . 111a or an amp frequev
. . ·
value of sweep rate is around 20 / ond. The (be
al h . sweeps sec
sweeper also supphes a vary~g sweep vo 1tage sign . to onzo~tal deflection plates a cathode ray oscilloscope. There fore,
amplitude of the output ~fthe mstrument under test will be locked and displayed 00 the CRT.

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,.. .
2
.

Signal Generators 2.9

~~ . - .
., ~ marker generator supplies half · . . . . . . ange
H•e · k . . smusoidal signal to the oscillator at any range of frequencies with m the S\\'.eep r ·
, Also the output of_mar er i~ comb~ed with the sweep voltage of the cathode ray oscilloscope at alte~ate cycles of the sweep.
,. • finally 1t appears superimposed h, . . h t
,n,erefore, . on t e output wav.e. The manual frequency .control penmts to adJ ust t e resonan
JJ' f the RF osci 11ator. The autom f 1 • • I
kequencY ~ . . a ic evel control circuit acts as closed loop feedback circuit, measures and contro s
,i.e Rf Jeve
J.I • J at certam pomt. It also mainta ·
.
th f· · ·
ms e power de ivered to circuit under test or load at constant and mdependent o t e f h
u• . in the impedance and frequency Th d , · · 'd t
ariat1ons , . . . · e,a vantage of maintaining the power level at constant pomt 1s to provi e constan
Y ut calibrat10n with frequency and to avoid any source mismatch
~ .
:,..--H0 w broad band sweep freque · .
Q18, .. ·. . . ncies generated usmg a sweep generator?

•"': .
May/June-13, (R09), Q3(a)

The broad or wide band frequencies can be gene~ated using a sweep gen.erator. The wide band sweep generator is shown
. figure below. · · ·
Ill ·

Fixed oscillator
(400 MHz)·

Mixer , - - - ~· Low-pass ·
' fiher Amplifier Attc,muator
~• l

Vohage
controlled oscillator RF output
400-700MHz
-· r.

Linearizing
circuit
Sweep
vohage---:----1

Sweep voltage ·
generator

Figure: Wideband Sweep Frequency Generator

The ~ide band sweep frequency g~nerator consists of two oscillators. One is voltage c~mtrolled oscillator which provides
the oscillating frequency of 400--700 MHz and the_other _is fixed ?scillator which provides 400 MHz oscillating frequency. The
generator maintains the sweeping frequency in the ratio .of2: 1. The frequenq of the sweeping oscillator is chosen above the widest
sweep width. The gener1l:tor also comprises of low pass filters 'amplifier, pin diode attenuator, automatic level control, linearizing
.circuits ;md a swe~p voltage generator. The oscillating frequencies from the two oscillator is mixed together and produces O- 300
MHz frequency signal. These high frequencies .from the oscillators are difficult to mix which are in mega hertz. The difference
output fro~ the mix.er is fed ·to the low·pass filter, amplifier and then attenuator where it allows low frequency signal, amplifier
. i_t and the~ reduces the amplitude to a desired level within few decibels. An Automatic Level Control (ALC) is provided in the
~ircuit which adjpst the output amplitude of the pin diode _att~nuat?r a~tomatically. . , '

· . The line~izing circuit in the generator is required when there is a linear comb~ation of the two si~als. It is generally a
circuit
.
consisting
. .
li~ear
. .
elements and the values of tlie linear.elements
.
does not vary with the level of voltage or current.
. .
2.3 PULSE ~ND S~UARE ·WAVE GENERATOR
•·. Q1~..· oraw the block ·sche~atic of .a pulse and sq~are wave generatqr an~ explain its working.

: Ana: . (May/June-12, Set-2, Q5(a) I Model P.aper-111, Q5)

\. ::,' , S<i1:13re' w~~e

and p~lse·gen~rat~rs .along with CRO used as ~e~su~ing_ instrui:nents. rhe output of these give quantitative
as we~ as qualitative information about the instrument under test. The basic difference between square wave generator and pulse
,.. generato~ is to concern with ratio of pulse width to the puls~ period i.e., duty cyc~e. • .
r . . ~ , .. •

· :·.........___· · The d~ty_cycle.of a square wave generator is 50% ~nd the duty cycle of a pulse~generator varies between 50% to 95% .
. ,'.

