Reciprocating CHAPTER 2

RECIPROCATING ENGINE
OPERATION,
MAINTENANCE,
INSPECTION, AND
OVERHAUL
INTRODUCTION
As a powerplant technician, you must be able to operate, maintain, inspect, and overhaul aircraft engines.
Performing those tasks requires you to develop the ability to determine when an engine is running normally and
when engine performance is deteriorating. In addition, you must acquire the knowledge to effectively
troubleshoot engine problems, then perform the necessary repair work. Furthermore, you are required to be
proficient in special skills and processes that are commonly used during an engine overhaul. Therefore, the
following information is provided as a foundation to your future experiences in the operation, maintenance,
inspection, and overhaul of reciprocating engines.
ENGINE OPERATION, MAINTENANCE,
AND INSPECTION
OPERATION ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION

As an aviation maintenance technician, you must A basic understanding of how engine instruments
be thoroughly familiar with the procedures for work is an important part of the knowledge you
operating a reciprocating engine from the cockpit. must have as an engine operator and
This includes understanding the engine troubleshooter. Part of this knowledge includes
instrumentation, ground run procedures, and safety knowing how to interpret the instrument markings
items associated with starting and running an so you can comprehend how an engine is
aircraft engine. A good place to begin is with the performing. Instrument markings establish
location and movement of the engine controls. To operational ranges as well as minimum and
aid in this process, all modern aircraft are equipped maximum limits. In addition, the markings allow
with standardized engine controls. [Figure 2-1] you to distinguish between normal operation, time
limited operation, and unauthorized operating
Once you are familiar with the engine controls, you conditions. Engine instrument range markings are
should locate each of the engine instruments. In based on limits found in the engine's Type
addition, you should locate and read all placards Certificate Data Sheet. Traditionally, instrument
and other markings on or near the instruments. markings consist of green, blue, yellow, and red
Important engine operating information is lines or arcs and intermediate blank spaces.
displayed by the engine instruments and must be
monitored continuously during an engine run. Green arcs are the most widely used of all the
Therefore, you, as an engine operator, must be instrument markings and usually indicate a safe, or
skilled in the interpretation of instrument readings normal range of operation. Usually, the upper end
to prevent engine damage. of a green arc indicates the maximum limit for
continuous operation while the low end indicates
the min-
Figure 2-1. For standardization purposes, the primary engine controls are arranged from left to right beginning with the throttle, propeller
control, and mixture. In addition, each lever is color coded and uniquely shaped.
Reciprocating Engine Operation, 2-3
Maintenance, Inspection, and Overhaul
markings may be painted on the instrument glass.

If this is the case, a white line is used as an index
mark between the instrument glass and case. Any
discontinuity in the white radial line indicates the
instrument glass has moved. Since misalignment
between the glass and case renders the instrument
range and limit markings inaccurate and unreliable,
the glass must be repositioned and secured.
Now that you understand how to interpret the

markings on engine instruments, the following
discussion looks at some of the typical instruments
found on reciprocating engine powered aircraft. As
each instrument is discussed, it is important to
keep in mind that the performance limits of
individual engine models vary considerably.
Therefore, the procedures and operational ranges
that are used in this section do not necessarily
imum limit for continuous operation. Operation correspond to any specific engine.
within a green arc is typically not time restricted.
Blue arcs are used to indicate an allowable range

of operations under a unique set of circumstances.
For example, a blue arc may indicate an acceptable
fuel flow when flying above a specific altitude.
Blue arcs are rarely used and may only be seen on
certain engine instruments, such as the tachometer,
fuel flow, manifold pressure, cylinder head
temperature, or torque meter.
A yellow arc indicates a precautionary range of

time limited operation permitted by the
manufacturer. However, in some cases, a yellow
arc may be omitted on instruments if it is too small
to be clearly visible. When this is the case, the
manufacturer's instructions will specify a caution
range. Engine operation in the yellow arc is
typically an indication of an impending problem or
a warning to change an operational setting.
A red line indicates a maximum or minimum safe

operating limit. Operation beyond a red line
typically results in a dangerous operating
condition. In addition, other limits of a transient or
momentary nature may be indicated by a red
triangle, dot, or diamond mark. A red arc, on the
other hand, indicates a restricted operating range
where excessive vibration or other stresses could
endanger the engine or airframe.
The colored arcs and lines on engine instruments

are typically painted directly on the instrument
face. However, some older aircraft instrument
CARBURETOR AIR TEMPERATURE
Carburetor air temperature (CAT) is measured at

the carburetor entrance by a temperature sensing
bulb in the ram air intake duct. The sensing bulb
senses the air temperature in the carburetor and
then sends a signal to a cockpit instrument that is
calibrated in degrees Centigrade. The primary
purpose of a CAT gauge is to inform a pilot when
the temperature at the carburetor can support the
formation of ice. [Figure 2-2]
In addition to identifying the conditions necessary

for the formation of ice, excessively high
carburetor air temperatures can indicate the onset
of detonation. For example, if a CAT gauge has a
red line identifying a maximum operating
temperature, engine operation above that
temperature increases the chance of detonation
occurring.
Figure 2-2. The carburetor air temperature gauge
depicted above indicates that the danger of induction
system icing exists when the temperature is between -
15℃ to + 5℃
Observation of the CAT before engine startup and

just after shutdown provides an indication of fuel
temperature in the carburetor body. During startup,
this information can be used to determine if the fuel
is warm enough to support vaporization. On the
other hand, a high CAT after engine shutdown is a
warning that fuel trapped in a pressure-type
carburetor could expand and produce potentially
damaging fuel pressures. High CAT temperatures
after shutdown can also indicate the onset of vapor
lock, which is the formation of vaporized fuel
bubbles in a fuel line that interfere with the flow of
fuel to the engine. Any time high CAT readings are
observed after shutdown, the fuel selector valve
and throttle
2-4 Reciprocating Engine Operation,
fuel injection system.

should be left open until the engine cools. This
helps relieve fuel pressure by allowing expanding
fuel to return to the tank.
Information provided by CAT gauges can also be
useful in troubleshooting. For example, if severe
enough, backfiring may cause a momentary rise in
CAT. On the other hand, an induction fire would be
indicated by a steady increase in CAT readings.
FUEL PRESSURE
Some engines have a fuel pressure gauge that

displays the pressure of fuel supplied to the
carburetor or fuel control unit. Most fuel pressure
instruments display fuel pressure in pounds per
square inch (psi), and provide indications to the
pilot that the engine is receiving the fuel needed for
a given power setting. A pilot also uses fuel
pressure gauges to verify the operation of an
auxiliary fuel pump. [Figure 2-3]
One type of fuel pressure gauge uses a Bourdon

tube which is a metal tube that is formed in a
circular shape with a flattened cross section. One
end of the tube is open, while the other end is
sealed. The open end of the Bourdon tube is
connected to a capillary tube containing
pressurized fuel. As the pressurized fuel enters the
Bourdon tube, the tube tends to straighten.
Through a series of gears, this movement
Figure 2-3. The top fuel pressure gauge is typical for an

engine equipped with a float type carburetor. Notice the
minimum fuel pressure of approximately 0.5 psi and the
maximum of approximately 8 psi. However, the bottom
fuel pressure is mr e typical for engines equipped with a
Figure 2-4. As pressurized fuel enters a Bourdon tube,
the tube straightens and causes an indicator needle to
move. Since the amount a Bourdon tube straightens is
proportional to the pressure applied, they are often used
to indicate pressure.
is used to move an indicating needle on the

instrument face. [Figure 2-4]
Another type of fuel pressure indicator utilizes a

pressure capsule, or diaphragm. Like the
Bourdon
tube, a diaphragm type pressure indicator is
attached to a capillary tube, which attaches to the
fuel system and carries pressurized fuel to the
diaphragm. As the diaphragm becomes
pressurized,
it expands, causing an indicator needle to rotate.
[Figure 2-5] ,- -,
Figure 2-5. Pressure applied internally to a diaphragm

causes it to expand, thereby causing rotation of a sector
gear. The sector gear, in turn, rotates a pinion gear
which is attached to a pointer on a common shaft.
FUEL FLOW INDICATOR
A fuel flow indicator measures the rate of fuel an

engine burns in gallons per hour or pounds per
hour. This provides the most accurate indication
of an engine's fuel consumption. In addition, when
combined with other instrument indications, the
amount of fuel an engine burns can be used to
determine the power settings necessary to obtain
maximum power, speed, range, or economy.
[Figure 2-7]
On aircraft with a continuous-flow fuel injection

system, the fuel flow indicator measures the
pressure drop across the fuel injection nozzles to
determine fuel flow. This can be done because, as
you recall, fuel pressure in a direct fuel injection
system is proportional to fuel flow. With this type
of system, a higher fuel flow produces a greater
pressure differential across the injectors, and a
corresponding increase in fuel flow is indicated in
the cockpit. However, if an injector nozzle
becomes clogged, the pressure differential across
that nozzle increases, producing a false, or high
A third type of fuel pressure indicator uses a bellows fuel flow reading.
that is attached to a capillary tube. The advantage of
bellows over a Bourdon tube or diaphragm is its Another type of fuel flow measurement system
ability to provide a greater range of motion. The measures the volume of fuel flowing to an engine.
bellows inside the instrument case expands and This type of system is commonly referred to as an
moves an indicator needle as the fuel pressure autosyn system and incorporates a movable vane
increases. [Figure 2-6] that is in the fuel line leading to the engine. As
fuel flows through the fuel line, the vane is
Electric fuel pressure indicating systems are used displaced an amount proportional to the fuel flow.
when the distances between the engine and cockpit A spring force opposes the fuel flow and returns
become prohibitive for the use of capillary tubing. the vane to neutral when no fuel is flowing. The
Another reason for using electric fuel pressure vane movement is
indicators is to avoid bringing fuel into the cockpit.
Aircraft with electric fuel pressure indicating
systems typically use pressure sensors, or
transducers, that transmit electrical signals
proportional to the fuel pressure to the cockpit. An
electric fuel pressure gauge in the cockpit receives
the signals and displays fuel pressure information.
Figure 2-6. A bellows offers the advantage of a greater
range of motion than a Bourdon tube or diaphragm and,
therefore, is sometimes used with aircraft.
On aircraft with direct fuel injection or

continuous-flow fuel injection systems, fuel pressure
is measured as a pressure drop across the injection
nozzles. The pressure drop at the nozzles is
proportional .to the amount of fuel being supplied to
the engine as well as engine power output.
Therefore, the gauges in this type of fuel pressure
indication system may also be calibrated in
percentages of power as well as psi.
Figure 2-7. A typic jlays the number
of gallons or pounds per hour an engine consumes. In
the fuel flow gauge above, normal fuel flow is from 4.5
to 11.5 gallons per hour.
changes in temperature.
In addition to a fuel flow gauge, some aircraft are

equipped with fuel totalizers. A computerized fuel
system (CFS) with a fuel totalizer is used in both
reciprocating and turbine engine aircraft and
provides a pilot with a digital readout on the
amount of fuel used, fuel remaining, current rate of
fuel consumption, and the time remaining for flight
at the current power setting. Early totalizers were
mechanical counters that responded to electric
pulses, however, new systems utilize electronic
counters with digital readouts. Totalizer indicators
are usually mounted on the instrument panel and
are electrically connected to a flowmeter installed
in the fuel line to the engine. When the aircraft is
serviced with fuel, the counter is set to the total
amount of fuel in all tanks. As the fuel passes
through the metering element of the flowmeter, it
electrically transmitted to the flow indicator in the sends a signal to the microprocessor that
cockpit where an indicator needle indicates the fuel automatically calculates the amount of fuel
flow. remaining.
The movement of the vane must he linear to get an

accurate flow measurement. To do this, the
restriction created by the vane must get larger as
the vane increases its rotation. This increase is
calibrated into the design of the flowmeter sender
unit.
Because the volume of jet fuel changes

dramatically with temperature, the fuel flow on
several turbine engines is measured in terms of
mass rather than volume. A typical mass flow
system works on the magnesyn principle. The
system consists of two cylinders, an impeller, and a
turbine which are mounted in the main fuel line
leading to the engine. The impeller is driven at a
constant speed by a three-phase motor which is
powered by the aircraft electrical system. The
impeller imparts an angular swirling motion to the
fuel as it proceeds to the turbine. As the fuel
impacts the turbine, the turbine rotates until a
calibrated restraining spring force balances the
rotational force. The deflection of the turbine
positions a permanent magnet in a transmitter to a
position corresponding to the fuel flow in the line.
The position of the permanent magnet is then
transmitted electrically to a permanent magnet in a
receiver which positions the indicator needle in the
cockpit. This system is by far the most accurate
means of monitoring fuel flow because it accounts
for changes in fuel viscosity and volume caused by
MANIFOLD PRESSURE
A manifold absolute pressure (MAP) gauge

measures the absolute pressure of the fuel/air
mixture within the intake manifold. A MAP gauge
is used on all aircraft that have a constant-speed
propeller to indicate engine power output. Since
MAP directly affects a cylinder's mean effective
pressure (mep), a pilot uses MAP gauge indications
to set the engine power at a pressure level that will
not damage the engine. This is especially true for
aircraft with tur-bocharged engines because it helps
the pilot to avoid excessive manifold pressure.
[Figure 2-8]
Before an engine is started, the manifold pressure

gauge displays the local ambient, or atmosphere
pressure. However, once the engine is started, the
manifold pressure drops significantly, sometimes to
half the existing ambient air pressure. At full
power, the manifold pressure in normally aspirated
engines will not exceed ambient pressure, however,
in tur-bocharged engines the manifold pressure can
exceed ambient pressure.
A manifold pressure gauge consists of a sealed

diaphragm constructed from two discs of
concentrically corrugated thin metal which are
soldered together at the edges to form a chamber.
The chamber is evacuated, creating a partial
vacuum which can be used as a reference point to
measure absolute pressure. Depending on the type
of gauge, the
Figure 2-8. A manifold absolute pressure gauge displays
absolute air pressure in the engine's intake manifold in
inches of mercury. The green arc indicates the normal
operating range and the red line shows the maximum
allowable manifold pressure.
instrument, the pressure line from the manifold to

the instrument case must contain a restriction to
prevent pressure surges from damaging the
instrument. In addition, the restriction causes a
slight delay in gauge response to changes in
manifold pressure, preventing jumpy or erratic
instrument pointer motion. [Figure 2-9]
Some aircraft instrument installations provide a
purge valve that allows you to purge moisture that
collects in the pressure line near the MAP gauge.
With the engine running at idle, the purge valve is
opened for 30 seconds or more, then closed. When
this is done, the engine's vacuum creates a strong
suction through the purge valve which effectively
removes the moisture from the pressure line.
Figure 2-9. The differential pressure bellows of a
manifold pressure gauge measures the difference
between intake manifold pressure and a partial vacuum.
Whenever you run an engine with a manifold

pressure gauge, you should check the gauge for
proper operation. For example, before the engine is
started, the MAP gauge should indicate the local
atmospheric pressure. However, once the engine is
started, the MAP should drop. If this does not hap-
engine manifold pressure is either applied to the

inside of the diaphragm or to the outside of the
diaphragm. If the engine manifold pressure is
applied to the outside of the diaphragm, the
instrument case must be completely sealed. In
either case, when pressure is applied to the
diaphragm, the diaphragm movement is transmitted
to an indicator pointer through mechanical linkage.
Another manifold pressure gauge uses a series of
stacked diaphragms or bellows which are
particularly useful for measuring low or negative
pressures. In a MAP gauge, one of the bellows
measures ambient atmospheric pressure while the
other measures pressure in the intake manifold.
Differential pressure between the two bellows
causes motion, which is transmitted to the gauge
pointer through a mechanical linkage. Regardless
of which type of sealed chamber exists in the
Figure 2-10. The green arc between 75蚌 and 245蚌 on
this oil temperature instrument shows the desired oil
temperature range for continuous operation. The red line
is located at 245蚌 and indicates the maximum
permissible oil temperature.
pen, and the gauge continues to indicate

atmospheric pressure, the sense line between the
instrument and induction manifold may be
disconnected, broken, or collapsed. When engine
power is increased, the manifold pressure should
increase evenly and in proportion to the engine
power output. If this does not occur, the restriction
in the sense line is probably too large.
OIL TEMPERATURE
The oil temperature gauge allows a pilot to monitor
the temperature of the oil entering the engine. This
is important because oil circulation cools the
engine as it lubricates the moving parts. Most oil
temperature gauges are calibrated in degrees
Fahrenheit and sense oil temperature at the engine's
oil inlet. [Figure 2-10]
Most modern oil temperature systems are
electrically operated and use either a Wheatstone
bridge circuit or a ratiometer circuit. A
Wheatstone bridge circuit consists of three fixed
resistors and one variable resistor whose resistance
varies with temperature. [Figure 2-11]
Figure 2-11. A typical Wheatstone bridge has three fixed
resistors and one variable resistor. The temperature
probe contains the variable resistor, whose resistance
varies with the temperature of the oil flowing past the
probe. The bridge in the circuit consists of a
galvanometer that is calibrated in degrees to indicate
temperature.
When power is applied to a Wheatstone bridge the center of a permanent magnet air gap.
circuit and all four resistances are equal, no
difference in potential exists between the bridge
junctions. However, when the variable resistor is
exposed to heat, its resistance increases, causing
more current to flow through the fixed resistor R3
than the variable resistor. The disproportionate
current flow produces a voltage differential
between the bridge junctions, causing current to
flow through the galvanometer indicator. The
greater the voltage differential, the greater the
current flow through the indicator and the greater
the needle deflection. Since indicator current flow
is directly proportional to the oil temperature, an
indicator calibrated in degrees provides an
accurate means of registering oil temperature.
A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and

is more reliable than a Wheatstone bridge,
especially when the supply voltage varies.
Typically, a simple ratiometer circuit consists of
two parallel branches powered by the aircraft
electrical system. One branch consists of a fixed
resistor and coil, and the other branch consists of
a variable resistor and coil. The two coils are
wound on a rotor that pivots between the poles of
a permanent magnet, forming a meter movement
in the gauge. [Figure 2-12]
The shape of the permanent magnet provides a

larger air gap between the magnet and coils at the
bottom than at the top. Therefore, the flux density,
or magnetic field, is progressively stronger from
the bottom of the air gap to the top. Current flow
through each coil creates an electromagnet that
reacts with the polarity of the permanent magnet,
creating torque that repositions the rotor until the
Figure 2-12. A ratiometer temperature measuring

system operates with two circuit branches that balance
electromagnetic forces. One branch contains a coil and
fixed resistor while the other contains a coil and
variable resistor, located in the temperature sensing
probe. The coils are wound on a rotor which pivots in
magnetic forces are balanced. If the resistances of
the temperature probe and fixed resistor are equal,
current flow through each coil is the same and the
indicator pointer remains in the center position.
However, if the probe temperature increases, its
resistance also increases, causing a decrease in
current through the temperature sensing branch.
Consequently, the electromagnetic force on the
temperature sensing branch decreases, creating an
imbalance that allows the rotor to rotate until each
coil reaches a null, or balance. The pointer attached
to the rotor then indicates the oil temperature.
Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are

especially useful in applications where accuracy is
critical or large variations of supply voltages are
encountered. Therefore, a ratiometer circuit type oil
temperature sensing system is generally preferred
over Wheatstone bridge circuits by aircraft and
engine manufacturers.
Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor

pressure, or Bourdon tube type instrument. With
this type of instrument, a Bourdon tube is connected
by a capillary tube to a liquid filled temperature
sensing bulb. The bulb is installed in the engine's oil
inlet line where the volatile liquid in the bulb is
heated by the oil. As the liquid in the sensing bulb
heats up, the capillary and Bourdon tubes also heat
up. This causes the vapor pressure within the
capillary and Bourdon tubes to increase, which, in
turn, causes the Bourdon tube to straighten. The
motion of the Bourdon tube is then transmitted to an
indicator through a mechanical linkage.
OIL PRESSURE
The engine lubrication system supplies oil under
pressure to the moving parts of the engine. To allow
a pilot to monitor the effectiveness of a given
lubrication system, all aircraft engines are equipped
with an oil pressure gauge that is calibrated in
pounds per square inch. Since inadequate oil
pressure can lead to oil starvation in engine bearings
and excessive pressure can rupture gaskets and
seals, the oil pressure in most reciprocating engines
is typically regulated over a fairly narrow operating
range. [Figure 2-13]
Many oil pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube

because its design enables the gauge to measure
relatively high fluid pressures. The gauge is
connected by a metal tube directly to a point
immediately downstream from the engine oil pump.
Therefore, an oil pressure gauge measures the oil
pressure being delivered to the engine. To protect
the gauge
Figure 2-14. A typical cylinder head temperature gauge

consists of a relatively large green arc and a single red
line. The instrument above has a normal operating range
that begins at 200蚌 and peaks at a red line of 475蚌.
Figure 2-13. The oil pressure limits of 25 psi minimum

and 90 psi maximum on this gauge are representative of
a typical small aircraft engine. The normal operating
range of 60 to 90 psi ensures enough oil pressure to
protect bearing surfaces without rupturing engine seals
and gaskets.
from occasional pressure surges, most gauges have starts. For example, some aircraft manuals caution
a small restriction at their inlet. In addition, most you to shut down an engine after 30 seconds in
fittings that attach the oil line to the engine also warm weather or one minute in extremely cold
have a small restriction to limit oil loss in the event weather if no sign of oil pressure is present. Engine
the oil line breaks. shutdown in this case is a precaution taken to
prevent possible damage to an engine until the
One disadvantage of this type of oil pressure reason for lack of oil pressure can be determined.
indicating system is that it does not work well in On the other hand, excessive pointer oscillation
cold weather because the oil in the line between the typically indicates that air is trapped in the oil line
engine and cockpit gauge tends to congeal. The leading to the instrument or that some unit in the
congealed oil then causes false readings of either oil system is functioning improperly. In addition,
low or no oil pressure. This error can be minimized low oil pressure or fluctuations from zero to normal
by filling the oil line with a very light oil. are often signs of low oil quantity.
The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to

replace Bourdon tube pressure instruments with
electrical transmitters. This allows long oil filled
lines between engines and instruments to be
replaced with lightweight wire. In addition to
saving weight, electrical transmitters also provide
greater accuracy.
Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical

indicator of engine operation and should be
monitored frequently, especially during engine
CYLINDER HEAD TEMPERATURE
The engine temperature can have a dramatic
impact on engine performance. Therefore, most
reciprocating engine powered aircraft are equipped
with a cylinder head temperature (CHT) gauge that
allows a pilot to monitor engine temperatures.
[Figure 2-14]
Most cylinder head temperature gauges are

galvanometer-type meters that display temperatures
in degrees Fahrenheit. If you recall from your study
of electricity, a galvanometer measures the amount
of electrical current produced by a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is a circuit consisting of two
dissimilar metal wires connected together at two
junctions to form a loop. Anytime a temperature
difference exists between the two junctions, a small
electrical current is generated that is proportional to
the temperature difference and measurable by the
galvanometer. Typical dissimilar metal
combinations used are iron and constantan, or
chromel and alumel. Since a thermocouple
generates its own electrical current, it is capable of
operating independent of aircraft power.
The two junctions of a thermocouple circuit are

commonly referred to as a hot junction and a cold
junction. The hot junction is installed in the
cylinder head in one of two ways; the two
dissimilar wires may be joined inside a bayonet
probe which is then inserted into a special well in
the top or rear of the hottest cylinder, or the wires
may be imbedded in a special copper spark plug
gasket. The cold junction, or reference junction,
on the other hand, is typically located in the
instrument case.
Thermocouple instrument systems are polarized

and extremely sensitive to resistance changes
within their electrical circuits. Therefore, several
precautions must be observed when replacing or
combustion temperature, a pilot can use an EGT

gauge to obtain
repairing them. First, be sure to observe all

color-coding and polarity markings because
accidentally reversing the wires causes the meter to
move off-scale on the zero side. In addition, ensure
that all electrical connections are clean and torqued
to the correct value.
Thermocouple wiring leads are typically supplied
in matched pairs and secured together by a
common braid. Furthermore, the leads are a
specified length, matched to the system to provide
accurate temperature indications. The length of the
leads cannot be altered because doing so changes
their resistance. In some cases, the wiring leads are
permanently attached to a thermocouple,
necessitating the replacement of the entire wiring
harness and thermocouple if a wire breaks or
becomes damaged.
Simple CHT systems use a single indicator that
monitors the hottest cylinder. With this type of
system, overall engine temperature must be
interpreted in a general way. There are, however,
more complex systems which monitor each
cylinder and can be set to warn you when a
cylinder approaches its maximum temperature
limit.
EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

