Early Childhood Care and Education Module 04

THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS AND ITS IMPLICATIONS TOWARDS

LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY YEARS
BEHAVIOURISM AND SOCIAL LEARNING

1. INTRODUCTION

Learning refers to changes in behaviour as a result of experience. Babies are

born with integrated learning mechanisms and capacities that allow them to gain
from experiences. Any human being at a younger age learns through basic two
forms of learning called classical and operant conditioning. Later their novel
stimulation facilitates them to acquire knowledge. Finally, they learn by observing
others. Let us learn these forms of learning in detail.

2. LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this module, you will be able to

 Understand the concept of learning

 Describe the behaviourist approaches to learning namely classical
conditioning and operant conditioning
 Explain the observational learning approach and how does it differ from
behaviourism
 Assist learners to take up the responsibility of guiding children of 0-6
years to develop desirable behaviour and extinguish the undesired
behaviour

3. CONCEPT OF LEARNING

Before getting into the approaches to learning, the concept of learning should
be understood. Learning is defined as the process that results in a relatively
consistent change in behaviour or behaviour potential based on experience

3.1. Why is it called relatively consistent change? – After you have learnt
swimming and are confident in doing it, you will probably always be able to swim.
However, you should realise those consistent changes may not be permanent
changes. For example, if you give up swimming, the speed with which you swim
might have declined from their original speed, but it is sure that it will be easier to
learn a second time.

3.2. What is a change in behaviour or behaviour potential? – Most of the

learning is apparent from the improvement in performance. Eg. Driving a car.
However, in many instances performance may not show everything we have learned
as the improvement in performance cannot be measured. Eg. Appreciation of
modern art. In such instances, you are said to have achieved a potential for
behaviour change.

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3.3. How is it based on experience? – It is only through experience that learning

takes place. Experience includes taking in information, assessment, transformation
and manifestation of responses that affect the environment.

4. BEHVIOURIST APPROACH TO LEARNING

Babies are born into the world with a built-in set of learning mechanisms that
permit them to profit from experience immediately (Berk,2005). Kids at very young
age are capable of two basic forms of learning namely Classical conditioning and
Operant conditioning. Let us look into these approaches in detail.

4.1 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered classical conditioning for which

he got the Noble prize in the year 1904. Learning by classical conditioning is by
associating an environmental/neutral stimulus with a naturally occurring stimulus.

Classical conditioning – is defined as a form of learning that involves

associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive
response.

4.1.1 Pavlov’s experiment

Reflex responses constitute the crux of classical conditioning. A reflex is an

automatic response to specific stimuli such as salivation, eye blinking. The reflexes
are biologically important for the survival of any organism. The accidental discovery
of the innate salivation reflex of dogs even at the sight of food by Pavlov paved the
way for the classical conditioning process

PAVLOV’S RESTRAINING HARNESS

Pavlov's experiment was carried out by placing a dog in a restraining harness.

A stimulus – sound of a bell - was presented at regular intervals and then the dog
was provided with some food. At first, the dog had no prior meaning for the tone

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concerning food or salivation. It was just an orienting response at first – the dog
picked its ears, moved its head to trace the source of the sound.

However, with the frequent pairings of the tone and the food, the orienting
response is no more manifested, whereas salivation begins. This phenomenon was
found to be similar to another stimulus also. Pavlov demonstrated the generality of
this effect by using a variety of other stimuli such as light etc.

4.1.2. The process of Classical Conditioning

On the whole, classical conditioning involves forming an association between

a neutral stimulus and a natural stimulus resulting in a learned response. The three
basic stages of classical conditioning are detailed below:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning

In the first stage of the learning process, Pavlov provided a natural stimulus –
the sight of food - that will automatically elicit a response - salivation. In other words,
the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR). At
this point, a neutral stimulus that produces no effect is introduced – the sound of a
bell. It is found that the neutral stimulus can evoke a response when paired with UCS
several times.

 Therefore UnConditioned Stimulus (UCS) refers to naturally occurring

stimuli that evoke a response.

 The UnConditioned Response (UCR) is the automatic response that is

manifested when subjected to the unconditioned stimulus.