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2.10 INSTRUMENTS [JNTU:HYDt:,
ELECTRONIC
MEASURl~N=G Amplitude
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- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - ,0
,, ,,

Symmetry
COJllTQJ
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: ',\,
' '

:
'' . ...
,----
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Sclurutt
r---~•- - i Uppcr constant son O\ltpui
, ·current source trigger

''
'
'
Frcqucocy
Sw11eh1ng
,---------~ Trigger
''
control crcuit '' '' ,,,,D polarity
'' -~Ampliraeq-:
·--... :
Ramp_
:: - - - - ,
:, Synchronous Trigger output
_ _ _ _ Lower constant
current source
.c~pacttor

-----------
: ...__ _ __
circuit circuit

Synchronous
input

Figure (1): Block Diagram

II
Upper constant1-----, ---------------------- :
current source .'
'
'
''

o---.----i Schmitt trigger I - - - ' - - -

12 Ramp cap:1citor

I
Lower constantt--.._~
current source

Figure (2): Basic Generating Loop

Capacitor
vohage \'c

Schmitt
trigger
output

Figure (3): Output Waveforms

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 Signal Generators 2.11
uN1r- 2 .
:..--;;ure (1) shows the blo~k diagra~ of the laboratory type of square and pulse generator. This generato~ can be operated as
ee-ruJllling gener~tor. The b~s1c ~eneratmg loop of this generator is shown in figure (2). It contains two constant cm:ent sources,
fr . pie current switch, sclu~utt tngger, ramp capacitor. The upper current source provides constant current for chargmg the ramp
as1:citor. As the ramp -~a~ac1to~ charges, the ramp voltage increases linearly. As soon as the positively increasing ramp approaches
c~~deterrnined_upper limit that _is set by the_i~ternal elements of the circuit, the schmitt trigger ch~ges from one state to ~nother.
P e schmitt trigger can .be a bt~t~ble mult1v1brator. When the sch.mitt trigger changes its state, its output goes to negative, the
'fh nt switch reverses its condition and the ramp capacitor discharges linearly. Now the lower constant current source controls
cu_rr~jscharging rate. As soon as the negative ramp voltage approaches the predetermihed lower level, the sch.mitt trigger comes
~::k to its original state. Thus, the complete process will be repeated and negative pulses are pr?duced at the output at a constant
rate.
The output of sch.mi~ trigger_ i~ applied to the 600 Q and 50 Q output amplifier. ·The trigger output circuit inverts the output
of sctunitt trigg~r and provide~ po_s1~1ve triggering pulse. The output of sch.mitt trigger is applied to t~e 600 .Q and 50 .Q output
aJllplifier. The tngger output crrcuit mverts the output of sch.mitt trigger and provides positive triggenng pulse.
The duty cycle of ~utput waveform is determined by the ratio of current 11 to current 12 and is controlled by the setting of
sytninetfY control. The dial of freque~cy c~ntrol circuit controls the sum of 11 and 12 by providing control vo_lta~es to. the base
terminals of ~e current control transistors m the current sources. Toe ramp capacitor size is chosen by multipher s:witch. The
(llultiplier swttch and frequency control provides decade switching and the frequency range of this generator is covered m 7 decade
S(
from 1 Hz to 10 MHz).
steP:..:.---.---:---~-:----------------------------
Q20. List the various controls on the front panel of t~e pulse generator and mention their uses.
Ans: May/June-13, (R09), Q3(b)

The various controls on the front panel of the pulse generator is shown in the figure below.

