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INSTALLATION EFFECTS ON STRESS AND GRADING AROUND DISPLACEMENT

PILES IN SAND

Conference Paper · March 2021

DOI: 10.1680/pttc.65048.271

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 INSTALLATION EFFECTS ON STRESS AND GRADING
AROUND DISPLACEMENT PILES IN SAND
M. O. Ciantia1*, C. O’Sullivan2 and R. J. Jardine2
1
University of Dundee, School of Science and Engineering, Dundee, UK
2
Imperial College, Dept. Civil and Environmental Engineering, London, UK
* Corresponding author

ABSTRACT A 3D discrete element model (DEM) is used to model earlier calibration chamber experiments that investigated the responses
seen when highly instrumented model displacement piles were installed in Fontainebleu sand. The crushable DEM particle model was
calibrated against earlier laboratory element tests. The impact of particle breakage on the piles’ behaviour is investigated and it is shown that
monotonic and cyclic jacking lead to similar tip resistance trends. The DEM analysis predicts experimental measurements of the stresses
developed in the sand surrounding the piles during and after penetration realistically. It also allows micromechanical features to be examined
that are hard to detect using experimental or continuum numerical methods. Grain crushing is observed below the pile tip and the analysis of
particle stresses and force chains highlight how arching develops around the shaft. Circumferential force chains form around the shaft during
the unloading stages of each jack stroke. Comparison between analyses that consider crushable and uncrushable grains indicates that particle
crushing induces more marked stress relaxation close to the shaft and more marked circumferential arching.

1. Introduction and Wang, 2015). DEM analyses of dynamic penetration

problems have also been reported (Zhang et al., 2018; Zhang
The reliability of driven pile design in sand has been improved and Evans, 2019) as have simulations of penetration in
through the use of CPT based effective stress approaches such crushable media (Ciantia et al., 2016; Zhang et al., 2019),
as those set out by Jardine et al. (2005) or Lehane et al. (2005). pressurised grout injection (Boschi et al., 2020), and screw pile
While these methods aim to capture the radial stress and shear installation (Sharif et al., 2019; 2020; Brown et al. 2020).
stresses developed on the pile shafts, they cannot consider the
full effective stress regime developed around such piles and so This paper describes some results of novel 3D DEM
shed light on the factors that control features such as the piles’ simulations by Ciantia et al. (2019a) that: a) are validated
cyclic loading responses, strong shaft capacity growth over against experimental observations of the stress fields set up by
time, or the interactions between groups of such piles see pile penetration; b) employed to test the hypothesis that arching
Jardine (2013), (2020). forms around the pile shafts; c) examine the impact of cyclic
jacking and particle crushing on the piles’ micro-and macro
Calibration chamber experiments (Tehrani et al., 2018) and mechanical behaviour. A computationally efficient DEM
centrifuge tests (Bolton et al., 1999; Coop et al., 2005; Klotz crushing model was employed to capture the load-deformation
and Coop, 2001) have highlighted the intense stress behaviour of the sand at high stresses, including grain crushing
concentrations that develop below the pile tips, and also shown during one-dimensional compression (Ciantia et al., 2015) and
that pile geometry and driving cycles affect the final stress shearing (Ciantia et al., 2019b). Parallel simulations involving
regime. Particle breakage, which is known to affect sands’ crushable and unbreakable grains reveal how crushing
mechanical behaviour significantly (Lade et al., 1996) also accentuates stress relaxation close to the shaft and facilitates
occurs during driving. Physical tests with highly instrumented arching. Additional insights are given through analyses of the
piles and calibration chambers have identified aspects of the incremental radial dis-placements particles experience over
evolution of ground displacements and stresses around each jacking cycle. The calibration chamber experiments
penetrating piles (Arshad et al., 2014; Doreau-Malioche et al., adopted as a benchmark to test the simulations are those
2018; Jardine et al., 2013a; White and Bolton, 2004; White and conducted at Grenoble 3S-R, as reported by Yang et al. (2010),
Lehane, 2004). These programmes have also provided Jardine et al. (2013a), (2013b) and Rimoy et al. (2015) in which
benchmarks to test continuum modelling approaches for highly instrumented, 36mm diameter, 1m long, model piles
penetration problems (Gens et al., 2016; Monforte et al., 2017; were jacked into dense, pressurised, Fontainebleu NE34 sand.
Phuong et al., 2016), including treatments that consider particle
breakage (Zhang et al., 2013, 2014). 2. DEM particle crushing model
The discrete element method (DEM), which considers The crushable grain model of Ciantia et al. (2015,2019c) was
individual soil particles and their interactions explicitly, can be employed for the DEM analyses. The model’s particle failure
used to study large displacement contact problems and so criterion follows Russell et al. (2009): particles crush when any
provide fundamental insights into the mechanisms that interparticle contact force reaches the limit
underlie macroscopic behaviour (Santamarina, 2003). DEM
2 3
has been applied to model monotonic 2D steady pile 3 1−𝜈𝜈12 1−𝜈𝜈22 1 1 3
penetration (Huang and Ma, 1994; Jiang et al., 2014) as well 𝐹𝐹 ≤ 𝜎𝜎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 ∙ 𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹 = �𝜎𝜎𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝜋𝜋 � � + ��� + �� � (1)
4 𝐸𝐸1 𝐸𝐸2 𝑟𝑟1 𝑟𝑟2
as 3D cases (Arroyo et al., 2011; Butlanska et al., 2014; Zhang