Figure 2-15. The fuel/air mixture can be set for best fuel
efficiency by using an EGT gauge and following the
aircraft checklist instructions.
Another performance monitoring instrument often
used in reciprocating engine installations is the
exhaust gas temperature (EGT) gauge. An EGT
gauge measures the temperature of the exhaust at
some point past the exhaust port. Since the fuel/air
mixture setting has a direct effect on the
the best mixture setting for fuel efficiency. A
typical EGT gauge is calibrated in degrees
Fahrenheit with 25蚌 divisions. [Figure 2-15]
Like the cylinder head temperature gauge, EGT
gauges also use thermocouples to sense
temperature. However, the thermocouple wiring for
an EGT is usually made from alumel and chromel.
Alumel is typically used as the negative lead, and
is enclosed in green insulation, while chromel is
the positive lead and is normally enclosed in white
insulation. The hot junction of an EGT
thermocouple is usually mounted somewhere on
the exhaust manifold and is directly exposed to the
exhaust gas stream. The cold junction, on the other
hand, is located in the instrument case.
EGT readings are commonly used to set the fuel/air
mixture for best economy and best power settings.
For example, leaning the fuel/air mixture to obtain
a peak EGT value indicates a mixture that results
in best economy and maximum endurance.
However, most engine manufacturers caution
against continuous operation at peak EGT with
high power settings. Depending on the engine
manufacturer's instructions, a common method of
setting best power is to adjust the mixture to peak
EGT, then enrichen it to approximately 25蚌 cooler
than peak EGT.
ENGINE ANALYZERS
Many reciprocating engine-powered aircraft utilize
some form of analyzer to monitor engine
performance. Cylinder head temperature gauges
and exhaust gas temperature gauges are used as
simple engine analyzers. A more complex form of
engine analyzer is known as an exhaust gas
analyzer (EGA). An exhaust gas analyzer operates
like automotive tailpipe emissions testers in that it
samples an engine's exhaust gas and analyzes its
chemical composition. From the information
provided by an analyzer, a pilot can adjust the
mixture for the most efficient operation.
It is often difficult to detect small changes on
engine instrument indications, yet it is critical for a
pilot to know if a system is operating abnormally.
Therefore, in addition to an engine analyzer, many
larger aircraft may be equipped with a system of
annunciator lights to attract the operator's
attention when a gauge indication leaves its normal
range.
TACHOMETER
An engine's crankshaft rpm is displayed by a
tachometer that is calibrated in hundreds of rpm.
The tachometer is a primary engine instrument
used extensively by a pilot to monitor engine
condition
Magnetic tachometers also utilize a flexible drive

shaft, however, a cylindrical magnet inside a drag
cup takes the place of flyweights. As the drive
shaft rotates the magnet inside the drag cup,
electromagnetic forces are produced which cause
the drag cup to rotate in the same direction as the
magnet. However, the drag cup is attached to a
spring which opposes the magnetic force of the
rotating magnet and allows the cup to rotate an
amount proportional to the rotational speed of the
magnet. [Figure 2-18]
When a flexible drive shaft is used to operate a

tachometer, the distance between the engine and
cockpit is a limiting factor. For this reason, electric
Figure 2-16. The tachometer is a primary engine instrument

which provides engine rpm indications. A typical tachometer
instrument face is calibrated in hundreds of rpm and has both a
green arc and red line.
and verify that the engine is developing the

appropriate rpm and power output for a given
throttle setting. Most tachometers are divided into
100 rpm increments and have a red line that
indicates a maximum rpm setting. [Figure 2-16]
There are four common types of tachometers;

mechanical, magnetic, electric, and electronic.
Mechanical tachometers were used on early
aircraft and consisted of a set of flyweights driven
by a flexible drive shaft through a set of gears.
The flexible shaft extends from the instrument to
the engine where it attaches to a drive gear in the
engine. As the drive shaft rotates the flyweights in
the instrument, centrifugal force pulls the
flyweights outward. This outward movement is
transferred to a pointer through a gear mechanism.
[Figure 2-17]
Figure 2-17. A mechanical tachometer consists of a set of
flyweights driven by a flexible shaft attached to the engine. The
outward movement of the flyweights is transferred to the pointer
and is proportional to the engine's speed.
tachometers were developed so instrument wiring

could be used in place of a drive shaft. A typical
three phase AC electric tachometer system consists
of a two or four-pole generator, sometimes referred
to as a tachometer generator, or tach generator,
mounted on the engine accessory case and a
synchronous motor inside the indicator. As the
engine runs, the tach generator produces an AC
voltage with a frequency that is directly
proportional to engine rpm. The AC voltage
produced drives the synchronous motor in the
indicator, causing it to turn at the same speed as the
generator. The synchronous motor spins a magnet
and drag cup
Figure 2-18. Magnetic tachometers utilize a rotating permanent

magnet and drag cup to provide rpm indications.
Electromagnetic forces generated by the spinning magnet are
balanced by a spring attached to the drag cup.
Figure 2-19. A typical electric tachometer consists of a three phase AC generator mounted on the engine accessory case and a
synchronous motor in the indicator. The tach generator is driven by the accessory gearing in a running engine and produces an AC voltage
at a frequency directly proportional to engine rpm. The synchronous motor in the indicator is, in turn, driven by the AC voltage from the tach
generator at the same speed, or frequency. The motor spins a drag cup assembly to move the instrument pointer.
assembly similar to that of the magnetic engine is identified by an "L." [Figure 2-20].
tachometer to provide rpm indications. [Figure
2-19]
Electronic tachometers, on the other hand, produce

engine rpm indications by counting electric pulses
from the magneto ignition system. A special pair of
breaker points in one of the engine magnetos sends
pulses to a module which uses digital circuitry to
convert the pulses to a voltage for powering the
tachometer instrument in the cockpit. As engine
rpm increases, pulse frequency and voltage
increase, causing the meter movement to register
increasing rpm.
A simple electronic tachometer is installed with

two electrical connections; one connection to
ground and one to a magneto. This type of system
depends on magneto pulses strong enough to
operate the instrument without amplification. A
more complex version of the electronic tachometer
has an internal solid state amplifier which requires
a third connection for 12 volt power from the
aircraft electrical system. The internal amplifier
amplifies weak magneto pulses and provides a
uniform pulse voltage to the digital counter
circuitry.
On multi-engine aircraft, each engine may have a

separate tachometer or a single tach may be used
for both engines. If a single tach is used, the
indicating needle for the right engine is identified
by an "R" while the indicating needle for the left
FAR Part 27 Airworthiness standards, on the other
hand, require that all helicopters have at least two
tachometer systems. One tachometer indicates
engine rpm, while the second tachometer provides
main rotor rpm.
SUCTION GAUGE
The suction gauge is not officially classified as an
engine instrument since it does not indicate any
engine performance information. However, as an
aviation maintenance technician, you will refer to
the suction gauge to adjust the suction regulator
and to verify the operation of the vacuum pump.
Most suction gauges are calibrated in inches of
mercury and represent a reductionin pressure
below atmospheric pressure. The normal operating
range on a typical suction gauge is between 3 and 6
inches of mercury.
INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

As an aviation maintenance technician, there is
little you can do in terms of making repairs to
engine instruments. However, you can do some
basic pre-ventative maintenance that does not
require you to disassemble an instrument. For
example, tachometers that are mechanically driven
with flexible drive shafts require periodic
maintenance to prevent erratic indications. The
drive shaft must be lubricated with an approved
lubricant such as graphite. In addition, the
hardware that attaches the drive shaft to the
instrument, airframe, and engine should be secure.
The drive shaft should be installed away from
excessive heat or fluids without sharp bends or
that requires opening the instrument case such as

a cracked or fogged glass, loose pointer, or
Figure 2-20. Multi-engine aircraft are sometimes equipped

with a single tachometer that provides rpm indications for
both engines. The needle with an "R" represents the right
engine while the needle with an "L" represents the left
engine.
kinks, and should not impose any strain on the

instrument. In addition, the drive shaft should be
secured at frequent intervals to prevent whipping,
which causes pointer oscillation.
Electric and electronic tachometer installations

must be checked periodically to be sure the tach
generators and instruments are securely mounted
and do not vibrate when the engine is running.
Furthermore, the tachometer electrical wiring
should be properly laced and clamped to prevent
chafing caused by vibration and looseness. In
addition, verify that the wiring bundle is not under
tension from being clamped too tightly and is
protected from corrosive fluids and excessive
heat.
During a 100-hour or annual inspection, FAR Part

43 Appendix D requires you to check the
instruments for poor condition, mounting,
marking, and improper operation. As an A&P
technician, you can correct minor discrepancies
on instruments such as tightening mount screws
and B nuts, repairing chipped paint on the
instrument case, or replacing range markings on a
glass instrument face. Chipped paint on the case is
a cosmetic flaw that has no bearing on the proper
operation of the instrument, therefore the
instrument is serviceable and does not require
immediate correction. However, any discrepancy
pointer that will not zero out must be corrected by
an approved repair station. In this case, all you can
do as a technician is remove and replace the
defective instrument.
GROUND OPERATIONS
Conducting an engine runup is a ground operation
that can present a safety hazard to personnel and can
damage an aircraft and surrounding equipment.
Therefore, certain precautions must be taken. For
example, all engine runups should be conducted in
an area specifically designated for that purpose.
Furthermore, the aircraft should be positioned on a
clean level surface and aimed so the blast from the
propeller does not blow dirt into any hangar or onto
another aircraft. Rather than relying solely on the
aircraft's brakes, chock the wheels securely, or tie
the aircraft down to prevent movement during
engine power checks.
Ground service equipment such as auxiliary power

carts or hydraulic service units should be positioned
well away from the propeller arc with their wheels
chocked and brakes set. In addition, adequate fire
protection should be stationed nearby, being certain
that personnel and fire extinguishers are well clear
of the propeller area. Furthermore, a reliable means
of communication between the engine operator and
ground personnel should be established.
HYDRAULIC LOCK
Hydraulic lock is a condition that can develop in a

radial engine after shutdown, where oil or liquid fuel
accumulates and pools in the lower cylinders, or
lower intake pipes. Since fluids are not
compressible, any attempt to start an engine with
hydraulic lock can cause severe damage to the
piston, connecting rod, valves, or cylinder.
Therefore, before attempting to start any radial
engine that has been shut down for more than 30
minutes, you should check for hydraulic lock. To do
this, make sure the ignition switches are "off," then
pull the propeller through in the direction of rotation
a minimum of two complete revolutions. Any liquid
present in a cylinder will be indicated by an
abnormal amount of effort required to rotate the
propeller.
To eliminate a hydraulic lock, remove either the

front or rear spark plug and pull the propeller
through in the direction of rotation, allowing the
piston to expel any liquid that is present. Never
attempt to clear the hydraulic lock by pulling the
propeller through in the opposite direction of
is being started, a fire guard should be stationed

near the engine.
Induction system fires are the most common type
of fire and occur most frequently in reciprocating
engines. The reason for this is if an engine is
over-primed and then fires back through the
carburetor, the gasoline in the induction system can
ignite. If an induction fire occurs, continue
cranking the engine to draw the fire back into the
cylinders. If this fails, signal the fire guard to
extinguish the fire.
To start an engine with a typical float-type
carburetor, place the mixture control in the full rich
position. Almost all reciprocating engines are
equipped with either a carburetor-heat or an
alternate-air position on the carburetor air inlet
system. For starting and ground operation these
controls should be in the cold or closed position.
Prime the engine as required, and open the throttle
about one-half inch. Turn the master switch on, and
turn the engine over with the starter switch. When
the engine starts, check for positive oil pressure
and adjust the throttle to produce about 1,000 rpm.
Figure 2-21. Oil or fuel can seep past the piston rings on the
lower cylinders of a radial engine, causing hydraulic lock.
The presence of hydraulic lock is identified by an abnormal If an engine becomes flooded during a start
amount of effort required to rotate the propeller. If a start is attempt, place the mixture control in the idle cutoff
attempted under these conditions, severe engine damage
can result. position. This shuts off all fuel flow to the
cylinders. With the mixture in the cutoff position,
rotation, since that could inject the liquid from the place the ignition switch in the off position, open
cylinder into the intake pipe, increasing the the throttle all the way, and crank the engine with
possibility of a complete or partial lock on a the starter until the fuel charge in the cylinders has
subsequent start. [Figure 2-21] been cleared. Once this is done, repeat the normal
start procedure.
ENGINE STARTING
Fuel-injected engines have several different
Starting an aircraft engine is a specialized starting
procedure and varies with an individual engine and requirements. For example, once the mixture is
aircraft. Therefore, before starting any aircraft placed in the full rich position and the throttle is
engine, be sure to study the procedures in the opened about one-half inch, both the master switch
appropriate airplane flight manual and get and the fuel pump are turned on until adequate fuel
instruction from an experienced operator. However, flow is observed. This procedure is required to
certain general guidelines apply to all reciprocating prime the engine. Once primed, the fuel pump is
engine powered aircraft. Before attempting an turned off, the magneto switches are turned on, and
engine start, check engine fluids and verify that all the starter is engaged. When the engine starts,
cockpit engine controls are intact and fully check
operational. In addition, station extra personnel for positive oil pressure. ,
with fire extinguishing equipment nearby in safe
areas.
ENGINE WARM-UP
There is always a possibility of fire when starting Proper engine warm-up is important, particularly
an engine. Because of this, you should always have when the condition of the engine is unknown. An
a carbon dioxide fire extinguisher of adequate improperly adjusted idle mixture, intermittently
capacity available. For starting large aircraft where firing spark plugs, or improperly adjusted engine
it is not possible to see the engine when it valves all have an overlapping effect on engine
stability. Therefore, the warm-up should be made
at a speed that results in maximum engine stability.
This typically results when the engine speed is
between 800 and 1,000 rpm.
During warm-up, monitor the engine instruments readings based on established performance criteria.
to ensure normal operation. For example, the oil Generally, the ground check items are included in
pressure gauge should indicate pressure within 30 the preflight runup checklist.
seconds after a start. If that does not happen, the
engine should be shut down immediately.
At warm-up rpm, the mixture control's

effectiveness in changing the fuel/air ratio is
minimal between the rich and lean positions.
Control of the fuel/air ratio in this rpm range is
predominantly governed by throttle position.
Therefore, you should set the mixture control at the
recommended position and refrain from attempts to
try and hasten the warm-up by leaning the mixture.
Carburetor heat can be used as required when icing

conditions are present. For engines equipped with a
float-type carburetor, it may be desirable to raise
the carburetor air temperature during warm-up to
prevent ice formation and to ensure smooth
operation. However, the warm air provided by the
carburetor heat system is not filtered and,
therefore, should not be used if dust and dirt may
be ingested.
A magneto safety check can be performed during

warm-up. The purpose of this check is to ensure
that all ignition connections are secure and that the
ignition system will permit operation at the higher
power settings used during later phases of the
ground check. This test is accomplished at idle rpm
with the propeller in the high rpm, low pitch
position. To conduct the check, move the ignition
switch from the "both" position to "right" then
return to "both," from "both" to "left" and return to
"both," from "both" to "off" momentarily, and
return to "both." While switching from the "both"
position to a single magneto, a slight but noticeable
drop in rpm should occur. This indicates that the
opposite magneto is properly grounded out.
Complete cutting out of the engine when switching
from "both" to "off" indicates that both magnetos
are properly grounded. Failure to obtain any drop
in rpm while in a single magneto position, or
failure of the engine to cut out while switching to
"off" indicates that one or both ground connections
are incomplete.
GROUND CHECK
After engine warm-up, a ground check is

performed to verify the operation of the powerplant
and accessory equipment. This check typically
requires you to properly interpret instrument
During the ground check, head the aircraft into the
wind, if possible, to take advantage of the cooling
airflow. A ground check may be performed as
follows:
1. Open the cowl flaps.

2. Set the mixture in the full rich position.
3. Verify that the propeller control is in the low
pitch, high rpm position.
4. Place the carburetor heat control in the cold
position.
5. Open the throttle to the specified rpm and lean
the mixture as required.
6. If the engine is carbureted, apply carburetor
heat and observe a slight drop in rpm. Once
rpm stabilizes, return the carburetor heat to the
cold position.
7. Move the magneto switch from "both" to
"right" and back to "both." Then, switch from
"both" to "left" and back to "both." You should
observe a slight rpm drop while operating on
the right and left magnetos. The drop on either
magneto should be approximately the same,
and the maximum drop should not exceed that
specified by the engine manufacturer.
8. If the aircraft is equipped with a
constant-speed
propeller, check the propeller operation accord
ing to propeller manufacturer's instructions.
9. Check the fuel pressure and oil pressure. They
must be within the established tolerances.
10. Check the ammeter and suction gauge for
proper system operation.
11. Retard the throttle to the idle position.
In addition to the operations outlined above, check

the aircraft generator and hydraulic systems. The
test procedures for these systems are generally
detailed on the aircraft checklist for runup.
IGNITION OPERATION
By comparing the rpm drop encountered when
checking the magnetos to a known standard, you
can determine if a magneto is properly timed and if
all the ignition leads are properly grounded. For
example, a rapid rpm drop which occurs when you
switch to one magneto may indicate that the spark
plugs or ignition harness is faulty because these
defects take effect immediately. Faulty spark plugs
or a defective ignition harness is often manifested
by dead cylinders or intermittent firing at the
instant the magneto switch is moved. On the other
hand, a slow rpm drop is usually caused by
incorrect ignition timing or faulty valve adjustment.
These conditions result in a loss of power, but do
not occur as rapidly as a dead spark plug.
An engine that quits firing completely when

switched to one magneto is definite evidence that In addition to properly adjusting the mixture con-
the selected magneto ignition system is
malfunctioning. On the other hand, an absence of
an rpm drop could indicate a defective ground
connection on one side of the ignition system.
Another indication of a defective ignition system is
an excessive rpm difference between the left and
right switch positions which may indicate a
difference in timing between the left and right
magnetos.
POWER CHECK
When conducting a ground check, most aircraft
manufacturers also require a power check. The
purpose of a power check is to measure an engine's
performance against an established standard. The
standard is determined by the manufacturer and
represents the amount of power an engine can
develop at a given rpm and manifold pressure.
With a constant air density, a given propeller and
blade angle always requires the same rpm to absorb
the same horsepower from the engine.
To conduct a power check, place the propeller in
the low pitch, high rpm position and advance the
throttle to obtain the target rpm established by the
manufacturer. Under these conditions, the manifold
pressure gauge should indicate the pressure
specified by the manufacturer if all of the cylinders
are operating properly. However, if the engine is
weak, or if one or more cylinders are dead or
intermittently firing, the operating cylinders must
provide more power for a given rpm.
Consequently, the throttle must be opened further,
resulting in higher manifold pressure. Therefore, a
higher than normal manifold pressure for a given
rpm usually indicates a dead cylinder or late
ignition timing. On the other hand, an excessively
low manifold pressure indicates that the ignition
timing is early. In addition to causing a low
manifold pressure, early ignition timing can cause
detonation and loss of power at high power
settings.
IDLE SPEED AND MIXTURE

When an engine is operated at idle for long periods
of time, many pilots tend to use an excessively rich
fuel/air mixture to aid in cylinder cooling.
However, after prolonged operation, the excess
fuel has a tendency to build up and foul out the
spark plugs. With a properly adjusted idle mixture
setting, it is possible to run the engine at idle rpm
for long periods. Such a setting results in minimal
plug fouling and exhaust smoking.
trol in the cockpit, you should conduct a mixture
check during the ground check to verify that the
carburetor mixture screw is properly adjusted. To
perform a mixture check, close the throttle and
move the mixture control to the "idle cutoff"
position. Observe the change in rpm just before it
drops off dramatically and return the mixture
control to the "rich" position.
If the mixture is adjusted properly, engine rpm
should increase by an amount recommended by the
manufacturer (usually 20 rpm). If the increase in
rpm is less than that recommended or if no increase
occurs, the idle mixture is too lean. However, if the
rpm increases above the recommended value, the
mixture is too rich.
ACCELERATION AND DECELERATION
Aircraft engines must be capable of accelerating

and decelerating rapidly. Therefore, when
conducting a ground check, you should conduct an
acceleration and deceleration check. To perform an
acceleration test, move the throttle from idle to full
power smoothly and rapidly. The engine should
accelerate without hesitation and with no evidence
of engine backfiring. The deceleration check is
made by retarding the throttle from full power back
to idle. The rpm should decrease smoothly and
evenly, with little or no tendency for the engine to
afterfire.
An acceleration and deceleration check often
reveals borderline conditions that are not apparent
during other checks. This is true because the high
cylinder pressures developed during this check put
added strain on both the ignition system and the
fuel metering system. This added strain is typically
sufficient to point out certain defects that otherwise
would go unnoticed.
ENGINE STOPPING
The procedure used to shut down an engine varies

from engine to engine based on the type of
carburetor or fuel injection system installed.
Therefore, the shutdown instructions provided by
the manufacturer should be followed exactly. As a
rule, most engines are shut down by placing the
mixture control in the "idle cut off" position. This
procedure helps ensure that all of the fuel in the
cylinders and induction system is burned. If all the
fuel is burned, the chances of an accidental start
caused by propeller movement is minimized. Once
the engine quits, the ignition switch is turned off
and the key is taken out of the ignition.
If an engine becomes excessively warm during

taxi,
you should allow the engine to idle for a short time example, excessively rich mixtures burn cool
before you shut it down. This allows both the because excess fuel enters the cylinders and pro-
cylinder head temperature and oil temperature to
cool to reasonable levels prior to engine shutdown.
ENGINE PERFORMANCE
A reciprocating engine consists of many parts that
must work properly if the engine is to operate
efficiently. If a component or system fails or operates
improperly, engine performance suffers. Therefore, it
is important that you understand the
interrelationships that exist among various engine
systems, and know that a given malfunction can have
an underlying cause that is seemingly unrelated.
COMPRESSION
In order for an engine to produce power, all cylinder

openings must close and seal completely on the
compression strokes. Based on this, there are three
items that must occur to obtain maximum efficiency.
First, the piston rings must be in good condition so
that there is no leakage between the piston and the
cylinder walls. Second, the intake and exhaust valves
must close tightly to eliminate compression loss
through the valve ports. Third, valve timing must be
correct when the engine is operating at its normal
rated rpm. If any one of these items is not correct, the
cylinder will not seal and poor compression will
result. Anytime cylinder compression is low, engine
performance suffers.
FUEL MIXTURE
For best operation, each cylinder must be provided

with the proper fuel/air mixture. If the fuel/air
mixture is too rich or too lean, the amount of brake
horsepower an engine produces decreases. [Figure
2-22]
When an engine is first started, the mixture is

typically placed in the full rich position to promote
engine starting. However, once started, a full rich
mixture does not allow the engine to produce its
rated power for any given throttle setting. Therefore,
before an aircraft takes off, the mixture is leaned so
the engine can produce its maximum, or best, power.
Once in cruise, though, the mixture is further leaned
to achieve the engine's best economy. Specific
leaning procedures should be in accordance with the
respective Pilot/Owner's Handbook.
The temperature of combustion in a cylinder varies

directly with the ratio of the fuel/air mixture. For
Figure 2-22. The power an engine develops is determined
in part by the fuel/air mixture. As you can see in the
graph above, an engine's power output increases to a
maximum point as the fuel mixture is leaned. However,
beyond this point, the power output falls off as the
mixture is further leaned.
vides a cooling effect. As the mixture is leaned,

the amount of excess fuel available decreases and
cylinder temperatures increase. However, if the
fuel/air mixture becomes too lean, combustion
can not occur and cylinder temperatures drop off.
[Figure 2-23]
INDUCTION MANIFOLD
An engine's induction manifold is responsible for

distributing the fuel/air mixture to the cylinders.
When a carburetor introduces liquid fuel into the
airstream, air must vaporize the fuel in
the
Figure 2-23. Cylinder head temperature varies with the

fuel/air ratio. Notice that excessively rich and excessively
lean mixtures produce lower cylinder temperatures.
induction manifold. Any fuel that does not vaporize voltage energy to leak through the shielding to
clings to the walls of the induction manifold. ground. In
Obviously, this affects the amount of fuel that
reaches the cylinders. This explains why an
apparently rich mixture is often required to start a
cold engine. In a cold engine, some of the fuel in
the airstream condenses out and clings to the walls
of the manifold. However, as the engine warms up
and the airflow through the induction manifold
increases, more fuel is vaporized, leaving less fuel
to condense out of the airstream.
Any leak in an engine induction system has an

effect on the mixture reaching the cylinders. This is
particularly true of a leak at the cylinder end of an
intake pipe. If a leak exists, excess air is introduced
into the fuel/air mixture, causing the mixture to
become excessively lean to the point that normal
combustion can not occur. This is especially true at
low rpm settings since the total volume of airflow
is relatively low and the additional air coming in
through a leak leans the fuel/air mixture
appreciably.
IGNITION TIMING
An ignition system consists of two magnetos, an
ignition harness, and a set of spark plugs. The
magneto is a high voltage generating device that
generates the electrical energy necessary to ignite
the fuel/air mixture. A magneto generates a series
of peak voltages which are released by the opening
of a set of breaker points. A distributor then routes
these high voltage impulses to the cylinders in
proper order. In order for a magneto to operate
correctly, it must be timed internally so the points
open at the correct time. In addition, a magneto
must also be timed to the engine.
Magneto-to-engine timing is established when the
number one firing position on the distributor is set
to fire cylinder number one at the proper number of
degrees before top center of the compression
stroke. Timing the magneto to any cylinder other
than the number one cylinder produces severe
backfiring.
The ignition harness consists of a set of insulated

and shielded high tension lines which carry the
impulses from the magneto distributor to the spark
plugs. Each wire in an ignition harness is referred
to as a lead and each spark plug has its own lead.
Although the ignition harness is simple, it is a
critical part of the ignition system. A number of
things can cause failure of the ignition harness. For
example, insulation may break down on a wire
inside the harness and allow some or all of the high
addition, open circuits may result from broken
wires or poor connections. In some cases, a bare
wire could be exposed through chafed insulation
and contact the shielding, or two wires could
become shorted together.
Any serious defect in an individual lead prevents

the high voltage impulse from reaching the spark
plug. As a result, only one spark plug in the
cylinder fires. This can lead to a substantial power
loss and a corresponding loss in aircraft
performance. Two bad leads to the same cylinder
cause the cylinder to go completely dead.
Among the most common ignition harness defects,

and the most difficult to detect, are high voltage
leaks. However, a complete harness check typically
reveals these and other defects.
Although the spark plug is simple both in

construction and in operation, it is, nevertheless,
the direct or indirect cause of many malfunctions in
aircraft engines. Therefore, you must make sure
you install the plug specified for a particular
engine. One of the reasons a particular plug is
specified is its heat range. The heat range of a
spark plug determines the temperature at which the
nose of the plug operates.
MAINTENANCE
As an aviation maintenance technician performing
engine maintenance, you should bear in mind that
engine reliability is paramount in aircraft
operations. The only way to maintain this
reliability is to perform the appropriate engine
maintenance on a regularly scheduled basis.
Airworthiness standards relating to the design,
construction, maintenance, and overhaul of aircraft
engines are listed in FAR Part 33, Airworthiness
Standards: Aircraft Engines. Appendix A of Part
33 requires engine manufacturers to provide a set
of instructions for continued airworthiness with
each engine they produce. Instructions for
continued airworthiness include maintenance
manuals, operating instructions, inspection items
and intervals, overhaul procedures, and
Airworthiness Limitations. Therefore, engine
maintenance tasks and overhaul operations are
established by engine manufacturers to ensure
reliable operation and are scheduled at specified
intervals based on accumulated hours of operation.
ENGINE TROUBLESHOOTING
The need for troubleshooting is dictated by
unsatisfactory powerplant performance. Efficient
troubleshooting is based on a systematic analysis of
what is happening so you will be able to determine cooler than cylinders that are operating normally.
the cause of a malfunction. There is no magic in Therefore, a backfiring cylinder can sometimes be
successful troubleshooting, but rather an detected by a cold cylinder check.
application of logic and a thorough knowledge of
the basics of engine operation. For example, if you
are faced with a problem of deteriorating engine
performance, the first thing you should do is get all
of the facts. Take nothing for granted, and ask the
pilot questions. For example, find out if the trouble
comes about suddenly or was it a gradual decrease
in performance? Under what conditions of altitude,
humidity, temperature, or power setting does this
performance loss show up? Does temporarily
switching to one magneto cause any change in
performance? What effect did leaning the mixture
or applying carburetor heat have on the problem?
Did switching from one fuel tank to another, or
turning on the fuel boost pump have any effect on
the problem?
After getting all of the facts, perform a ground
check to see if the problem can be duplicated. The
next step is to eliminate all of the areas that are not
likely to cause the trouble. For example, if the
magneto drop is normal, but there is a loss of
power, the ignition system more than likely is not
the problem. To assist in the troubleshooting
process, some manufacturers provide
troubleshooting flow charts or
trouble-cause-remedy charts. [Figure 2-24]
BACKFIRING
When an excessively lean fuel/air mixture passes
into a cylinder, the mixture may not burn at all or
will burn so slowly that combustion continues
through the power and exhaust strokes. If this
occurs, the flame can linger in the cylinder and
ignite the contents of the intake manifold and the
induction system when the intake valve opens. This
causes an explosion known as backfiring, which
can damage the carburetor and other parts of the
induction system.
Backfiring is seldom the fault of the carburetor
and, in most cases, is limited to one or two
cylinders. Usually, backfiring is the result of
incorrect valve clearance, defective fuel injector
nozzles, or other conditions which result in a leaner
mixture entering the cylinder. In some instances, an
engine backfires in the idle range, but operates
satisfactorily at medium and high power settings.
The most likely cause, in this case, is an extremely
lean idle fuel/air mixture. Enriching the mixture
usually corrects this difficulty. Because backfiring
cylinders fire intermittently, they typically run
AFTERFIRING
Afterfiring, sometimes called afterburning, often
results when the fuel/air mixture is too rich. Overly
rich mixtures, like excessively lean mixtures, also
burn slowly. However, the slow burn rate of a rich
mixture is due to the lack of sufficient oxygen. If
an overly rich mixture burns past the power stroke
and into the exhaust stroke, unburned fuel can be
forced out of a cylinder into the exhausted gases. If
this occurs, air from outside the exhaust stacks will
mix with the unburned fuel, causing it to ignite and
explode in the exhaust system. Afterfiring is
perhaps more common with engines that have long
exhaust ducting that can retain greater amounts of
unburned fuel. Typical causes of afterfiring include
an improperly adjusted carburetor or an unseated
exhaust valve.
Afterfiring can also be caused by cylinders which

are not firing because of faulty spark plugs,
defective fuel injection nozzles, or incorrect valve
clearances. The unburned mixture from these dead
cylinders passes into the exhaust system, where it
ignites and burns. Unfortunately, the resulting
after-burn can easily be mistaken for evidence of a
rich carburetor. Cylinders which are afterfiring
intermittently can cause a similar effect. Again, the
malfunction can be remedied by finding the cause
and correcting the defect.
COLD CYLINDER CHECK

A cold cylinder check can help determine the
operating characteristics of each cylinder on an
engine. The tendency of any cylinder or cylinders
to be cold or only slightly warm indicates lack of
combustion within the cylinder. A cold cylinder
check is made with a cold cylinder indicator which
is simply an accurate pyrometer with a probe that is
touched to a cylinder. Engine difficulties which can
be analyzed by use of the cold cylinder indicator
are:
1. Rough engine operation.