Memory card

Display
-
>--
'

-
Data entry Cursor keys Knob >--
keys
<>◊<>
>--

□□□□□
Soft keys
DODD
DODD
DODD
◊ ® >--
.,_
>--
,__
@ ~

Line switch Ext Strobe Trigger

@
Input
©
Out
@
Out u
Output channels

Figure: Controls on Front Panel of Pulse Generator

The controls of the pulse generator and their functions are listed b~low.
1. External Input: It is a clock and a trigger. It enables signal period generation. It controls the average random rate. The
trigger slopes can be selected as positive or negative using external input.
2. Memory Card: The memory card is also known as mass storage device which stores the gener~ted output signal. The
flash memory card is used in some pulse generators for making custom test patterns.
3. Knob: The knob control examines the selected parameter. It adjusts the frequency .to a desired hertz.
4, ·Cursor Keys: These keys selects the parameter. It enters the data into the generator. It also vary the delay.
5,
Data Entry Keys: These keys selects and also changes the parameter. The data to the generator may be through the numeric
keys or by the spinner knob.
6,
Strobe Output: This control is used to produce a trigger signal. It is a TTL default output which extends the width of the
pulse.
7
· Trigger Output: The output froro the trigger output control is a voltage levels (i.e., 0 for high and- 0.6 fox low). It delays
--.. the inpl!t from external input to trigger output. .
SPE .
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2.1 2
. £ t anel of the pulse generator which is used
8. Output Channels: Minimum two output chan 1 ovided on the ron P to
ne s arc ~r d ne ,
delay the resolution . Jittering from channel-to-cha
nnel is a1so
O
·
9. Display: The graph of the generated output
. . dis la ed on the display (LED rea d ou t) .
pulse rate is p y
10. · ·
Line Switch: This switch is used for timin The widths between few nano or micro seconds are produced usin
g purpose. . I g
either RC networks or switched delay lines. .
,
2.4 FUNCTION GENERATOR
. . .
.
Q21. Draw the bloc k sche mati c of func nt and expl ain its prin ciple and work ing.
tion gene rato r '" strume
• . · May/June-12, Set-3, Q4(a)
OR
. . • f
Exp·lain in detail abo ut the prin ciple and work ing O a f u nctio n gene rato r.
Nov./Dec:•12, (Rll9), Q2(a)
Ans:
An instrument which provides different .type .· fre uenc values can be varie d and adjusted
s of waveforms wh~se q over a
· 1 y A function generator commonly produces
wide range (from a hertz to severa hundred kil Oh rt ) · £ rred as function genera1or.
e z is re e . .
sawtooth wave. T_he block diagram represen taf
sine wave, square wa_ve, triangular wave and fa func tion generator 1s
below.
ion ° shown

~-... _Up per constant Voltage

current source comparator
External
C multivibrator

Output
Frequency control Li
l-'-.c. .1...- Integrator ~-'- +-- ---- --< J amplifier
network
ri Output
amplifier

Resistance diode QJlSu

Lower constant shaping circuit
' - - - ~ current source

Figure: Function Generator

The above shown device is designed to prod
uce sine, square and triangular waves in the
frequencies. The frequency control network range of 0._01 Hz ~o 100 kHz
is governed by the voltage applied externally
front panel of the device. The output of frequ or the frequ ency dial prov ided on the
ency control network (or frequency controlled
sources i.e., upper constant current source and volta ge) regulates the ~o current
lower constant current source. Th_e upper :o~s
of constant magnitude to the integrator circu tant c':111"ent sourc~ provides c~en t
it. Therefore the output voltage of mtegrator
lmearly mcre ases with respect to time
and its output voltage is given by the following
equation.