BEFORE CONDITIONING

Stage 2: During Conditioning

For this stage, Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus – the sound of a bell,
which was repeatedly paired with the UCS – the food. Hence an association
between the neutral stimulus and the natural stimulus (UCS) is facilitated. If the
association could trigger the salivation response, then the neutral stimulus is called
the conditioned stimulus (CS).
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 The once neutral stimulus after being associated with the natural stimulus
eventually triggers a conditioned response, and this stimulus is called as
conditioned stimulus (CS).

DURING CONDITIONING

Stage 3: After Conditioning

Once the association has been made between the UCS and the CS, Pavlov
found that the CS, even when presented alone without UCS, will trigger a response.
The resulting response of salivation even without food is known as the conditioned
response (CR).

 The Conditioned Response refers to the habituated or learned response to

the once neutral stimulus.

AFTER CONDITIONING

Hence UCS – UCR connections are provided by nature, but the CS-CR connections
are produced by learning through classical conditioning.

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4.1.3. Uses of Classical Conditioning in the real world

Few of the real-world applications for classical conditioning are as given

below

 Classical conditioning mechanisms are used by many dog trainers to

train their pets.
 Phobias or anxiety problems could also be treated by the principles of
classical conditioning
 Teachers could apply classical conditioning in the classroom setting.
For example, an anxious situation of performing on the stage can be
paired with a pleasant reward by which the child could learn to stay
relaxed and calm on stage.

4.2 OPERANT CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning describes an organism's response to the environment

but does not provide a clue on how the response influence the environment and the
environment, in turn, influence the response. This is where another major form of
learning called operant conditioning gains importance. This principle of learning
places emphasis on the organism's activity in the environment.

The following table gives you the distinction between classical conditioning
and operant conditioning.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND

OPERANT CONDITIONING
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
It explains involuntary responses It explains voluntary behaviours
The learning is a passive process The learning is an active process
Eg. The smell of food triggers salivation Eg. Voluntarily studying hard to get good
marks.

An American psychologist B.F.Skinner (1938) developed the concept of

operant conditioning, which is also called as instrumental conditioning.

Operant conditioning as classical conditioning is also a form of associative

learning, wherein the outcome of behaviour predicts the likelihood of the occurrence
of that behaviour.

The term Operant refers to the behaviour that is emitted by an organism.

This behaviour operates on the environment and the environment, in turn, operates
on the behaviour

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Operant conditioning is an expansion of Thorndike's law of effect. So before

venturing into the process and principles of operant conditioning, let us have a look
at Thorndike's law.

4.2.1. Thorndike’s Law of Effect

An American Psychologist Edward Lee Thorndike used a puzzle box to study how
cats learn. A hungry cat was placed inside the box and a piece of fish outside the
box. To escape from the puzzle box and get the fish to satisfy its hunger, the latch
inside the box had to be released by the cat.

Thorndike observed some ineffective responses by the cat. After some time,
the cat accidentally placed its foot on the treadle that released the latch. Finally, the
cat could come out and get the fish. After returning to the box, the cat continues with
the same sort of random movements until it stepped on the treadle. After succeeding
trials, the cat's random movement declined and could finally come out of the box in
the first attempt itself. The behaviour had so become voluntary as it is influenced by
a reinforcer – the fish.

THORNDIKE’S PUZZLE BOX

Thorndike’s law of effect states that ’Behaviours followed by positive

outcomes are strengthened, whereas behaviours followed by negative
outcomes are weakened depending upon the consequences of the organism’s
actions.

In other words, the appropriate stimulus-response connections (S-R

connections) strengthen, and an inappropriate connection weakens the behaviour.

4.2.2 Skinners approach to operant conditioning

Skinner’s approach was experimental, in which he operated the

consequences of an organism’s behaviour to find out the effect that they had on
successive behaviour. For his experiment skinner invented an apparatus called

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operant chamber that allowed him to manipulate the consequences of the behaviour
of the rat.

This chamber was set in a way that, a press on the lever by the rat would be
followed by delivery of a food pellet. As the hungry rat explored the box, it
accidentally touches the lever, and a food pellet was dispersed. Now understanding
that the consequence was positive, the rat after certain trials deliberately touches the
lever.