2. Excessive rpm drop or intermittent misfiring dur
ing the ignition system check.
3. High manifold pressure for a given engine rpm
during the ground check when the propeller is in
the full low pitch position.
4. Improper valve clearances.
To conduct a cold cylinder check, you must run the

engine until the cylinders are warm. When doing
this, it is imperative that you head the aircraft into
the wind to minimize irregular cooling and to
ensure even propeller loading. Once the engine is
running, duplicate the conditions that produce the
Maintenance, Inspection, and Overha ul
Figure 2-24. This trouble-cause-remedy chart lists some general conditions or troubles which may be encountered with
reciprocating engines, such as "engine fails to start." The chart then goes on to give probable causes contributing to the
condition. Corrective actions are indicated in the "remedy" column.
difficulties you want to analyze. Operate the engine operation is based, in part, on Bernoulli's principle.
at its roughest speed until cylinder head In other words, for
temperatures reach approximately 300蚌, or until
temperatures stabilize at a lower reading. Once this
occurs, shut down the engine by moving the
mixture to idle cut off. When the engine ceases
firing, turn off the ignition and master switches.
As soon as the engine is secured, check the

temperature of each cylinder using the cold
cylinder tester. Start with the number one cylinder
and proceed in numerical order around the engine
as rapidly as possible. Recheck any low readings.
In interpreting the results of a cold cylinder check,

remember that the temperatures are relative and
cylinder temperature taken alone means little.
However, when the temperature of one cylinder can
be compared with the temperatures of other
cylinders, cylinder problems can be identified.
COMPRESSION TESTING
A cylinder compression test determines if the
valves, piston rings, and pistons are adequately
sealing the combustion chamber. Cylinders with
good compression provide the most power while
cylinders with low compression provide minimal
power. Low compression for the most part can be
traced to valves that leak because of incorrect valve
clearances or because the valve timing is too early
or too late. Several other conditions can cause
leaking valves such as carbon particles between the
valve face and seat or valves that have been burned
or warped. In addition, low compression can result
from excessive wear of piston rings and cylinder
walls or pistons that have become worn, scuffed, or
damaged in some way.
Before performing a compression test, you should

run an engine so the piston rings, cylinder walls,
and other parts are freshly lubricated. However, it
is not necessary to operate an engine prior to
accomplishing a compression check during engine
buildup or on individually replaced cylinders. In
these cases, spray a small quantity of lubricating
oil into the cylinder or cylinders before conducting
the test and turn the engine over several times to
seal the piston and rings in the cylinder barrel.
The two basic types of compression testers are the

differential compression tester and the direct
compression tester. A differential pressure tester
checks the compression of an aircraft engine by
measuring air leakage in a cylinder. Tester
a given airflow through a fixed opening, a constant
pressure drop across the opening results. Any
change in the speed of airflow past the opening
causes a corresponding change in pressure.
Therefore, if pressurized air is supplied to a
cylinder through a pressure gauge with both intake
and exhaust valves closed, the amount of air that
leaks by the valves or piston rings will create a
corresponding pressure drop at the indicator. A
perfect cylinder, of course, would have no leakage
and no pressure drop would occur. [Figure 2-25]
When performing a differential compression test,

you must follow the aircraft manufacturer's
instructions. However, there are some general
guidelines that apply to most tests. The following is
a list of common steps taken when performing a
differential compression test:
REGULATED CYLINDER ■>,

PRESSURE PRESSURE
GAUGE GAUGE .'
Figure 2-25. A differential compression tester measures
leakage in a cylinder and is a valuable diagnostic tool.
1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from the

cylinder and install the compression tester
adapter in the spark plug hole.
2. By hand, rotate the engine in the direction of nor
mal operation until the piston in the cylinder you
are testing is at top dead center on the compres
sion stroke. If you pass top center, back the pro
peller up at least 180 degrees prior to turning the
propeller again in the direction of rotation. This
is necessary to eliminate the effect of backlash in
the valve operating mechanism and to keep the
piston rings seated on the lower ring lands.
3. Connect the compression tester to a 100 to 150-
psi air supply. With the shutoff valve on the com
pression tester closed, adjust the regulator of the
compression tester to obtain 80 psi on the regu
lated pressure gauge.
4. Recheck the compression tester to verify that the contain instructions on performing a direct
shutoff valve on the tester is closed and connect compression test. However, some general
the tester to the spark plug adapter. Verify that guidelines apply to most tests and are presented
the here:
propeller path is clear of all objects and person 1. Remove the most accessible spark plug from
nel, then open the shutoff valve on the compres each
sion tester. If the piston is past top dead center cylinder.
when pressure is applied, the propeller will 2. Clear the area around the prop arc and rotate the
rotate in the direction of engine rotation. engine with the starter to eject excess oil accu
5. With the regulated pressure at 80 psi, read the mulations and loose carbon particles from the
cylin cylinders.
der pressure gauge. If the cylinder pressure
gauge
reading is below the minimum specified for the
engine being tested, move the propeller in the
direc
tion of rotation to seat the piston rings in their
grooves. However, if you move the propeller
while
air pressure is applied to the cylinder, make sure
you
have a tight grip on the propeller to prevent its
rota
tion. Check all the cylinders and record the
readings.
If low compression is indicated on any cylinder,
turn the engine through with the starter or restart
and run the engine to takeoff power and recheck
the low cylinder. When checking the compression,
listen carefully to see if you can determine the
source of the leakage. Air can leak from the
cylinder in three places: past the intake valve, past
the exhaust valve, and past the piston rings.
Leakage, or blow-by past the exhaust valve is
typically identified by a hissing or whistling heard
at the exhaust stack. On the other hand, air leaking
past the intake valve can usually be heard through
the carburetor. A hissing sound in the crankcase
breather indicates air leaking past the piston rings.
If the piston ring gaps on a piston happen to be
aligned when a compression test is done, a worn or
defective ring indication will result. If this happens,
you should run the engine for a period of time so
the ring gaps have a chance to shift.
A direct compression test indicates the actual
pressures within the cylinder. This method is less
effective than the differential pressure method in
discerning a particular defective component within
the cylinder. However, the consistency of the
readings provided by a direct compression test
indicate an engine's condition as a whole.
In general, most engine maintenance manuals
3. Install a tester in each cylinder and tighten the
recommended amount. If only one tester is avail
able, check each cylinder individually.
4. With the throttle open, rotate the engine at least
three complete revolutions by engaging the
starter and record the compression readings. It is
advisable to use external power when cranking
the engine because a weak aircraft battery may
result in a slow engine-turning rate and lower
than expected compression readings.
5. Re-check any cylinder that registers a compres
sion value significantly lower than the other
cylinders to verify accuracy. A reading approxi
mately 15 psi lower than the others indicates a
cylinder leak that must be repaired. To be sure
the
low reading is not the result of a faulty tester,
repeat the compression check with a tester
known to be accurate.
VALVE ADJUSTMENT
As you know, for an engine to produce its
maximum rated power, the valves must open and
close properly and seal tightly against their seats.
One important aspect of making sure the valves
operate properly is valve clearance. For example,
when valve clearance is excessive, the valves do
not open as wide or remain open as long as they
should. This reduces valve duration and the valve
overlap period. On the other hand, when valve
clearance is less than it should be, the valve
overlap period is lengthened.
When valve clearances are wrong, it is unlikely that

all clearances are wrong in the same direction.
Instead, there is typically too much clearance on
some cylinders and too little on others. Naturally,
this results in a variation in valve overlap between
cylinders. When this happens, it is impossible to set
the idle adjustment to give correct mixtures on all
cylinders, and all cylinders produce differing
amounts of power. Variations in valve clearance of
as little as 0.005 inch have a definite effect on
mixture distribution between cylinders.
Another aspect of valve clearance is its effect on

volumetric efficiency. For example, excessive
intake valve clearance results in the valve opening
late and closing early. This produces a throttling
effect on the cylinder because the valve is not open
long enough to admit a full charge of fuel and air.
This cuts down on power output, particularly at
high power settings. Insufficient intake valve
clearance has the opposite effect. In other words,
the intake valve opens early, closes late, and stays
open longer than
it should. At low power, early opening of the intake Accurate valve adjustment also establishes the
valve can cause backfiring. intended valve seating velocity. If valve clearances
are excessive, the valve seating velocity will be too
Improper exhaust valve clearance also affects high. The result is valve pounding and stem
engine performance, For example, excessive stretching, either of which is conducive to valve
exhaust valve clearance shortens the exhaust event failure.
and causes poor scavenging. The late opening may
also lead to cylinder overheating because the hot The engine manufacturer specifies the valve
exhaust gases are held in the cylinder beyond the inspection period for each engine. In addition to
time specified for their release. On the other hand, the regular inspection periods, inspect and adjust
when exhaust valve clearance is insufficient, the the valve mechanism any time there is rough
early opening causes a power loss by shortening engine operation, backfiring, loss of compression,
the power event. In other words, the pressure in the or hard starting. Because of variations in engine
cylinder is released before all the useful expansion designs, various methods are required for setting
has worked on the piston. In addition, the late valves to obtain correct and consistent clearance. In
valve closing causes the exhaust valve to remain all cases, follow the exact procedure described by
open for a larger portion of the intake stroke. This the engine manufacturer, since obscure factors may
may result in a portion of the fuel/air mixture being be involved.
lost through the exhaust port.
In order for a valve to seat, the valve must be in INSPECTIONS

good condition, with no significant pressure being As an aviation maintenance technician, you will
exerted against the end of the valve by the rocker probably spend the majority of your time
arm. If the expansion of all parts of the engine inspecting various aircraft components. In fact, the
were the same, the problem of ensuring valve Federal Aviation Regulations require specific
seating would be very easy to solve. Practically no inspections at set intervals in order for an aircraft
free space would be necessary in the valve system. to remain airworthy. When these inspections are
However, since there is a great difference in the done, impending problems are typically found
amount of expansion of various parts of the engine, before they become major. Some of the more
there is no way of providing a constant operating common types of inspections you will be involved
clearance in the valve train on engines equipped in include the preflight inspection, 50-hour
with solid lifters. inspection, 100-hour inspection, and annual
inspection.
The clearance in the valve actuating system is very PREFLIGHT INSPECTION

small when the engine is cold but increases when As an aviation maintenance technician, there may
the engine is operating at normal temperature. The be times when you are asked to do a preflight
disparity is caused by differences in the expansion inspection. Although a typical preflight inspection
characteristics of the various metals and by the involves checking the entire aircraft, the following
differences in temperatures of the various parts. discussion is concerned with only the part of the
inspection that applies to the powerplant.
Valve clearances decrease with a drop in
temperature; therefore, insufficient clearance could
The first step in any inspection is to verify that the
result in a valve being held open when extremely
ignition switch is OFF and the mixture is in the
cold temperatures are encountered. This would
idle cutoff position. The best way to conduct a
make cold weather starting difficult, if not
thorough inspection on an engine is to open the
impossible, because of the inability of the cylinders
cowling. With the engine exposed, start at the rear
to pull a charge into the combustion chamber.
of the accessory section near the firewall and
Furthermore, if an engine with insufficient valve
inspect all of the fluid lines. Verify that no lines are
clearance were started, unseated valves would
loose, chafing against something, or showing signs
allow some of the fuel/air mixture to leak by the
of excessive wear or deterioration. [Figure 2-26]
valves on the compression stroke.
If all the fluid lines are in good condition, check
the oil level to be sure that it is at the specified
operat-
Maintenance, inspection, and Overhaul
Drain the main fuel strainer and take a fuel sample.

There must be no indication of water in the fuel
sample and the correct type of fuel must be used.
Inspect the carburetor air filter for both security

and cleanness. In addition, check as much of the
induction system as possible for visible traces of
fuel dye stains. If fuel stains are present, there is
probably a leak in the induction system.
Check the propeller for nicks or scratches and, if

possible, all of the attaching bolts or nuts for
security and for proper safety. If a constant-speed
Figure 2-26. The best way to conduct a thorough propeller is installed, check for excessive oil
inspection on an engine is to open the cowling. On some
aircraft, the access door on the cowl is large enough to leakage at the propeller base and verify that the
conduct an inspection. However, other aircraft may require linkage on the propeller governor is secure.
the removal of the top cowl.
At times, a customer may request that you runup an
engine as part of a preflight check. If this is the
ing level. Many engines have a tendency to throw case, you should start the engine using the
oil out the crankcase breather if the sump is appropriate checklist. Once started, the oil and fuel
completely full; therefore, many aircraft are pressure should raise to the proper operating range.
operated with less than full oil. During the runup, the engine should develop the
required static rpm and manifold pressure, and the
Check all of the wire connections to the magneto magneto drop should be within the specified limits
to be sure there are no loose connections or chafed with equal drops on both magnetos. In addition, a
wires. Check the general condition of the spark magneto safety check should be performed to be
plug leads and for any indication of looseness sure that the switch is operating properly. If the
where they attach to the spark plugs. In addition, aircraft is equipped with a constant-speed
be sure that all of the leads are secured so they propeller, the propeller should cycle smoothly
cannot be burned by the exhaust. Check all of the between low and high pitch. In addition, on a
wiring to the generator or alternator and to the carbureted engine, when the carburetor heat control
voltage regulator. If the battery and master relay is pulled a slight drop in rpm should occur.
are ahead of the firewall, check them as well.
50-HOUR INSPECTION
Check below the engine for any indication of fuel Although a 50-hour inspection is not required by
or oil leaks. If blue fuel stains or accumulations of the Federal Aviation Regulations, it is
oil are visible on the lower cowl or the nose strut, a recommended by almost all engine manufacturers.
leak exists somewhere on the engine. Examine the A typical 50-hour inspection requires you to
engine baffling paying particular attention to those conduct a runup and check all of the engine's
around the cylinders. If a piece of the baffling is subsystems including the ignition, fuel, lubrication,
cracked or broken, or if it does not seal, localized exhaust, cooling, and tur-bocharging systems. In
hot spots could develop. Check the paint on the addition, most manufacturers provide a checklist
cylinders for any indication of discoloration which for conducting a 50-hour inspection.
could indicate the maximum temperature limits
were exceeded. Check the primer lines as they IGNITION SYSTEM
enter the cylinders or, if the engine is fuel injected, The spark plug leads should be checked for
the injector lines where they attach to the nozzles. security and for any indication of corrosion. All of
the leads should be securely fastened to both the
Carefully examine the area where the exhaust spark plug and to the magneto distributor block. In
risers join the cylinders to be sure that there are no addition, there should be no evidence of chafing or
blown gaskets and that all of the nuts are in place. wear to any part of an ignition lead. The spark
In addition, you should check all of the exhaust plugs should he examined where they screw into
system for security and any indication of leaks. the cylinder heads for any indication of leakage
from the cylinder.
FUEL AND INDUCTION SYSTEM paint on one or more cylinders. If a cylinder has
overheated, further inspection by borescope or by
Check the primer lines for indication of leaks and
removing the cylinder may be required.
for security. Remove and clean the fuel inlet
strainers and check the mixture control and throttle
linkage for proper travel, freedom of movement,
and security. Lubricate the controls if it is
necessary. Check the air intake and air box for
leaks and for any indication of filter damage. In
addition, look for evidence of dust or other solid
contaminants that may have leaked past the filter.
Check the fuel pump vent lines to see if there is
evidence of fuel or oil seepage which could
indicate that either a fuel or oil seal is leaking.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Most engine manufacturers recommend that you

drain and replace the engine oil during a 50-hour
inspection. If the engine is equipped with an oil
screen, it should be removed and inspected for
metal particles. However, if the engine is equipped
with an oil filter, the filter is removed and cut open
so you can inspect it for any traces of metal
particles. Check all of the oil lines for any
indication of leakage or signs of chafing.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Check all of the flanges on the exhaust pipes where

they attach to the cylinder head for evidence of
leakage. If they are loose or show any signs of
warpage, they must be removed and machined flat
before they are reassembled. In addition, check the
general condition of the entire exhaust manifold
and muffler assembly, paying particular attention
for evidence of leaks.
COOLING SYSTEM
Check all of the cowling and baffles for any

indication of damage or missing parts. If a small
crack is found, you can usually stop drill it to
prevent further growth. However, if substantial
cracking exists, additional structural repair may be
necessary.
CYLINDERS
Check the rocker box covers for indication of

leaks. If a leak is found replace the rocker box
gasket. Carefully check the entire cylinder for signs
of overheating. Typical indications of a cylinder
that has overheated include burned or discolored
TURBOCHARGER
If an engine is equipped with a turbocharger, the oil
feed and return lines should be checked for leaks or
chafing. In addition, you should check all of the
brackets and heat shielding for security and for any
indication of damage or cracks. Check the waste
gate for freedom of action and the alternate air
door for operation and sealing.
100-HOUR OR ANNUAL INSPECTION

FAR Part 91 states that all general aviation aircraft
must go through an annual inspection to remain
airworthy. All annual inspections are based on
calendar months and, therefore, are due on the last
day of the 12th month after the last annual was
completed. For example, if a previous annual was
completed on June 11, 1995, the next annual
inspection is due on June 30, 1996.
Annual inspections must be performed regardless

of the number of hours flown in the previous year.
Furthermore, they may be performed by airframe
and powerplant mechanics holding an inspection
authorization (IA). The IA cannot delegate the
inspection duties to an airframe and powerplant
mechanic, nor may an IA merely supervise an
annual inspection.
If the person performing the annual inspection

finds a discrepancy that renders the aircraft
unairworthy, they must provide the aircraft owner
with a written notice of the defect. Furthermore,
the aircraft may not be operated until the defect is
corrected. However, if the owner wants to fly the
aircraft to a different location to have the repairs
performed, a special flight permit may be obtained
to ferry the aircraft to the place where repairs are to
be made.
In addition to an annual inspection, all general

aviation aircraft that are operated for hire must be
inspected every 100 flight hours. This inspection
covers the same items as the annual inspection.
The major difference is that an A&P technician
may perform a 100-hour inspection. As in the case
of an annual inspection, the person conducting a
100-hour inspection cannot delegate inspection
duties.
The operating hours are the primary consideration

for determining when the next 100-hour inspection
is due. As the name implies, a 100-hour inspection
is due 100 hours after the last 100-hour inspection
was completed, regardless of the date. However,
there is a provision for extending the 100-hour
inter-
val, up to a maximum of 10 hours, to permit the mechanics have found with similar engines. And,
aircraft to fly to a place where the inspection can be finally, go through the manufacturer's service
accomplished. When this is done, the number of bulletins and service letters to see
hours in excess of the 100-hour interval are
deducted from the next inspection interval. For
example, if a flight to a place where a 100-hour
hours beyond the 100-hour inspection interval, the

next 100-hour inspection would be due in 94 hours.
In other words, the next inspection interval is
shortened by the same amount of time the previous
inspection was extended.
The following paragraphs examine the basic steps

required to complete a 100-hour or annual
inspection. However, like any other inspection, the
manufacturer's instructions must be followed at all
times.
INSPECTION CHECKLISTS
FAR 43.15 lists the performance criteria for
performing inspections. In addition, FAR 43.15
specifically states that a checklist which meets the
minimum requirements listed in FAR 43 Appendix
D must be used for all annual and 100-hour
inspections. This, however, does not preclude you
from developing a more extensive checklist or
using one prepared by a repair station or
manufacturer. As long as the checklist covers the
items listed in Appendix D it may be used. Most
major aircraft manufacturers provide inspection
checklists for their aircraft by type and model
number. These forms are readily available through
the manufacturer's representatives and are highly
recommended. They meet the minimum
requirements of Appendix D and contain many
details covering specific items of equipment
installed on a particular aircraft. In addition, they
often include references to service bulletins and
letters which could otherwise be overlooked.
[Figure 2-27]
PRELIMINARY PAPERWORK
One important aspect of conducting a 100-hour or
annual inspection is the paperwork involved.
Before starting the actual inspection, you should
review all of the aircraft records including the Type
Certificate Data Sheets. In addition, you should
check and list all of the Airworthiness Directives
that apply to the engine and all of its components
including the carburetor, magnetos, alternator or
generator, propeller, and ignition switches. Check
the General Aviation Airworthiness Alerts to
become familiar with the types of problems other
if there is any additional maintenance
recommended or required by the manufacturer.
Once you have reviewed the aircraft paperwork,

perform a conformity inspection to verify that all of
the accessories and equipment on the engine are
approveh.Tir an accessory Araes-iroi appear'm an
equipment list or Type Certificate Data Sheet, check
to see if the item was installed according to a
supplemental type certificate. Check the total time
on the engine and propeller and compare it with the
list of life-limited parts to see if any items are
nearing their retirement time. See if there are any
Major Repair and Alteration Forms (FAA 337) on
the engine or propeller. If there are, check the work
to be sure that it was done as described on the form.
CLEANING
Once the paperwork is done you can move on to
the actual inspection. According to FAR Part 43 the
first step in performing a 100-hour or annual
inspection is to open all necessary inspection
plates, access doors, fairings, and cowling and
clean the aircraft and engine. The cleaning is done
to remove any oil, grease, or dirt that could hide
cracks or other defects during the inspection. As
you open a cowl, look for accumulations of oil or
other fluids that may indicate the presence of a
leak. If no abnormal amounts of fluid are present,
clean the engine and engine compartment using
stoddard solvent or a commercial degreaser. To
prevent damage to electrical components, you
should tape over all vent holes on the magnetos and
alternator. In addition, avoid spilling solvent or
water directly onto any electrical component,
vacuum pump, or starter.
PRE-INSPECTION RUNUP
Once the engine is clean, perform a pre-inspection
runup to determine if the engine runs properly and
to heat the oil and coat the cylinder walls. During
the runup, verify that the temperatures and
pressures are within the correct operating range. In
addition, verify that the engine develops its proper
static rpm and that the magneto drop is within an
acceptable range. The drop must be the same or
nearly so on both magnetos. Check for any
abnormal noises in the engine and for any
vibrations that are not characteristic of that engine.
If the engine is equipped with a constant-speed

propeller, cycle it several times to check for proper
operation. When a prop is cycled, it should respond
smoothly and the recovery should be within the
time limit allowed.
Figure 2-27. FAR Part 43 requires the use of a checklist when conducting either a 100-hour or annual inspection. The checklist
must include at least those items contained in FAR Part 43, Appendix D.
a hotter heat range may reduce the fouling, but be

sure the hotter plug is approved for the engine.
Figure 2-28. When changing oil during an inspection, the

oil filter should be cut open so you can check for metal
particles or other contamination.
After you have checked each of the engine's

systems, shut down the engine and bring the
aircraft into the hangar. While the engine is still
warm, drain the oil and remove the top spark plug
from each cylinder so you can perform a
compression test.
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
Once you have done a compression test on each
cylinder and the engine has cooled, remove the oil
filter or screen. If a filter is installed cut the
element apart so you can check for metal particles.
If a screen is installed, inspect both the screen and
screen housing for metal. The presence of some
metal particles in the oil is normal; however, an
excessive amount is an indication of impending
engine failure and their source must be found.
[Figure 2-28]
Install and torque a new filter element or the
original screen in place. Reinstall and safety the
drain plug and fill the oil sump with new oil.
Check all of the oil lines, the oil cooler, and the
entire engine for any indication of oil leakage that
might indicate a leaking gasket or defective
component.
IGNITION SYSTEM
Remove the remaining spark plugs and examine all

of them. Once way of determining combustion
chamber problems is by examining the condition of
the spark plugs. For example, normal operation is
indicated by a spark plug having a relatively small
amount of light brown or tan deposit on the nose of
the center electrode insulator. However, if heavy
deposits are found, it is a good indication that the
rings or valve seals are worn allowing oil to seep
into the cylinder. If there is an excess of gray,
clinker-like deposits in a spark plug, lead fouling is
occurring. One cause of lead fouling is using a fuel
with a higher than recommended tetraethyl lead
content. Replacing the spark plug with one having
A dry, black, soot-like deposit on a spark plug
indicates that the engine is operating with an
excessively rich mixture. If this is the case, check
the induction system for obstructions in the filter or
for a malfunctioning carburetor heat valve. A
brown, shiny glaze on a spark plug could indicate
silicon contamination. If this is the case, you should
perform a careful inspection of the carburetor air
filter for air leaks around the filter element or for
holes in the element itself. Any unfiltered air
leaking into the induction system allows sand or
dust to enter the engine. Once in a cylinder, the
intense heat inside the combustion chamber turns
the silicon in the sand into a glass-like contaminant
that becomes conductive at high temperature and
causes the spark plug to fail.
In addition to checking for deposits and lead