eout =--C1Ji dt
I

0
When the output current of the upper current
source increases, the slope of the integrator
vice versa. As the positive slope of the outpu outp ut "olta ge decreases and
t voltage of the integrator reaches a predeterm
'multivibrator c,hanges its state. This causes ined level , the volta ge comparator
the output of upper current supply to the integ
lower· current source supply to the integrator rator to cut-o ff and switches on the
. Now, the lower current source provides a
to the integrator. Therefore, the output voltage reverse curre nt of cons tant magnitude
of integrator linearly decreases with respect
output voltage of the integrator reaches a pred to time. As the nega tive slope of the
etermined level, the voltage comparator inult
state which causes the output of lower current ivibr ator switc hes back to its previous
supply to the integrator to cut-o ff and switches
Therefore, the voltage waveform appears at the on the uppe r curre nt source supply.
output of integrator is triang1,Jlar and its frequ
of current produced by the two current sources. ency can be know n by the magnitude

The output of voltage comparator multivibrator

is square wave ·who se frequency is same as
The output of integrator which is triangular wave that of the triangular wave.
is given to the resistance diode shaping circu
the triangular wave into amplitude changes and it. This circu it alters the slope of
provides sine wave of <1 % distortion at the
output.
The output section of this instrument contains
two output amplifiers. Thes e amplifiers prov
mon g the three individually and simultaneously ide two selec ted wavefonns
. ,

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 Signal Generators 2.13
~rJl'f· 2
~ .
2.5 ARBITRARY WAVEFORM GENERATOR .
,..,z,
w
What is meant by arbitrary wa~eform? Discuss with a neat block diagram the working df a arbitrary
waveform generator..

~~s: •
. arr waveform
;.rb1tr
for answer refer Unit-II, QlO.

bitrary W . aveform
. . Generator: ~
· . . It is aw aveiorm . generates waveforms based on d.ig1·taI data store d m
· RAM ·
generator which
;.r • ·
'f}Jisd1gtta J data gives the detail mformati·
. . f h · · ' . · · h
ono t econstantlyvarymgvoltagelevelsofanA.Csignalwit ou orwi t 'th D C
· conten·t
'fhe basic block diagram of arbitrary waveform generator is shown in below figure. . .

From- Clock
external clock

Memory
From- address
external trigger control

W,aveform random
access memory

Shift register

Digital to · Analog output

Output
analog converter circuit

InternaVexternal
noisl;l source

Figure: Block Diagram of Arbitrary Waveform Generator

11). this type of waveform generator, digital data is stored in waveform random acc~ss memory. In this type, a cathode ray
oscilloscope is used to measure a waveform in which the data·is sampled. A digital to analog c~nverter sho_wn in figure, is used
to read back the memory locations an~ feeding the data points thereby reconstructing the signal at any time. ·
From Nyquist sampling theorem we know that,
1
f s =2:Im

Where, f. = Sampling frequency

0

fm ·= Maximum frequency comp onent of the saitlpled signal

. If the above condition is satisfied then we can achieve better fidelity. Therefore; the details of the needed ~ignal discovered,
which requires as many points as necessary for digital data stored in RAM. Usually, the stored data points are read by arbitrary
waveform generator whose frequency limits are specified..But, the instrument can operate at a finite maximum frequency. Usually,
.~perating frequency or sample rate of this instrument is ·specified in terms ofMsamples/s or Gsamples/s. ·
'Q2 3. With neat sketch explain the operation of video signal generator.
Ans:
Model Paper-II, Q5

. , Video signal generator is a multiformat anaiog and digital precision signal platform. It generates video signals directly. It
~o~signed such that, it should be able to produce simp_le geo?1etric patterns ~o~zontal an~ vertical bars, cross-hatch, checkboard,
etc., at the output. A simple block diagram of a video signal generator 1s illustrated m figure. .
SP , ~
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 ELE CTR ON IC ME AS UR ING INS
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~A D]
Coot xol
switches
-
Vertx :al (mH )
bar ge:ueatm ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----
(rwl tvb" ator, ---- --- SW1
.--- "1 divider and
• puk esh a~
a:cw l)

;--
1
Freq uenc y I

cootrol Cros s batch

: I

and :
Chec ker ----------------1
boa.rd pattc m '
~
(nV)
~toe ·-·
'
B.b.Pkmgand bar gc:ocatoc
gatm gpok cs {ml kivi ntm.
cliv man d
wpiD g i--
crcu i;) ---------------------------- -----------,:
.: I