1
where σlim is the limit strength of the material and AF is the simplified Hertz-Mindlin contact model with the pile shear
contact area, which is re-cast using Hertzian theory for smooth modulus (Gpile) and Poisson’s ratio (νpile) set to 85 GPa and 0.2
sphere contacts. ri (i=1,2) are the radii of the contacting spheres respectively.
and Ei, νi are the Young’s Moduli and Poisson’s ratios
respectively. To incorporate experimentally observed grain Figure 1 a) Schematic diagram of experimental
variability into the model, the limit strength, σlim, is assumed calibration chamber and region considered for
to be normally distributed for given sphere sizes. A particle numerical analyses. (b) 3D view of DEM model and
size dependency is also introduced to capture the relatively corresponding contours (c) of porosity and (d) mean
higher strength of small particles. Once the crushing limit effective stress p′.
condition is reached, the spherical particles split into smaller
inscribed tangent spheres. The crushing model was
implemented in PFC3D (Itasca 2016). The model parameters
employed, as listed in Table 1, were obtained in an extensive
calibration to match the Fontainebleau sand’s response.

Table 1 Calibrated model parameters for Fontainebleau

sand grains (Ciantia et al. 2019b)
d50 µ G ν σlim,0 m
mm - GPa - GPa -
0.21 0.275 9 0.2 1.9 10
d0 var dcomm /d50 dmax dmin Dloc
mm - - mm mm -
2 0.36 0.55 0.27 0.01 0.05
d0, dmax and dmin are a reference, maximum and minimum particle size
respectively, dcomm is comminution limit, var is the coefficient of variation of
the normal distribution, m is the Weibull modulus controlling size effects and
Dloc is local damping used in the simulations.
a) b)
3. Model setup soil initial conditions
Figure 1(a) presents a schematic diagram of the instrumented
model pile tests, after Jardine (2019). As indicated, the DEM
model represents only the inner core of the chamber. As
detailed in Ciantia et al. (2019a) an upscaling factor of 39 was
applied to the sand grain sizes, while, maintaining the
normalized shape of the Fontainebleau particle size
distribution curve. This allowed the analyses to proceed with
four orders of magnitude fewer particles than in the
experiments and led to a computationally feasible initial
number of 442,335 particles (Figure 1(b)). In the present
analyses the crushing law used is scalable to avoid obtaining
the unrealistic results that would emerge if scaling was not
considered. The calibration chamber (CC) instrumented pile
tests were performed under a no-strain, low friction, radial
lateral boundary condition. The experimental CC dry sand
mass had an initial porosity n=0.382. The DEM CC was filled
using the radius expansion method as described by Ciantia et
al. (2018). In the DEM model, the top (frictionless) horizontal
boundary was servo-controlled to apply the experimentally
applied vertical stress level (150 kPa) while the (frictionless)
base wall was fixed as in the experiment. The exterior
horizontal stress was adjusted to match the experimentally c) d)
observed initial value of 76 kPa through a radial wall servo-
control, giving a final average porosity of 0.383 and a mean 4. Pile penetration results
effective stress p′=101 kPa (Figures 1(c and d)). The pile shaft
and tip were modelled using rigid frictional cylindrical walls
4.1 Macroscale results
with the interface friction coefficient set equal to the critical Figure 3(a) presents results from both the monotonic and the
state value (tanδ =0.5) measured in interface ring-shear tests cyclically jacked DEM simulations, along with fitted-depth
(Yang et al. 2010). The particle-pile contacts employed a penetration curves. The cyclic and monotonic DEM numerical