fouling, any spark plug whose electrodes are worn
to one-half their original dimensions should be
replaced. If the electrodes are not worn, the plugs
may be reconditioned. To recondition a spark plug
begin by removing any lead deposits with a
vibrator-type cleaner, then lightly blast the
electrodes with an approved abrasive. The ground
electrode is then carefully moved over with a spark
plug gaping tool to set the proper gap between the
ground and the center electrodes.
Once a plug has been reconditioned, it must be

tested. If the plug fires consistently under pressure
in a tester, it may be reinstalled in the engine.
Anytime a spark plug is installed a new gasket
should be used along with a small amount of the
thread lubricant recommended by the engine
manufacturer.
When a spark occurs between the electrodes of a

spark plug, metal is taken from one electrode and
deposited onto another. Therefore, when a spark
plug fires positively, the ground electrodes wear
more than the center electrode and when a spark
plug fires negatively, the center electrode wears
more than the ground electrode. Furthermore, lead
and other impurities produced during the
combustion process tend to precipitate to the lower
spark plugs, causing them to wear. To help equalize
spark plug wear, each time spark plugs are removed
they should be replaced in the cylinder next in the
firing order to the one from which they were
removed and switched from top to bottom.
The threads in the spark plug bushing in a cylinder

should he clean enough so a spark plug can be
screwed down against its gasket with finger
pressure only. Once finger tight, a spark plug must
be torqued
to the manufacturer's recommended torque value requiring the muffler or exhaust system to be
using a torque wrench of known accuracy. pressure tested. Remember, even a pinhole leak can
fill the cabin
Before installing a lead on each spark plug, wipe
the lead terminal with a rag dampened with
trichloreth-ylene. Once clean, insert the lead
straight into the spark plug and tighten the lead nut
to the torque recommended by the manufacturer.
With all the plugs and leads installed, check the

magneto to engine timing using a timing light. In
addition, inspect the condition of the breaker
points and the inside of the breaker compartment
for any indication of moisture or oil. As a final
check, make sure the magneto grounding or
P-leads are secure and show no signs of wear or
chafing.
FUEL SYSTEM
Clean the main fuel strainer and screen along with

the screen in the carburetor or fuel injection unit.
Replace the cleaned screens using a new gasket
and, after testing them under pressure for leaks,
safety the screens in place. Check all of the
controls and lubricate them as specified by the
airframe manufacturer, being sure to use an
approved lubricant.
If the engine is fuel injected, check the

manufacturer's recommendations for cleaning the
injector nozzles. In addition, check all of the
injection lines for security and chafing.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
Remove and clean or replace the induction air filter

and check the entire system for leaks or
deformation. Check the operation of the carburetor
heat or alternate air valve. Be sure the alternate air
doors open fully so the induction airflow into the
engine will not be restricted.
All flexible induction tubing should be carefully

inspected to be sure that there are no kinks and that
the tubing is in good condition. Furthermore, you
should verify that the wire support within the
tubing is intact so the tubing cannot collapse.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
Remove the shroud from the muffler and check it

for any indication of leakage. In some cases, there
is an AD or manufacturer's service bulletin
with deadly carbon monoxide gas. Be sure the
cabin heat valve operates freely and has no
obstructions in either the valve or the hose carrying
heated air into the cabin. Check all of the cylinder
heads at the exhaust port for indication of blown
gaskets and for any indication of cracks or other
leakage. Carefully check where the exhaust gas
temperature probes enter the exhaust pipes, as this
is a possible source of leakage.
TURBOCHARGER
If the engine is equipped with a turbocharger, be
sure to follow the inspection procedure specified
by the manufacturer. As a minimum, the exhaust
portion of the turbocharger and waste gate should
be checked. In addition, the induction air section,
including all relief valves, intercoolers, and
manifold pressure sensors should be checked and
tested. The lubrication system and mounting
should also be carefully checked for leaks and
security.
COOLING SYSTEM
Check all of the cooling fins and baffling for cracks
or damage. In addition, inspect all of the baffles
and seals for general condition and security. If a
cooling fin is cracked, check the manufacturer's
specifications for allowable limits. To repair a
cracked fin, you should remove the damaged area
of the fin then contour file the affected area. The
cowl flaps should be checked for security and for
full travel, both in their open and closed position.
ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
As you know, electrical systems vary between

aircraft models and the manufacturer's
recommendations must be followed in detail. The
alternator and its mounting should be checked for
security and for any indication of vibration-induced
cracks. The voltage regulator and any relays or
solenoids in the system should be checked for
security. In addition, all wires attached to electrical
components should be checked for security, proper
support, and chafing.
ACCESSORIES AND CONTROLS
Check all of the air, fuel, and hydraulic pumps for

indications of leakage, and for the condition of
their seals. Check the vent and breather lines for
security and for proper positioning. Check the
instrument air system to be sure that all filters are
changed according to the manufacturer's
recommendations and the oil separator shows no
sign of malfunctioning.
Check all controls for freedom and for proper It is important to note that, when a log entry is
travel. The stops on the engine component should made after maintenance is completed, the signature
be reached just before the stop in the cockpit. consi-tutes the approval for return to service for the
Check the condition of the firewall to be sure that work performed.
all controls, lines, and wires passing through are
properly sealed and there is no corrosion or other The log entry for an inspection is somewhat
indication of damage. Be sure that all of the engine different from an entry for perfoming maintenance.
shock mounts are in good condition and the The following is a list of items that must be
mounting bolts are properly torqued. It is important included in an inspection log entry.
that the electrical grounding strap between the
engine and the airframe be in good condition since
the rubber shock mounts will not allow starter 1. The date the inspection is completed.
current to return through the airframe. 2. The total time in service.
3. The type of inspection performed.
PROPELLER
4. A certification statement that is worded
similarly
The extreme stress a propeller encounters dictates
to "I certify that this aircraft has been inspected
the need for a thorough inspection. Any nicks,
in accordance with a(n) (insert type) inspection
cracks, or scratches in the blade must be carefully
and was determined to be in an airworthy condi
dressed and any questionable area must be checked
tion."
using an approved non-destructive test method. Be
5. Your signature.
sure the blades are secure in the hubs and that there
6. Your certificate number.
is no oil leakage. Check the spinner and spinner
7. The rating or ratings you hold.
bulkhead for any indication of cracks or damage,
and check the governor for security and for full
travel of its control. ■ If an aircraft is not approved for return to service
because of needed maintenance, noncompliance
POST-INSPECTION RUNUP AND RECORDS with applicable specifications, airworthiness
After an inspection is complete, recowl the engine directives, or other approved data, the certification
and conduct a post-inspection runup. If the engine statement should be worded to say; "I certify that
checks out satisfactorily, complete the engine this aircraft has been inspected in accordance with
maintenance records and fill out all of the shop a(n) (insert type) inspection and a list of
records. discrepancies dated (insert date) has been provided
for the aircraft owner."
Federal Aviation Regulations require you to make
an engine log entry whenever maintenance or an If either a major repair or major alteration is
inspection is performed. For example, when performed to an aircraft, you must make an
maintenance is performed, you must make a log appropriate log entry and complete an FAA 337
entry that includes at least the following form. Once complete, the original 337 form is
information. given to the aircraft owner while a duplicate is sent
to the local FAA office within 48 hours of
1. The date the work was completed.
completing the work.
2. A description or reference to data acceptable to
the FAA of the work perfomed.
3. The name of the person performing the work if To help reduce paperwork, certified repair stations
you did not actually do it yourself. are permitted to substitute a work order for a 337
4. Your signature. form. In this case, the original work order is given
5. Your certificate number to the aircraft owner and a duplicate is retained by
6. The rating or ratings you hold. the repair station for at least two years.
ENGINE REMOVAL AND OVERHAUL
ENGINE REMOVAL times. However, by tracking the service life of

several different engines, it is possible for
Engine removal is a major task and must be manufacturers to establish a recommended time
accomplished in an orderly fashion to prevent between overhauls (TBO).
personal injury or damage to the aircraft. Although
the exact steps involved in removing a Aircraft owners who operate under FAR Part 91
reciprocating engine vary from one make of are not obligated to comply with a manufacturer's
aircraft model to another, there are some general recommended TBO. However, if an aircraft is
guidelines you can use. However, these guidelines operated for hire in an air taxi operation, FAA
are no substitute for the manufacturer's airworthiness regulations require the operator to
instructions. adhere to TBO or
REASONS FOR REMOVAL

There are several reasons why an engine may have
to be removed from an aircraft. For example, the
accumulation of the number of hours
recommended between overhauls or degradation in
performance are reasons for removal. Also, a
sudden engine stoppage or excessive metal
particles found in the oil are certainly valid reasons
for engine removal. In addition, some routine
maintenance and repairs may require an engine to
be removed from an aircraft. However, before you
remove or replace an engine, you should always
consult the applicable manufacturer's instructions
to determine if engine removal is required.
ENGINE LIFE SPAN

Engine life is affected by environmental,
operational, and design factors. In addition, the
level of quality a manufacturer builds into the
engine and the degree to which preventive
maintenance is accomplished have a direct bearing
on the useful life of an engine. As a result, it can be
difficult to establish definite engine replacement
the maximum time in service established in their
operating manuals.
When a manufacturer delivers a new engine, a

permanent record of the engine's operating time is
established in the powerplant logbook. Anytime
maintenance is done on that engine, a logbook
entry is made referencing the total time (TT) the
engine has accumulated since it was new. After an
engine reaches its TBO, an overhaul should be
accomplished and total time records should be
continued without interruption. In addition,
accumulated engine operation time should be
referenced as the amount of time since major
overhaul (SMOH). Engine maintenance
requirements are based on either time since new or
time since the most recent major overhaul.
ATTRITION FACTORS
Whether an engine has reached its recommended

TBO or not, signs or symptoms of severe
performance deterioration could require removal
and overhaul. As engine components wear,
symptoms signaling a drop in performance become
apparent. Increased oil consumption, higher engine
operating temperatures, and a general loss of power
all point to a possible need for replacement parts.
Careful monitoring of these conditions may result
in the decision to remove an engine for
maintenance prior to the recommended time before
overhaul. Normal engine life can be shortened due
to several environmental and operational reasons.
For example, operating at maximum power settings
for prolonged periods of time, frequent starts in
extremely cold temperatures, and lack of
preventative maintenance can all shorten the useful
life of an engine.
SUDDEN STOPPAGE
A sudden stoppage is defined as a very rapid and

complete arrest of the engine. With a typical
sudden engine stoppage, engine rpm drops to zero
in less than one complete propeller revolution.
Common causes of a sudden stoppage include
engine seizure
or a propeller blade striking an object. Whenever at the outside edge of the flange while spline-type
an engine is stopped suddenly, the inertia of the propeller shafts
moving parts creates high torque forces that can
result in cracked or broken flywheel gear teeth,
timing gear damage, a bent or broken crankshaft,
or damaged crankshaft bearings. When a sudden
stoppage occurs, an engine manufacturer's
instructions usually require a complete engine
teardown and inspection.
SUDDEN SPEED REDUCTION
A sudden reduction in engine speed occurs when

one or more propeller blades strike a movable
object such as a runway light, tool box, hangar, or
another aircraft. When this occurs, engine rpm
drops rapidly until the object struck is cleared.
However, the engine continues to run and the rpm
typically returns to its previous value. Whenever a
sudden reduction in engine speed occurs, the
engine should be shut down as quickly as possible
to prevent further damage. Inspections of engines
that experience a sudden speed reduction reveal
varying amounts of damage. For example, if the
speed reduction occurs at a low rpm, very little
internal damage typically results. The reason for
this is that at low rpm, engine power output is also
low and the propeller absorbs most of the shock.
However, when a sudden speed reduction occurs at
a high engine rpm, the potential for severe internal
engine damage is much greater.
When an engine is subjected to a sudden reduction

in speed, you must comply with the manufacturer's
inspection procedures for that engine. As a
minimum, you must make a thorough external
inspection of the engine mounts, crankcase, and, if
applicable, the nose section. In addition, you should
remove the engine oil screens or filters and inspect
them for the presence of metal particles. Once this
is done, drain the oil, straining it through a clean
cloth, and check both the cloth and strained oil for
metal particles. Presence of heavy metal particles
indicates a definite engine failure requiring engine
removal. However, if the metal particles have the
appearance of fine filings, continue the inspection
to determine serviceability.
Remove the propeller and check for misalignment

of the crankshaft, or propeller drive shaft on
engines using a propeller gear reduction. This task
is performed by attaching a dial indicator to the
front of the engine case and letting the indicator
arm ride on the crankshaft as it is turned. Engines
with flange-type propeller shafts must be checked
should be checked at both the front and rear cone
seats. The amount a shaft is misaligned is referred
to as its runout. The runout tolerance must fall
within the limits specified in the manufacturer's
maintenance manual. If the runout is excessive, the
crankshaft must be removed and replaced.
However, if the crankshaft runout does not exceed
the manufacturer's established limits, you should
install a serviceable propeller and check the
propeller tracking. If propeller tracking
measurements are good, start the engine to see if it
operates smoothly with normal power output. If
operation is normal during the ground check, shut
the engine down and repeat the inspection for metal
particles in the oil system. The presence of metal
indicates internal engine damage requiring further
inspection. However, if there are no heavy metal
particles in the engine oil, the engine should be
scheduled for a flight test. If engine operation is
within normal parameters during the flight test,
look again for metal in the oil system. If no metal is
found, continue the engine in service, but recheck
the oil screens for the presence of metal after 10
hours of operation, and again after 20 hours. If no
indication of internal failure is found after 20 hours
of operation, the engine probably requires no
further special inspections.
METAL PARTICLES IN OIL
The presence of an excessive number of metal

particles in an engine oil filter or screen or in the
oil itself generally indicates an internal failure.
However, due to the construction of aircraft oil
systems, it is possible for metal particles to collect
in the oil system sludge at the time of a previous
engine failure. Furthermore, carbon buildup can
break loose from an engine's interior and may be
mistaken for metal particles. In any case, the source
of any foreign particles in an engine's oil must be
identified and corrected before the aircraft is
released for flight.
One way to determine if a particle is metal or

carbon is to place the material on a flat metal object
and strike it with a hammer. If the particle is
carbon, it will disintegrate, however, if it is metal,
it will remain intact or change shape, depending
upon its malleability. If you find some particles that
are metal, use a magnet to determine whether the
particles are ferrous or nonferrous. Ferrous
particles are typically produced by wearing piston
rings, whereas nonferrous particles are typically
produced by main bearings.
Another way to correctly identify the type and

quantity of foreign particles in an engine's oil is
through regular participation in a spectrometric oil
analysis
in the amount of metal usually indicates an internal engine

problem.
program or S.O.A.P., which requires an oil sample

to be sent to a laboratory for analysis. When this is
done, you are provided with a list of the type of
particles found along with possible sources of the
particles. In addition, if a laboratory observes a
sudden increase in the amounts of metal that the
test is designed to detect, they immediately contact
the operator by telephone. When using
spectromet-ric oil analysis, testing must occur on a
regular basis to provide a baseline for comparison
so accurate information can be obtained. A closely
followed oil analysis program can detect problems
before they become serious and prevent
catastrophic engine failure. [Figure 2-29]
UNSTABLE ENGINE OPERATION
Engines must be removed for closer examination

when unstable engine operation persists for a
period of time. Excessive engine vibration, back
firing, afterfiring, cutting out while in flight, and
low power output are all symptoms of one or more
problems that require removal of an engine. This is
especially true with intermittent malfunctions if
previous troubleshooting attempts have not been
successful. Duplication of an intermittent
malfunction is sometimes easier if the engine is
mounted on a test stand with specialized test
equipment.
Many operators now utilize manual or

computerized engine condition monitoring that
provides a base line to which unstable engine
operations can
Figure 2-29. (A) ( Over time, a normal engine experiences a
gradual increase in the amount of metal suspended in its
oil. (B) ( Once a baseline is established, a sudden increase
be compared. The baseline information, coupled
with trend analysis techniques, can help predict an
engine failure before it occurs or pinpoint a
problem requiring maintenance.
PREPARATION FOR REMOVAL

When an engine is removed from an aircraft,
flammable fluids often leak from the engine and
create a fire hazard. Therefore, an engine removal
should be done in a well ventilated area with a least
one fire extinguisher nearby. Once the aircraft is
parked, chock the main gear wheels to keep the
aircraft from rolling during the removal operation.
If the aircraft has tricycle-type landing gear, the tail
must be supported to prevent the aircraft from
tipping back when the engine is removed. In
addition, the landing gear shock struts may need to
be deflated to prevent damage from over-extension
once the engine weight is removed from the
aircraft.
MAGNETO, FUEL, AND BATTERY DISARMING
Before starting the engine removal process, make

sure that the magneto switch isin the OFF position.
In addition, once the engine c^W is removed, it is a
good idea to remove at least one spark plug from
each cylinder. When these steps are taken, you
eliminate the chance of the engine suddenly
kicking back or starting when the propeller is
turned. To help prevent fuel from spilling, make
sure that all fuel shutoff valves are closed. Fuel
selector valves are either manually or electrically
operated. If an electric solenoid-operated shutoff
valve is installed, it may be necessary to apply
battery power to close the valve. After ensuring
that all fuel is shut off, disconnect the battery to
reduce the possibility of electrical sparks. If the
aircraft will be out of service for more than a few
days, the battery is normally removed and taken to
a battery shop where it can be cleaned, serviced,
and charged.
Once the cowling is removed, clean and check the

cowling for cracks and elongated fastener holes so
repairs can be made while the engine is removed. If
the cowling is not in need of repair, move it to a
safe place where it will not be damaged.
DRAINING ENGINE OIL
You should begin draining the oil once the

magnetos and battery are disarmed. When doing
this, drain the oil into a clean container and place a
large metal drip pan under the engine to catch any
spills. Begin by removing the drain plug or opening
the drain
SLEEVE AND NUT FITTING

the remaining fuel and hydraulic lines. These fluid
lines typically include flexible rubber hoses,
aluminum-alloy tubing, and stainless steel tubing.
For example, most fuel lines are constructed of
flexible rubber hose that must be drained once
removed. In addition, on carbureted engines, once
the fuel line is removed, the carburetor must also be
drained. Most rigid tubing is secured to a threaded
fitting at the firewall by a standard B-nut. Hoses
may also be secured in this manner or they may be
threaded into a receptacle, or secured by hose
clamps. Some firewall attach points have a
quick-disconnect fitting containing a check valve
that prevents fluid loss when the line is
disconnected. [Figure 2-31]
Figure 2-30. Most of the engine oil in a typical horizontally

opposed engine is drained by removing one or more oil
drain plugs or opening a drain valve.
HOSE CLAMP AND FITTING

valve. Additional points that should be drained of
THREADED FITTING AND RECEPTACLE
oil include the oil cooler, oil return line, and oil
filter. Leave all valves and drains open until the oil
system is completely drained. After draining the
oil, reinstall the drain plugs, close all drain valves,
and wipe any excess oil from around the drain
points. [Figure 2-30]
PROPELLER REMOVAL
With the spark plugs removed, the propeller can be

easily turned and removed for inspection and
necessary repairs. When removing a fixed pitch
propeller from a light aircraft, one person can
typically conduct the operation safely with no INTERCONNECTING HOSE
additional equipment. However, when removing a
large constant speed propeller, the use of a
propeller sling with a frame and hoist is
imperative. In addition, it is best to have one or
two additional people assist you to prevent
damaging the propeller or surrounding equipment.
In either case, you should follow the
J
manufacturer's instructions for propeller removal.
FLUID LINE DISCONNECTION removed, you can begin disconnecting and

Once the oil is drained and the propeller is draining
Figure 2-31. Fluid lines are typically connected to the
firewall or accessory by either a B-nut, a threaded fitting
that threads into a receptacle, or by hose clamps.
lead or group of individual leads run from terminal

strip screw posts in a junction box to the engine or
accessory. The wire leads used with this type of
system are typically terminated with a ring
connector that fits on a screw post and is secured
with a nut and washer. Disconnection is
accomplished by removal of the nut, allowing the
ring terminal to be lifted off the terminal post.
[Figure 2-32]
Small aircraft with simple electrical systems often

utilize knife-type or wrist-lock connectors that are
sealed in some type of protective sheathing. To
disconnect this type of connector, remove the
sheathing and separate the connector.
To protect the exposed ends of connectors from

dirt and moisture you should wrap them with
moisture-proof tape whenever they are
disconnected. Also, coil loose cables and secure
conduits out of the way to prevent entanglement
and damage when the engine is removed. If the
wires lack legible identification, label them to
eliminate confusion when reinstalling the engine.
ENGINE CONTROL DISCONNECTION
TERMINAL POST The engine control rods and cables allow operation
After a fuel line has drained, it should be plugged of the throttle and mixture from within the cockpit.
or covered with moisture-proof tape. This helps A typical control rod is threaded at both ends with
prevent insects, dirt, or other foreign matter from a clevis attached at one end and a rod end bearing
entering the line and keeps any residual fluids from
dripping out. Once plugged, all lines and fittings
should be labeled to help prevent possible
confusion when reinstalling them on a new engine.
ELECTRICAL DISCONNECTION
Depending on the type of engine and equipment

installed, electrical leads may be disconnected at
the accessory or at the engine firewall. When
disconnected at the firewall, AN and MS
connectors are often used to simplify
disconnections. A typical AN or MS electrical
connector consists of a plug and receptacle
assembly for one or more wires. To help prevent
accidental disconnection during aircraft operation,
the plug assembly screws to the receptacle
assembly and is secured with safety wire.
Another type of wiring connection you may see

consists of a junction box that serves as a
disconnect point. With this type of setup, a single
Figure 2-32. On aircraft that utilize firewall electrical
disconnect points, there are generally two kinds of
electrical disconnects used. One type consists of a
junction box containing terminal strips with terminal posts
while a second type consists of a plug-type connector
such as a Cannon plug or Amphenol connector.
attached to the other end. On most aircraft, the rod

end bearing is connected to the carburetor or fuel
control by a bolt secured with a castle nut and
cotter pin. To remove a control rod, begin by
removing the cotter pin and castle nut. Once this is
done, remove the bolt passing through the control
assembly.
After the engine control linkages have been

disconnected, the nuts and bolts should be
inspected for wear. Cotter pins get replaced, but if
the nuts and bolts do not need replacement, place
them back in the control rod ends so they do not
get lost. All control rods
Figure 2-33. A typical control rod has a clevis attached to one end and a rod end bearing attached to the other end. To prevent damaging a
control rod, it is best to remove them completely from the aircraft before the engine is removed.
should either be removed completely or tied back the case, a turnbuckle which joins the bellcrank
to prevent them from being bent or broken when actuating cable must be removed. However, before
the engine is removed. [Figure 2-33] you remove the turnbuckle, it is a good idea to
mark the position of the control cable end threads
On engine installations that utilize a bellcrank to at the turnbuckle. The marks will assist you during
actuate a control rod, the bellcrank may have to be rein-stallation to roughly obtain the original
removed to allow removal of a control rod. If this position before trimming the controls. [Figure
is 2-34]
Figure 2-34. Some control systems in use today consist of a cable and pulley arrangement to actuate engine controls. If this is the case, the
cable assembly may have to be separated at a turnbuckle in order to remove the control rod.
OTHER DISCONNECTIONS everything is set, raise the engine enough to remove

Air intake and exhaust system components must the engine weight from the engine mount. Next,
also be disconnected to facilitate engine removal. remove the nuts from the engine mount attachments
However, because the installation of these in the
components vary among different engines and
aircraft, it is best to refer to the manufacturer's
instructions for specific removal instructions.
ENGINE HOISTING
After all engine connections are free and clear, the
engine is ready for hoisting. If an engine has been
thoroughly prepared for removal, the actual
removal process is typically a simple task. One
decision that must be made is whether to remove
only the engine, or both the engine and engine
mount. With a typical overhaul the engine is
removed without the engine mount. However, if the
engine is being replaced with a quick engine
change assembly (QECA), the separation point is
usually the firewall; therefore, the mount must be
removed with the engine. A QECA is essentially a
powerplant with the necessary accessories already
installed on the engine mounting assembly. In
addition, some radial engine QECA's are supplied
with nacelles, so removal in this case would include
the engine nacelle.
Before the engine can be freed from its attach

points, a sling must be installed so the engine's
weight can be supported with a hoist. Aircraft
engines have selected points for attaching a
hoisting sling. The location of these points and the
type of sling arrangement used vary according to
the engine's size and weight. Therefore, engine
manufacturers typically provide information on
where to support an engine as well as the type of
hoist apparatus to use. As a matter of safety, the
sling and hoist should be carefully inspected and
deemed safe for use before installing it on an
engine. In addition, make sure that the hoist has
sufficient capacity to lift the engine safely,
observing the change in capacity as the hoist arm is
extended. In most cases, when the hoist arm is fully
extended, lifting capacity is greatly reduced.
[Figure 2-35]
Some engine hoisting frames are fitted with power

operated hoists. Power hoists should be used with
caution, since considerable damage can be done by
an inexperienced operator.
Before you actually begin lifting an engine, recheck

the aircraft tail supports and wheel chocks. If
Figure 2-35. When choosing a hoist and frame assembly,
make sure the hoist can reach the engine with adequate
clearance and is rated for the weight of the engine being
lifted.
order specified in the manufacturer's instructions.