: I
F~
Com posil e
'
~-- SWs
caottol
sync

SWl = Vertx:al bars

Paucmv.idco swl =Crosshatch
Bla.okng Sync hrono us SW3 =Checkerboard
signa l
and ptm g Mas ta g,enei:atioo SW4 = Ho,;m:,ut1l bars
pike and
oscillator and delay SWs = White; bar I
gc:ncr.uor syncbr<DCUS
circu it adder

Figure: Simplified Block Oiag(am of Vide

o Signal Generator
lt comprises two stable chains of mul
ti vibrators, dividers and pulse shaping
master oscillator, synchronous generat circuits, blan king and gati ng puls e gene
ion and delay circuit, pa~ ern video sign rator,
board pattern generator of the two stab al and synchronous adder,.c ross hatc
le chains of multivibrators, dividers h an.d chec ker
frequency and generates a series of hori and pulse s_haping circuits one ope rate
zontal bars whereas the other operate s belo w the line
bars. The duration of generated signals s above 156 25 Hz frequency and gen
is modified into short and then supp erat es vertical
the synchronous pulse tr,:1in. Therefore, lied to th~ video sect ion of the rece
fine lines are produced on the screen. iver alon g with
of squar.e wave at m times the horizon The multivibrators pro vide vide o sign
tal frequency in order to generate m al in the fonn
triggered after every m cycles by the hori vertical blac k and whi te bars. The mul
zontal blanking pulses, in order to-sync tivi brat ors are
of the multi vibrators can be changed by hronize the bar signal on eve ry line. The
cha ngin g the control provided on the frequency
in modulators frequency the number front pan el of the patt ern generator.
of bars on the screen are changed. Wit h the change
The second set of mult ivibrators are trigg
ered by the pulses of square wave deri
When they are triggered, a second set ved from 50 Hz mains of the mas ter osci
of multivibrators generates square wav llator.
these are supplied to the video amplifie e vide o signal at n time s the vert ical
r horizontal black and white bars are freq~ency. When
bars on the screen can be changed by prod uce d on the screen. The num ber
varying the switching rate of the mul of horizontal
v!deo signal is produced on the screen, ti vibr ator with the help of potentiometer.
when the bar pattern signal is cqm bine A composite
vide o adder before supplying to the mod d with the syn chro nou s and blan king
ulators. puls es in the
J?ifferent_~ther patterns are generated
by ope ratin g the switches mH and nV
The van ous pos1hons of the switches on the sign al path "of two sets ofmultiv
and the resulting display on the scre ibrators.
en are exp lain ed in the table.
·
Combination of Switch Position
Dis play on the ~cr een
1. Both switches mH and nY are ON.
l. Cro ss-h atch patt ern is prod uce d
2. Bot h switches mH and nV are OFF.
2. Bla nk white rast er is prod uce d.
3. Onl y the switch mH is ON.
3. Vertic~l bars are prod uce d ..
4. Onl y the switch nV is ON.
4. Hor izon tal bars are prod uce d.
Table: Switch Position and the Resulting
Display
L
OO
k for the 51 4 GR OU P LOGO '1(i on the · Tll"LE CO VE R bef ore
you buy
-
 .,. Signal Generators 2.15
uNI ,· 2 .
~ vertical bar pattern can be u d . . · used to
. I linearity and the b
se to check and set the horizontal linearity whereas the honzontal bar pattern IS
cneck vertica se ars should be placed throughout the screen equally for linearity.
Th e cross-hatch pattern is used fi h . · nd
t' th or t e precise adjustment of linearity It can also be used to check picture entenng a
spect ratio byhco~nllmg . e number of squares on the horizontal and verticai sides of the screen. The pattern generator can be
a check t e 10 owmg, .
used to . . .
(i) Spurious osc1llations in the sweep '
(ii) Poor interlacing
(iii) Barrel and pin cushion effects
(iv) Interaction between two oscillators.
~ Explain the principle, working and applications of arbitrary waveform generators and video signal
generators. .
,\ns: Dec.-11, Set-3, Q7
Mbitrary Waveform
For answer refer Unit-II, QlO.
Princip~e of Arbitral1'. Wavef~rm. Generator: The arbitrary waveform generator operates on the principle of Direc_t Dig~tal
synthesis (DDS) techniqu~, which is used to generate arbitrary waveforms. The direct digital synthesis is a process m which
digital to analog conve~or is used to convert the digital store waveform into an analog waveform. This in turn followed by a low
pass filter and an amplifier for a resultant output. ·
Working
. For answer refer Unit-II, Q22.
Applications
I. It is useful to generater more complex waveforms.
2. Used for verification and design in communications.
3. Pulse generations.
4. Read/Write designs in disk drives.
Principle of Video Signal Generator: Video signal generator is one type of signal generator, which operates on the same principle
of signal generator with with some added features. The video signal generator is used to generate the video signals and is helpful
in aligning, testing, verifying and servicing of a T.V receiver, T.V transmitters and 'also needs recorders.
For remaining answer refer Unit-II, Q23.
Applications
1. Calibration of the display parameters.
2. Analysis and testing of audio processing and picture processing units.
3. Maintenance of CCTV installation systems.
4. PTZ controller.