SKINNER’S OPERANT CHAMBER

4.2.3 Elements of operant conditioning

Reinforcement

A child might read books because she receives praise from her parents for
reading – a positive reinforcement – or else she might read because it gives her a
sense of relaxation after doing a long, tedious homework – negative reinforcement.
But do understand that that in both cases the result is a higher incidence of book
reading.

Hence positive reinforcement is the process wherein the frequency of

behaviour increases as it is followed by a rewarding stimulus.

Eg. When teacher praises your performance when you turn in the assignment
on time, you tend to turn in other assignments on time.

Negative reinforcement is the process wherein the frequency of behaviour

increases as it is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus.

Eg. When you want your teacher to stop criticising you for late submission of
assignment you try to turn it on time and tend to submit the other assignments on
time.

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Punishment

All though we all hate punishments, they are found to be an influential

regulator of behaviour. Suppose you have a very bad allergic reaction after taking
medicine for a headache, the next time you get a headache, you will not take that
medicine just to avoid the aversive consequence. However, punishment should not
be confused with negative reinforcement. Punishment is where an aversive stimulus
is presented to influence the behaviour, and the negative reinforcement is the
removal of an aversive stimulus.
Again as reinforcement, punishment is both positive and negative.
Positive punishment – the process by which the occurrence of behaviour
decreases when followed by an unpleasant stimulus is referred to as positive
punishment.

Negative punishment – is the process by which the occurrence of behaviour

decreases when a positive stimulus is removed. Let us have a better understanding
of the types of punishment with the following example:

TYPES OF PUNISHMENT WITH EXAMPLE

Types of Behaviour Stimulus Effect on

punishment behaviour
Positive Not cleaning up Your parent yells at You clean the room
your room when you to avoid being
your parents ask scolded
you to do
Negative Not cleaning up You are not You clean up your
your room when allowed to play with room to be allowed
your parents ask your friends for two to go out with
you to do days friends

Further, this table helps you fine tune your understanding of the elements of
operant conditioning.

ELEMENTS OF OPERANT CONDITIONING

Reinforcement Punishment
Positive Presentation of a Presentation of an
rewarding stimulus aversive stimulus
Negative Removal of an aversive Removal of an awarding
stimulus stimulus

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4.2.4 Applications of Operant Conditioning

The major applications of operant conditioning in our daily lives are

Behaviour modification

Researchers of behaviour modification consider that many emotional and

behavioural problems are caused by inadequate, inappropriate responses and
consequences, operant conditioning gains significance by inducing a change toward
the desired behaviour with adequate responses and consequences.

Education

Operant conditioning can be applied in classrooms to improve the level of

learning among children in the following ways:

1. Premack Principle - Named after Psychologist David Premack, the Premack

Principle states that a high probability activity or more preferred activity can be
used to reinforce a low probability activity or less preferred activity.

Eg. A teacher might say ‘If you all get your homework done by this Friday, you will be
taken on a field trip on Saturday.

2. Shaping - Shaping is the process of rewarding approximations of the desired

behaviour. When behaviour takes time to occur, the learning process in
operant conditioning can be shortened by rewarding an approximation of the
desired behaviour.

Eg. A teacher has got a student who has never completed more than 50% of her
homework. The teacher could set the target behaviour at 100%, but reward her for
successive approximations to the target – may be for 70%, then 80%, then 90% and
finally 100%.

5. SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH

The two theories of conditioning namely classical and operant termed as

behaviourism concluded that every learning happens as a result of direct experience
with the environment using two process namely association in classical conditioning
and reinforcement in operant conditioning.

A psychologist named Albert Bandura though accepted the assumption of

behaviourism, he came out with the idea that all types of learning do not happen as a
result of direct experience with the environment.

For example, imagine a child who is given a cricket bat for the first time. The
child looking at the cricket bat would probably search for a ball and hit it. Is this
action due to a direct experience of the child with the bat? No. It is because the child
had seen others perform this action either on television or in person.

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Hence learning occurs just by observing the action of others, which served as
a base for Bandura in proposing observational learning or in other words social
learning theory.