Before the last nuts are removed, be sure that the
engine is steadied and secure with no lateral
loading. If everything is secure, remove the
remaining engine mount hardware and gently
move the engine free of the mount attachments. If
the engine binds at any point, investigate the
reason and maneuver the engine as necessary until
it slips free. Once the engine is moved clear of the
airframe, carefully lower the engine onto an engine
stand and secure it with the appropriate hardware.
ENGINE COMPARTMENT
Anytime an engine is removed from an aircraft the
opportunity exists to thoroughly inspect the engine
compartment and make repairs as necessary. To
begin, you should inspect the entire engine nacelle
for corrosion, cracks, missing rivets, or any other
visible defects. Cracks in the cowling or ducts can
be stop-drilled or patched if they do not exceed
limits specified in the manufacturer's structural
repair manual.
Engine controls should be checked for integrity

and freedom of movement. In addition, cables
should be inspected for broken wire strands while
cable pulleys are checked for binding, flat spots,
and chipped edges. Furthermore, pulley bearings
can be checked for excessive play. The
anti-friction bearings in the
permanent impressions or cracks caused by hose

clamps. Both types of damage weaken hoses and
could eventually cause leaks to develop. In addition
to the hoses, you should inspect the exhaust
assembly for security, cracks, and excessive
corrosion.
If the engine installation employs a dry sump oil

system, the oil tank is generally removed to permit
thorough cleaning. Furthermore, the oil cooler and
temperature regulator are usually removed and sent
to a repair facility for overhaul, or are included as
an exchange unit and returned with the run-out
engine.
ENGINE MOUNTS
Before a new or overhauled engine can be installed
on an aircraft, an inspection of the engine mount
structure must be accomplished. The engine mount
should be checked for bends, dents, flat spots, or
control rods should move freely and the rods
should be free of deformities. Inspect areas where
cables and rods pass through bulkheads or panels
for evidence of chafing and misalignment.
Check the outer surface of all exposed electrical

wiring for breaks, chafing, deteriorated insulation,
or other damage. In addition, inspect crimped and
soldered terminals for security and cleanliness.
Connector plugs must also be checked for damage,
corrosion, and overall condition. Check bonding
straps for fraying, loose attachments, and corrosion
at terminal ends. The electrical resistance of the
complete bond must not exceed the resistance
values specified in the applicable manufacturer's
instructions. Any damage found must be repaired
and defective parts should be replaced as specified
in the manufacturer's specifications and Federal
Aviation Regulations.
Hydraulic and pneumatic tubing should be free

from dents, nicks, and kinks, and all connectors
should be checked for the correct tightness. Check
all air ducts for dents and the condition of the
fabric or rubber anti-chafing strips at their joints.
Dents should be worked out, and anti-chafing strips
should be replaced if they have pulled loose or no
longer form a tight seal.
Thoroughly inspect all hoses and replace those

hoses that have been damaged by weather checking
or cold flow. Weather checking is a cracking of
the outside covering of hoses that sometimes
penetrates to the reinforcement webbing. Cold
flow, on the other hand, refers to deep and
elongated bolt holes. Typically, dye penetrants are
used to help reveal cracks, porous areas, or other
defects. Ferrous parts, such as the engine mounting
bolts, are usually checked by magnetic particle
inspection.
Many types of engine mount structures are in use,

however, most are typically constructed from
formed and riveted sheet metal rails, forged alloy
fittings, welded alloy steel tubing, or a combination
of all three. Engine mount structures consisting of
riveted aluminum usually provide two mounting
rails to which the engine is mounted. These
aluminum mount structures are typically used for
mounting large horizontally opposed engines,
especially on multi-engine aircraft. Steel tube
mount structures, on the other hand, are used on
both large and small, horizontally opposed, and
radial engines. Steel tube engine mounting
structures bolt to the engine firewall and their
shape provides some separation between an engine
and firewall.
Most modern reciprocating engine aircraft utilize

dynafocal engine mounts. With a dynafocal engine
mount, the engine mounting points are turned
inward so they point toward the engine's center of
gravity. This design helps prevent the transmission
of engine vibration to the airframe. [Figure 2-36]
Figure 2-36. With a dynafocal engine mount, the
mounting points are turned inward so they point toward
the engine's center of gravity.
A typical engine mounting structure incorporates

vibration isolating shock mounts that help dampen
engine vibrations and permit restricted engine
movement. Shock mounts contain rubber recommended because some engine manufacturers
components that are arranged so the engine weight believe that if you are going to remove all of an
rests on the rubber. The rubber absorbs much of the
engine vibration thereby reducing the amount of
vibration that is transmitted to the airframe.
OVERHAUL
Aircraft operators run the risk of premature engine
or component failure if scheduled maintenance is
delayed or neglected. On the other hand, a
well-maintained engine can provide many hours of
reliable operation without failure up to the
recommended TBO. After reaching TBO, however,
the engine should be overhauled for continued
airworthiness so that worn or damaged parts can be
detected and replaced. The best way to identify
parts that are defective or worn beyond airworthy
limits is to disassemble the engine and perform a
complete and thorough inspection.
Engine manufacturers provide overhaul

instructions that contain specific tolerances and
general instructions to aid in determining the
airworthiness of each part. Parts that do not meet
the manufacturer's specifications must be replaced,
while parts that do meet tolerances are reinstalled
in the engine. However, if a part is near its
airworthiness limits, you may want to replace it
since that part could eventually fail or exceed the
acceptable limits before the next scheduled
overhaul.
TOP OVERHAUL
A top overhaul is defined as an overhaul of those
parts associated with the engine cylinders. During a
typical top overhaul, the cylinders, pistons, and
valve operating mechanisms are reconditioned
while the piston rings are replaced. In addition, the
valve guides and seats are inspected and replaced if
necessary. When performing a top overhaul, you
should remove as few parts as necessary to gain
access to the cylinders. However, in most cases,
you must remove the intake manifold, ignition
harness, and exhaust collectors. Engine accessories
such as magnetos, starters, and alternators typically
receive normally scheduled maintenance during a
top overhaul.
Top overhauls are not performed as frequently in

modern aircraft engines as in earlier models
because more durable materials are now available.
Furthermore, a top overhaul is not universally
engine's cylinders, it is relatively inexpensive to
overhaul the rest of the engine. An alternative
view, however, is that since most crankcase
assemblies are relatively more durable than
cylinders and valve trains, a top overhaul is often
the most economical way to bring an engine back
to original performance levels in the short term. In
many cases, the final decision on whether to
perform a top overhaul or major overhaul is up to
the owner or operator.
MAJOR OVERHAUL
A major overhaul entails a complete engine
reconditioning at periodic intervals. The exact
interval is based on manufacturer recommendations
or an FAA approved number of accumulated hours
since new or last major overhaul.
During a major overhaul, an engine is completely

dismantled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as needed,
reassembled, and tested. Any engine part failing to
meet specified tolerances is rejected and either
scrapped or repaired. Parts such as gaskets, seals,
and some hardware are used only once, and,
therefore, are normally replaced regardless of their
condition. Instructions provided by the
manufacturer specify the parts that must be
replaced. Furthermore, all accessories are removed
for overhaul or replacement.
Engine manufacturers establish types of fits,

tolerances, and limits on production drawings when
designing and building their engines. This set of
measurements is the authoritative source of
allowable tolerances for new engine parts.
Additionally, the manufacturer establishes
serviceable limits which show the maximum
amount of wear a part can have and still be
considered serviceable. When performing an
overhaul, the serviceable part tolerance limits are
typically used for parts diat are being reinstalled
while the new part tolerances are used on any new
parts being installed.
It is important to note that the total time on an

engine must be continued when it is overhauled. In
addition, the amount of hours indicating the time
since major overhaul should be added to the engine
log. Only new engines and rebuilt engines are
granted a zero time status. FAR Part 43 describes a
rebuilt engine as an engine that has been
disassembled, cleaned, inspected, repaired as
necessary, reassembled, and tested to the same
tolerances and limits as a new engine. A rebuilt
engine can contain either new or used parts that
conform to new part tolerances and limits or to
approved oversized or undersized dimensions. In
other words, the term
rebuilt means that the repaired engine conforms to components are considered to be engine parts and
new parts specifications, which is a higher level of are kept with the engine.
quality than that provided by the serviceable limits
in an overhauled engine. An engine can only be
rebuilt and carry a zero time status if the engine
manufacturer or an agency approved by the
manufacturer performs the work. Zero time status
allows the owner or operator to start a new
maintenance record with no reference to previous
operating history. Each manufacturer or agency
that rebuilds an engine must make several entries
in the new engine log. Among those entries are the
date the engine was rebuilt, each change made as
required by airworthiness directives, and each
change made in compliance with manufacturer's
service bulletins, if that bulletin requires an entry.
Advertisements for engine overhauls or exchange

programs sometimes use the term remanufactured
engine. It is important to note that this term is not
defined by the FAR's and, therefore, the vendor
should be questioned about what is meant by
"remanufactured."
OVERHAUL PROCEDURES
Specific overhaul procedures for any given engine
are listed in the maintenance and overhaul manuals
written for that engine; therefore, the overhaul
practices and procedures discussed here are general
in nature. This discussion takes you through all the
steps in a major overhaul on a typical horizontally
opposed engine.
Throughout the overhaul process, the engine

manufacturer's manuals, service bulletins, and
other service information must be available.
Therefore, the first task you must complete in the
overhaul process is to research the airworthiness
directives and manufacturer's service bulletins that
apply. In addition, you should gather all the
necessary inspection forms and tooling needed to
complete the overhaul.
When an engine is brought to you for an overhaul,

you should do an inventory of all accessories sent
with the engine. If the engine is still installed on
the aircraft, all of the engine accessories such as
the alternator, vacuum pump, hydraulic pump,
propeller and its governor are usually still on the
engine. If this is the case, these accessories will
have to be removed and sent to specialty shops or
an appropriate repair station for overhaul.
Additional items such as intercylinder baffles,
carburetor or fuel injection systems, magnetos,
ignition leads, and the induction system
DISASSEMBLY
Before beginning engine disassembly, you should
mount the engine on a stand and inspect its general
condition. Any signs of oil leakage, overheating, or
impact damage should be noted for further
inspection during the disassembly. Next, spray
wash the engine exterior. To remove some of the
more stubborn, baked on dirt and oil, use a
petroleum solvent or degreaser. However, be sure
you thoroughly rinse any residual solvent from the
engine.
Figure 2-37. After being mounted on an engine stand, an

engine is disassembled for a thorough visual inspection
and cleaning.
Once the engine is clean, remove the fuel metering

system, magnetos, pumps, and other accessories,
and send them to the various specialty shops for
overhaul. The remaining parts, such as the exhaust
system, intercylinder baffles, ignition leads, spark
plugs, and induction system components should
also be removed and set aside. Whenever you are
disassembling an engine or any of its components,
you should mark all parts. This is usually done by
attaching a tag to each part as it is removed.
Remember to place nuts, bolts, and other small
parts in suitable containers during disassembly to
prevent loss and damage. Safety wire, cotter pins,
and some other safety devices are not used more
than once, so they should be discarded and
replaced with new safety devices. As with any
other work you do, you should always use the
proper tools for the job to avoid damaging engine
parts or hardware. If special tools are required, you
should obtain and use them rather than
improvising. [Figure 2-37]
Crankshaft bearings, oil seals, gaskets, and stressed can become trapped in relatively porous engine
bolts and nuts are normally replaced during an components such as case halves, causing oil
overhaul and should be discarded unless directed contamination and
otherwise by manufacturer instructions. In all
cases, consult the applicable manufacturer's
maintenance and overhaul manuals or service
bulletins for a complete listing of replacement
items. Loose or damaged studs and other fittings
should be tagged or marked for a closer
examination during inspection because they could
be evidence of more serious wear and damage.
At this point, the engine can be completely

disassembled and laid out on a clean workbench for
a preliminary inspection. A preliminary visual
inspection must be done before cleaning the
internal engine parts because indications of an
impending failure are often detected from residual
deposits of metallic particles in oil residue and
sludge. Cleaning before inspection could flush the
particles from parts and recesses in the engine,
possibly preventing the detection of an engine
problem. [Figure 2-38]
CLEANING
Figure 2-38. Engine parts are laid out in an orderly

fashion on a clean workbench after the cleaning process
to facilitate inspection procedures. Keeping parts
arranged in an orderly manner minimizes loss and
accidental damage.
After an engine is torn down and a preliminary
visual inspection has been done, the disassembled
parts must be cleaned by soaking or spraying each
component with a degreaser or cleaning solvent.
Use a commercial safety solvent approved by the
engine manufacturer rather than water-soluble
degreasing solutions that contain soap or caustic
compounds. The reason for this is that
water-soluble solutions could be corrosive to
aluminum or magnesium. In addition, soap residues
oil foaming when the engine is returned to service.
[Figure 2-39]
While degreasing removes dirt, grease, and soft

carbon, it is often inadequate for removing hard
carbon deposits that sometimes build up on interior
engine surfaces. To remove hard carbon deposits,
you can use an approved decarbonizing solution;
however, you must exercise caution and follow the
manufacturer's recommendations. Decarbonizing
solutions are available in a water-soluble base or
hydrocarbon base. Of the two, the hydrocarbon
base is preferable because water-soluble
decarbonizing solutions carry the same corrosion
dangers as water-soluble degreasers. Decarbonizer
solution is usually quite active, so you must adhere
to several precautions. For example, you should
always wear protective clothing and eye protection
when using a decarbonizer. In addition, take care to
avoid leaving engine parts in a decarbonizing
solution longer than the prescribed time periods.
Furthermore, be sure the solution is safe for
magnesium parts before immersing them, and
avoid placing steel parts and magnesium parts in
the same container. The reason for this is the
cleaning solution could cause a chemical reaction
between the dissimilar metals that could corrode
the magnesium. Be especially careful with
accessory housings that often have a high
magnesium content.
Figure 2-39. Several manufacturers produce cleaning

fixtures that circulate an approved safety solvent for
cleaning engine parts. These fixtures make cleaning
much easier by containing solvent splashes and by
providing a contained area for small parts that could
otherwise be misplaced or lost.
After the parts have soaked in a decarbonizing it is imperative that you reapply an oil coating to
solution for the appropriate time, they must be prevent corrosion.
removed and thoroughly cleaned to remove any
traces of the decarbonizing solution. Any one of
several cleaning methods may be used, such as
blasting a part with steam, or brushing the part with
mineral spirits. With the exception of bearings or
polished surfaces, any remaining carbon deposits
are usually removed by scraping, wire brushing, or
grit-blasting with plastic pellets or organic
materials such as rice, baked wheat, or crushed
walnut shells. However, before beginning any
grit-blasting process, you must insert rubber plugs
in all drilled oil passages and be sure that all
machined surfaces are masked with a
recommended material. Furthermore, old hardware
can be screwed into threaded holes to prevent grit
from getting into the screw threads. Since valve
seats are typically hardened, they can usually be
left unprotected during grit-blasting. In fact, grit
blasting can often be used to remove the glaze that
forms on valve seats, as well as the enamel from
cylinder cooling fins that does not come off in a
decarbonizing solution. The key to avoiding
damage when using a grit blast is to use the lowest
air pressure that is practical and only blast the part
long enough to remove the carbon.
It is important to note that any mechanical means

of cleaning hard carbon deposits can cause
unintentional damage if applied too vigorously.
Therefore, you should pay extra attention when
cleaning any part with abrasive tools.
To clean machined and polished bearing surfaces

such as journals and crankpins, use crocus cloth
moistened with mineral spirits. Once all the carbon
is removed, polish the surfaces with a piece of dry
crocus cloth.
When cleaning a crankshaft with hollow crankpins

that serve as sludge chambers, you must remove
the plugs from the crankpin ends to facilitate a
cleaning and visual inspection. If the sludge
chamber is not thoroughly cleaned, accumulated
sludge loosened during cleaning may clog the
crankshaft oil passages and cause subsequent
bearing failures.
After all of the parts have been thoroughly cleaned,

steel parts must be coated with a film of protective
oil. Applying the protective oil coating is important
because if steel parts are left exposed to the air,
they will quickly rust. If the oil coating must be
removed to perform additional inspections later on,
VISUAL I NSPECTION
Once an engine part is clean, it must be inspected
closely for damage. The first type of inspection
that is usually done is a thorough visual inspection
aided by a magnifying glass, flashlight, and, if
necessary, a borescope. Visual inspections are done
to detect many different visible surface defects in
parts. As a maintenance technician, you must have
an understanding of the terms used to describe the
nature of a particular defect. Some of the more
common types of damage you will look for
include: Abrasion An area of roughened scratches
or marks usually caused by foreign matter between
moving parts.
Brinelling One or more indentations on bearing
races usually caused by high static loads or
application of force during installation or
removal. Indentations are rounded or spherical due
to the impression left by the bearing's balls or
rollers. Burning Surface damage caused by
excessive heat as a result of improper fit,
insufficient lubrication, or over-temperature
operation. Burnishing Polishing of one surface by
sliding contact with a smooth, harder surface.
Usually no displacement or removal of metal
occurs. Burr A sharp or roughened projection of
metal usually resulting from machine processing,
drilling, or cutting.
Chafing Describes the wear caused by a rubbing
action between two parts under light pressure.
Chipping The breaking away of pieces of
material, caused by excessive stress concentrations
or careless handling.
Corrosion Loss of metal by a chemical or
electrochemical action. The corrosion products are
generally removed by mechanical means. Crack
A partial separation of material usually caused by
vibration, overloading, internal stresses, defective
assembly, or fatigue.
Cut Loss of metal, usually to an appreciable depth
caused by a sharp object, such as a saw blade,
chisel, or screwdriver.
Dent A small, rounded surface depression usually
found in sheet metal. Most dents are the result of
impact with another object.
Erosion Loss of surface metal caused by the
mechanical action of foreign objects, such as grit
or fine sand. The eroded area will be rough and
may be lined in the direction the foreign material
moved relative to the surface.
Flaking The breaking loose of small pieces of
metal or coated surfaces caused by defective
plating or excessive loading.
Fretting A form of surface corrosion caused by
minute movement between two parts clamped
together under considerable pressure. Found In addition to checking for cracks, it is important to
sometimes between crankcase halves. Galling A closely inspect all lubrication channels and oil
severe condition of chafing or fretting in which a ports. Furthermore, you must check for loose or
transfer of metal from one part to another occurs. bent studs and examine hole threads with a
Galling is usually caused by slight movement flashlight. If stripped threads are encountered, mark
between mated parts under high loads. Gouging A the hole for repairs later after completing the visual
furrowing condition in which a displacement of inspection.
metal occurrs. Gouging is usually caused by a
piece of metal or foreign material becoming
GEARS
trapped between moving parts. Grooving A recess
or channel with rounded and smooth edges that The primary purpose of a gear is the transmission
usually results from improperly aligned parts. of force through motion; therefore, stress and wear
Inclusion Presence of foreign or extraneous occur continually. For that reason, it is important to
material that is wholly confined within a portion of visually examine all gears for cracked or chipped
metal. The included material is often introduced teeth and the presence of pitting or excessive wear.
during the manufacture of rod, bar, or tubing by Deep pit marks or excessive wear on gear teeth are
rolling or forging. reasons for rejecting and replacing a gear. Minor
Nick A sharp sided gouge or depression with a scratches and abrasions on a gear's bearing surfaces
"V" shaped bottom. Nicks are generally the result can normally be dressed out with a fine abrasive
of careless handling of tools and parts. Peening A cloth, however, deep scratches or scoring is
series of blunt surface depressions. Scuffing or unacceptable.
Pick Up A buildup or rolling of metal from one
area to another which is usually caused by BEARINGS
insufficient lubrication, clearance, or foreign
matter. Pitting Small hollows of irregular shape in Ball bearings and roller bearings should be closely
the surface, usually caused by corrosion or minute examined for smoothness and freedom of
mechanical chipping of surfaces. Scoring A series movement. As you visually inspect a bearing, feel
of deep scratches caused by foreign particles the bearing parts carefully to detect any roughness,
between moving parts, or careless assembly or flat spots on balls or rollers, and dents or corrosion
disassembly techniques. Scratches Shallow, thin on the races. In addition, check for pitting, scoring,
lines or marks, varying in degree of depth and and galling on the outside surfaces of races. Pitting
width, caused by improper handling or the presence on a thrust bearing race that cannot be removed by
of fine foreign particles during operation. polishing with crocus cloth or other mild abrasive
Spailing A bearing defect in which chips of the usually requires part replacement. You must also
hardened bearing surface are broken out. Stain A check journal bearings for damage such as galling,
localized change in color that is noticeably burning, scoring, spalling, misalignment, or an
different in appearance from the surrounding area. out-of-round condition.
Upsetting A displacement of material beyond the
normal surface contour commonly referred to as a Bearing inserts such as bushings and plain bearings
bulge or bump. When a part is upset, there is are usually replaced, however, looking at them
usually no metal loss. could help you detect wear on their mating surfaces
or mounting bosses. Scratching and light scoring of
CRANKCASE
aluminum bearing surfaces in the engine is usually
acceptable if the damage is within the limits stated
Forces working in a crankcase produce highly in the engine manufacturer's overhaul manual.
stressed areas which can eventually develop cracks, However, the presence of other defects could
especially around mating and bearing surfaces, require rejection of the part even if it falls within
mounting bosses, threaded holes and studs, specific tolerance limits.
openings, and structural fillet areas. Although more
elaborate methods for crack detection are available,
a thorough visual inspection can save wasted time CRANKSHAFT
and effort by quickly detecting serious damage A crankshaft is usually the heaviest and most
requiring replacement. highly stressed part of an aircraft engine. Since
very few repairs are approved for a crankshaft, a
visual inspection is done mainly to determine if the
crankshaft falls within wear tolerance limits.
Inspect the
CYLINDERS
In order to perform an effective visual inspection

of a cylinder for external and internal cracks, the
cylinder must be free of carbon deposits and paint.
Cracks near the edge of fins are repairable,
however, cracks at the base of a fin are reasons for
rejection and replacement. The amount of fin
damage permitted on a given cylinder is based on a
percentage of the total fin area and is established
by the manufacturer. If dented or bent fins are
found, it is best to leave them as they are because
main and crankpin journal bearing surfaces for
straightening a fin typically results in the fin
burning, pitting, scoring, or spalling, giving extra
breaking.
attention to the fillets at the edges of journal
surfaces. If pitting exists in an amount that cannot
When inspecting a cylinder's interior, light amounts
be removed by polishing with crocus cloth or other
of pitting, rust, and scoring are typically not a
mild abrasives, the crankshaft may have to be
cause for concern. The reason for this is because
replaced. When a crankshaft is equipped with oil
the damage is usually removed when lapping in a
transfer tubes, check them for tightness.
new set of rings. If large amounts of pitting, rust,
and scoring exist, it must be removed by regrinding
CONNECTING RODS or honing.
Connecting rods must be checked for small cracks,
corrosion, pitting, nicks, or other damage. In Inspect valve seat inserts for pitting, burning,
addition, if an engine has been subjected to an scoring, and assymetry. If any of these exist, the
overspeed or excessively high manifold pressure, valve seat must be refaced. In addition to
slight amounts of movement between the bearing inspecting the valve seats, the spark plug thread
insert and the rod can cause galling. If galling does inserts should be checked for condition of the
exist or if a connecting rod is twisted or bent, the threads and looseness by running a tap of the
rod must be replaced. proper size through the insert. Any missing or
damaged threads requires replacement of the
insert.
PISTONS AND PISTON PINS
Check pistons carefully after cleaning to be sure all Look closely at valve guides to be certain that all
carbon is removed from the ring grooves and oil carbon was removed during the cleaning process.
relief holes. Once this is done, use a magnifying This is important because carbon deposits tend to
glass to inspect for cracks, scores, and scratches on cover or fill pitting damage inside the guide,
the outside and inside of all pistons. Another making detection difficult. If a guide with pitting is
method of visually detecting cracks is to carefully left in the engine, carbon deposits may again
heat the piston, which expands any existing cracks collect in the pits and cause valve sticking when
and forces out residual oil. Pistons with deep the engine is returned to service.
scoring, cracked or broken ring lands, cracked
skirts, and badly scored piston pin holes should be Rocker shaft bosses need to be checked for
rejected. [Figure 2-40] scoring, cracks, rocker shaft to shaft boss clearance
Figure 2-40. When visually inspecting a piston, be alert and out-of-round conditions. Scoring is usually
for cracks that form at the base of ring lands and at the
junction of the piston head and wall. caused by the rocker shaft turning in the bosses
because either the shaft is too loose in the bosses or
Examine piston pins for scoring, cracks, and the rocker arm is too tight on the shaft. Sticking
pitting. In addition, you must remove all piston pin valves, on the other hand, cause the rocker shaft to
plugs and check the interior surfaces of piston pins work up and down, causing uneven wear on the
for pitting and corrosion. Since pins are often case rocker shaft bosses.
hardened, cracks will show up inside the pin more
often than on the outside. If pitting is found and CAMSHAFT
cannot be removed by polishing with crocus cloth
or other mild abrasives, reject the pin and replace The condition of the lobes on a camshaft directly
it. influence an engine's performance; therefore, you
must examine the surfaces of all camshaft lobes for
irregularities such as feathered edges, abrasions,
nicks, or upsets. Lobe surface damage that, in turn,
damages a lifter, is a reason to reject and replace
the
camshaft. Additional defects that are cause for replacement of threaded fasteners such as bolts,
rejection include spalling, pitting, and surface nuts, studs, and screws may be required by the
cracks. overhaul manual. However, in cases where it is
allowable to reuse
VALVES AND VALVE MECHANISMS
Most horizontally opposed engines operate with

hydraulic valve lifters that must be disassembled,
cleaned, and visually inspected during an overhaul.
The plunger and cylinder in a hydraulic lifter are
matched units, therefore, take care to avoid
interchanging parts of one lifter with parts from
another lifter. Lifter parts should be free from
nicks, scratches, and chipped shoulders. To verify
that a check valve is seating properly, quickly press
the plunger into the cylinder. The plunger should
bounce back, indicating satisfactory operation. If
the plunger does not bounce back satisfactorily, a
leakage test can be done using specially designed
test equipment before discarding the lifter as
defective.
In addition to inspecting hydraulic lifters, you must

also verify that all push rods are clean, especially
the oil passage through each rod. Ball ends should
be smooth and free from nicks and scratches, and
must fit tightly in the rod ends. To check for
straightness, push rods are rolled across a flat,
clean surface.
Inspect valve rockers for cracks and worn, pitted,

or scored tips. In addition, visually verify that all
oil passages are free from obstructions. If a rocker
shaft turns excessively in a cylinder head, scoring
typically results. Another problem often seen is
burnishing and galling on a rocker shaft caused by
the bronze rocker bushing and the heat of friction.
Some engine overhaul manuals require valve

replacement, however, in cases where valves can
be reused, a detailed inspection is required.
Overheating, as well as nicks and scratches in the
valve stem near the spring retainer groove renders
a valve unserviceable.
Valve springs are also subjected to a great deal of

wear and tear, and, therefore, must be checked
visually for cracks, rust, and broken ends. If any
corrosion exists or if a valve spring shows signs of
wear, it must be discarded and replaced.
THREADED FASTENERS
Depending on the particular component,

threaded fasteners, the parts should be carefully
examined for evidence of cracks or mutilated
threads. Cross-threading caused by improper
installation, torn threads caused by trapped foreign
matter, and flattened threads caused by improper fit
are all typical examples of thread damage. Small
defects such as slight nicks or burrs can be dressed
out with a small file, fine abrasive cloth, or stone.
However, if the fastener shows damage caused by
overtighten-ing or the use of improper tools,
replace it with a new one.
STRUCTURAL INSPECTION
Once all engine parts have been visually inspected,
key components must be structurally inspected to
verify their integrity. If a structural inspection
reveals a faulty part, the part is immediately
removed from the overhaul process and replaced
with a new part. Some of the more common
structural inspections that are used include
magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, eddy current,
ultrasonic, and radiography inspection.
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION
The nondestructive inspection method most often

