CHAPTER 3

MULTIPLE INTEGRATION

Finding the areas of complex surfaces such as those used in the design of the
Denver International Airport require integration methods studied in this chapter.

In this chapter we will extend the concept of a definite integral to functions of two and three
variables. Whereas functions of one variable are usually integrated over intervals, functions of
two variables are usually integrated over regions in 2-space and functions of three variables over
regions in 3-space. Calculating such integrals will require some new techniques that will be a
central focus in this chapter. Once we have developed the basic methods for integrating functions
of two and three variables, we will show how such integrals can be used to calculate surface
areas and volumes of solids; and we will also show how they can be used to find masses and
centers of gravity of flat plates and three-dimensional solids. In addition to our study of
integration, we will generalize the concept of a parametric curve in 2-space to a parametric
surface in 3-space. This will allow us to work with a wider variety of surfaces than previously
possible and will provide a powerful tool for generating surfaces using computers and other
graphing utilities.

The chapter contains the following modules;

1: Double Integrals
2: Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
3: Applications of Double Integrals
4: Triple Integrals
5: Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates
 Double Integrals

The notion of a definite integral can be extended to functions of two or more variables. In this
section we will discuss the double integral, which is the extension to functions of two variables.

 Volume
 Definition of a Double Integral
 Evaluating Double Integrals
 Properties of Double Integrals

Lecture Notes:

VOLUME
Recall that the definite integral of a function of one variable

arose from the problem of finding areas under curves. [In the rightmost expression in (1), we
use the “limit as n→+∞” to encapsulate the process by which we increase the number of
subintervals of [a, b] in such a way that the lengths of the subintervals approach zero.] Integrals
of functions of two variables arise from the problem of finding volumes under surfaces.

THE VOLUME PROBLEM

Given a function f of two variables that is continuous and
nonnegative on a region R in the xy-plane, find the volume
of the solid enclosed between the surface z = f(x, y) and
the region R (Figure 1).

Figure 1

Later, we will place more restrictions on the region R, but for now we will just assume that the
entire region can be enclosed within some suitably large rectangle with sides parallel to the
coordinate axes. This ensures that R does not extend indefinitely in any direction.
 The procedure for finding the volume V of the solid in Figure 1 will be similar to the
limiting process used for finding areas, except that now the approximating elements will be
rectangular parallelepipeds rather than rectangles. We proceed as follows:

 Using lines parallel to the coordinate axes, divide the rectangle enclosing the region R into
subrectangles, and exclude from consideration all those subrectangles that contain any
points outside of R. This leaves only rectangles that are subsets of R (Figure 2). Assume
that there are n such rectangles, and denote the area of the kth such rectangle by ∆𝐴𝑘 .
 Choose any arbitrary point in each subrectangle, and denote the point in the kth
subrectangle by 𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ . As shown in Figure 3, the product 𝑓𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ ∆𝐴𝑘 is the volume of a
rectangular parallelepiped with base are ∆𝐴𝑘 and height 𝑓𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ , so the sum

can be viewed as an approximation to the volume V of the entire solid.

 There are two sources of error in the approximation: first, the parallelepipeds have flat
tops, whereas the surface z = f(x, y) may be curved; second, the rectangles that form the
bases of the parallelepipeds may not completely cover the region R. However, if we repeat
the above process with more and more subdivisions in such a way that both the lengths
and the widths of the subrectangles approach zero, then it is plausible that the errors of
both types approach zero, and the exact volume of the solid will be

Figure 2 Figure 3
 This suggests the following definition.

The Definition is satisfactory for

our present purposes, but some
issues would have to be
resolved before it could be
regarded as rigorous. For
example, we would have to
prove that the limit actually
exists and that its value does
not depend on how the points
(𝑥1∗ , 𝑦1∗ ), (𝑥2∗ , 𝑦2∗ ), . . . , (𝑥𝑛∗ , 𝑦𝑛∗ )
are chosen. These facts are true
if the region R is not too
“complicated” and if f is
continuous on R. The details are
beyond the scope of this text.

It is assumed in Definition that f is nonnegative on the region R. If f is continuous on R and has

both positive and negative values, then the limit

no longer represents the volume between R and the surface z = f(x, y); rather, it represents a
difference of volumes—the volume between R and the portion of the surface that is above the
xy-plane minus the volume between R and the portion of the surface below the xy-plane. We call
this the net signed volume between the region R and the surface z = f(x, y).

