toi

ONTROL
ORVEY

CONTROL SURVEYS
.1.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
-.i. Control by TAaversing
1.
2.
ControL by TAiangu lation
3.
Control by Tailateration
VERTICAL CONTROL
5.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
d. 8. Vestical Conttol
1. Taiangula tion
Sunveys
2. Teiangulation System
9. Least Squates
3. TAiangulation Stations Method
4. Base Line 10. Station Adjus tment
5. Check Base 11. Figune Adjustment
6. Tailatenation
1. Honizontal Contnol
Sutvey3
-5. TRIANGULATION

C-6. TRIANGULATION SYSTEMS

1. Chain of. Triangles
2. Chain o% Quadailaterals
3. Chain o6 Polygons
1-1,
CHOICE OF F1GURE

Lesson 20
55
 20-1. CONTROL SURVEYS.
evisible sights. In at, open terrain, or where stations need to be
long intervisil
toge
nether. traverse surveys would be more suitable.
Control surveying is referred to as the determination of th
position of a number of stations which are distr ibuted over a larorecise close As
Aside from the above mentioned survey methods, phot ogrammetric
arge area are also used to densify control in some areas. In more modern
The established stations of the system serve as the basis for orioin techniques are
ginating technos. inertial and satellite doppler systems are employed.
checking other subordinate surveys for engineering projects such 29or techniques,in
graphic and hydrographic mapping; planning, design, and layout of hinOpo.
highways VERTICAL CONTROL.
and railroads; and delineation of property or political are
boundaries,
laid outControl
in the 20-3.
surveys can be divided into two general types which are laid out irol .ioal control surveys, the main objective is the establishment of a
form of nets covering the areas to be surveyed: In vertical control
rk of reference bench marks. The elevations of these bench marks
1. Horizontal Control netetermined usually with respect to mean sea level or some other
are
2. Vertical Control oreferred datum. Vertical control surveys may. be run either by baro-
trigonometric,
metric, triqorn or differential leveling. The choice is more depen-
20-2. HORIZONTAL CONTROL. ent
on accuracy requirements. Inertial and satellite doppler systems are
nowalso used in the establishment of vertical control. The most accurate
Horizontal control surveys over extensive areas generally establish gende: widely used method, however, is still precise differential leveling.
and
latitudes and longitudes of stations. Plane rectangular coordinates Barometric leveling is well suited for econnaissance surveys where
are
subsequently computed from these values. When control survevs approxi
roximate elevations are required. When the stations are located on high
are
performed on smaller areas, plane rectangular coordinates are determinaed d commanding points, trigonometric leveling is often used when trans-
directly without obtaining geodetic latitudes and longitudes. oring elevations from precise leveling circuits to selected triangulation
The main objective of horizontal control surveys is the establish. etations. Differential leveling is best run over level or gently sloping
ment of a network of triangulation stations. The eld procedures used in terrain. Different accuracies are produced depending on the procedure
horizontal control surveys include: followed and precautions taken.
Precise tilting levels and special rods graduated with invar or lovar
1. Control by Traversing. With traversing, a series of horizontal
strins should be used if accurate measurements are desired. It is prefer-
distances and directions are observed to connect points whose positions are
to be determined. Traverses for control surveys consist of closed polygons able to perform precise leveling during cloudy weather. On sunny days, an
umbrella should be used to shade the instrument. Precise work should not
with most of the sides and angles measured directly in the eld. This
be attempted during windy days. For best results it is recommended that
procedure is generally less expensive and can be extended in any direct-
backsight and foresight distances be short and almost equal, and preferably
ion. It can be undertaken even under less favorable weather conditions.
limited to a maximum of 90 meters.
However, its main disadvantage is that there are fewer checks available
when there is a need to locate surveying errors and mistakes.
20-4. DEFINITION OF TERMS.
2. Control by Triangulation. When a large area is to be surveyed
and where the methods of traversing would not be expected to maintain a In control surveys the following terms are commonly used.
uniform high accuracy over,the entire area, triangulation as a form of
1.Trianqulation - a method for extending horizontal control for
horizontal control is speci ed. Trianqulation surveys consist of networks of
qeormetric qures with almost all of the angles measured directly in the topographic and similar surveys which require observations of triangular
gures whose angles are measured and whose sides are determined by
eld and with relatively few of sides measured. The positions and eleva-
tions of widely separated points are determined. The lengths and directions
trigonometric computations.
2. Triangulation System - consists of a series of triangles in which
of the lines joining these distant points also need to be determined. With
one or more sides of each triangle are also sides of adjacent triangles.
triangulation more than one route can be used in moving through the
3. Triangulation Stations - are the vertices of the triangles in a
systen to calculate désired lengths.
3. Control by Trilaterátion. In this procedure the lengths of the
triangulation system.
4. Base Line - is one of the lines in a triangulation system whose
sides of a series of triangles are measured and the angles are computed
length is precisely measured and its true direction determined by astro-
from the lengths. Trilateration is the most accurate of the three methods
omical "observations. Jt is usually located at the beginning of the tri-
of establishing horizontal control because distances are measured more
gulation system and its length is used as the basis for computing the
accurately than angles. Just like triangulation, it has the advantage that
lengths of other lines of the system.
checks can be made in the calculations while moving through the system
5, Check Base - one of the lines in a triangulation system whose
by more than one possible route.
length is also precisel
precisely measured and may be located at regular intervals
the end of triangulation system. It serves as a check for triangu-
The choice of methods is not dependent upon the required accuracy
lationcomputations involving lengths of lines.
results, since superior quality horizontal control data can be obtained by 6. Trilateration - a method used for horizontal control surveys
any of the three procedures. It is relative economy which will often whic
based exclusively on measured horizontal distances. It consists of
dictate the survey method to be adapted. Triangulation will usually be the
for eries of joined or overlapping triangles where sides are measured and
choice in mountainous or hilly country where stations can be located 1o

56 SOVE 57
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 the angles are computed.
7. Horizontal Control Surveys - are surveys made to esta.
establish
geodetic latitudes and longitudes, and plane rectangular coordinates of
(Fig. 20-1)
fundamental network of reference stations.
8. Vertical Control Surveys are surveys usually run by baromer
netric.
TRIANGULATION NET FOR A CITY
trigonometric, or differential leveling to establish elevations for a net.
etwork
of monuments called bench nnarks.
9. Least Squares Method - a method of adjustment used in
tri.
angulation syscems and other types of traverse surveys. It is based on the
based on
theory of probability and is used to simultaneously adjust the angular and
linear measuremcnts to make the sum of the squares of the residuals
minimum. a Sta.Maria
10. Station Adjustment - an approximate adjustment used in tri. Fire Dept
angulation systems of lower urders of precision. It is sometimes referred Tower
te as
about each
local acjustment.
trianqulation
Its objective is
station equal to 360 degrees.
to make the sum of the les
Quarry I4Im!!s
11. Figure Adjustment - in this adjustment the otbjective is to maka
the surn of the three angles in each triangle within a triangulation system Lake
equal to 180 degrees. The adjustment is an approximate method used in View
poratHiln
most low order trianqulation systems.