used for parts made of iron or iron alloys is
magnetic particle inspection. Magnetic particle
inspection is useful for detecting cracks, splits,
seams, and voids that form when a metal ruptures.
It is also useful for detecting cold shuts and
inclusions of foreign matter that occured when the
metal was cast or rolled.
With magnetic particle inspection, a part is

magnetized and an oxide containing magnetic
particles is poured or sprayed over the part's
surface. If you recall from your general studies,
when a material containing large amounts of iron is
subjected to a strong magnetic field, the magnetic
domains within the material align themselves and
the part becomes magnetized. When this happens,
the part develops a north and south pole and lines
of flux flow in a continuous stream from the north
pole to the south pole. If a break occurs within the
part, another set of magnetic poles appears, one on
either side of the break. Therefore, when
conducting magnetic particle inspection, the poles
produced by a fault attract the magnetic particles in
the oxide, thereby giving you an indication of the
break.
In order to detect a crack with magnetic particle

inspection, the part must be magnetized so the
lines of flux are perpendicular to the fault. This is
because a flaw that is parallel to the lines of flux
causes a
Figure 2-41. When a part is magnetized in a coil, or Figure 2-42. When current passes through a part, lines
solenoid, the lines of flux pass through the material of flux encircle the part, making it circularly magnetized.
longitudinally. As the flux lines pass through the part, This circular magnetization allows for the detection of
faults that run across the part or at an angle are faults extending lengthwise and at an angle along the
detected. part.
minimal disruption in the magnetic field. On the magnetized both longitudinally and circularly.
other hand, a defect that is perpendicular to the
field creates a large disruption and is relatively In longitudinal magnetization, the magnetizing
easy to detect. To ensure that the flux lines are current flows either through a coil that encircles
nearly perpendicular to a flaw, a part should be the part being tested, or through a coil around a
soft iron yoke. In either method, the magnetic field with current passed through them. The magnetic
is oriented along the material so that magnetic field is oriented perpendicular to current that flows
fields form on either side of faults located across a between the probes. [Figure 2-43]
material. [Figure 2-41]
The medium used to indicate the presence of a fault
With circular magnetization, current flows through by magnetic particle inspection is ferromagnetic. In
the part being inspected, creating lines of magnetic other words, the material is finely divided, has a
flux that encircle the part. When this occurs, flaws high permeability, and a low retentivity.
or faults located along the material are magnetized Furthermore, for operator safety it is nontoxic.
and, therefore, attract magnetic particles. Current is There is no one medium that is best for all
sent through the part by placing it between the applications. However, in general, a testing
heads of the magnetizing equipment. However, if medium consists of extremely fine iron oxides that
the part is tubular, it is slipped over a conductive are dyed gray, black, red, or treated with a dye that
rod that is then placed between the heads of a causes them to fluoresce when illuminated with an
magnetizing machine. [Figure 2-42] ultraviolet lamp.
Large flat objects are circularly magnetized by The iron oxides may be used dry, or they can be
using test probes that are held firmly against the mixed with kerosene or some other light oil and
surface sprayed over a surface. Dry particles require no
special preparation, making them well suited for
field applications where portable equipment is
used. Dry particles are typically applied with hand
shakers, spray bulbs, or powder guns.
Wet particles are flowed over a part as a bath. The

wet method is typically used with stationary
equipment that continuously agitates the bath to
keep the particles in suspension. Particles are either
mixed
cles settles to the bottom of the tube allowing

measurement and comparison to be made against
the manufacturer's standardization guide.
Since the bath is continuously recycled, it often

becomes contaminated and discolored. When this
happens, you must drain and clean the equipment,
then refill with a fresh bath.
Different types of magnetizing procedures must be

used for different applications. The two methods
you must be familiar with are the residual
magnetism method and the continuous magnetism
method. When a part is magnetized and the
magnetizing force is removed before the testing
medium is applied, the part is tested by the residual
method. This procedure relies on a part's residual
or permanent magnetism. The residual procedure is
Figure 2-43. Current flowing through a flat object from only used with steels that have been heat-treated
high-current probes magnetizes the part circularly and
detects cracks or faults that are in line with the probes. for stressed applications. Continuous
magnetization requires a part to be subjected to a
in the vehicle with proportions recommended by magnetizing force when the testing medium is
the manufacturer or they come pre-mixed. The applied. The continuous process of magnetization
particle concentration of the bath requires close is most often used to locate invisible defects since
monitoring with adjustments made as necessary it provides a greater sensitivity in locating
each time the system is used. Measuring particle subsurface discontinuities than does residual
concentration is accomplished by collecting a magnetism. When performing an engine overhaul,
sample of the agitated bath in a centrifuge tube. A most overhaul manuals specify the type of
volume of parti- magnetization to be used on various parts. [Figure
2-44]
PART METHOD OF D.C. CRITICAL AREAS POSSIBLE

MAGNETIZATION AMPERES DEFECTS
CRANKSHAFT CIRCULAR AND 2500 JOURNALS, FILLETS, OIL FATIGUE CRACKS,

LONGITUDINAL HOLES,THRUST FLANGES, HEAT CRACKS
PROP FLANGE
CONNECTING ROD CIRCULAR AND 1800 ALL AREAS FATIGUE CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL
CAMSHAFT CIRCULAR AND 1500 LOBES, JOURNALS HEAT CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL
PISTON PIN CIRCULAR AND 1000 SHEAR PLANES, ENDS, FATIGUE CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL CENTER
ROCKER ARMS CIRCULAR AND 800 PAD, SOCKET UNDER FATIGUE CRACKS
LONGITUDINAL SIDE ARMS AND BOSS
GEARSTO6INCH CIRCULAR OR 1000 TO TEETH, SPLINES, FATIGUE CRACKS

DIAMETER ON CENTER 1500 KEYWAYS
CONDUCTOR
GEARS OVER 6 INCH SHAFT CIRCULAR 1000 TO TEETH, SPLINES FATIGUE CRACKS
DIAMETER TEETH BETWEEN 1500
HEADS TWO TIMES 90°
SHAFTS CIRCULAR AND 1000 TO SPLINES, KEYWAYS, FATIGUE CRACKS,
LONGITUDINAL 1500 CHANGE OF SECTION HEAT CRACKS
THRU BOLTS CIRCULAR AND 500 THREADS UNDER HEAD FATIGUE CRACKS
ROD BOLTS LONGITUDINAL
Figure 2-44. A typical magnetic particle inspection schedule for aircraft engine parts provides details on method of magnetization,
current required, critical areas, and a list of possible defects. In this case, the fluorescent method is preferred and a wet
continuous procedure is required.
Magnetization of a part after it is inspected is often allow the capillary action to draw the penetrant into
detrimental to its operation in an aircraft. Therefore, any fault that extends to the surface. After sufficient
before a part is returned to service, it must be
thoroughly demagnetized. In order to demagnetize a
part, the magnetic domains must be disorganized. To
accomplish this, the part is subjected to a
magnetizing force opposite that of the force used to
magnetize it. For example, if the magnetizing force
was AC, the domains alternate in polarity, and if the
part is slowly removed from the field while current
is still flowing, the reversing action progressively
becomes weaker. Thus, the domains are left with
random orientation and the part is demagnetized.
AC current does not penetrate a surface very deeply.

For this reason, complete demagnetization of some
parts require DC demagnetization. To accomplish
this, a part is placed in a coil and subjected to more
current than initially used to magnetize the part.
Current is flowed through the coil and then the
direction of current flow is reversed while
decreasing the amount. The direction of current
flow continues to be reversed in direction and
decreased until the lowest value of current is
reached.
The presence of any residual magnetism is checked
with a magnet strength indicator. Parts must be
demagnetized to within the limits specified in the
appropriate overhaul manual before they are
returned to service. Although in many cases
overhaul manual instructions specify the magnetic
particle method of inspection for a certain
component, the best advice is to consult the
overhaul manual for warnings or restrictions before
proceeding. For example, magnetizing the plunger
assembly of a hydraulic valve lifter interferes with
the steel check valve's ability to seat properly and it
is difficult to demagnetize the assembly sufficiently
to prevent further problems.
LIQUID PENETRANT INSPECTION

Liquid penetrant inspection is a method of
nondestructive inspection suitable for locating
cracks, porosity, or other types of faults open to the
surface. Penetrant inspection is usable on ferrous
and nonfer-rous metals, as well as nonporous plastic
material. The primary limitation of dye penetrant
inspection is that a defect must be open to the
surface.
Dye penetrant inspection is based on the principle of

capillary attraction. The area being inspected is
covered with a penetrating liquid that has a very low
viscosity and low surface tension. This penetrant is
allowed to remain on the surface long enough to
Figure 2-45. (A) When performing a liquid penetrant
inspection, the penetrant is spread over the surface of
the material being examined, and allowed sufficient
time for capillary action to take place. (B) The excess
penetrant is then washed from the surface, leaving any
cracks and surface flaws filled. (C) An absorbent
developer is sprayed over the surface where it blots out
any penetrant. The crack then shows up as a bright line
against the white developer.
time, the excess penetrant is washed off and the

surface is covered with a developer. The
developer, by the process of reverse capillary
action, blots the penetrant out of cracks or other
faults, forming a visible line in the developer. If
an indication is fuzzy instead of sharp and clear,
the probable cause is that the part was not
thoroughly washed before the developer was
applied. [Figure 2-45]
There are two types of dyes used in liquid

penetrant inspection: fluorescent and colored. An
ultraviolet light is used with a fluorescent
penetrant and any flaw shows up as a green line.
With the colored dye method, faults show up as
red lines against the white developer.
When using liquid penetrant it is important that

the surface be free of grease, dirt, and oil. Only
when the surface is perfectly clean can the
penetrant be ensured of getting into cracks or
faults. The best method of cleaning a surface is
with a volatile petroleum-based solvent, which
effectively removes all traces of oil and grease.
However, some materials are damaged by these
solvents, so care must be taken to ensure the
proper cleaner is used. If vapor degreas-ing is not
practical, the part is cleaned by scrubbing with a
solvent or a strong detergent solution. Parts to be
inspected with liquid penetrant should not be
cleaned by abrasive blasting, scraping, or heavy
brushing. These methods tend to close any
discontinuities on the surface and hide defects that
could
otherwise be detected. After the part is clean, rinse is applied. There are three kinds of developers used
and dry it thoroughly. to draw penetrants from faults. While all three
Once clean, penetrant is typically applied to a
surface by immersing the part in the liquid or by
swabbing or brushing a penetrant solution onto a
part's surface. However, some manufacturer's do
offer dye penetrant in spray cans to allow
application in small areas for localized inspection.
Whichever system is used, the area inspected is
completely covered with the penetrating liquid
which is then allowed to remain on the surface for
the manufacturer's recommended length of time.
The amount of time required for a penetrant to cure

is called its dwell time and is determined by the
size and shape of the discontinuities for which you
are looking. For example, small, thin cracks require
a longer dwell time than large and more open
cracks. Dwell time is decreased if a part is heated;
however, if the part gets too hot the penetrant
evaporates.
Once the appropriate dwell time passes, liquid

pen-etrants are removed using either water, an
emulsifying agent, or a solvent. Water-soluble
penetrants are the easiest to remove. Typically,
this type of penetrant is flushed away with water
that is sprayed at a pressure of 30 to 40 psi. The
spray nozzle is held at a 45 degree angle to the
surface to avoid washing the penetrant out of
cracks or faults.
Post-emulsifying penetrants are not water soluble.

They must be treated with an emulsifying agent
before they can be washed from a part's surface.
This allows you to control the amount of penetrant
that is removed prior to cleaning. By varying the
emulsifier dwell time, surface penetrant can be
emulsified while the penetrant absorbed into cracks
or other defects is left untouched. As a result, the
surface penetrant is rinsed off but the absorbed
penetrant remains to expose the defect.
Some penetrants are neither water soluble nor

emul-sifiable, but instead are solvent-removeable.
When using this type of penetrant, excess penetrant
is removed with an absorbent towel, and the part's
surface is then wiped with clean towels dampened
with solvent. The solvent should not be sprayed
onto the surface nor should the part be immersed in
solvent, since this will wash the penetrant out of
faults or dilute it enough to prevent proper
indication in the developer.
Once the excess penetrant is removed, a developer

types do the same job, the method of application
differs. One thing to keep in mind is that penetrant
begins to bleed out of any fault as soon as the
surface penetrant is removed. Because of this,
covering the surface to be inspected with developer
as soon as possible helps to pinpoint the location of
any fault.
A dry developer consists of a loose powder

material such as talcum that adheres to the part and
acts as a blotter to draw the penetrant out of any
surface faults. When using a dry developer, the part
is typically placed in a bin of loose developer. For
larger components, dry powder is applied with a
soft brush, or blown over the surface with a powder
gun. After the powder remains on the surface for
the recommended time, the excess is removed with
low-pressure air flow.
The penetrant used with a dry developer is often

treated with a fluorescent or colored dye. These
parts are typically examined under black light so
faults appear as a green indication as the light
causes the dye to fluoresce, or glow. Colored dye
penetrants are usually red and any faults appear as
red marks, clearly visible on the surface.
A wet developer is similar to a dry developer in

that it is applied as soon as the surface penetrant is
rinsed off the part. However, a wet developer
typically consists of a white powder mixed with
water that is either flowed over the surface or a part
is immersed in it. The part is then air-dried and
inspected in the same way as a part on which dry
developer was used. Wet developers are typically
used with penetrants that are treated with either
fluorescent or colored dyes.
The most commonly used developer for field

maintenance is the nonaqueous type. Nonaqueous
developer consists of a white, chalk-like powder
suspended in a solvent that is normally applied
from a pressure spray can, or sprayed onto a
surface with a paint gun. The part being inspected
must be thoroughly dry before a thin, moist coat of
developer is applied. The developer dries rapidly
and pulls out any penetrant that exists within a
fault. The penetrant stains the developer and is
easily seen with a black light when a fluorescent
penetrant is used. If a white light is desired, use a
colored dye.
EDDY CURRENT INSPECTION

Eddy current inspection is a testing method that
requires little or no part preparation and can detect
surface and subsurface flaws in most
metals.
Furthermore, it can differentiate among metals and gamma rays ionize certain materials, making it
alloys, as well as a metal's heat treat condition. possible for them to expose photographic film and
Eddy current inspection is based on the principle of cause certain materials to fluoresce, or glow.
current acceptance. In other words, it determines
the ease with which a material accepts induced
current. As AC is induced into a material being
tested, the AC is measured to determine the
material's characteristics.
Eddy currents are electrical currents that flow

through electrically conductive material under the
influence of an induced electromagnetic field. The
ease with which a material accepts the induced
eddy currents is determined by four properties: its
conductivity, permeability, mass, and by the
presence of any voids or faults.
ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic testing equipment is based on an
electronic oscillator that produces AC of the proper
frequency, which is amplified to the proper strength
and sent to a transducer that is touching the
material being tested. The transducer causes the
test material to vibrate at the oscillator's frequency.
When the vibrations reach the other side of the
material and bounce back, they create an electrical
impulse at the transducer that is seen on the CRT
display.
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION
One of the most important methods of
nondestructive inspection available is radiographic
inspection. Radiographic inspection allows a
photographic view inside a structure. In other
words, this method uses certain sections of the
electromagnetic spectrum to photograph an object's
interior.
X-ray and gamma ray radiation are forms of high

energy, short wavelength electromagnetic waves.
The amount of energy these rays contain is related
inversely to their wavelength. In other words, the
shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy.
They have no electrical charge or mass, travel in
straight lines at the speed of light, and are able to
penetrate matter. The depth of penetration is
dependent upon the ray's energy.
There are certain characteristics that make x-rays

and gamma rays especially useful in nondestructive
inspection. For example, both types of rays are
absorbed by the matter through which they pass.
The amount of absorption is proportional to the
density of the material. Furthermore, x-rays and
DIMENSIONAL INSPECTION
Once an engine part is found to be structurally
sound, it must be measured to verify that it is
within the manufacturer's tolerances. This check is
referred to as a dimensional inspection and requires
the use of several precision measuring instruments
such as micrometer calipers, telescoping gauges,
and dial indicators. Once a part has been measured,
its dimensions must be compared to the serviceable
dimension limits required by the manufacturer. A
list of both new parts limits and serviceable limits
are provided in a typical overhaul manual. [Figure
2-46]
In most cases, the values given in a manufacturer's

table of limits are clearance dimensions, not actual
part sizes. The limits are specified as the fit of one
part in another. For example, the tolerances given
for "piston pin in piston" represent the clearance
between the piston pin boss and the piston pin. To
determine this clearance, you must measure the
piston pin's outside diameter and then measure the
inside diameter of the piston pin boss in the piston.
The difference between these two values represents
the "piston pin in piston" clearance. The capital "L"
in the 0.013L "piston pin in piston" serviceable
limit denotes a loose fit, meaning that the inside
diameter of the piston pin boss is greater than the
outside diameter of the piston pin.
Some fits, such as a bushing in the small end of a

connecting rod, call for an interference, or tight
fit and are indicated by a capital "T" following the
dimension numerals. All interference fits require
special procedures or equipment to assemble the
parts because there is no clearance between the two
dimensions. For example, dimension 0.0025T to
0.0050T means that the bushing must be from two
and a half to five thousandths of an inch larger than
the hole into which it fits.
All the parts listed in the table of limits must be

inspected to ascertain if their dimensions comply
with the part specifications listed. If a part does not
fall within the tolerances listed, it must be replaced
or repaired. The exception to this requirement are
dimensions given for interference fits, such as the
bushing in connecting rod example just mentioned.
If the bushings do not have damage requiring
replacement, you would not remove them simply to
measure their fit.
CRANKCASE
In order to perform a dimensional inspection on a

crankcase you must temporarily assemble the case
Figure 2-46. When doing a dimensional inspection on engine components, you must measure each component and compare the dimensions
to the limits in the overhaul manual.
halves. For example, to check main bearing assembly of the crankcase halves. Once assembled, a
clearances, the main bearing inserts must be telescoping gauge and micrometer are used to
determine the appropriate clearances.
installed in the crankcase halves and the case
halves must be reassembled and torqued. A
telescoping gauge is then adjusted to the inside
diameter of each bearing and measured with a
micrometer caliper. The crankshaft journals are
then carefully measured with the same micrometer.
Once both dimensions are known, the journal
dimensions are subtracted from the main bearing
insert dimensions to obtain the clearance between
the inserts and the crankshaft journal.
With the crankcase halves assembled, the camshaft

bearing clearances must also be checked. Since the
camshaft bearings on many engines are machined
into the crankcase there is no need for camshaft
bearing inserts. To check the camshaft bearing
clearances, use the same procedures discussed
earlier for checking crankshaft bearing clearances.
[Figure 2-47]
CRANKSHAFT
A crankshaft has a number of critical bearing

surfaces that require dimensional inspection. For
example, the dimensions of main bearing journals
are normally measured with a micrometer caliper
to determine crankshaft journal to main bearing
clearances in the crankcase. In addition, rod
bearing journals are checked with a micrometer
caliper to determine rod bearing to rod bearing
journal clearances.
Another crankshaft dimensional inspection

requires you to check a crankshaft's runout. To
check for runout, a crankshaft is supported on
vee-blocks at locations specified in the overhaul
manual. A dial indicator is then placed at points
along the crankshaft and the crankshaft is rotated.
The total runout
Figure 2-47. A dimensional inspection of the main journal

bearing inserts and camshaft bearings requires
is the sum of the over and under indications on the
dial indicator. If the total indicator reading exceeds
the dimensions given in the manufacturer's table of
limits, the crankshaft must be replaced. No attempt
should be made to straighten a bent crankshaft
because this will probably rupture the nitrated
surface of the bearing journals, leading to eventual
crankshaft failure.
CONNECTING RODS
Connecting rods must be checked for twist and

convergence. To check for twist, arbors are inserted
into each end of a connecting rod. The arbors are
then laid across parallel blocks. Using a set of
thickness gauges, measure to see if there is any
space between the arbors and the parallel blocks.
The amount of twist is determined by the thickness
of the gauge that can be inserted. [Figure 2-48]
To check a connecting rod for convergence, you

must check the distance between the large and
small arbors on both sides of the connecting rod.
To do this, attach a parallelism gauge to one end
of the large arbor. Adjust the gauge until it just
touches the small arbor. Next, move the parallelism
gauge to the other end of the large arbor. If the
gauge does not touch the small arbor, determine the
clearance between the gauge and arbor with a
thickness gauge. The difference in distance
between the two arbors is the amount of
convergence, or bend present in the rod. [Figure
2-49]
Any rods that are twisted or bent beyond

serviceable limits must be replaced. When
replacement is necessary, the weight of the new rod
should be matched
Figure 2-48. To check a connecting rod for twist, place

parallel blocks under the ends of the arbors and attempt
to pass a thickness gauge between each arbor end and
the block. If a gap is present, the connecting rod is
twisted. The amount of twist permitted is specified in the
engine overhaul manual.
The measurements are used later after checking

cylinder bore dimensions to determine acceptable
piston to cylinder clearances. [Figure 2-50]
In addition to the pistons, the piston rings must be

dimensionally checked. The two things you must
measure on each piston ring are end gap clearance
and side clearance. End gap is the space between
the two ends of a piston ring once it is installed in a
cylinder. Side clearance, on the other hand, is the
space between a piston ring and ring land.
The end gap of piston rings is measured by placing

a ring into a cylinder barrel and squaring the ring
with a piston. Once the ring is positioned, a
thickness
Figure 2-49. To check a connecting rod for convergence,

mount a parallelism gauge to one end of the large arbor
and measure the distance between the arbors on both
sides. The difference in the measurements is the amount
of bend in the rod.
within one-half ounce to the opposite rod to

minimize vibrations.
PISTONS, RINGS, AND PISTON PINS

Piston heads should be dimensionally checked for
flatness using a straightedge and a thickness gauge.
If you detect the presence of a depression in the top
of a piston, the piston was most likely subjected to
detonation. In such cases, the piston must be
discarded due to an increased possibility of stress
cracking around the pin bosses and at the junction
of the piston head and walls. If the piston head is
flat, measure the outside diameter of a piston with
a micrometer at the piston skirt and each ring land.
Figure 2-50. A straightedge and thickness gauge are
used to check the flatness of a piston head. The
presence of a depression in the top of a piston head may
indicate damage from detonation and is often cause for
rejection.
gauge is used to measure the gap between the ends

of the ring. If the gap is correct, the ring is suitable
for use in that cylinder. However, if the end gap is
too small the ring could bind once it reaches its
operating temperature and expands. On the other
hand, if the gap is excessive, the ring will allow
excessive blow-by.
To check a piston ring's side clearance, install the

ring in its proper ring groove and measure the
clearance between each ring and ring land with a
thickness gauge. To obtain an accurate
measurement, the ring being measured must be
held into the ring groove. If tapered rings are
installed, hold a straightedge against the side of the
piston. [Figure 2-51]
Piston pins are checked dimensionally in several

ways. First, the clearance between a piston pin and
Figure 2-51. To check side clearance, use a straightedge

to hold the piston rings squarely in their grooves and
insert a thickness gauge between each ring and ring
land.
bore of the piston pin boss must be measured. This

Figure 2-53. A cylinder bore gauge can be used to
is done by obtaining both the piston pin bore provide accurate measurements of cylinder bore, taper,
dimension and piston pin outside diameter. The bore and an out-of-round condition.
dimension is taken with a telescoping gauge and
micrometer while the piston pin outside diameter is
measured with a micrometer. By subtracting the der because the heat, pressure, and erosive
piston pin diameter from the bore dimension, a conditions are more intense. On the other hand,
piston pin to piston pin bore clearance is obtained. some cylinders are designed with an intentional
taper, or choke. In such a case, you must be able
Some overhaul manuals require you to check the to distinguish wear from intentional taper. When a
end clearance between the piston pin and cylinder step is present in the taper, you must exercise care
wall. To do this, a piston pin's length must be while making measurements to avoid inaccurate
checked with a micrometer caliper or vernier caliper readings. [Figure 2-53]
and compared with the cylinder bore dimensions.
Finally, you must check a piston pin for When inspecting for an out-of-round condition,
straight-ness. To do this, place a piston pin on measurements are usually taken at the top of the
vee-blocks and measure the runout with a dial cylinder. However, a measurement should also be
indicator. [Figure 2-52] taken at the cylinder skirt to detect dents and
bends caused by careless handling. In addition, a
cylinder's flange should be checked for warpage.
CYLINDERS To do this, place the cylinder on a suitable jig and
Cylinder barrels are checked for wear using a check for any gaps between the flange and jig
cylinder bore gauge, a telescoping gauge and a with a thickness gauge. [Figure 2-54]
micrometer, or an inside micrometer. Dimensional
inspection of a cylinder barrel is done to obtain Another dimensional inspection that should be
cylinder taper, out-of-roundness, bore diameter made on a cylinder is to check the valve guides for
wear, and fit between piston skirt and cylinder. All wear and excessive clearance. This inspection is
cylinder barrel measurements must be taken at a sometimes accomplished with a maximum wear
minimum of two positions 90 degrees apart. gauge provided by the engine manufacturer. When
Figure 2-52. Piston pins are dimensionally inspected for using a wear gauge, a valve guide is worn beyond
straightness with vee-blocks and a dial indicator. As a pin serviceable limits if you are able to insert the
is rotated on the vee-blocks, runout is recorded on the dial gauge into either end of the valve guide. If a wear
indicator.
gauge is not provided, the inside diameter of a
valve guide is checked with a small hole gauge
Cylinder taper is the difference between the
and micrometer. To do this, a small hole gauge is
diameter of the cylinder at the bottom and the
placed inside the valve guide and expanded until it
diameter at the top. The natural wear pattern of a
fits snugly. The hole gauge is then removed and
cylinder usually results in a larger diameter at the
measured with a micrometer.
top of a cylin-
stem. To check a
Figure 2-54. To inspect a cylinder flange for warpage,

place the cylinder on a jig and attempt to pass a
thickness gauge between the flange and jig at several
points around the flange.
CAMSHAFT
The dimensions of camshaft bearing journals are
measured with a micrometer caliper. This is usually
done when checking clearances between the
camshaft and camshaft bearings in the crankcase.
In addition, if the overhaul manual specifies the
taper on the lobes, a dimensional check must be
made to determine if taper is within limits.
Like a crankshaft, a camshaft should be checked

for straightness by placing it on vee-blocks and
measuring the runout with a dial indicator. If the
readings exceed serviceable limits, the camshaft is
rejected and replaced.