DEFINITION OF A DOUBLE INTEGRAL

As in Definition, the notation n→+∞ in (3) encapsulates a process in which the enclosing
rectangle for R is repeatedly subdivided in such a way that both the lengths and the widths of
the subrectangles approach zero. Note that subdividing so that the subrectangle lengths approach
zero forces the mesh of the partition of the length of the enclosing rectangle for R to approach
zero. Similarly, subdividing so that the subrectangle widths approach zero forces the mesh of the
partition of the width of the enclosing rectangle for R to approach zero. Thus, we have extended
the notion conveyed by Formula (1) where the definite integral of a one-variable function is
expressed as a limit of Riemann sums. By extension, the sums in (3) are also called Riemann
sums, and the limit of the Riemann sums is denoted by

which is called the double integral off(x, y) over R.

If f is continuous and nonnegative on the region R, then the volume formula in (2) can be
expressed as
If f has both positive and negative values on R, then a positive value for the double integral off
over R means that there is more volume above R than below, a negative value for the double
integral means that there is more volume below R than above, and a value of zero means that
the volume above R is the same as the volume below R.

EVALUATING DOUBLE INTEGRALS

Except in the simplest cases, it is impractical to obtain the value of a double integral from
the limit in (4). However, we will now show how to evaluate double integrals by calculating two
successive single integrals. For the rest of this section we will limit our discussion to the case
where R is a rectangle; in the next section we will consider double integrals over more complicated
regions.
The partial derivatives of a function f(x, y) are calculated by holding one of the variables
fixed and differentiating with respect to the other variable. Let us consider the reverse of this
process, partial integration. The symbols

denote partial definite integrals; the first integral, called the partial definite integral with
respect to x, is evaluated by holding y fixed and integrating with respect to x, and the second
integral, called the partial definite integral with respect to y, is evaluated by holding x fixed
and integrating with respect to y. As the following example shows, the partial definite integral
with respect to x is a function of y, and the partial definite integral with respect to y is a function
of x.

EXAMPLE 1

A partial definite integral with respect to x is a function of y and hence can be integrated
with respect to y; similarly, a partial definite integral with respect to y can be integrated with
respect to x. This two-stage integration process is called iterated (or repeated) integration.
We introduce the following notation:
These integrals are called iterated integrals.

EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate

Solution (a)

Solution (b)

It is no accident that both parts of Example 2 produced the same answer. Consider the
solid S bounded above by the surface z = 40 − 2xy and below by the rectangle R defined by 1 ≤
x ≤ 3 and 2 ≤ y ≤ 4. By the method of slicing, the volume of S is given by
where A(x) is the area of a vertical cross section of S taken perpendicular to the x-axis (Figure
4). For a fixed value of x, 1 ≤ x ≤ 3, z = 40 − 2xy is a function of y, so the integral

represents the area under the graph of this function of y. Thus,

is the volume of S. Similarly, by the method of slicing with cross sections of S taken perpendicular
to the y-axis, the volume of S is given by

(Figure 5). Thus, the iterated integrals in parts (a) and (b) of Example 2 both measure the
volume of S, which by Formula (5) is the double integral of z = 40 − 2xy over R. That is,

The geometric argument above applies to any continuous function f(x, y) that is
nonnegative on a rectangle R = [a, b] × [c, d], as is the case for f(x, y) = 40 − 2xy on [1, 3] ×
[2, 4]. The conclusion that the double integral off(x, y) over R has the same value as either of
the two possible iterated integrals is true even when f is negative at some points in R. We state
this result in the following theorem and omit a formal proof.

Figure 4 Figure 5
Fubini’s Theorem allows us to evaluate a double integral over a rectangle by converting it to
an iterated integral. This can be done in two ways, both of which produce the value of the double
integral.

EXAMPLE 3 Use a double integral to find the volume of the solid

that is bounded above by the plane z = 4 − x − y and
below by the rectangle R = [0, 1] × [0, 2] (Figure 6).