20-5. TRIANGULATION. GYHat

Pines
Hospital STanky
The method of triangulation was earlier adapted because it eliminated the
dif culty of measuring long distances especially over rugged terrain. It jis
based on the trigonometric proposition that if one side and the three
SL Vohn'
anrles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed.
Triangulation utilizes geometric gures composed of triangles. The Chrc
survey stations are points on the ground which de ne the vertices of KBank
triangles forming parts of quadrilaterals or chains of triangles. Horizontal Cathedral
angles and a limited number of sides are easured. By using the measured
angles and base line lengths, triangles are solved triqonometrically and
positions of stations calculated. Furthermore, if the direction of one side
is known, the directjons of the remaining sides can be determined. Old Blsilg
In triangulation a large number of inherent checks and closure Tower
conditions are available which help detect blunders and errors in eld data
and increase the possibility of attaining a high standard of accuracy. It
has been the preferred and principal method for horizontal control surveys
prior to the emergence of electronic distance measuring devices, especially
in the survey of extensive
Fig. 20-1) to form a network of consistently
areas. It is employed in
accurate
every sizable
control
city (see
monuments
In rmary
IAO Son Agustin
Semlnary

from which others can tie-in their work. H CIyLinits

AuroraHI
Although triangulation is not ordinarily used for surveys of small
areas, it may be needed for construction projects where a high deqree of
precision is required to control locations such as for bricges, tunnels,
highways, and other engineering constructions. A large project, such as
boundary location, power development, water-resources development, ood
control, irrigation, or reclamation, requires triangulation in order to attain Scale
the accuracy required throughout the system. Once a system for trianqu- 1 km 2 km
lation work is developed, measured, and adjusted, the points in the system
may be used to furnish control for other minor triangulation, subsequent
traversing, resection, and trilateration which are required for other related
engineering activities.

158- ONTA
UVEY 59,
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 20-6. TRIANGULATION SYSTEMS. (Fig. 20-2)

A trianqulation system consists of a network of connectedmarked

triangle.
pointsan
TRIANGULATION FIGURES
adjoin or overlap each other. The vertices of which are markedngleswhich
the earth's surface. There are differernt geometric gure arran CHAIN OF SINGLE TRIANGLES
used to, form triangulation systems (see Fig. 20-2) which can be usednt
particular survey. Four of the commonly used types include: for Trian gulation
Station
1. Chain of single and independent triangles.
2 Chain of quadrilaterals formed with overlapping triangles. Base Check Base
3. Chain of polygons or central-point gures. Line
4. Chain of polygons each with an extra diagonal.
Other types of gure are also used. These gures may be nade up
be made up of the
other types mentioned above and are combined either into chains
into Triangulation D
area-wide nets. Usually, the triangulation system can be arranged to Station
form
two or more simple independent gures. An independent gure is one tha
is connected to each adjacent gure by one common side. The gures
are
termed independent if only one side is xed and the angles of eact ) CHAIN OFQUADRILATERALS
independent gure can be adjusted independently. In practice, not more Triangulati on
Dlagonals
than seven stations should be included in an independent gure. Station
In a triangulation system it is essential that the length of one side
be measured directly aside from the interior horizontal angles to mat Base
possible the calculation of the remaining triangle sides in the net. h Line
addition to these required measurements it is important to have othet
measurements for the purpose of testing and verifying the accuracy of
both the calculations and the eld work. Such measurements may consist
of check angles, additional base lines, check bases, or observed astro- Triangulation
nomical directions. Station
Check Base
1. Chain of Triangles. A chain of single triangles is the simplest
form of triangulation system since it involves a minimum of anqular o) CHAIN OF POLYGONS
measurements and calculations for the amount of area covered. This type Triangulatlon Stotlon
of a triangulation system does not provide the most accurate results Base
Line
because it lacks certain checks to balance small errors which are certain
to occur even in the most careful work. Extensive trianqulation systems do
not contain single trìangles as units in a chain of gures. -Centrol
It is usually employed in long and .narrow surveys of low precision Point
such as for a valley or a narrow body of water. There is only one route
through this type of system and it is necessary to frequently measure base
lines as checks for the work. Although it is the least costly to run, this Central
system should be used only when it is irnpossible to arrange as strong a Polnt -Check Bose
system by the other methods. Also, it is important in this system that no
small angles should be included.
2 Chain of Quadrilaterals. The chain of quadrilaterals is the most 0 CHAIN OF POLYGONS W/ DIAGONALS
-Diagonal Trlangulation Stction
commonly used triangulation system. It is best adopted to long and narrow Base
surveys where a high degree of precision is required. Each gure 15 Line
-Central Point
composed of two pairs of overlapping triangles which gives the maximum
opportunity for the distribution of angular errors. In the individual quad
rilateral there is no triangulation station at the intersection of the
diagonals. Although it is the most expensive system to use, it still Dlagonal
of
desired because it gives the highest accuracy. Most of the major arcs
triangulation in country-wide surveys consist of chains of quadrilaterals.
In the quadrilateral there are eight independent angles to be me
D Central Polnt
the
sured, and four geometric conditions which must be satis ed. It is Check Base
and -Triangulation Station
simplest triangulation gure which permits rigorous closure checks

160 CONT

16
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 adjustments of eld ob: arvational errors. The gure also
positions to be calculated by four independent routes for allows point
checks.
3. Chain of Polygons. This triangulation system
group of triangles having within it a station which is at
mputationaCONTROL,
is co
nposed
a vertex cr of
to all the triangles. It is used when horizontal control is to
over a wide area involving a large number of points tobe
extendet
suchpecially
as a when SURVEKS
triangulation survey for a city. The central-point gure, espe large
skewed, can be further strengthened by using an extra diagonal,

20-7. CHOICE OF FIGURE.

It is important and very essential that only well-shaped gures be Used
triangulation systems since the errors in measurement of lines and in
no matter how small, will affect the computed values. The ideal es,
shaped ADJUSTMENT OF A CHAIN OF TRIANGLES
triangle is equilateral and the ideal shaped quadrilateral is a perfect1-1•
adrilateral is
square. Field conditions, however, do not readily provide such
gures. The usual situation is to select gures which only tend
perfect 1. Me thod o6 Least Squanes
to ap-
proximate the ideal. If a choice is available, gures suf ciently pear
the 2. Appa 0ximate Ne thod
jdeal should be used to maintain the accuracy of computed .lenothe of Station Adjustment
sides in the system from a measured Iine to the next. a.
In any triangulation system the computation of sides will involve only b. Figue Adjustment
two or three angles of each triangle. In the length computations. th
angles used are referred to as the distance angles. These angles a -9. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
always opposite the known and required sides of the triangle. The rematn.
1. Appa oximate Adjustment o6 a Chain of TAiangles
ing angle of each triangle can be used to carry forward the direction 2nd
is called the direction angle, or azimuth angle.
In trigonometry it is shown that the differences in the logarithmie
sines for angles near 900 are very small, and are very large for angles
near 00 and 180°. It is therefore desirable to avoid distance angles near 0
and 180 degrees. Where possible, the distance angles should be kept
between the limits of 30 and 150 degrees, or pre ferably near 90 degrees.
By carefully selecting the location of stations for a triangulation system
during reconnaissance this desirable conditions may be achieved. F iqures of
triangulation containing interior angles within these spéci ed limits are
referred to as strong gures.