Valves, valve springs, rocker arms, and rocker
shafts must be dimensionally inspected to detect
parts that are worn beyond serviceable limits. Since
valves are subjected to a great deal of heat and,
tension, a thorough dimensional inspection of each
valve is essential. One item you must check for is
valve stretch, which is a lengthening of the valve
Figure 2-55. One method for detecting stretched valves
is to hold a contour gauge along the underside of each
valve head.
valve for stretch, a contour gauge or radius gauge

can be placed along the underside of the valve
head. [Figure 2-55]
Another method of checking for stretch is to

measure the valve stem diameter at several places
using a micrometer caliper. The three most
common places to measure are at the end of the
stem near the spring retainer groove, at the middle
of the stem, and at the stem neck. If the stem's
diameter is smaller at the center or neck than at the
end, the valve is stretched.
In addition to inspecting valves for stretch, you

must also check the runout of the valve face. To
accomplish this, chuck each valve in a valve
grinder and measure the runout with a dial
indicator. If the runout is within limits, measure the
valve head thickness, or valve margin. [Figure
2-56]
Figure 2-56. In order to reuse a valve, the valve stem

must run true with the valve face and the valve margin
must be within the manufacturer's specifications.
Valve springs are checked for compression and Cracks, damaged studs or threads, and excessive
wire diameter. To check for compression, a valve bearing clearances are examples of repairable
spring tester is used to compress each spring to a crankcase defects. Cracks can only be repaired by
height specified in the overhaul manual. The
number of pounds required to compress the spring
is then read from a dial on the tester. To measure a
spring's wire diameter use a small caliper or
micrometer.
Each rocker arm shaft bushing and rocker arm

shaft must be measured to determine the clearance
between the two. The inside diameter of each
rocker arm shaft bushing is measured with a small
T-gauge or hole gauge and micrometer. Next, the
outside diameter of the rocker arm shaft is
measured with a micrometer. The difference
between the dimensions represents the
shaft-to-bushing clearance.
OIL PUMP HOUSING
To help ensure proper oil pump operation, the

distance between an oil pump's mating surface and
the pump gears must fall within limits. To measure
the distance between the two, a depth gauge is
used. To use a depth gauge, retract the spindle until
it is flush with the gauge's fixed bar. Then, lay the
bar across the oil pump housing and extend the
spindle until it contacts the oil pump gear. Now,
read the micrometer head to obtain the distance
between the housing and gear.
REPAIR
Once you have completed the visual, structural,
and dimensional inspections, you may begin
making repairs. Damage such as burrs, nicks,
scratches, scoring, or galling can be removed with
a fine oil stone, crocus cloth, or similar abrasive
substance. Swiss pattern files or small edged stones
work well for removing small nicks. Flanged
surfaces that are bent, warped, or nicked can be
repaired by lapping on a surface plate. Defective
threads can sometimes be repaired with a suitable
die or tap; however, avoid tapping a hole too deep
and creating an oversized tapped hole. If galling or
scratches are removed from the bearing surface of a
journal, the surface should be buffed to a high
finish with fine crocus cloth. After completing
repairs, parts should be thoroughly cleaned to
remove all abrasives, then checked with mating
parts for proper clearances.
CRANKCASE
the engine manufacturer or a certified repair sta
tion. To repair a crack, a form of inert gas welding
is
used. Once a crack is welded, the bead is peened to
relieve stress and then machined to match the rest
of the surface. Bearing cavity damage may also be
repaired by welding, then machining to the proper
dimension. :,,.
Camshafts normally rotate in bearings cut into a

crankcase with no bearing inserts. Therefore,
camshaft bearings with excessive clearances can
only be repaired by line-boring the bearings and
installing an oversized camshaft.
If bent or loose studs were identified during

inspection, they must be removed and replaced. If
standard size studs will no longer work, oversize
studs may be used. Oversize studs are identified by
color coding and stamped identification marks to
indicate the amount of oversizing. [Figure 2-57]
If internal case threads cannot be repaired using a

tap, Heli-Coil inserts may be used. Heli-Coils
provide new threads that allow standard studs to be
installed. There is no decrease in strength when this
type of repair is made.
CRANKSHAFT
If slight roughness exists on any of a crankshaft's

main journals or crankpins, polish the surfaces with
fine crocus cloth. To do this, place the crankshaft in
a lathe and hold the crocus cloth against the surface
to be polished while it rotates. If sludge chambers
were removed for cleaning, reinstall them at this
time.
All major repairs made on a crankshaft must be

done by the manufacturer or certified repair station.
For example, crankshaft main journals or crankpins
that are out-of-round may be ground to an
acceptable undersize. However, once a crankshaft
is ground, it must be re-nitrided and undersized
bearing inserts must be installed in the crankcase.
CONNECTING RODS
The only repairs you may do on connecting rods is
to replace the bushings and bearing inserts.
However, because of the interference fit between
the rod and bushing, rebushing a connecting rod
requires an arbor press and a special bushing
installation drift. After pressing the new bushing
into place it must be reamed to the dimensions
specified in the overhaul manual. Because of the
extremely
Figure 2-57. Oversize studs have color codes and stamped identification marks to show the degree of oversize.
close tolerances required, special equipment is refaced by grinding to the proper angle. Various
generally required to ream connecting rod
bushings.
PISTONS
Most pistons are replaced during an overhaul;
however, if a piston was installed shortly before an
overhaul and it is within limits, it may be reused.
Repairs to pistons are limited to the removal of
light scoring. For example, scoring on a piston skirt
is repairable only if very light because removal of
deep scores could inadvertently alter the piston's
contour and exceed clearance limits. When
removing scoring on a piston skirt, use nothing
more abrasive than crocus cloth. Scoring above a
piston's top ring groove may be machined or
sanded out as long as the piston diameter is not
reduced below its specified minimum.
Whether reusing pistons or installing a new set,

piston weights should be as close as possible to
one another. The maximum allowable weight
difference is listed in the manufacturer's table of
limits. New pistons can often be purchased in
matched sets whose weight differences are
considerably below the manufacturer's maximum.

If there is sufficient valve margin, a valve can be
types of valve grinding machines are used for
refac-ing valves. However, a wet valve grinder is
preferred because a mixture of soluble oil and
water is used to keep the valve cool and carry away
the grinding chips.
Like many machining tasks, it is important that

you be familiar with the machine you are
operating. Valve grinding machines do vary
depending on the manufacturer. Therefore, you
should take time to familiarize yourself with the
grinding machine you intend to use before you
grind a valve. The following discussion will look
at some of the steps that are common to most
grinding machines.
Before you grind a valve, the stone must be trued.

This is usually done by drawing a diamond dresser
across the stone, cutting just deep enough to true
and clean the stone. Using the overhaul manual
specifications, set the machine's movable head to
the correct valve face angle. Valves are usually
ground to a standard angle of 30 or 45. However,
in some instances an interference fit from 0.5 to 1.5
less than the standard angle may be required. An
interference fit is used to obtain a more positive
seal by producing an extremely narrow contact
surface. Theoretically, an interference fit provides a
fine line contact between the valve and seat. With
this line contact, all the load that the valve exerts
table laterally to place the valve directly in front of

the stone. Advance the valve inward and bring the
valve up to the stone slowly until you begin to hear a
light grinding sound. The intensity of the grinding
sound provides an indication of the amount of cut
being made by the stone as it grinds the valve.
Slowly draw the valve back and forth across the full
width of the stone without increasing the cut. When
the grinding sound diminishes or ceases, the cut is
complete. Next, move the workhead table to the
outer travel stop, stopping rotation of the valve, and
Figure 2-58. An interference fit provides a positive seal
inspect the valve to determine if further grinding is
along a fine contact area. necessary. If another cut is needed, slowly bring the
valve inward to contact the stone before increasing
against the seat is concentrated in a very small the cut. Listening for the intensity of the grinding
area. [Figure 2-58] sound, slowly increase the cut. When grinding
valves, make light cuts and avoid trying to hurry the
To prepare a valve for grinding, insert the valve process by making heavy cuts. Heavy cuts cause
into the chuck, leaving approximately two inches chattering which produces a rough valve surface.
distance between the valve face and the chuck. If Remove only enough material to clean up any wear
the valve is chucked any further out, excessive marks or pits on the valve face.
wobbling may occur. Prior to grinding, check the
travel of the valve face across the stone. Adjust After grinding, check the valve margin to be sure
both the "in" and "out" travel stops so that the that the valve edge has not been ground too thin. A
valve completely passes the stone on both sides thin edge is called a feather edge and can overheat,
but does not travel so far that the stem is causing preignition. Furthermore, a feather edge has
accidentally ground. [Figure 2-59] a tendency to burn away in a short period of time,
requiring another overhaul much earlier than
With the valvFe set correctly in place, switch on planned. [Figure 2-60]
the grinder and direct the flow of the grinding
Valve tips can also be resurfaced on a valve grinder
fluid onto the valve face. Next, back the valve
to remove cupping or wear. To resurface a valve tip,
fixture, or work-head table, all the way out and
position the valve in a clamp to allow grinding of
adjust the workhead
Figure 2-59. Once a valve is locked into a chuck correctly, adjust the linf and iouti stops so the valve passes the stone completely
on both sides.
Figure 2-61. To accurately grind a valve tip, the valve must

be held securely in place and be aligned perpendicular to
the side of the grinding stone.
Figure 2-60. After grinding, a valve should still have an

acceptable margin. A feather edge is caused by grinding a
valve too much.
the valve tip on the side of the stone. Switch on

the grinder and press the valve lightly against the
stone, moving the tip across the side of the stone
without going off the stone's edge. Take care to
keep the valve tip cool by covering it with plenty
of grinding fluid. [Figure 2-61]
The bevel on the edge of the valve tip will he

partially removed when the valve tip is ground.
To restore this bevel, mount a vee-way positioned
at a 45 angle to the stone. Place the valve in the
vee-way and hold the valve in the vee-way with
one hand while grasping the valve head with the
other hand. Twist the valve tip edge onto the stone
and, with a light touch, grind all the way around
the tip. This bevel prevents scratching of the valve
guide when the valve is installed.
CYLINDERS
Many different types of repairs are approved for

cylinders. Some of the more common repairs
include removing fin damage, welding cracks, and
replacing rocker shaft bushings, valve guides, spark
plug thread inserts, and studs. Other approved
repairs include honing or grinding cylinder barrels,
and replacing or refacing valve seats.
Exterior cracks and other damage on the edges of

cylinder fins can be repaired by removing the
damaged portion of the fin with a die grinder and
rotary file. After removing the damage, finish file
the sharp edges to a smooth contour. The percentage
of total fin area that is removed must not exceed the
limits established by the manufacturer. If too much
material or too many fins are removed, localized hot
spots can develop within the cylinder. [Figure 2-62]
Another method of repairing cracks on the edges of

cylinder fins involves grinding out the crack and
filling the cracked area by welding. The weld
material is then ground or machined to the original
contour. Repairs to cylinders that require welding
can only be done by the manufacturer or a certified
repair station.
Some cylinders have rocker shaft bosses equipped

with bushings which may be replaced when worn
beyond serviceable limits. However, it is advisable
to use special rebushing tools for removing and
inserting a bushing. If the proper tools are not used,
the rocker shaft bosses could be broken off.
Figure 2-62. When repairing a damaged fin on a cylinder, you
must not remove any of the primary cylinder casting. In
addition, fin loss near spark plug openings or exhaust ports
can cause dangerous local hot spots.
Replacement of valve guides also requires special

tooling and must be done in accordance with an
engine manufacturer's instructions. Extracting worn
valve guides usually requires you to drive the guide
out with a special piloted drift or pull the guide out
with a valve guide puller. Most valve guides are
flared on their outside end, and, therefore, must be
driven or pulled toward the outside of the cylinder.
Because of the interference fit between the guides
and cylinder, you must heat the cylinder and chill
the extraction tool to allow removal and installation
of valve guides. Heating the cylinder expands the
valve guide hole and the chilled extraction tool standard over-sizes are typically 0.010, 0.015, or
causes the guide to contract. The combination of 0.020 inch. Furthermore, cylinders often have
these two factors typically reduces the interference nitrided surfaces which must not be ground away.
fit enough to allow removal. Another option is
Similar to valve guide replacement procedures,

valve seat inserts are removed and replaced by
heating a cylinder and chilling the valve seat
inserts. Some engine manufacturers supply special
tools that simplify valve seat extraction and
installation.
Spark plug thread inserts having missing or

damaged threads are usually replaced with
Heli-Coil inserts as specified by an engine
manufacturer. You should use special Heli-Coil
tools and follow the overhaul manual instructions
carefully to prevent damaging the cylinder beyond
repair.
The studs which secure the exhaust pipe to a

cylinder are subjected to extreme heat and highly
corrosive exhaust gases and, therefore, must be
replaced occasionally. If a stud is still intact, a
special stud removing tool is used to remove the
stud. However, if a stud is broken, it must be
drilled and removed with a screw extractor. Once
an old stud is removed, install a new stud as per
the manufacturer's instructions.
Typical repairs to a cylinder barrel include honing,

grinding, oversizing, and chroming. A cylinder
barrel that is structurally sound and within
serviceable limits may only need to be deglazed.
Cylinder walls become glazed, or very smooth after
several hours of operation. The smooth walls
prevent new rings from wearing or seating against
the cylinder. Therefore, in order to allow the rings
to seat, you must remove the glaze from a cylinder
wall with a deglazing hone. Most deglazing hones
mount in a drill and are turned at a relatively slow
speed as they are moved in and out of the cylinder.
The combination of a circular and reciprocating
motion produces a cross-hatched pattern that
promotes ring seating.
If a cylinder barrel is scored, scratched, or pitted to

an extent that deglazing is not enough to remove
the damage, the cylinder will probably have to be
ground. However, you should compare the barrel
dimensions to the manufacturer's table of limits to
verify that there is enough material to permit
grinding. In some cases, an engine manufacturer
permits a cylinder to be ground to a standard
oversize. Since aircraft cylinders are relatively thin,
to grind a cylinder and then apply chrome plating
to build up the cylinder to its original diameter.
Because the process of grinding and chrome
plating requires specialized equipment, these
repairs are usually performed by certified repair
stations.
REFACING VALVE SEATS
Modern reciprocating engines are equipped with

either bronze or steel valve seats. Steel seats are
made of hard, heat resistant steel alloy and are
commonly used as exhaust seats. Bronze seats, on
the other hand, are made of aluminum bronze or
phosphor bronze alloys and are used for both
intake and exhaust seats.
Valve seat inserts normally need to be refaced

during each overhaul. In addition, valve seats must
be ground anytime a corresponding valve or valve
guide is replaced. Grinding equipment is used for
refacing steel valve seats while cutters or reamers
are preferred for refacing bronze seats. However,
bronze seats may be ground if cutters or reamers
are not available. The disadvantage of using a stone
on bronze is that bronze, a fairly soft metal, loads
the grinding stone quickly. Therefore, much time is
consumed in redressing the stone to keep it clean.
Steel valve seats can be ground with either wet or

dry valve seat grinding equipment. However, a wet
grinder is preferred because the continuous flow of
oil and water washes away the chips and keeps the
stone and seat cool. This produces a smoother,
more accurate surface than a dry grinder. The
stones used to grind a steel seat may be either
silicon carbide or aluminum oxide.
The three grades of stones used to resurface valve

seats are rough, finishing, and polishing stones. A
rough stone is used to make an initial rough cut and
to remove all pits, scores, and burn marks as well
as align the valve seat with the valve guide. Once
cut, a finishing stone is used to remove any
grinding marks and produce a smooth finish. If the
manufacturer requires a highly polished valve seat,
a polishing stone will produce the desired finish.
Anytime a stone becomes grooved or loaded with

metal, it must be cleaned. To clean and dress a
stone prior to grinding operations, install the stone
on a special stone holder and use a diamond
dresser. A diamond dresser is also useful in cutting
down a stone's diameter, when necessary. However,
dressing of a stone should be kept to a minimum
when possible.
To begin the valve seat refacing process, mount the

cylinder firmly in a hold down fixture. Next, insert
an expanding pilot in the valve guide from the
inside of the cylinder and place an expander screw
in the pilot from the top of the guide. The pilot must
be tight in the guide since any movement decreases
the quality of the completed grind. Once the pilot
and expander screw are in place, insert the fluid
hose through one of the spark plug holes. [Figure
2-63]
While grinding, a steady hand and considerable skill

is required. Center the gun accurately on the stone
holder. If the gun is tilted off center during the
grinding process, chattering and a rough grind will
result. The stone should be rotated at a speed of
8,000 to 10,000 rpm to grind properly. The Figure 2-63. This illustration shows a typical setup for
maximum pressure used on the stone at any time grinding valve seats in an aircraft engine cylinder.
should be no more than that exerted by the weight of to two-thirds the width of the valve face unless
the gun. In addition, you should ease pressure off the valves were ground with an interference fit. In
the stone every second or so to allow the coolant to addition, the contact area should occur as close to
wash away any chips and allow the stone to the center of the valve face as possible.
maintain its correct rotational speed. Grind off only
the material necessary to achieve the desired finish
by inspecting the valve seat frequently during the If the valve seat contacts the upper third of the
grinding procedure. valve face, the top corner of the valve seat is
reground to a lesser angle. This is known as
Once a valve seat is ground, you must verify that the "narrowing the seat." On the other hand,
seat is even and true. To do this, a special dial indications that the seat is contacting the bottom
indicator is used to measure the seat's runout. An third of the valve face requires grinding the inner
acceptable runout is normally between 0 and 2 corner of the valve seat to a greater angle. [Figure
thousandths of an inch. If the seat is even and true, 2-64]
the amount of contact area between the valve face
and seat must be checked. To do this, a blue dye The angle of a valve seat determines which stones
known as Prussian blue is spread evenly on the should be used when narrowing a valve seat. For
valve seat and the valve is pressed against the seat. example, with a 30 seat, it is common practice to
To determine the contact area, remove the valve and use a 15 cutting stone on the seat's upper corner
observe the amount of Prussian blue that transfers to and a 45 stone on the inner corner. On the other
the valve. The contact surface area should be
one-third
Figure 2-64. If a valve seat contacts the upper third of the valve face, the seat can be regrouped to a lesser angle. (B) Contact with
the bottom third of the valve face requires regrinding a valve seat's inner corner to a greater angle.
bottom corner.
hand, to narrow the seat of a 45 valve seat, the
upper corner is reground to a 30 angle while the
inner corner is reground to a 75 angle. [Figure
2-65]
If a valve seat is ground too much, the valve face

will contact the seat too far up into the cylinder
head. This adversely affects the valve clearance,
spring tension, and valve to valve seat fit. To check
if a valve seats too far into a valve seat, insert the
valve into the guide and check the height of the
valve stem above the rocker box or other location
specified by the overhaul manual.
After a valve or valve seat has been ground, some

manufacturers require you to lap a valve to its
valve seat. Lapping is accomplished by applying a
small amount of lapping compound to the valve
face and then rotating the valve in the valve seat
with a lapping tool. Once a smooth, gray finish
appears at the contact area, remove all lapping
compound from the valve face, seat, and adjacent
areas. [Figure 2-66]
Once a valve and valve seat combination have been

lapped, you must check the mating surfaces for
leaks. This is done by installing the valve in the
cylinder, and pouring kerosene or solvent into the
valve port. While holding finger pressure on the
Figure 2-65. (A) To narrow the seat of a 30 valve seat, the

upper corner is reground with a 15 stone and the bottom
corner with a 45 stone. (B) For a 45 valve seat, use a 30
酒tone to grind the top corner and a 75 stone to grind the
Figure 2-66. Proper valve lapping produces an extremely
smooth surface and a sell defined contact area.
valve stem, check to see if the kerosene leaks past

the valve into the combustion chamber. If no
leaking occurs, the valve reseating operation is
finished. However, if kerosene leaks past the valve,
continue lapping until the leakage stops.
REASSEMBLY
After all of the parts have been inspected and
repaired as necessary, the engine is ready to be
reassembled. Whenever you are assembling an
aircraft component, it is vital that you follow the
manufacturer's instructions. However, there are
some general assembly procedures that pertain to
most reciprocating engines. The following
discussion looks at some of these general
procedures as well as how they are completed in a
typical reassembly process.
CRANKSHAFT
Generally, a reconditioned crankshaft is supplied

fully assembled, however, if that is not the case,
reinstall all sludge chamber components and coun
terweights. If the crankshaft has hollow crankpins,
reinstall the sludge chamber tubes carefully,
making
certain they are positioned correctly in the crank
shaft to avoid covering the ends of oil passages. In
addition, install all expansion plugs and secure any
gears that attach to the crankshaft as necessary. The
crankshaft is typically mounted vertically in a
buildup fixture while the connecting rods are lubri
cated and attached to the shaft. When attaching the
connecting rods to the crankshaft, make sure that
the numbers stamped on the rods are pointed in the
direction specified in the overhaul manual. Once
assembled, torque and safety the connecting rod
hardware in accordance with overhaul manual spec
ifications. . .
CRAIMKCASE
Place the crankcase halves on a clean, flat work

surface and install the main bearing inserts,
ensuring that the tangs or dowels are properly
placed. Next,
lubricate and install the hydraulic lifter bodies in steel or nitrided cylinders only. On the other hand,
one of the crankcase halves and lay the camshaft in if a cylinder has been chrome-plated, cast iron
place after lubricating its bearing journal surfaces. rings must be used. In each case, you must use a
Once this is done, lubricate the main bearings and ring
install the crankshaft. Install the front oil seal
around the propeller shaft and apply a thin layer of
non-hardening gasket compound to the outside
mating surface of each half of the crankcase. If the
manufacturer recommends, a length of fine silk
thread is embedded in the gasket compound on one
of the crankcase halves.
Install the remaining hydraulic lifter bodies in the

other crankcase half, then while holding them in
place with rubber bands or other suitable devices,
carefully lower the crankcase half onto the second
half. Be very careful to properly seat the front oil
seal and observe any special instructions regarding
the seating of the main bearings. Install new nuts
on all of the studs and through bolts and, using
hold-down plates over the cylinder pads, torque all
of the fasteners in the sequence recommended by
the manufacturer.
The crankcase may now be mounted in a vertical

position and the gears and accessory case installed.
When installing the camshaft drive gear, it is vital
that you align the timing marks properly. If this is
not done, the valves will not open at the correct
time in the combustion cycle and the engine will
not run.
CYLINDERS
When installing a set of valves in a cylinder,
lubricate the valve stems with a lubricant specified
by the manufacturer and insert the valves in the
valve guides. Place the cylinder over a post-type
fixture to hold the valves in place while you slip
the valve springs and retainers over each valve
stem. Using a spring compressor, compress the
valve springs and install the valve keeper keys.
Once both valves are installed, slip a cylinder base
seal around each cylinder skirt and install any
intercylinder baffles or fin stabilizers that can be
attached without getting in the way of further
assembly.
PISTONS AND RINGS
When installing a new set of rings on a piston, it is

important to observe several precautions. For
example, chrome-plated rings may be used in plain
expander to install rings on a piston. Use of a ring
expander will help you avoid accidentally
scratching a piston or breaking a piston ring. In
addition, always install new rings with the part
number on the ring toward the top of the piston.
Once the rings are installed, lubricate the pistons,

rings, and piston pins with a manufacturer
approved lubricant. Stagger the ring gaps as
specified in the overhaul manual and attach the
pistons to their corresponding connecting rods with
a piston pin. Compress the piston rings with an
appropriate ring compressor tool, then slip the
piston into the cylinder up to the piston pin. Now,
reposition the ring compressor on the lowest oil
ring and slide the piston completely into the
cylinder. At this point, verify that all push rods,
push rod housings, and oil seals are in place and
then ease each cylinder onto its cylinder pad. With
each cylinder attached to the crankcase, lubricate
and install the rocker arm assemblies.
FINAL ASSEMBLY
Install the oil sump on the crankcase with a new

gasket and tighten the attaching hardware. Next,
follow the overhaul manual instructions carefully
to properly time and install the magnetos on their
mount pads. Using new seals and gaskets, install
the carburetor or fuel injection system components
and the induction system. Other accessories such as
the engine-driven pumps, the alternator, and
baffling are now installed and safetied.
BLOCK TESTING
The final step in the overhaul process is to test the
engine. A block test accomplishes piston ring
seating, bearing burnishing, and provides valuable
information that is used to evaluate engine
performance. Piston ring seating is accomplished
chiefly by controlled engine operation in the high
speed range. On the other hand, bearing
burnishing creates a highly polished surface on
new bearings and bushings and is completed at low
engine speeds.
Engine performance is evaluated in a test cell

during block testing by specialized test equipment
and standard engine instruments. Operational test
procedures vary with individual engines, however,
the failure of any internal part during an engine
run-in requires return of the engine for teardown
and repair. If failure of an engine accessory occurs,
a new accessory is installed and the block test
continues. Following successful completion of
block test
model engine for the original model, a

Supplemental
Figure 2-67. Block testing of an overhauled engine is

conducted in a test cell with specialized test equipment
and standard engine instruments.
requirements, engines not slated for immediate

installation and operation on an aircraft should
receive a corrosion prevention treatment and be
placed in storage. [Figure 2-67]
LOG ENTRIES
Once an overhaul is complete, you must make the
appropriate log entries. In addition to the
information required by the Federal Aviation
Regulations, you should include a list of the items
you replaced. Furthermore, the details of all
dimensional and structural inspections as well as
service bulletins and airworthiness directives
complied with should be listed. If any major
repairs were done, a 337 form must be completed
and kept in the engine logbook.
ENGINE INSTALLATION
After an engine has been repaired, overhauled, or
replaced, it must be prepared for installation. With
a repaired or overhauled engine, preparation
typically entails returning the engine to the
configuration it was in immediately after it was
removed. However, if the engine being installed is
shipped new from the factory, additional assembly
is typically required. For example, most engines
used on light aircraft include only ignition and
carburetor components when shipped from the
factory. Therefore, all of the accessories such as
the alternator, starter, vacuum pump, and baffling
must be installed. In addition, if an engine was
preserved in storage, de-preservation procedures
are usually outlined in the overhaul manual
provided by the engine manufacturer.
If an aircraft owner wishes to substitute a different

Type Certificate, or STC is required for the
change. Without an STC, engine replacement is
limited to a new or overhauled engine of the
original model with which the aircraft was
certificated.
HOISTING FOR INSTALLATION

When a new or overhauled engine is ready to be
hoisted for installation, move the engine stand as
close as possible to the aircraft. Attach the sling to
the engine, hook the hoist to the sling, and raise the
hoist until it is supporting most of the engine
weight. Next, remove the bolts attaching the engine
to the stand and hoist the engine to the desired
height.
MOUNTING THE ENGINE