2.6 SPECIFICATIONS
025. Give the specifications and typical values of AM/FM signal generators.
Ans: (Dec.-11, Set-4, Q6(b) I Model Paper-I, Q5)
The specifications of AM/FM generators are listed below,
1. Input supply voltage 230 V A.C ± l 0% 50 Hz
2. Operating frequency range l 00 kHz to 260 MHz in eight ranges
3,
Modulation
(i)
Internal modulation
(a) Modulating frequency l kHz, 400 Hz selectable
AM Upto 80% adjustable
FM Dev. 0 - 100 kHz adjustable at 260 MHz

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(ii) External modulation
---....:."~I
'\
(a) Modulating frequency
50 Hz to 20 KHz
AM 0% to 80% AM
FM 0 - l00kHzFM
Level 15 V~ - P
4
· Frequency indication Digital, 6 digits, 0.311 LED
5
· Output voltage 100 mV max lnto 75 Q
6
~ ~•)R~O~u~tp~u~t~c~o~ntr~o~l~:----:----:...:~O~dB~~/!_l~O~dB~x:;2;an~d~fi~n~e;co~n~tr;o~l;;;;;tM:-j•;;trL;;~:it~--- --..____
Q26 . , . . . enerator instrumen . . '
· Give the specifications and typical values of a function g May/June-12, Set. c. •
2
• ~"Ill
OR
. · . tor instrument.
Give the specifications and typical values of function genera ·
Ans: May/June-12, Set-3
' Q4(bl
Parameter Specifications
1. Output waveform Sine wave
(i)
(ii) Square wave
(iii) Triangular wave
(iv) Ramp up
(v) Ramp down
2. Frequency characteristics
(i) Sine wave ➔ 10-3 MHz
(ii) Square wave ➔ 10-3 MHz
(iij) Triangular wave ➔ 10-3MHz
(iv) Ramp signal ➔ 10-3 MHz
3. Resolution ➔ 10-3 MHz
4. Accuracy ➔ Less than 50 PPM
5. Sine wave harmonic distortion ➔ Upto 100 kHz: ·_ 50 dB typical
6. Square wave distortion I 00 MHz : - 40 dB typical
7. Overshoot ➔ Rise time/ Fall time:< 35 ns
8. Linearity ➔ 1%
9. Power consumption ➔ Less than 35 ns
10. Jitter ➔ Less than 0.1 %
11. Operating environment ➔ 30 .Q (AtrrEpcxyE)
12. so x, 80% pEAcxnmE rruµioi-nv.
0

----~~-:-:;.~;;;;;;;;~::--;;~ :-::-:--:::::-:----------___., .,
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