J62 CONTROL
Lesson 21 163.
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 21-1. ADJUSTMENT OF A CHAIN OF TRIANGLES. solution., he two
st squares
Past eps involved
There are a number of geometrical conditions which th chain of jangles using the approxima in the adjustment of a
triangulation system shouid ful ll. As an example, the shape es of method ere:
Station Adjustrment. The
1s completely determined by two angles. The measurement 8.
of a tri. h kion
the sum of
Adjustment. The objective of this rst adjustment is to
the angles about each station equal to 360 deqrees. If
angle is super uous. It is not very protbable that the thre he make
angles would all add up to 180 degrees. A correction, therefo
therefore, ha anglesonthe sum of
(both interior and exterior) is not equal to 360
an dictment is made by determining the difference between 360
applied in order that the nal angles of each triangle add to 180 dO degrees, and the sum
earees Sum of the measured angles. The resulting difference is
This should be the rst set of conditions imposed
computed results are to be determined correctly. on the correr;ee9,
ections ther
divioe a
by correction)
the number is ofadded algebraically
angles about the to each angle.
station, and the quantity
determined (the
In an independent qure where two or more routes
routes are
are available
the determination of unknown quantities, and where the angl b. aure Adjustment. This adjustment, which is performed only
sta adiustment, uses the values obtained in the rst adjustment.
triangle are adjusted independently, it could not be expected each
that hat the sumof the angles for each triangle should equal 180
angles of the gure as a whoie would be geometrically stent. there
after
equires the process of adjustment, the a
three angles of each triangle
imposes a second set of
conditions on the corrections used. Both Th.degret
hi 09dded toge
described above are called the angle conditions. are
together and their sunm is subtracted from 180 dearees. To each
sets
of the o angles, one-third of the difference is added algebraically. It
Through an independent gure, when a lenqth can be com
isassumed'that
that in both station and gure adjustments the angles were
more than one route, the angles must also be adjusted so. that ted b, is ured with equal precision.
stitute
tións by each route will give the same solution. This constituter Duta.measuredwith equal
set of conditions called the side condition. a third
EXA MPLES OF BASE NETS
Since all measured angles are affected by the errors of m (Fig. 21-1)
measur
ment, these angles will never somehow meet all of the conditione
fectly. it is for this reason that there is a need to adjüst observednsanper -Base Line b) Base Line
in order that only the accurate values may be determined. It i angles
logical that only corrections having the greatest probability of beingals
true corrections should be used. th
In the adiustment of measured quantities in triangulation, two bacin
objectives are the removal of inconsistencies and the prevention of error
accumulation. The adjustment of trianqulation data may be undertaken hy
the exact method, called the method of least squares, or by the approxí-
mate method.
1.
Method of Least Squares. Adjustments by least squares is the
most frequently used estimation procedure in surveying. This method is
based upon the theory of probability and is one which simultaneously
adjusts the anqular and linear measurements tO make the sum of the
squares of the residuals a minimum (Residuals are the differences between) d)
the most probable value and the observed values). The method of least Base Line- Base Line -
squares will give the most probable corrections that satisfy the required
angle and side conditions. It is useful for the determination of the best
values which is possible to obtain from a given set of measurements, and
for determining the relative worth of different determinations. Themethod
may also be employed to trace to their sources the various errors aftecl-
ing the measurements and consequently to increase the accuracy oTthe
result by a proper modi cation of the methods and instruments used.
Least squares adjustment is applied regardless of the relative pre
cision of angle and distance measurements. The adjustment is one ol the
best and most riqorous for traverses and triangulation systems. In preu
recise
triangulation the station and qure adiustments are made in one opelatration
by the method of least squares, It is, however, somewhat compiex and
requires lengthy comnputations.
2.
Approxirnate Method. This is a simple and convenient
Convenient method
used for adjusting the angles and sides of triangulation systems wid hy d2. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM:
of lower orders of precision. Geometric consistency is also attalained
For the
this method of adjustrment and it approximates very closely the rest OXIMATE ADJUSTNENT OF A CHAIN OF TRIANGL ES.
J64 65
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 given chain of.triangles shown in the accomp anying gure and 360°0ơ'o4"
Sum
on, perform station and gure adjustment by the approximt abu,
te metho Erro,/n (n 2)
Corr -o4" 2
FIGURE 21-2.(Chain of Triangle s)
-02"
(a Adjusted angles:
. 4t corr =30r°34'49"-o2" 30i3447"
etCorr 58°25' | s" - o2": 58°25 13"
Sum Check 360 0o o0"
l Aboutstation c
Sum †+g + h+i
62°25' 1o" + 59° 25' 1o" + 63°1d' o8" + 174° 5924"
TABULATION OF DATA. = 359 59'52"
ANGLE O8SERVED VALUE ANGLE OBSERVED VALUE Error 360°- 359°59'52" Corr = Error /n (n 4 )
= +08 + 08"I4
240°21'oo" I89°09'5" • + 02"
60° 29' Io" 39° 05' o !
59° 10' o5" 71° 40' o2" Adjusted angles:
30°34' 49" 6o o5'1o"
58° 25' 15"
62°25' IO"
249° 35'30"
45° 10' 20"
fd ftgtCcorr
orr= 62 25' 10 + o2' =
592s' 12"
59° 25' 1o" + o2" =
62°25' 12"
59°25' 1" 65 14' I o" = ht corr = 6° 1o'o8"+ o2= 63° 1o1o"
63° 10'og" 284 19' 4z" i= it Corr = 174° 59' 24" + o2" = 174°59'26"
I74 59' 24" 75 40 |g" Sum Check = 36o° oo'o0"
SOLUTION. d About station D.

Station Adjus tment (Note: The sum of the angles about each stationmu Sum = j+ k + |+ m
equal to 360". If this condition is not satis ed an error exists and theobss 189°0g'si" + 39°os'or" + 71° 40'o2" + 6d os'1o"
angles need to be adjusted.) = 360°00ơo4"

a) About station A Error = 360°- Sum Corr .= Error /n (n 4)

- 360°- 360° oo'o4" = -04"/4
Sum = a+ b +c Error = 360°- sum a -04"
- 240°2'oo" + 60°29'1d +59° io'os'" 360°-3600#
= 360°oo's" = -15" Adjusted angles:

Corr Error/n (where n ls the number of angles observed and Corr is

jt Corr=189°o9'51"- oi"=189°o9'5o"
k= kt Corr = 39° 0s' oi" - or" 39° os' oo"
- 15"/3
: -05"
correctlon to be applled to ach angle)
|:Corr
m= mt Corr s
71°40' o2"- oi" 71°40oi"
60° 0s' o"-oi" = 6oo5' o9"
Adjusted angles: Sum Check = 360'o'oo"
elAbout station E
ď' at Corr = 240°21'oo"- 05" 24020'55"
bbt Corr= 60°29' Io"- 05" = 60°29' Os" Sumn +o t p
c' ct Corr = 59°1o'05"- o5" 59 1o'oo" 249° 35'30"+ 45°1o'20"+65'14'io"
Sumcheck 360oo'od = 360°oooo"
b) About station B. Error = 360°- Sum (no correctlon
= 360-360° needed )
Sum d +e Error 350°- Sum
- 3o1'34' 49" + 58° 25' 15" 360°-360°00'04"1
167,
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 Adjusted angles:
Error I80°-Sum Corr Error /n
. 180°- I8o°oo'25" (n 3)
o
nno249°35'30"
45° 10'2o" = -25"
* -25"/3
a -8.33" say - 8"
pp
Sum Check
65°14' 1o"
360oo oo anales: (Note: The correc tion Is gppliėd arbitrarily):

t) About station F
t Corr 59°10'o0"-
o8" 59°og's2
A + Corr = 58°25 13"- og" = 58° 2s' os"
Sum qtr Error 360° - Sum + Corr = 62°25' 12"- og 622s' o3'
284°1g'47"+ 75°40'19" = 360° - 360°00o6! Sum Check |80°oo' oo
360°0o'o6" = -06"
Considering triang le AC
Corr Error/ n Adjusted angles:
Sum b+gt m'
-06/2
-03" d qt Corr=284°i9'47"- 03" 284°9aa1 . 60°29' os" + 59'25' 12" + 60°0s' o9"
. Corrs 75°4019"-03"* 75°401 = 179° 59'26"
SumCheck 360ooo0 Error= I80- Sum Corr = Error /n (n 3)
STATION ANGLE OBSERVED VALUE CORRECTION ADJUSTED VAL
i8đ-179°59'26" +34/3
240°21'oo'" - 05!"
: + 34" =+||.33"say- "
240°2o'55"
b 60'29 1o" - 03" 60° 29'os" Adlusted angles (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily):
59 1o'os" -0s" 59° 10'oo"
Sum 360° 00 15" - 15" 360° 00' oo" H= b't Corr 60°2dos"+ 12" 6o°29' i7"
301°34'49" - 02" 301°34' 47! gt Corr= 59 2512"+ |" 59 25'23"
58°25' IS o2" 58° 25' 13" tCorr 6° o509" + |"= 60°O5'20"
Sum 360° o0' o4 04 360° oo' oo" Sum Check - l80°00o
62°2s' 1o" +02" 62°25' |2"
59°25' 1ơ" +02" 59° 25' 12" Consldering triangle CDE
63 1o'og' + 02" 63° 10' 1o"
Sum = h'+'+
I 74°59' 24!" + 02" I74° 59'26"
Sum 35959' 52" + 08 360° 00' o0!" 63°101o" +7|°40'oi" + 45° I0'20"
= 180°o03"
I 89° o9'51" I89 o9 50"
39°0s' oj" -o1" 39° o5' o0"
71°40 02" -o " 71°40'o" Error 180°- Sum Corr a Error/n (n 3)
m 60 0s' 1o'" -o1" 60 05' og" = 180°- 180°00'3i" = -31"/3
Sum 360°00'o4" 360 00'o0" = -31" =,- |0.33"say -I0"
249°35' 30" o0" 249° 35' 30"
45° 10' 20" 00 45° 10'20" Adjusted angles (Note: The correction is applied arbitrari ly.:
65° 14' 1d' oo" 65* 14' 10"
h h't Corr = 63° 1o'io" - |0"= 63° Iờoo"
Sum 360°00'
oo" 00" 360°0o'oo"
I"= ': Corr 7I°40'o1"- |" 7I°39'50"
284° 1947! - 03" 284° 19' 44"
o' o't Corr = 45I0'20" - I0" = 45 10' io"
75 4d 1g" 03" 75° 40' I6'
Sum 360° od os'" - o6" 360 o0' oo" SumCheck 180 oo oo