Solution. The volume is the double integral of z = 4 − x − y

over R.
Using Fubini’s Theorem, this can be obtained from either of
the iterated integrals

Figure 6
Using the first of these, we obtain

Fubini’s Theorem
guarantees that the
double integral in
Example 4 can also be
evaluated by
integrating first with
respect to y and then
with respect to x.
Verify this. You can check this result by evaluating the second integral in (8).

EXAMPLE 4 Evaluate the double integral

over the rectangle R = {(x, y) : −3 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1}.

Solution. In view of Fubini’s Theorem, the value of the double integral can be obtained by
evaluating one of two possible iterated double integrals. We choose to integrate
first with respect to x and then with respect to y.

The integral in Example 4 can be interpreted as the net signed

volume between the rectangle [−3, 2] × [0, 1] and the surface z =
y2x. That is, it is the volume below z = y2x and above [0, 2] × [0,
1] minus the volume above z = y2x and below [−3, 0] × [0, 1]
Figure 7
(Figure 7).

PROPERTIES OF DOUBLE INTEGRALS

To distinguish between double integrals of functions of two variables and definite integrals
of functions of one variable, we will refer to the latter as single integrals. Because double
integrals, like single integrals, are defined as limits, they inherit many of the properties of limits.
The following results, which we state without proof,

It is evident intuitively that if f(x, y) is nonnegative on a region R,

then subdividing R into two regionsR1 andR2 has the effect of
subdividing the solid between R and z = f(x, y) into two solids, the
sum of whose volumes is the volume of the entire solid (Figure 8).
Figure 8 This suggests the following result, which holds even if f has
negative values:
The proof of this result will be omitted.

TEACHER’s INSIGHT

Guido Fubini (1879–1943) Italian mathematician. Fubini, the son of a

mathematician, showed brilliance in mathematics as a young pupil in Venice. He
entered college at the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa in 1896 and presented his
doctoral thesis on the subject of elliptic geometry in 1900 at the young age of 20.
He subsequently had teaching positions at various universities, finally settling at
the
University of Turin where he remained for several decades. His mathematical work was diverse,
and he made major contributions to many branches of mathematics. At the outbreak of World
War I he shifted his attention to the accuracy of artillery fire, and following the war he worked
on other applied subjects such as electrical circuits and acoustics. In 1939, as he neared age 60
and retirement, Benito Mussolini’s Fascists adopted Hitler’s anti-Jewish policies, so Fubini, who
was Jewish, accepted a position at Princeton University, where he stayed until his death four
years later. Fubiniwas well liked by his colleagues at Princeton and stories about him abound. He
once gave a lecture on ballistics in which he showed that if you fired a projectile of a certain
shape, then under the right conditions it could double back on itself and hit your own troops.
Then, tongue in cheek, he suggested that one could fool the enemy by aiming this “Fubini Gun”
at one’s own troops and hit the unsuspecting enemy after the projectile reversed direction.
Fubiniwas exceptionally short, which occasionally caused problems. The story goes that one day
his worried landlady called his friends to report that he had not come home. After searching
everywhere, including the area near the local lake, it was discovered that Fubini was trapped in
a stalled elevator and was unable to reach any of the buttons. Fubini celebrated his rescue with
a party and later left a sign in his room that said, “To my landlady: When I am not home at 6:30
at night, please check the elevator. . . .”

References:
1. https://arslanhelpyoucom.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/calculus-early-transcendentals-
10th-ed-howard-anton-iril-bivens-stephen-davis-ebook.pdf
2. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fstudy.com%2Facademy%2Fle
sson%2Fdouble-integrals-applications-
examples.html&psig=AOvVaw0t5sKxmZTOBs6fGtYjsOF-
&ust=1596084939045000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCIDWj_jV8eoC
FQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates

In this section we will study double integrals in which the integrand and the region of
integration are expressed in polar coordinates. Such integrals are important for two reasons:
first, they arise naturally in many applications, and second, many double integrals in rectangular
coordinates can be evaluated more easily if they are converted to polar coordinates.