Belief – Children are like sponges. They soak up everyday experiences.

Assumption – Learning occurs through observation, imitation and modelling

Elements – Behavioural elements + Cognitive elements

Behavioural elements comprise conditioning through associations,

reinforcement and punishments.

Cognitive elements involve attention, retention, reproduction and motivation

5.1 Principles of social learning theory

Bandura explained in his book ‘Social learning theory’ (1977) that most
human behaviour is observationally learned from others by observing and forming
ideas of a particular behaviour and this information gets coded and guides future
actions. His Social learning theory has got three core principles

1. People learn through observation

Bobo Doll experiment of Bandura is the best-known example of children
learning through observation. Children observing adults acting aggressively
towards a Bobo Doll was found to imitate the violent action of the adult when
allowed to play with the same doll later. However, Bandura identified three
models through which a child learns
 A live model – A child observing an individual demonstrating a
behaviour
 A verbal instructional model – A child listening to the descriptions and
explanations of a behaviour
 A symbolic model – A child watching characters either real or fictional
displaying certain behaviour through books, films, TV or any media
2. Mental states are crucial to learn
A behaviour observed is not always learnt. For learning an observed
behaviour, the child’s mental state and motivation were found to be
imperative. Bandura differs from behaviourist in saying that reinforcement
might not be only external. He coined a term called ‘Intrinsic reinforcement'
such as pride, satisfaction, accomplishment etc.
3. Learning does not necessarily lead to a change in behaviour
Behaviourists believed that learning leads to a permanent change in
behaviour. However observational learning contradicts behavioursm by saying
that people can learn new information without demonstrating the new
behaviour.

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For example, a child watching another child steal a pencil might not
demonstrate the same.

5.2 Process of observational learning

Social learning is said to be successful when the observed behaviour is well

learnt or demonstrated

Example – teaching a child to swim is successful only when the child learns the skill
and demonstrates it without assistance.

For the process to be successful certain four cognitive factors seems to play a
crucial role. Let us understand these factors with the same example.

1. Attention – For any observational learning, attention is important from the

learner's side. At the same time, the model should be interesting to provoke
the attention of the learner. (Eg. Paying attention to the trainer)
2. Retention – Retention is said to be the storage house of learning. In other
words, retention means remembering the learnt information and pulling it out
later when needed. (Eg. Retaining the nuances of swimming)
3. Reproduction – Just attention and retention without practice or reproducing
the information goes waste in the process of learning. Hence the practice of
the learned behaviour gives significant results (Eg. Intensive swimming
practice)
4. Motivation –After learning behaviour to the fullest, there will be no use if the
demonstration of behaviour is not motivated. (Eg. Getting rewarded for
swimming).

Hence, the four principles of each of the four cognitive elements of Bandura
are

i. Attention and focus matter

ii. Retention depends on the context
iii. Reproduction occurs on demand
iv. Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic

5.3 Applications towards early childhood care settings

Social learning otherwise called as observational learning is said to be the

tools for education

1. Positive consequence (such as appreciation) for a particular type of behaviour

(doing homework regularly) helps the child to repeat the behaviour.
2. Negative consequence (such as scolding by the teacher) of a particular type
of behaviour (thrashing another child out of anger), the child is likely to
perform that behaviour.

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3. If the model is novel and unique, the attention widens, and the retention can
be long-lasting. Hence the facilitator of an early childhood care setting should
be novel in presenting ideas.
4. Though not often used with children in early years, social learning was found
to be effective in building confidence among children by providing constructive
feedback.

8. SUMMARY

Kids are wonderfully equipped to learn by themselves immediately after birth.

Through classical conditioning, they learn by associating a neutral stimulus with an
environmental stimulus. These associations have got survival value too. Using
operant conditioning, they learn to control the environmental events. Learning by
observing or imitating the behaviour of another person is also one another form of
learning as stated by Bandura in his Social learning theory.

With the insights of the behaviourism and social approach towards learning,
hope this module would have provided you with the strategies of application in
fostering the learning potential of children in their early years. As a facilitator, you
should be able to understand and identify the right approach in making a child learn.
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