2
simulations follow similar trends, suggesting that the cycling generally good agreement as the pile tip penetrates, which
process has little influence on the end bearing capacity qc, as becomes less satisfactory match once the tip has penetrated 50
found in the calibration chamber experiments by Yang et al. mm below the measurement point. The latter discrepancy may
(2010). However, when crushing is disabled the cone qc be due to the DEM contact model being softer than is seen
resistance rises 50% above that the approximately 20MPa limit experimentally (Ciantia et al. 2019a). The stress evolution
found with crushable DEM grains. These results are combined around the pile tip is further explored around the shaft by
with those from other published DEM and experimental studies considering the spatial variations of 𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟′ , 𝜎𝜎𝜃𝜃′ and 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧′ in Figures 4
and plotted as qc (uncrushable particles)/qc(crushable) versus and 5 (normalised by qc) covering the penetrating and
initial relative density in Figure 3(b). The analyses described (unloaded) pause conditions respectively. Overall, the DEM
herein conform with the trends from the earlier experimental predictions agree with the trends of the experimental contour
studies and DEM simulations cited above. plots given by Jardine et al. (2013b).

Figure 2 a) End-bearing capacity qc versus penetration, Figure 3 DEM and experimental (Jardine et al., 2013a)
comparing DEM (raw data and fitted curve) and FEM normalised radial stresses measured at r =2R for three
(Zhang et al., 2014) (steady state qc = 21 MPa) different depths in the sand mass (20cm, 50cm and
predictions with experiments (Yang et al., 2010), while 80cm from the top boundary) as the pile is installed.
part and b) illustrates effect of crushability on tip
resistance qc (Ciantia et al., 2016).

Figure 4 Illustration of DEM stress predictions

normalised by qc during penetration. Experimental
contours are reported in Jardine et al. (2013b).

4.2 Normal stress distributions

Figure 3 compares the experimental and DEM outcomes for
the sand masses’ radial stresses 𝜎𝜎𝑟𝑟′ considering measurements
made at r=2R (R=pile radius) and three depths below the sand
surface during the push phases of jacking cycles, showing
3
Figure 5 Illustration of DEM stress predictions Figure 6 Particle crushing location during pile
normalised by qc during zero-load pause periods. penetration represented as % of crushing events with
Experimental contours are reported in Jardine et al. respect to tip position.
(2013b).

Figure 7. DEM breakage distributions corresponding to

three penetration depths.

4.3 Particle breakage and grading evolution

Figure 6 provides a representation in h/R, r/R coordinates of
the positions at which particle breakage events are predicted in
the DEM analyses of pile penetration. The DEM model
predicts that most crushing occurs close to the conical pile tip,
within a volume described by a triangular, convex shaped,
solid of revolution with characteristic length of about 1.5R. In
line with the experimental evidence mentioned above, no
crushing is predicted at distances 5R or greater below the tip or
above the pile tip shoulder. The crushed fragments are first
pushed away from the axis and then move back towards the
shaft after the tip passes, as observed experimentally by Arshad
et al. (2014) and Doreau-Malioche et al. (2018). The crushing
profiles corresponding to three penetration depths are depicted
in Figure 7, showing similar profiles to those obtained in Galvis-Castro et al. (2019) suggested that a constant thickness
crushable grain FEM analyses by Zhang et al. (2013). Both of the crushed particle band width would provide indirect
numerical approaches capture the experiment trends reported evidence that particle crushing occurs principally below the
by (Yang et al., 2010) and predict that the crushing-influenced pile tip during installation. While Figures 6 and 7 support the
zone is mainly confined close to the shaft. Yang et al (2010) latter hypothesis, Yang et al (2010) observed in their
report that breakage ratios Br=0.2 applied within their most experiments that the crushed sand became concentrated into
highly crushed Zone 1, which extends over the 1< r/R <1.6 annular areas that adhered to the piles’ shafts as penetration
range from the pile axis, with ratios of 0.09 and 0.07 ratios continued, forming ‘crusts’ whose thickness grew gradually
applying in their more distant Zones 2 and 3 respectively. The with h/R. Yang et al (2010) argued that surface shear abrasion,
necessary particle scaling and the resulting limited number of which is not captured in the DEM analysis, fed this growth and
particles make it difficult to distinguish such zones from the note that similar ‘fractured sand crusts’ have been observed in
DEM analysis, as the sampling volumes are too small to give the field around piles driven in sands. Yang et al (2010) and
representative results. Nevertheless, analysis of Figure 17 Jardine (2019) argue that such abrasion and the very large
shows average Br ratios of 0.22 in the 1< r/R <2 and 0.09 over number of load cycles applied during field driving contribute
the 2 < r/R < 3 range that match the experimental findings. additionally to the shaft radial stresses continuing decay at
However, Zhang et al’s (2014) continuum FEM simulation larger h/R ratios, which has yet to be captured by published
captures the spatially varying evolution of Br better than the FEM or DEM analyses.
DEM treatment.
4
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