 Simple Polar Regions

 Double Integrals in Polar Coordinates
 Evaluating Polar Double Integrals
 Finding Areas using Polar Double Integrals
 Converting Double Integrals from Rectangular to
Polar Coordinates

Lecture Notes:

SIMPLE POLAR REGIONS

Some double integrals are easier to evaluate if the region of integration is expressed in
polar coordinates. This is usually true if the region is bounded by a cardioid, a rose curve, a spiral,
or, more generally, by any curve whose equation is simpler in polar coordinates than in
rectangular coordinates. For example, the quarter-disk in Figure 1 is described in rectangular
coordinates by

However, in polar coordinates the region is described more simply by

Moreover, double integrals whose integrands involve x2 + y2 also

tend to be easier to evaluate in polar coordinates because this sum
simplifies to r2 when the conversion formulas x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ
are applied.
Figure 2a shows a region R in a polar coordinate system that is
enclosed between two rays, θ = α and θ = β, and two polar curves, r =
r1(θ) and r = r2(θ). If, as shown in the figure, the functions r1(θ) and r2(θ)
Figure 1 are continuous and their graphs do not cross, then the region R is called a
simple polar region. If r1(θ) is identically zero, then the boundary r = r1(θ)
reduces to a point (the origin), and the region has the general shape shown
in Figure 2b. If, in addition, β = α + 2π, then the rays coincide, and the
 region has the general shape shown in Figure 2c. The following definition
expresses these geometric ideas algebraically.

Figure 2

REMARK Conditions (i) and (ii) together imply that the ray θ = β can be obtained by rotating
the ray θ = α counterclockwise through an angle that is at most 2 π radians. This
is consistent with Figure 2. Condition (iii) implies that the boundary curves r =
r1(θ) and r = r2(θ) can touch but cannot actually cross over one another (why?).
Thus, in keeping with Figure 2, it is appropriate to describe r = r1(θ) as the inner
boundary of the region and r = r2(θ) as the outer boundary.

A polar rectangle is a simple polar region for which the bounding

polar curves are circular arcs. For example, Figure 3 shows the
polar rectangle R given by

Figure 3
DOUBLE INTEGRALS IN POLAR COORDINATES

THE VOLUME PROBLEM IN POLAR COORDINATES

Given a function f(r, θ) that is continuous and nonnegative on a simple polar region R, find the volume
of the solid that is enclosed between the region R and the surface whose equation in cylindrical
coordinates is z = f(r, θ) (Figure 4).
To motivate a formula for the volume V of the solid
in Figure 4, we will use circular arcs and rays to subdivide
the region R into polar rectangles. As shown n Figure 5,
we will exclude from consideration all polar rectangles that
contain any points outside of R, leaving only polar
rectangles that are subsets of R. Assume that there are n
such polar rectangles, and denote the area of the kth polar
rectangle by ∆𝐴𝑘 . Let (𝑟𝑘∗, 𝜃𝑘∗ ) be any point in this polar
rectangle. As shown in Figure 6, the product
𝑓 (𝑟𝑘∗, 𝜃𝑘∗ )∆𝐴𝑘 is the volume of a solid with base area
∆𝐴𝑘 and height 𝑓 (𝑟𝑘∗, 𝜃𝑘∗ ), so the sum

Figure 4
can be viewed as an approximation to the volume V of the
entire solid.

If we now increase the number of subdivisions in such a way that the dimensions of the
polar rectangles approach zero, then it seems plausible that the errors in the approximations
approach zero, and the exact volume of the solid is

Figure 5 Figure 6
If f(r, θ) is continuous on R and has both positive and negative values, then the limit

represents the net signed volume between the region R and the surface z = f(r, θ) (as with double
integrals in rectangular coordinates). The sums in (2) are called polar Riemann sums, and the
limit of the polar Riemann sums is denoted by

which is called the polar double integral off(r, θ) over R. If f(r, θ) is continuous and nonnegative
on R, then the volume formula (1) can be expressed as

Polar double integrals are also called double integrals in polar coordinates to distinguish
them from double integrals over regions in the xy-plane; the latter are called double integrals
in rectangular coordinates. Double integrals in polar coordinates have the usual integral
properties.