2) Figure adjustment (Note: The sum of the three angles in egch trianglo 0Considering triangle DEF
should equal to i80°. If this con dition is not satis ed, their sum is subtrocte
Sum = k+ p+ r
from 180° and to each of the three angles one - third of the difference is
added algebraically. ) = 39°05'o0" + 65°14'10" + 75° 40'16"
• 179° 59'26"
a) Considering triangle ABC
Error= 180 - Sum Corr Error /n
Sumc'+e'+' 180°- |79°59'26" = + 34"/3
• 59° 1o'oo" + 58°2s' 13" + 62°25' 12" 180 0o'25" : +34" +!|33"say+ I"
'68, SO 69
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 Adjusted angles (Note: The correction is applied arbitrarily):
arbi
39°05'oo"+ 1|" 39 05'|"
k't Corr
p' Corr
65°14'1o"+ |" 65°14'21
rt Corr s 75°4o'16"+ 12" 75° 40'2g"
SumCheck =|8 oo'oo
CONTROL,
ANGLES FROM STATION CORRECTION VALUE AFTER FIGUgR
SURVEYS
TRIANGLE ANGLE ADJUSTMENT ADJUSTMENT
591o'oo" - 08" 59°09'52"
C
58°25'1 3" - og" 58°25' 05"
ABC 62 25 12" - 09" 62°25' o3"
Sum I 80° od25" -25" | 80 00' oo"
6o 29'os" 60°29'|z" ADJUSTNENT OF A QUADRILATERAL
59° 25' 12" +|| 59°2s' 23" 2-1.
ACD 60° os'og" +I| 60°0s' 20" ANGLE CONDITION EQUATI1ONS
1795826" +34" L-2.
Sum I8o°o0' oo
SIDE CONDITION EQUATIONS
63° 1o'Io" - jo" 63°1o'o0" -3.
74doi" - 71'39'50" ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
CDE 45° 1d20" - I0 45° 10' 1" t-4.
1. Appaoximate Adjus tment of « Quadailateral
Sum I 8o° od3" -31 I80°o0' o0
39 0s'oo"
65 14 Io"
4+
39'os'"
65° 14'2|"
DEF 75° 4d Ie" +12" 75°40' 28"
Sum I79°59'26" +34" I80°00' oo"

Lesson 22
170
 22-1. ADJUSTMENT OF A QUACRLATERAL.
be length of each side in the connecting quadrilaterals must be the
A quadrilateral is adjusted to remove all discrepancies and to oive hced on computed from one base line as when computed fronn the
ve
most probable value of the angles. The adjustment is best performed the sa/me
other. event spherical excess must be considered, one-third of the
the least squares method, however, the approximate method alsosing
yie In the
resultsthat are suf ciently precise for most cases of triangulatild spherical
ced excess is subtracted from each one of the adjusted
ion of compu angles in each triangle. When the system of trianqulation extends
ordinary precision. soherical angles
For a quadrilateral to be approximately adjusted there are onsiderable area, the curvature of the earth becomes appreciable,
a considerable
conditions which must be satis ed. The rst of these is the ge two Over is necessary to use computations based on the true ellipsoidal shape
and it
condition that the sum of the eight interior angles must be exactiw e of the earth.
degrees. Secondly, there is the trigonometric condition by which the
of each angle must be proportional to the length of the opposite sit ANGLE CONDITION EQUATION,.
22-2.
that triangle. This method of adjustment gives probable values for ah guadrilateral, seven angle conditions may be formed. However, if
the
angles well within the limits set for any ordinary control system. n eree of these equations are satis ed, the others necessarily follow and
In a quadrilateral, checks on the computed lengths are possible cir anfore only three equations are really required. The ones chosen are
since
any length can be obtained through the use of four different combinati
ations
ther
alled the angle condition equations.
of triangles. Unless the measured angles have been adjusted, it is unlikol ca Fra Fig. 22-1, these angle condition equations are as follows:
likely
that the four computed values will agree exactly.
The purpose of the adjustment is to correct the observed angles 22-1. Quadri lateral.
that the various conditions relative to the suns of the angles wil) be g-
satis ed, and in addition so that the computed length of a side will hav
the same numerical value, regardless of the triangles used in the compi.
tation.
Although all corrections are applied to the angles, the term angle
conditions refers to the requirements imposed on the angles by the direct.
ions of their sides, and the term length or side conditions refers to the
requirerments imposed by the lengths of the sides. If a chain of quadri-
laterals is being used, the adjustment in each quadrilateral is made as
described for the single quadrilateral, also, additional checks on the anqular
measurements are provided by the added geometrical conditions in each
gure.
In this adjustment the follow ing sequence of steps are performed: D

1. The angles about each station are adjusted to total 360 degrees From the four over lapping triangles, ABC, 8CD, ABD, and ACD.
before the next adjustment is made.
2. The sum of the interior angles of the quadrilateral is adjusted to a +b+ ctd s 180 eq. (1)
equal (n-2)180° or 360 degrees. Gtd+ e + f = 180 eq (2)
3. The opposite angles at the intersection of the diagonals should
also be equal. The values of these angles which were previously adjusted in
a +b+g + h : 180 eg (3)
the earlier step are compared and the difference between' them is divided
+f+ g + h : 180 eq (4)
by 4 and distributed to the angles. The computed correction is added to From the quadrilgteral ABCD :
the smaller pair of angles and subtracted from the larger pair. Similarly,
the other set of angles along the intersection of the diagonals are also a +b t c + d t e +ft 9+h : (n- 2)180
adjusted.
4. Then the trigonometric condition is satis ed by means of com- Since n : 4, there fore
putations involving the sines of the angles. The angles are adjusted so that
the computed length of an unknown side opposite a known side will be the a +b+ c + d+ e+f+g+h 360• eq(5)
same regardless of which of the four possible routes is used. onsidering the opposite gngles at the interse ction of the diagonals :

Any desired length may then be computed by using the sine law. It wilI be
seen that there are four possible routes which may be used to determine
a + b
+d = g +h
+ f a
q (6)
(7)
the length of the opposite side. If the four solutions are close to each
other they may be averaged for work of ordinary precision. T Corrections to the angles to remove discrepancies in the closure of the
When two base lines are measured, an additional condition is intro are computed by the following equations:

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 -t4-- •
q (8)
eq (9)
eq (10)
. (14) is equated to q (17),
(AB) Sin a Sin c
Sin dSinf
and Tr
simplifying ond Trans posing9 terms ,
(AB) Sin b Sin h
Sln e Sin 9

eqti|) Sin a Sin c Sin e Sin g

Sin b Sin d Sin f Sin h q (i8)
in which v, , V, , etc.. are corrections to be determined for anol
gles
etC., and I,, l, and I, are the errors of closure of the triangles. b arithms of both members of the equation gre considered
# the logarithms
22-3. SIDE CONDITION EGUATIONS. L Log Sin a + Log Sin c t Log Sin e + Log Sin g)-(Log Sin b+
Log Sin d + Log Sin t + Log Sin h) = 0
After the triangles are adjusted so as to close perfectly, the o
iqure may
still be imperfect because the lines AB, BD, and BC may not inte
his conditior
Unless this condition is satis ed, the value of a computed length will de-
a common point. Hence, a further adjustment of the angles is neede
end on the used in the
triangles us computation. It. is evident that a correct
remove this inconsistency. nent to
to meet this condition will require angle corrections which vary
In Fig. 22-1, let the side AB be the known side in the quadrilata adjustment
lateral, eince the sines of small angles change more rapidly than do the
It is evident that the side CD can be computed by employing dif in size
ferent sines of large ones.
combinations of over-lapping triangles. If the gure is a perfect
quadr
lateral, the length of CD will be the same whichever combinati
triangles is used. This additional condition must be imposed if cormn 2-4. ILLUSTRATIVEPROBLEM:
te
conformity between the sides and angles is to be expected. APPROXIMATE ADJUSTMENT OF A QUADRILATERAL. The observed
les of a quadrilateral, after station adjustment, are given in the
In triangles ABC ond BCD, with BC as the common side , the side CD is de-
accompany ing tabulation and sketch. Adjust these angles by use of
termined as follows :
hoth the angle and the side equations.

Sind
AB BC
Sin d
BC
(AB) Sin a
Sin d eq(12
ANGLE O8SERVED VALUE ANGLE OBSERVED VALUE
Also, 42°38'36!" 62° 00'46"
64°52'28" 48°29'58"
BC CD CD = BC)Sin c
Sin
eq(i3)
40°32'5z" 33°3i'32"
Sin f Sin
31°56'o!" h 3e°57'40"
Substituting to eq (|3) the value of BC as determined in eq. (12),

(AB) Sin a Sin c

CD eq (14) FIGURE 22-2.
Sin d Sin f

Also, in triangles ABD and ACD, with AD as the corn mon side, the side CD Where:
is determined as folloWs :
o) A,8,c, and D are triongulation
stotlons of the quadri laterol
AB AD
AD
(AB)Sinb eg (15) ABCD.
Sin a Sin b Sin g b) The observed ongies are o, b,
G, d, and otc.
Also,
AD CD
CD
(AD) Sin h eq (16)
Sin e Sin h Sin
SOLUTION.
Substituting to eq. (16) the value of AD as determined in eq. (Is)
a The sum of the angles in the triangles are qs follows:
(AB) Sin b Sinh
CD
Sin e Sin g
eq (i7) For triangle ABC a + b+ c t d
42°38'36" + 64°52'28" + 40°32'57" + 3r56'o7"
= 180°o0'oe"
174 CONT

176
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d, l80° - ( b+ c t d) = e V 62°o 46"

• 180° - (80°00og" + 4.5" a 62 00' 50.5"
-08" (dierAB en 180 and the sum ot 45°29':
angle, g' 9 v, = + 4.5" 45° 30' o2..5"
FortriangleBCD . c40°32'57"+ f
+ d, e 31°56'o7" 31'32" -2.5" 33°31'29.5"
5"
+ 62° oo'4 46' +4529% n! =h t Ve 38°57'40" - 2.5" 36°5z'37.5"
179°59'48" Sum
The side adjustment 360° 00'00.0"
d, l80° - (c d+ e f)
|80 1 - 79°59'48" ANGLE LOG SINE TABULAR
+ 12 (ditterence between l80°and the un DIFF.FOR " ANGL LOG SINE TA BULAR
in trian gle BCD) ongles
9.830853449 22 86 DIFF.FOR I"
For triangle CDA e62°00'46%
f +g+h 45°29'58"+ 33°3i'32" 30
c 9.812984077
9.945991446
24 .61
11. 19
9.956825228
9.723428685
9.87
33 78
179°59'56" °57'40 9.742174071 31..78 9853247226 20. 70
9.798501028 26 .04
Sums |9.332003043 90.44
d, |80° - (e + f *9 + h) 9.332002167 90..39
- l80- |79°59'56
3 +04" (difference between l80° and the sum DIff = 304.3 - 216.7 = 87.6
In trigngleCDA) anglen

b) Where:
Deter mining the values of the correct lons.
Sum 90..44
Sum: 2 90..39
Diff
Corr
Sum, + Sum,
87.6
90.44'+ 90.39
= 0, 4a"
= 3"- 0.5" + " (the average correction to be gpplied to each angle )
3.5" (a constant used for computIng the angle correctlons ) MOTES: a) The tabular difference for 1" is taken from logarithmic tables
for trigonometric functions or by use of an electronic calculator.
V, V
=
-K
-5.5"
-3.5" = -2"- 3.5"
(correction foranglesa and )
b) The correction is then added to egch of the angles whose. log
sine is smaller, and subtracted from each of the other angles.

e) The naliy adjusted angles are.

3 V4 K + 3.5" -2" 35"

FIRST FINALLY
+|.5" (correction for angles c and d) ANGLE ADJUSTED VALUE CORR
ADJUSTED VALUE
42° 38' 30.5" 48 42°30'30,98 "
i"+3.5" 64°52'22.6" 48 64° 52'22. 02"
t4.5" (correction for angles ond t) 40°32'50.5" +0.4e" 40°32'58.98"

K () 3- .5""- 3.5" 31* 56' o8.5" - 0,4g" 31 56' o8.02

y Vo
62° 00' 50.5" t 0.48e" 62 00'50. 98
-2.5" (correctlon for angles 9 ond h) 45° 30' o2.5" - 0.48" 45° 30o2.02"
c) 3331' 29.5" ↑ 0,4g" 33• 31'29. 98"
Applying the corrections determined gbove , the adjusted angles tor 38° 57'37. 02"
this angle adjust ment are: 30• 5737.5" - 0.48"
Sume 360° 00' 00. o" 360° 0o' 00.0o"
a' a : v, 42°38'36" - 5.5" 42°38' 30.5"
Ine Side Adjustment: n part d of the preceding solution, the log sines of
b' b v, 64°52'28" - 5.5" 64°52' 22.5" ie angles are arranged in two columns, and the tabular difference for a
c' c V, 40°32' 57" + |.5" = 40°32' 58.5" ch
Ilange of one second of arc in eech angle is also indicated. The total
a' d va llange to be made in the log sines of the eight angles is given' by the
31°56' o7" +I.5" = 31°56' o8.5 Terence between the sums of the tw0 columns. This total change divided

J76 I77
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 by the sum of the eight taDular differences (expressed
in second of arc)i
Verage correctjon to be apolied to each angle.
Since the correction to be applied is added to each of
the
angles
Column and subtracted from each of the angles in the other colu cONTROL
Justment is performed without disturbing the angle adiuer
a Co
nent
ent mat
earlier. The adjustment for the quadrilateral is thus completed

URVEYS
After the nal angles are obtained the correctness of the d Wh whole,
be Lested by seeing if each triangle has an error of closure eo workNay
ual tozeto.
nd if the length of any side computed from another side by differen
routes has the same Value in all cases. This latter test may be m
repeating the test on the sums of the log sines, Using the iade
when entering the tables.
alangle

STRENGTH OF FI GURE
5-1.
EXPRESSIONS FOR DETERMINING STRENGTH OF FIGURE
(5-2.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS:
l6-3.
1. Staength o6 Figute Fac tors
2. Determining Values o (AR+ A, A + 43) (or
Taiangles