Before you mount an engine on an aircraft, make
sure you have the appropriate hardware nearby and
inspect the engine mount structure and shock
mounts for integrity. With the engine suspended
from the hoist, utilize as many people as necessary
to safely maneuver the engine into position on the
aircraft. To help prevent injuring personnel or
damaging the aircraft or engine, ease the engine
into position slowly, checking to be certain the
engine clears all obstacles. Position the engine so
that the engine mounting lugs line up with the
mounting points on the engine mount and exhaust
tailpipe. Because engines are so heavy, they possess
a great deal of inertia when swinging from the
hoist. Therefore, exercise caution to avoid
damaging the nacelle framework, ducts, or firewall
connections.
Once the engine is correctly aligned, insert the

mounting bolts and secure them with the
appropriate nuts. Once secure, torque the engine
mounting nuts to the manufacturer's recommended
value. The applicable manufacturer's instructions
outline the sequence for tightening the mounting
bolts to ensure security. While the nuts are being
tightened, the hoist should support the engine
weight sufficiently to allow proper mounting bolt
alignment. If this is not done, the weight of the
engine on the mounting bolts could make it
impossible to tighten the nuts to the proper torque.
In other words, improper alignment could result in
false torque readings as the nuts pull the engine into
the proper position.
Once the nuts are properly torqued, they can be

safetied and the engine hoist can be removed. Next,
connect bonding straps across each engine mount to
provide an electrical path from the mount to the
air-frame. Failure to provide adequate bonding
could
result in the starter electrical current seeking a

return path through engine controls or metal fuel Hoses used with low pressure systems, such as
lines. If this should happen, resulting sparks or heat vacuum and instrument air, are generally attached
could start a fire or cause extensive damage to and held in place with clamps. However,
engine connections. before
CONNECTIONS AND ADJUSTMENTS

After an engine is mounted, the electrical leads and
fluid lines necessary for operation should be
connected to the engine and accessories. Typically,
there are no rules that govern the order in which
the accessories should be connected. However, you
should always follow the manufacturer's
instructions to ensure an efficient installation.
As you know, engine induction systems vary with

aircraft/engine combinations. However, all
induction systems must be leak-free. You must
install the induction system components carefully
using the proper clamps and hardware and, in some
cases, the induction system must be pressure
checked for leaks. Pressure checks usually require
blocking the system at one end, and supplying
compressed air at a specified pressure at the other
end. The leakage rate is then measured to verify
that it falls within acceptable limits.
In addition to ensuring a leak-free system, air

induction filters must be cleaned to ensure an
unrestricted flow of clean air. Since the materials
used in air filters varies, you must follow the
manufacturer's cleaning and replacement
instructions.
The exhaust system must also be carefully

connected to prevent exhaust gas leakage. When
assembling the exhaust system, carefully examine
the entire system and repair or replace any
damaged components as necessary. During
assembly, all clamps and nuts should be gradually
and progressively tightened to the correct torque. In
addition, all clamps should be tapped with a
rawhide mallet as they are tightened to reduce the
chance of binding. On some systems, a ball joint
connects a stationary portion of the exhaust system
to another portion that is attached to the engine.
This ball joint compensates for slight
misalignments, normal engine movement, and
vibration caused by engine operation. Ball joints
must be installed with the specified clearance to
prevent binding when the hot exhaust gases cause
the system to expand.
installing these clamps, examine them carefully
and replace any that are badly distorted or
defective. After a hose is installed, it must be
adequately supported and routed away from engine
or airframe parts that could cause damage. Usually,
rubber lined supporting clamps called Adel clamps
are installed at specified intervals to provide the
protection and support needed.
Before installing metal tubing with threaded

fittings, make sure that the threads are clean and in
good condition. If specified in the instructions,
apply a thread sealing compound to the fitting
before installation. Exercise care to prevent
cross-threading any fittings and to ensure correct
torque. Remember, over torquing a fitting increases
the likelihood of leaks and failures.
When connecting electrical leads to the starter,

generator, or other electrical units, make sure that
all connections are clean and secure. When leads
are secured on a threaded terminal post with a nut,
a lock washer is usually inserted under the nut to
prevent the nut from backing off. When required,
knurled connector plugs are secured with steel
safety wire to prevent accidental disconnection. To
help prevent electrical leads within the engine
nacelle from chafing, all wiring must be anchored
as necessary to provide a secure installation.
Each aircraft model has an engine control system

specifically designed for a particular
airframe/engine combination. Typical engine
controls consist of rigid push-pull rods, flexible
push-pull wire encased in a coiled wire sheath,
cables and pulleys, or any combination of the three.
Regardless of type, all engine controls must be
accurately adjusted to ensure instantaneous
response to a control input. Therefore, all
adjustments must be made in accordance with the
procedures outlined in the manufacturer's
instructions.
Most light aircraft utilize flexible push-pull

controls for the engine throttle, mixture, and
carburetor heat or alternate air. When installing
flexible controls, there are a few general rules that
should be followed. For example, in order for a
flexible control line to operate properly, it must be
adequately supported. Support is typically provided
by a terminal mounting clamp at the cockpit end
and another terminal mounting clamp at the engine
end. Sections of the control line between the
cockpit and engine are supported by intermediate
clamps spaced every three to four feet along
straight sections and on both sides of bends. All
bends should have a minimum
specifications using a tensiometer. When
Figure 2-68. Many small single-engine airplanes utilize

a push-pull wire type throttle control which is encased in
a protective sheath.
six inch radius and large bends should be

supported with clamps along their length as
necessary. The control line must be positioned
with the flex casing extending a minimum of one
inch past the terminal mounting clamp at the
engine. This extension of flex casing allows
angular movement and smooth motion of the
control line as the engine control is positioned.
The engine component being controlled by a
flexible control is generally limited to 45 degrees
of angular motion to either side of center. [Figure
2-68]
A typical throttle control system of cables, pulleys,

and a drum requires several adjustment steps. A
drum is basically a pulley with at least one
complete loop of cable around it to prevent
slippage. To assist the adjustment process and
ensure a reliable reference point, the drum has an
alignment hole for a locking pin. To adjust a
control system, begin by loosening the serrated
throttle control arm at the carburetor. Next, back
off the throttle stop until the throttle valve is in the
fully closed position and insert a locking pin in the
drum. Adjust the control rod to the length
specified and re-tighten the serrated throttle
control arm. Next, loosen the cable turnbuckles
enough to allow positioning of the throttle control
lever so the quadrant locking pin can be inserted.
Once this is done, re-tighten the turnbuckles and
adjust the cable tension to the manufacturer's
the correct cable tension is achieved, safety the
turnbuckles and remove the lockpins from the drum
and quadrant. [Figure 2-69]
A properly adjusted engine control must have a

degree of cushion, or springback, at its fully open
and fully closed positions. In other words, the stops
for the throttle and mixture on a carburetor or fuel
control must be reached before the throttle or
mixture controls reach their stop in the cockpit. The
presence of a cushion ensures that the throttle and
mixture valves are opening and closing fully.
Without the cushion, it would be difficult to
determine whether a throttle or mixture valve is
fully opened or closed from inside the cockpit. On
multi-engine aircraft, throttle and mixture controls
must have equal amounts of cushion so the control
levers align in any selected power setting. This
reduces the likelihood of having to set each control
individually to synchronize engine operations.
After completing the engine installation and

adjustments, the propeller can be installed. If the
propeller being installed is a fixed pitch propeller, it
can typically be lifted into position and attached to
the propeller shaft. However, if a constant-speed
propeller is being installed, you must obtain the
proper gaskets or O-rings prior to installation. Large
propellers require the use of an appropriate sling
and hoist arrangement due to their size and weight.
Never attempt to lift a propeller into place with
inadequate personnel or equipment. In addition, you
should always follow the manufacturer's
recommended installation procedure.
GROUND TEST PREPARATION

Once an engine is completely installed on an
aircraft or test stand, you can prepare the engine for
a test run. Install properly gapped spark plugs and
torque to manufacturer specifications, then attach
ignition wiring, being careful to connect the wiring
properly. Fill the engine with an oil approved by the
manufacturer and check all oil and fuel line
connections for security.
PRE-OILING
To prevent engine bearing failure during the initial
start, you should pre-oil the engine. When an engine
sits idle for an extended period of time, engine oil
drains away from the internal bearing surfaces. If
the engine is started and there is little or no oil on
the bearings, the friction created during engine start
can destroy the bearings before lubricating oil can
reach
Figure 2-69. When adjusting a throttle control system that utilizes cables, pulleys, and a drum, it is important that you follow
the manufacturer's instructions.
them. Pre-oiling is the process of forcing oil

throughout the engine prior to starting.
One method of pre-oiling requires one spark plug to

be removed from each cylinder. This allows the
engine to be easily turned over with the starter. Once
this is done, a pressure oiler is attached to the
engine. On a typical dry-sump engine, the oil line on
the inlet side of the engine-driven oil pump is
disconnected to allow connection of the pre-oiler
tank. In addition, the oil return line is disconnected,
or an opening is made in the oil system at the nose
of the engine to allow oil to flow out of the engine.
[Figure 2-70]
To force oil from the pre-oiler tank through the

engine, the tank is pressurized while the engine is
turned over with the starter. Generally, shop air is
used to pressurize the pre-oiler, however, it is best to
consult manufacturer's instructions for the correct
pressure limits. Once all the oil galleries are full, oil
Figure 2-70. Pre-oiling an engine with a special tank
will flow out the oil return line. When this happens, such as this helps prevent bearing failure when an
stop cranking the engine and disconnect the engine is first started after an overhaul or after being
pre-oiler tank. idle for long periods of time.
Pre-oiling engines equipped with a wet sump is and runup the engine as necessary.
similar except the pre-oiler is connected at the oil
temperature fitting. With the pre-oiler connected
and pumping oil, the engine is turned over with the
starter until an indication of oil pressure appears on
the oil pressure gauge. Once this occurs,
discontinue cranking the engine, disconnect the
pre-oiler tank, and check the oil level to make sure
the engine was not inadvertently overfilled.
Another way you can pre-oil an engine is with the

engine driven oil pump. To do this, remove one
spark plug from each cylinder and fill the engine
oil sump to the proper level. Once this is done,
place the mixture in the idle-cutoff position, the
fuel shut-off valve and ignition switch in the off
position, and the throttle in the idle position. Now,
crank the engine with the starter until the oil
pressure gauge indicates oil pressure.
After the engine has been pre-oiled, replace the

spark plugs and reconnect the oil system lines.
Generally, the engine should be operated within
four hours after it has been pre-oiled. If this is not
possible, it may be necessary to repeat the
pre-oiling procedure.
FUEL SYSTEM BLEEDING

Before you attempt to start a newly installed
engine, the fuel system should be bled to purge any
air bubbles from the fuel lines and pumps and to
help flush any preservative oil from the fuel
system. The procedure used to bleed a fuel system
varies with the type of carburetor or fuel injection
unit installed, so you must consult the
manufacturer's maintenance instructions for
specific directions.
COWL FLAP RIGGING

If an aircraft has cowl flaps, they must be rigged to
accurately regulate the passage of cooling air
through the engine compartment. When cowl flap
adjustments have been completed, operate the
system and recheck the adjustments to be sure the
cowl flaps open and close to the specified limits.
Also verify that the cowl flap position indicators, if
installed, indicate the true position of the flaps.
Once all ground test preparations are complete and

you are satisfied that the engine can be safely run,
verify that the aircraft battery is reinstalled and, if
necessary, have a ground power cart plugged into
the aircraft. Consult the aircraft checklist to start
POST-RUN CHECKS AND ADJUSTMENTS
After the initial ground run and flight test, an
engine must receive final adjustments and a
thorough visual inspection. Exercise caution to
avoid burns from the hot engine as you examine
various items. Fuel pressure and oil pressure
adjustments could be needed, as well as rechecks
of ignition timing, valve clearances, and idle speed
and mixture. Remove the oil sump plugs and
screens so they can be examined for the presence
of any metal particles, then clean and reinstall
them.
Visually inspect all lines for leakage and tight

connections, correcting any discrepancies found.
Check hose clamps to see if any of them need to be
re-tightened, especially if the hoses are new.
Scrutinize oil system connections for oil leakage
and inspect cylinder hold down nuts or cap screws
for security. Press gently on safety-wired items
checking for looseness and broken safety wire.
ENGINE PRESERVATION
Engines that are going to be put in storage or
transported to an overhaul facility must be
preserved and protected to prevent corrosion and
other forms of damage. Regardless of whether an
engine is waiting to be overhauled or is newly
overhauled, damaging rust and other forms of
corrosion will occur unless the engine is protected.
Preservation is also recommended when an engine
remains on the aircraft if engine operation is
limited or suspended for an extended period of
time. The following discussion centers on engines
that have been removed from an aircraft, however,
the preservation materials and methods discussed
are used for all types of engine storage.
CORROSION PREVENTATIVE
COMPOUNDS
The primary purpose of engine and engine
accessory preservation procedures is to prevent
corrosion. If you recall from your earlier studies,
corrosion occurs whenever a base metal such as
steel, iron, or aluminum combines with oxygen to
form an oxide. Therefore, if a base metal is
properly sealed, corrosion will not occur. Most
corrosion preventive compounds are petroleum
based products that form a wax-like film over the
metal surfaces to prevent air from reaching the
metal's surface. Several of these corrosion
preventive compounds are manufactured to
different specifications to meet specific aviation
needs. For example, light corrosion
preventive compounds are typically mixed with visual indication of the moisture content in the air
engine oil to form a protective barrier for short inside an engine. For example, cobalt chloride
term preservation. Light compounds can also be treated silica gel remains a
sprayed into a cylinder or other components. Short
term corrosion preventive compounds are intended
for use in engines that remain inactive for less than
30 days. Light compounds typically meet
MIL-C-6529 Type I, Type II, or Type III
specifications. A Type I compound is a concentrate
that must be blended with three parts of
MIL-L-22851 or MIL-L-6082 grade 1100 oil to
one part concentrate. On the other hand, a Type II
compound is ready-mixed with MIL-L-22851 oil
and needs no dilution. A Type III compound is
used only in turbine engines and consists of a
preservative material ready-mixed with 1010 grade
oil. An important point to bear in mind is that the
correct proportions of lubricating oil and corrosion
preventive compounds must be mixed externally,
then added to the engine. Adding the preservative
mixture to the oil already in the engine is not good
maintenance practice and must be avoided.
A heavy corrosion preventive compound is used

for long term preservation and forms a heavy
wax-like barrier over a metal surface. Before you
can apply a heavy compound, it must be heated to a
liquid state for application. Once the compound
cools, the only way to remove it is with a
commercial solvent or kerosene spray.
Although corrosion preventive compounds act as

moisture barriers, they eventually break down over
a period of time in the presence of excessive
moisture. Furthermore, the compounds can
eventually dry out as their oil base gradually
evaporates. If this should happen, moisture can
come in contact with the metal allowing corrosion
to begin.
DEHYDRATING AGENTS
Dehydrating agents, often referred to as desiccants,
are often used during engine preservation because
they absorb moisture from the atmosphere. Silica
gel is a common desiccant and is an ideal
dehydrating agent since it does not dissolve when
saturated. As a corrosion preventive measure, bags
of silica gel are placed around and inside the
accessible parts of a stored engine. Silica gel is also
used in clear plastic plugs called dehydrator plugs
which are screwed into an engine's spark plug
holes. The silica gel in the dehydrator plugs is
typically treated with Cobalt chloride to provide a
bright blue color with a low relative humidity.
However, as humidity increases, the shade of blue
grows progressively lighter, becoming lavender at
30 percent relative humidity. If the relative
humidity exceeds 30 percent, the color changes
from lavender to various shades of pink, becoming
completely white at 60 percent relative humidity.
When the relative humidity is less than 30 percent,
corrosion does not normally take place. Therefore,
if the dehydrator plugs are bright blue, the air in
the engine has a relatively low moisture content
and internal corrosion is kept to a minimum.
Cobalt chloride-treated silica gel is also used in

humidity indicator envelopes. These envelopes can
be fastened to a stored engine in a manner that
allows inspection through a small window in the
sealed engine container. Desiccants in storage
should be sealed in containers to keep them from
becoming saturated with moisture before they are
used. Avoid leaving the container open or
inadequately sealed.
ENGINE PRESERVATION PROCESS

Before an engine is removed from an aircraft for
preservation, a corrosion preventive compound
should be added to the oil. Once this is done, the
engine must be run for 15 minutes to coat the
engine's internal parts.
Any engine taken out of service and prepared for

storage must receive a thorough corrosion
preventive treatment around the exhaust ports. This
is necessary because exhaust gas residue is
potentially corrosive. A corrosion preventive
compound should be sprayed into each exhaust
port to coat the exhaust port interior and exhaust
valve. Next, a moisture-proof and oil-proof gasket
should be placed over each exhaust port, held in
place by a metal or wooden plate. These covers
form a seal that helps keep moisture from entering
the engine through the exhaust ports.
Once the engine is removed, each cylinder interior

should be sprayed with a corrosion preventive
compound. This is done to prevent moisture and
oxygen from reacting with the deposits left by
combustion. To do this, each cylinder should be
sprayed with the piston at bottom dead center,
allowing the entire cylinder interior to be coated.
Rotate the engine until one piston is at bottom dead
center and then apply the compound by inserting a
spray nozzle into the spark plug opening. Once that
cylinder is sprayed, rotate the engine again until the
next pis-
performed to be certain
ton is at bottom dead center and spray the cylinder.

After spraying each cylinder with its piston at
bottom dead center, respray each cylinder without
rotating the crankshaft. Once this is done, the
crankshaft must not be moved, or the corrosion
preventive seal will be broken. Immediately after
the corrosion preventive compound dries, a
dehydrator plug should be inserted in each spark
plug opening. In addition, each ignition harness
lead should be attached to a dehydrator plug with
lead supports. [Figure 2-71]
The intake manifold must also be sealed when

placing an engine in storage. If the carburetor is
going to remain on the engine during storage, the
throttle valve should be wired open and a seal
installed over the air inlet. On the other hand, if the
carburetor is removed, install the seal at the
carburetor mounting pad. In either case, the seal
should be an oil-proof and moisture-proof gasket
backed by a wooden or metal plate securely bolted
into place. To help remove excess moisture, silica
gel should be placed in the intake manifold.
Normally, the silica gel bags are suspended from
the cover plate to reduce the possibility of
overlooking their removal when the engine is
removed from storage.
Figure 2-71. Securing the ignition harness leads to the
dehydrator plugs protects them from being damaged as the
engine is moved.
Just before an engine is boxed up, the engine

exterior should be sprayed with a heavy corrosion
preventive coating. If this cannot be done, you
should at least apply a corrosion preventive
compound to the propeller shaft. Follow up by
securing a plastic sleeve, or moisture-proof paper
around the shaft. A final inspection should be
that all openings are sealed, and that only the
proper accessories have been included for storage
or shipping.
STORAGE
Once preserved, engines sent out for overhaul or
newly overhauled engines put into storage should
be protected by a shipping container. Metal or
wooden containers are constructed with mounts for
holding and protecting an engine.
When storing an engine horizontally in a metal

shipping container, special ventilatory plugs are
normally installed. If stored vertically, only the
upper spark plug holes in each cylinder receive a
ventilatory plug while the lower spark plug holes
are fitted with non-ventilatory plugs. Dehydrator
plugs with the dessicant removed work well as
non-ventilatory plugs.
ENGINE SHIPPING CONTAINERS

Engines that are being shipped out for maintenance
or overhaul must be protected from damage.
Therefore, most engines are packed in wooden
crates or metal shipping containers. Some
overhauled engines are sealed in pressurized
containers with an inert gas such as nitrogen.
After an engine is carefully lowered into a shipping

container, it is secured with the same type of
hardware and mounting fixtures used to mount the
engine to the aircraft. Some containers provide a
special mounting area for accessories that have
been detached from the engine but are also being
sent back for overhaul. Wooden crates and metal
containers are available for horizontal mounting or
vertical mounting of the engine.
In addition to the shipping container, most engines

are wrapped in plastic or foil envelopes. However,
before the protective envelope is sealed, silica gel
packets should be placed around the engine to
dehydrate the air sealed into the envelope. The
amount of silica gel used is determined by the size
of the engine. The protective envelope is then
gathered around the engine and partially sealed,
leaving an opening from which as much air as
possible is exhausted. The envelope is then
completely sealed.
While lowering the shipping container cover into

position, be careful that it does not twist and tear
the protective envelope. Secure the cover, then
mark the case with the appropriate removal or
preserva-
tion dates and indicate whether the engine is always be used when the engine is being transported.
repairable or serviceable. [Figure 2-72]
INSPECTION OF STORED ENGINES

Most maintenance shops provide a scheduled
inspection system for engines in storage. The
humidity indicators on engines stored in shipping
cases are normally inspected every 30 days. When
the protective envelope must be opened to inspect
the humidity indicator, the inspection period may
be extended to once every 90 days, if local
conditions permit. The humidity indicator of a
metal container is inspected every 180 days under
normal conditions.
Humidity indicator colors in wooden shipping

crates showing the presence of more than 30
percent relative humidity require the replacement
of all dessicants. When more than half the
dehydrator plugs in spark
Figure 2-72. Engines needing repairs or overhaul are

nevertheless costly, and must be protected during
storage and shipment. For this reason, shipping crates
or containers tailored to a specific engine model must
plug openings indicate the presence of excessive
moisture, the cylinder interiors should be re-sprayed
with corrosion preventive compound. A metal
container with a humidity indicator showing a safe
blue color and air pressure below 1 p.s.i. needs only
to be repressurized. An indicator with a pink
condition, on the other hand, indicates that the
engine should be re-preserved if it is to remain in
storage.
ENGINE DEPRESERVATION
Engines that have been preserved for storage must
undergo depreservation before they are put into
service. Depreservation procedures are typically
included in the engine manufacturer's overhaul
manual or provided by the overhauler who preserved
the engine. The information presented here provides
a general overview of these procedures since they
vary with the type of engine and the degree of
preservation.
When engines are supplied in pressurized

containers, the first task is to bleed off the gas
pressure through the container's pressure valve. The
container cover can then be lifted off and placed
aside. After hoisting the engine and removing any
separate accessories, secure the engine to a stand or
mount it on the aircraft. Next, remove all covers and
dessi-cantbags from the engine. Typical locations of
cover plates include engine breather tubes, intake
and exhaust outlets, and accessory mounting pads.
As each cover is removed, inspect the uncovered
area for corrosion and foreign objects. Furthermore,
if the dehydrator plugs indicate water contamination
when they are removed, thoroughly inspect the
cylinder walls for corrosion. Any cylinder showing
signs of corrosion or other damage should be
removed and inspected further.
Remove the oil screens from the engine and

thoroughly wash them in kerosene or an approved
solvent to remove preservative accumulations that
could restrict oil circulation and cause engine
failure. After cleaning, immerse the screens in clean
oil, then reinstall them in the engine.
On radial engines, carefully check the interior of the

lower cylinders and intake pipes for the presence of
excessive corrosion preventive compound. Excess
compound can drain through the engine interior and
settle at low points, creating a liquid, or hydraulic
lock. Any liquid preservative compounds remaining
in a cylinder, intake, or exhaust port that cannot be
drained should be removed with a hand pump.
Once you are done with the engine interior, remove engine malfunction or possibly irreparable damage.
the protective covering from the propeller shaft. Therefore, follow recommended procedures in the
Lightly coat the propeller shaft with engine oil or overhaul manual or the instructions that come with
whatever lubricant the engine manufacturer overhauled or new accessories regarding
recommends. To complete the de-preservation depreser-vation and preparation for operation.
procedure verify that the engine exterior is clean.
Often a quantity of compound runs out of the Before depreserving any of the accessories
engine when the dehydrator plugs and oil screens enclosed with the engine, refer to the accessory
are removed. Spray engine areas in need of records to determine how long the engine and
cleaning with a recommended solvent that does not accessories have been in storage. Some accessories
leave any residue or interfere with the proper are life-limited and are considered unsafe for use if
functioning of the accessories. their storage time exceeds the manufacturer's time
limits. Before installing any replacement accessory,
check it visually for signs of corrosion and for
ACCESSORY DEPRESERVATION
freedom of operation. Remove any plastic plugs
Good engine performance depends, in part, on the and movement restraints placed on the accessory
condition of the engine accessories. Although an for shipment. In addition, lubricate the accessory
engine is in a condition to give top performance drive shaft and clean the mounting pad and flange
after being completely overhauled, any oversight prior to installation. Always install an accessory
or error in reinstalling the accessories can result in with new O-rings or gaskets between the mounting
an pad and the accessory.

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RECIPROCATING ENGINE

OPERATION ENGINE INSTRUMENTATION

markings may be painted on the instrument glass.

Now that you understand how to interpret the

Blue arcs are used to indicate an allowable range

A yellow arc indicates a precautionary range of

A red line indicates a maximum or minimum safe

The colored arcs and lines on engine instruments

Carburetor air temperature (CAT) is measured at

In addition to identifying the conditions necessary

Observation of the CAT before engine startup and

fuel injection system.

Some engines have a fuel pressure gauge that

One type of fuel pressure gauge uses a Bourdon

Figure 2-3. The top fuel pressure gauge is typical for an

is used to move an indicating needle on the

Another type of fuel pressure indicator utilizes a

Figure 2-5. Pressure applied internally to a diaphragm

FUEL FLOW INDICATOR

A fuel flow indicator measures the rate of fuel an

On aircraft with a continuous-flow fuel injection

On aircraft with direct fuel injection or

In addition to a fuel flow gauge, some aircraft are

The movement of the vane must he linear to get an

Because the volume of jet fuel changes

A manifold absolute pressure (MAP) gauge

Before an engine is started, the manifold pressure

A manifold pressure gauge consists of a sealed

instrument, the pressure line from the manifold to

Whenever you run an engine with a manifold

engine manifold pressure is either applied to the

pen, and the gauge continues to indicate

A ratiometer circuit measures current ratios and

The shape of the permanent magnet provides a

Figure 2-12. A ratiometer temperature measuring

Ratiometer temperature measuring systems are

Some older oil temperature gauges used a vapor

Many oil pressure gauges utilize a Bourdon tube

Figure 2-14. A typical cylinder head temperature gauge

Figure 2-13. The oil pressure limits of 25 psi minimum

The trend in larger more modern aircraft is to

Oil pressure instrument readings are a critical

Most cylinder head temperature gauges are

The two junctions of a thermocouple circuit are

Thermocouple instrument systems are polarized

combustion temperature, a pilot can use an EGT

repairing them. First, be sure to observe all

EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE

Magnetic tachometers also utilize a flexible drive

When a flexible drive shaft is used to operate a

Figure 2-16. The tachometer is a primary engine instrument

and verify that the engine is developing the

There are four common types of tachometers;

tachometers were developed so instrument wiring

Figure 2-18. Magnetic tachometers utilize a rotating permanent

Electronic tachometers, on the other hand, produce

A simple electronic tachometer is installed with

On multi-engine aircraft, each engine may have a

INSTRUMENT MAINTENANCE PRACTICES