EVALUATING POLAR DOUBLE INTEGRALS

We evaluated double integrals in rectangular coordinates by expressing them as iterated integrals.
Polar double integrals are evaluated the same way. To motivate the formula that expresses a
double polar integral as an iterated integral, we will assume that f(r, θ) is nonnegative so that we
can interpret (3) as a volume. However, the results that we will obtain will also be applicable if f
∗ ∗
has negative values. To begin, let us choose the arbitrary point (𝑟𝑘 , 𝜃𝑘 ) in (3) to be at the
“center” of the kth polar rectangle as shown in Figure 7. Suppose also that this polar rectangle
has a central angle ∆𝜃𝑘 and a “radial thickness” ∆𝑟𝑘 . Thus, the inner radius of this polar
∗ 1
rectangle 𝑟𝑘 − ∆𝑟𝑘 and the outer radius is
2
1
𝑟𝑘∗ − ∆𝑟𝑘. Treating the area ∆𝐴𝑘 of this polar rectangle as the difference in area of two
2
sectors, we obtain
 which simplifies to

Thus, from (3) and (4)

Figure 7 which suggests that the volume V can be expressed as the iterated
integral

in which the limits of integration are chosen to cover the region R;

that is, with θ fixed between α and β, u the value of r varies from
r1(θ) to r2(θ) (Figure 8).
Although we assumed f(r, θ) to be nonnegative in deriving Formula
(6), it can be proved that the relationship between the polar double
Figure 8 integral and the iterated integral in this formula also holds if f has
negative values. Accepting this to be so, we obtain the following
theorem, which we state without formal proof.

To apply this theorem, you will need to be able to find the rays and the curves that form
the boundary of the region R, since these determine the limits of integration in the iterated
integral. This can be done as follows:

Determining Limits of Integration for a Polar Double Integral: Simple Polar Region
Step 1. Since θ is held fixed for the first integration, draw a radial line from the origin
through the region R at a fixed angle θ (Figure 9a). This line crosses the boundary
 of R at most twice. The innermost point of intersection is on the inner boundary curve r
= r1(θ) and the outermost point is on the outer boundary curve r = r2(θ). These
intersections determine the r-limits of integration in (7).
Step 2. Imagine rotating the radial line from Step 1 about the origin, thus sweeping out
the region R. The least angle at which the radial line intersects the region R is θ = α
and the greatest angle is θ = β (Figure 9b). This determines the θ-limits of
integration.

Figure 9

EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate

where R is the region in the first quadrant that is outside the circle r = 2 and inside the cardioid
r = 2(1 + cos θ).
Solution. The region R is sketched in Figure 10. Following
the two steps outlined above we obtain

Figure 10

EXAMPLE 2 The sphere of radius a centered at the origin is

expressed in rectangular coordinates as x2 + y2 + z2
= a2, and hence its equation in cylindrical
 coordinates is r2 + z2 = a2. Use this equation and a
polar double integral to find the volume of the
sphere.
Solution. In cylindrical coordinates the upper hemisphere is
given by the equation

so the volume enclosed by the entire sphere is

where R is the circular region shown in Figure 11.

Thus,

Figure 11

The argument used to derive this result can also be used to show that the formula applies to
polar double integrals over regions in polar coordinates.

EXAMPLE 3 Use a polar double integral to find the area enclosed by the three-petaled rose
r = sin 3θ.
Solution. The rose is sketched in Figure 12. We will use
Formula (8) to calculate the area of the petal R in
the first quadrant and multiply by three.

Figure 12
CONVERTING DOUBLE INTEGRALS FROM RECTANGULAR TO POLAR COORDINATES
Sometimes a double integral that is difficult to evaluate in rectangular coordinates can be
evaluated more easily in polar coordinates by making the substitution x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ and
expressing the region of integration in polar form; that is, we rewrite the double integral in
rectangular coordinates as

EXAMPLE 4 Use polar coordinates to evaluate

Solution. In this problem we are starting with an iterated integral in rectangular coordinates
rather than a double integral, so before we can make the conversion to polar
coordinates we will have to identify the region of integration. To do this, we
observe that for fixed x the y-integration runs from y = 0 to 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2 , which
tells us that the lower boundary of the region is the x-axis and the upper boundary
is a semicircle of radius 1 centered at the origin. From the x-integration we see
that x varies from −1 to 1, so we conclude that the region of integration is as
shown in Figure 13. In polar coordinates, this is the region swept out as r varies
between 0 and 1 and θ varies between 0 and π. Thus,

Figure 13

REMARK The reason the conversion to polar coordinates worked so nicely in Example 4 is
that the substitution x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ collapsed the sum x2 + y2 into the
single term r2, thereby simplifying the integrand. Whenever you see an expression
involving x2 + y2 in the integrand, you should consider the possibility of converting
to polar coordinates.