Lesson 23
I78
i l79,
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 23-1. STRENGTH OF FIGURE. m value
for the best chain, a Second best value, a third and a
In planning out a triangulation system, it is always p0ssible that minimuvalue.
fourth le. It
It
will be found that the chain of triangles having the
alternate positions available for the various station sites. To here th a in uence in xing the nal length of' the line is that corres-
gest
adopt the best shaped trianqulation network it becomes necessary able *ronges the best chain which produces the minimum value. The second
some criterion of strength to the different gures that may be toapply
ap pondir
best has some in uence, and the others cortespondingly less. In other
Such an index or criterion is termed the strength of gure and i men words, when ben the system is adjusted, the angles of the strongest chain will
by the ietter R. denote.
ve
maller corrections than those/ of the other chains. In deciding
The strength of qure is an important factor to he be always,considere
always recervf
which of the four possible schemes to use it is important to investigate
since it refers to the effect of the proportions of a trianole ere different chains in order to ascertain which is the strongest, or one
on the give the calculated length of the nal line with the least error
accuracy with which the lengths of the sides can be computed, By Rvtha which will give
of this quantity, alternative routes of computation can be comma meant he shape of the triangles and the composition of the gure.
due to
the best route selected. Strength of qure is not based on an and
bsolute
Scale. It is merely an expression of relative strength and can be .1. Dirferont routes within s qundrilateral.
quantitatively in terms of a factor R based on the theory of probed Fig-
When comparing different values of R, the stronger gure has the .
smaller
value, or it is the route which will provide the computed length of
the -Unknown Slde
nal line with the smallest error.
It should be noted that strength of gure is concerned with
th
relative sizes of the angles. It is independent of the precision with
which
the angles are measured. If all the angles in a triangulation. Syster D
em are
measured with the same accuracy, . the strength of one qure as comn
npared
with another will depend on the following factors:
1. The comparative sizes of the distance angles.
2. The number of observed directions.
3. The nunber of trigonometric and geometric conditions to he
satis ed for a particular gure.
The lengths of the triangle sides in a triangulation system are computed hu
the law of sines. The given data are the length of the base line and the
horizontal angles of each triangle. Accurate results may not be obtained
when triangles used contain small angles. This is because the rate of
change of the sines of angles near 0° or 180° is quite large as compare -Known Slde
to the rate of change for angles near 900. Since srnall angles only weaken
the systern arnd give Lhe most uncertain results, angles near 90° are the
most preferred values to use. Angles ranging from 30° to 150°, however,
are still acceptable.
The effect of the size of the distance angles pn the strength of a The strength of a quadrilateral is dependent mainly upon the strength
gure is expressed by the quantity (6 + AAat ). To facilitate the of the best computational route through it, and the route having the
evaluation of this quarntity, Table 23-1 can be used or it may be deter- smallest R is to be preferred unless its value proves to be nearly the same
mined by using a calculator. When the table is used, it will be noted that for the other routes. Consideration of economy, though, may render one
the required value is found directly in the column headed by the smaller Tigure more desirable than another even though it may be the weaker of
the two.
angle, and on the horizontal line containing the larger angle. In many
instances, it will be necessary to perform some interpolat ion. In rst order trianqulation the value of R for any gure should not
In the quadrilaterál ABCD in Fig. 23-1, AB is the known side and CD exCeed 25 in the best chain as well as in the second best chain. It is
is the side to be determined. There are four different routes by which the Sirable to keep the values far below these limits for optimum accuracy.
A
length CD may be determined from AB. Each route uses an overlapping new base should be measured whenever the strength of gure amounts
pair of triangles with a common side. In the qure the triangles used are: oU, This will correspond to a chain of from 10 to 25. triangles, accord-
Route 1: Triangles ABD and ACD with AD as the common side.
g to the strength of the gures chosen.
Route 2: Triangles ABC and ACD with AC as the common side.
Route 3: Triangles ABD and BCD with BD as the common side. O•2. EXPRESSIONS FOR DETERMINING STRENGTH OF FISURE.
Route 4: Triangles ABC and BCD with BC as the common side. The
e expression for determining the relative strength of two or more
a
If the value of R is determined for each of the four routes there will be SIble systems of gures is

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 23-1. STEPS IN TRIANGLATION WORK. ideal site for a base line should be on open, smooth, and level
The steps followed in establishing a triangulatjon control system
syster are: An The ends of the line should be intervisible and all obstructions
arounnight affect the accuracy of the measurements should be removed.
1 Reconnaissance which mig should be measured by electronic distance measuring (EDM)
2. Measurement of Base Lines Base lines
or with a standardize invar tape. The measurement should be made
3. Erection of Signals and Towers jces
devicy forward and back and the mean length used. A long base line
4 Measurement of Angles
orecl vide more accurate measurements of lengths within the net. If a
5. Astronomic Checks will provide ma
ase line has to be used, a strong gure must be selected to expand
6. Of ce Computations short base lir
t the triangulation system.
25-2. RECONNAISSANCE. it to ine of levels should be run between both ends of the base line to
ine the difference in elevation between the ends of the line. This is
Reconnaissance and the selection of station locations are
step
imperefers aspecl
to th deter when computing its horizontal length and its equivɛlent length at
imnortant
to be considered in any trianqulation survey. This step res needeg level. The base line and check base should be so arranged that
sea
mean
all triangles within
the triangles within the system are used in carrying the length from
selection of a suitable pattern for the system, and ea
theand
t meet the
stations which would best t the topography of the area Đntrianqulation Re to the other. It is preferable at times to use a central base with
one base to
requiremėnts of the survey. The amount of 1ork to
eld work be
be doneupon
to depend andthe ck bases
two check bas at the extremeties of the triangulation net.
usefulness and accuracy of the triangulation system will depend th
reconnaissance made. 25-4. ERECTION OF SIGNALS AND TOWERS.
An initial study should rst be made on available
available maps,
maps, previole etations
The stations of a
of a triangulation gure must be marked by a signal visible
gathered survey information, and aerial photographs of the area. LinesUs atations from which it is to be sighted. The type of sinnal to be used
drawn between trianqulation stations which are likely to be used from
ed fronnend on the locality and the available materials. A relatively simple
study should be made of the strength of the proposed trianculati and
WI e is used if the station is not to be used as an instrument station
work. This should then be followed by an actual inspection of the net. struct merely to be sighted. Where there are intervening trees or high
When maps and photographs. are not available, a preliminary andea, is
butnd.
rOuch taller signals or towers will have to be erected. A larger tower
triangulation should be made in the eld to determine the viability
th he constructed where a permanent signal for setting up the instrument
planned system. oeded. At such an instrument station, it is important to have a signal
A careful reconnaissance of the area should be made to be is
able to nh will permit centering of the instrument directly over the station
plan and design an optimum triangulation network for the given oject.
when measuring angles. Types of observing towers used. in trianqulation
well planned and effectively designed system will. signi cant!y reduce Surveys are given in Lesson 26.
survey costs, and speed up the measurements to be made.
During reconnaissance, the survey information to be gathered should 25-5. MEASUREMENT OF ANGLES.
include the following:
The strong feature of a triangulation system depends largely on how
1. Selection and location of base lines and check bases. accurate the angles are measured. For high order trianqulation it is
2. Type, height, and construction of signals and towers. important that skilled observers are employed and only precise instruments
3. Accessibility and permanence of the triangulation stations. used. In triangulation work, direction or repeating theodolites are used for
4. Intervisibility of stations. the measurement of angles. To eliminate instrumental and perşonal errors,
5 Number of stations and their descriptions. enoles should be observed in multiple repetitions and its most probable
6. Determination of the size and shape of resulting triangles. value determined. This practice will ensure anqular values correct to a
7 Number of angles to be observed. very small part of the least count of the instrument used. The type of
8 Estimates for the amount of clearing to be done. instrument used and the desired precision will dictate the number of
The stations selected should be easily accessible for use in other related repetitions to be made. The practice of making six or twelve turns of an
surveys, and at a location not likely to be disturbed or lost. The ideal angle as a set is common, Experience will show that the precision in
location is one in which low towers can be used and where there is little angular measurement cannot be increased inde nitely by continued re-
or no clearing to be done. It should also be easily identi able on aerial petition. In angle neasurement., the best results . are obtained by a delibe-
photographs. Permanent monuments such as brass disks set in concrete rate and systematic handiing of the instrument without having to rush the
posts should be used to mark these stations. work or making unnecessary pointings.

25-3. .MEASUREMENT OF BASE LINES. 25-6. ASTRONOMIC CHECKS.

Base lines and angle measurernents de ne the shape and strength of a Astronomical observations are made to check accurately the position and
triangulation system. The accuracy with which lines in a triangulation direction of stations and lines. Such checks are made independent of any
of the other measurements. If the system is extensive, astrononical,
system are determined depends upon the measurements of the angles and
observations are determined at intervals of 20 to 30 qures as a check on
the selected base line.

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 the angle measurements. reduc to their
It the triangulation is used to control the accuracy of a ulvalent sea - level
Cel survey, the astronomical work furnishes the data necessary
necpee P0n
fo panying gure the following derivation is madelengths. From the 1ccom-
rectly locating and orienting the map on the earth's surface, The
T astrony ievel reduction factor. to determine the sed
mical data also furnishes a means of detecting the accumulated twist
chain of trianqulation. FIGURE25-)
Measured length
25-7. OFFICE COMPUTATIONS. of line AB where:
The basic obiective of trianqulation computations is the determi A &B two polnts on the earth'e surface
the best possible planimetric positions for the triangulated. statioetion
ations. This: de ning o llne whlch Is part of o
usually de ned by X and Y coordinates. The complete solut Computa
ie
ion trlangulation syotem.
extensive triangulation network will usually involve lengthy cor for s=(d-c)
and will require adjustments to satisfy geometric and trigonometrio ong d horizontal dlstance measured between
tions. However, before such computations are made, the errors in
ic Condi the two polnts.
the
measurements must rst be eliminated or distributed. This isie e C
correction t0 be applled to the meG-
plished by approximate methods or by the more exact method accom sured leng th.
of leas
squares adjustment.
or AB' : equlvalent length of line AB at se0
Seolevel– level or (d-c)
25-8. REDUCTION TO SEA LEVEL. lengthof Une Ab
h average olevatlon above sea level
Linear measurements for any trianqulation network which extends
of the ?wo polnts.
large area, particularly over regions of widely varyinq relief, m over
must
reduced to a common vertical reference datum. Dif culty would aris b average radius of curvature of the
plotting the system if different lines of trianqulation are referred se in earth at the vlcinlty of llne AB.
varying level surfaces. It is important that the positions of all from
DERIVATION. (Refer to accompany ing gure ).
established are computed as if these points are located on the stand
tandard
spheroid at sea level. Also, satisfactory closures between these bases po since the lengths of arcs are proportional to their radii
only be attained if one standard datum is used. could

The commonly used datum is the plane of mean sea level. For mas d
of most countries all base lines and check bases measured at varvio G R h)
eievations are correspondingly reduced to their equivalent lengths on thi
datum. Since all other lengths within the triangulation system are derived This equation nay be expanded into the form
from the base lines by calculation, all other lines are correspondinoly
reduced to sea level lengths without correction if the bases are rst
reduced.
However, in surveys of smaller areas not forming part of a
national system, other reference datums are sometimes used. Often the Where:
datum used is that of the averaqe elevation of the area. In such surveys
no correction for reduction to sea level is applied.
eq(1)
In the determination of equivalent length of lines at mean sea level,
the reference spheroid used may vary between countries with established
Eq (1) de nes "o", the correctlon to be subtracted from the measured length
national triangulation nets. 'Also, the average radius of curvature of the
earth at the vicinity of the survey is used for the computation. The "d".For most work, the rst term is suf cient and an average value of R
Gan be used.
computed equivalent length at sea evel of different lines in a trianqulation
system are only approximate values.
The sea level reduction can also be expressed as a reductlon tactor darived
The derivation of the sea leve! reduction factor ( fe) is qiven in trom eq ().Takiing only the rst term on the right - hand side, the seg evel
article 25-9. In table 25-1, sea level reduction factors for elevations
length can be express as
ranging from 100 meters to 2.050 meters are given, It should be noted,
however, that the average radius of curvature used is 6,372,226 m Of
20,906,000 ft. A different factor wiI have to be determined when usina 3 s (d - c) = d - d d(| - eq(2)
different radius of curvature.
and the sea level reduction foctor () ls given by
25-9. DERIVATION OF SEA LEVEL REDUCTION FACTOR.

I96
When the triangulation system is extensive, all linear distances tsL
- eq(3)

I97,
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
fi
 The horizontal distance "d" at elevatlon "h" is then reduced to Its sLUTION.
length "s" by multiply ina by the sea level reduction factor. sea InterpolatIng
inting from
from the table (using only the last 4 digits and the value of
o speci ed in the table),
(Table 25-1)
SEA-LEVEL REDUCTION FACTORS
(For R 6,372,226 m) 2354
150
600- 584
ELEVATION SEA-LEVEL ELEVATION 50 •
REDUCTION- FACTOR
SEA-LEVEL
REDUCTION - FACT
ACTOR
150 2354) 785
( metern) fsL (meters)
fsL X . 2938 - a 2938 -785 2153
I 00 0. 9999 8430 |100 o.9998 2737 o.99992938 -0.,99992153
150 0.9999 7646 130 o.9998 1952 3 O.99990785 (sea level reductlon factor Interpolated from table)

200 0.9999 6861 1200 . d(fel 6,844.89(0,99990785)

o.9998 Il68
250 0. 9999 6078 1250 o.9998 0383 6,844.26 m (equivalent length- of the ine ot sea level)
300 0. 9999 5292 1 300
0.9997 9598 netermining equivalent sea level length by tor mula.
b)

500
350
400
0. 9999 4507
0.9999 3722
1330
I400
0.9997 8814 'sL - ((-)
•(0-6,354,243
o.9997 8029 0.99992131 (oomputed seo level reductlon tactor)
450 0.9999 2938 I450 0.9997 7245
500 0. 9999 2153 1500 d(te, 6,844.89(0.99992131)
0.9997 6460
550 0.9999 1368 I 550 f,844.35 m (equivalent length of the lne at sea level)
0.9997 675
Note: As shown in the above solutton the difference (0.09m) betwaen
600 0.9999 0384 I 600
0.9997 4891 he values of "s "as computed by the two methods Is negligibla. Hence,
650 0. 9999 9799 I 630
# the radius of the earth's curvature in the survey site does not vary
0.9997 4106
siani c an tly fromn the average value given In the tgble, the valuss in
700 0.9998 9014 1700 0.9997 332| the table may be used. However, if the radi us is sUbs tantially differsnt
750 0.9998 8230 I750 0.9997 2337 the values given in the toble may not be suf cien tly Jccurate. The reduc
800 0. 9998 7445 1800 0.9997 |752 tion is then determined by using the derived- formulas.
2) REDUC TION TO SEA LEVEL. The elevation above mean sea le-
850 0. 9998 6860 I850 0.9997 0967 vel of thetwo end points of a base line for a triangulation system, as
900 0. 9998 5876 900 0. 9997 0183 determined by differential leveling, are 3,613.45 and 3,615.22 m
950
respectively. Determine the mean sea level length of the line if its
0.9998 509! 1950 0.9998 9398
actual megsured horizontal length is 4,125.85 m. Assume that the
I 000 0.9998 4306 2000 0.9996 8613 mean radius of the earth at the vicinity of the base line is
I050 0.9998 3522 2050 0. 9996 7829 6,367,349 m.

h=3,6|3,45 +3,615.22
25-10. ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLENS: 2
* 3,614.34 m (average levation gbove mean s00 level of the
WREDUCTION TO SEA LEVEL. A line measures 6, 844.89 m at an bgse lIne )
average elevation of 500m.If the average radius of curvature in the
area is 6, 354,243 m, determine the equivalent sea level length by
SL(| - (I- 3,614.34
6,367,349
a) using the table for sea level reduction. = 0.99943236 (sea level reduct lon factor )
b) the derived formulas
CONTRA
i99
198 am
fi
fi
fi
 S d(fe,) 4,125.85(0.99943236)
(oqulvalent length of the llne gt me
= 4,123.5I m

CONTROL
SURVEYS

0BSERV I NG TOWERS
t6-1.
1. Wooden Towe
2. Bilby Towe
3. Gas Pipe Towex

INTERVISIBILITY OF STATIONS
26-2.
EQUATION FOR ELEVAT1ON OF THE LINE OF. SIGHT
26-3.
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM
26-4.
1. Intevisibility oķ Stations

Lesson 26
200 SA 20
 26-1. OBSERVING TOWERS.
the measurement of angular values in a interven
trianduleing hisystery
intervisible. Usually,
For erect
ction
Stations selectedlines
Wnich obstruct mustof be intervi
sight quite often towers
require are
.thenecessar
ere ry becals
isicp
wh Torms, or towers. Even in at terrain, towers are

Observing
the earth's towers are built such that the structune
curvature. u rs.Thes
mbers
Support the instrument are not used to support the observecause
effect consist of one tower built jnside another becp, theplaic
in
Which support the observers are not the same parts of the struct wit
design, theinstrurne
Supports the instrument. In this type of structure desinn
man works on an entirely separate platform which is not
not in contact
one supporting the instrument. Towers used in triano ulati
ion wotke
Commonly made of wood, steel, gas pipes, tree or COCODI conut trunks.
conu moroviset,
other types of available material. In some instances towers are
1. Wooden Tower. The form of wooden tower to be lender,
angulation work should be built at a low cost, light and se.
usedin t
construct, and should be suf ciently rigid to withstand ordinar easyt
eas.
strong winds. A Wooden tower usually consists of, an inner trinadoms
ors. The
the instrument and an outer stand for the observers. The two
twO partsof
rvers
Suppor

structure are built entirely disconnected so that the observ th

will
disturb the instrument as they move about on the observing stand. When
building the tower, the legs should be sprung slightlylv into
into tiffness,
aa bow to
asthe
th
ties are nailed on. This technigue provides additiona!stiffpe
structure. Diagonal braces should be nailed to further strengthen the
tower
and it should be anchored 'with wire as a protection against
nainst collan
collapse dutinh
high winds. A wooden tower is shown in Fig. 26-1.
2. Bilby Tower. The Bilby tower (see Fig. 26-2) is made of
similar in construction to those used for windmills. It was desianed h
Bilby of the US Coast and Geodetic Surveys. The tower is' made
byJS,
in sec.
tions so that any height, in multiples of about seven feet, can beobtained
be
up to a maximum of 126 feet. It also consists of two entirely
separate
structures; an outer tower to support the obser vers and an inner towe
to
support the instrument only. It is thus free from vibrations raod
movements of the observers. The surface exposed to wind is very small.
and the tower is quite steady when used during observations.
The Bilby tower can be erected or dismantied by a survey crew
just a short time. It is assembled by placing each rod separately in position
and bolting it, instead of hoisting completed frames. As sOon as obser.
vations are completed at á station the tower may be taken down and
moved to another station, and thus used repeatedly. Its development has
added much to both safety and speed over the old improvised timber
tower.
3. Gas Pipe Tower. The gas pipe tower is another type of observa-
tion platform constructed entirely of gas pipes and also used in triangu-
lation work. This kind of tower is simple to set up and the component
parts are very portable. The area exposed to wind is also quite small thus
making it a stable structure. It is Dut together in sections and all work is
done on the ground when the tower is assembled. The upper part of the
structure is built rst and hoisted by means of tackles from the ground.
The next section is then added until the desired height is attained.
26-2. NTERVISIBILITY OF STATIONS.

202 203
fi
fl
fi
 In triangulation work priority must be given to the establishment of af trigngulation stations and in the nstruction of observation to -
visibility between stations. It is a vital phase because lines of ei intet these are resolved with the use of the formulg:
stations of the system must be clear for the meaSurement qht toaN wers,
ity
Initial decisions on the proper positioning of stations can be reeot an ancles h y+(hgh0.065 4,4g
availablę topographic maps. It is from these maps that informati ation itor
be obtained with respect to ground elevations of the stations. : elevatlon of line of slght at obstruction ( meters )
length of lines, and the character of the intervening terrain. AXImat Where: h levation of the tirst station (meters)
itiona he eleva tlon ot the second station (meters)
factors affecting station intervisibility also include trees along lir
sight, and where long lengths are involved, the cormbined effetones dlstance between tirst station and obstruction (kms)
curvature and atmospheric refraction. A visual test should be ear Aa dstance between obstruction and second statlon ( kns)
made d3 distance from rst station to second stoton or dị + d2 (kms)
visiting each critical station after a preliminary decision is madeeby
on
positioning of such stations. the English system the formula used is
It is always preferable to locate stations on the highest poir
In
area. If necessary, towers should be erected to elevate the inst h h +(hg-hị) -0.574 d, dz
persons undertaking observations, and the targets. Lines of sight Iment,
kept at least 3 meters above the ground or any other possible ohet be
h,hị and h2 are in fot ; dd2 and dy or. in mlles
because of the uncertainty of refraction. Also, it should not ara: struction Where:
vening ridges or other terrain features. Similarly, allowance should
shoer.
provided for errors due to uncertainty in elevations and distances FIGURE 26-4.
of the
pro le data. Even in at terrain where there is a considerable amr B 2nd Station
mount
distance between the stations, towers may still be required to overcom. obatruction Line of Sight-
the effect of the earth's curvature.

(Fig. 26-3) Ist Station

TRIANQULATION SIGNALS
h
hg-hị
O.065(d,+tdg h

Derivation of the Equation for Elevation of Line of Sight:

From the gure

h = h, + 0.065d+X -. - eq(i)
It can also be seen that
X (hg -hị) -0.065(d, + d2)
dị t d2
Solving for X
(hg-hị)dy-0.065(d,+ d2'd, (hg- hị)d
X -0.065(dı + d2)dị
dị td2 dị + d2
(hg- hị) d,
X
d+d2 o.065-0.065d,dz-- ---q(2)
Pu
Substituting the value of X to eq.(1)

h= hy+0.065d?+ -(h2d,-hị)
tdz
d1-0.065 d-o.065 d,d2
(a) (b) hh +(h2-hị)(d, /dg)-0.065djd2- ---eq(3)
26-3. EQUATION FOR ELEVATION OF THE LINE OF SIGHT. t6-4 ILLUSTRATIVEPROBLEM:
in triangulotion work where there are problerms regarding the intervisibi- INTERVISIBILITY OF $TATIONS. Cathedral Hill, with an elevation

204 205
fi
fl
fi
fi
 C . 360°- AZob
• 360° - 340°1s'20"
- 19°44'40"
(Bearin angy
S17.3 Lotpo (EBC) Cos oC
S7.328 m
7.328m .517.328
Cos
(19°44!,..
+ 486°94 m
DePo (BC)Sin c
-babys 517.328
Sin(19*44'40
-|74.767, m
FIGURE 27-40.

X i Dep 10,150.022- I74.767

. 9,975.255 m (X- c0ordinate of statlon C)

e Y, i Lat 9,450.085+ 486914

9,936.999 m (Y- coordinate of statlon C)

Solution Check: Solve for the length of side CA (or b) by usina h

puted coordinates of stations A and C. If the computed length n
CA
equal to its given length, then the solut lon Is assumed to be corrent
by the inverse method: Thus

CA Vx,- X,+ (Yo-

896.126 Vo,866.262 - 9,975.255)" + (I0,032.650 -9,9369
896.126 896.126 (checks) $.999

) Tabulation of trilaterat ion data.

LINE AZIMUTH LENGTH COORDINATES

FR SOUTH STA TOTAL LAT
(n) TOTAL DEP
(Y).
AB
(X)
50°32'34.7"| 923.245
BC I60°1s'20,0" S17.328 I0,032.650 I0,866.262
CA 263 32' 21.6" 896. I 26 9,450. 085 I0,150.022
9,936.999 9,973.235

216 cot