References:
1. https://arslanhelpyoucom.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/calculus-early-transcendentals-
10th-ed-howard-anton-iril-bivens-stephen-davis-ebook.pdf
2. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/Vt_DxW4rITs/maxresdefault.jpg
 Applications of Double Integrals

In this section we explore physical applications such as computing mass, electric charge, center
of mass, and moment of inertia. We will see that these physical ideas are also important when
applied to probability density functions of two random variables.

 Density and Mass

 Moments and Centers of Mass
 Moment of Inertia
 Probability
 Expected Values

Lecture Notes:

DENSITY AND MASS

We were able to use single integrals to compute moments and the center of mass of a
thin plate or lamina with constant density. But now, equipped with the double integral, we can
consider a lamina with variable density. Suppose the lamina occupies a region of the -plane and
its density (in units of mass per unit area) at a point (𝑥, 𝑦)in D is given by 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑝 is a
continuous function on 𝐷 . This means that

where ∆𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝐴 and are the mass and area of a small rectangle
that contains (𝑥, 𝑦) and the limit is taken as the dimensions
of the rectangle approach 0. (See Figure 1.)
To find the total mass of the lamina we divide a rectangle 𝑅
containing 𝐷 into subrectangles 𝑅𝑖𝑗 of the same size (as in
Figure 2) and consider 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) to be 0 outside 𝐷. If we choose a
∗
point (𝑥𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦𝑖𝑗∗ ) in 𝑅𝑖𝑗 , then the mass of the part of the lamina that
occupies 𝑅𝑖𝑗 is approximately 𝑝 (𝑥∗𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦∗𝑖𝑗 ) ∆𝐴, where ∆𝐴 is the area
of 𝑅𝑖𝑗 . If we add all such masses, we get an approximation to the
total mass:

If we now increase the number of subrectangles, we obtain the total mass of the lamina as the
limiting value of the approximations:
 Physicists also consider other types of density that can be treated in the same manner.
For example, if an electric charge is distributed over a region 𝐷 and the charge density (in units
of charge per unit area) is given by 𝜎(𝑥, 𝑦) at a point (𝑥, 𝑦) in 𝐷, then the total charge 𝑄 is
given by

EXAMPLE 1 Charge is distributed over the triangular region 𝐷 in

Figure 3 so that the charge density at
(𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖𝑠 𝜎(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦, measured in coulombs per
square meter (𝐶 ⁄𝑚 2 ). Find the total charge.
Solution From Equation 2 and Figure 3 we have

5
Thus the total charge 24
𝐶.

MOMENTS AND CENTERS OF MASS

We found the center of mass of a lamina with constant density; here we consider a lamina
with variable density. Suppose the lamina occupies a region 𝐷 and has density function 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦).
We defined the moment of a particle about an axis as the product of its mass and its directed
distance from the axis. We divide 𝐷 into small rectangles as in Figure 2. Then the mass of 𝑅𝑖𝑗
is approximately 𝑝 (𝑥∗𝑖𝑗 , 𝑦∗𝑖𝑗 ) ∆𝐴, so we can approximate the moment of 𝑅𝑖𝑗 with respect to the -
axis by

If we now add these quantities and take the limit as the number of subrectangles becomes
large, we obtain the moment of the entire lamina about the x-axis:
Similarly, the moment about y-axis is

As before, we define the center of mass (𝑥̅ , 𝑦̅) so that 𝑚𝑥̅ =

𝑀𝑦 and 𝑚𝑦̅ = 𝑀𝑥 . The physical significance is that the
lamina behaves as if its entire mass is concentrated at its
center of mass. Thus the lamina balances horizontally when
supported at its center of mass (see Figure 4).

EXAMPLE 2 Find the mass and center of mass of a triangular

lamina with vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (0, 2) if the density
function is 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑦.

Solution The triangle is shown in Figure 5. (Note that the

equation of the upper boundary is 𝑦 = 2 − 2𝑥. ) .) The mass
of the lamina is
Then the formulas in 5 give

3 11
The center of mass is at the point (8 , 16).

EXAMPLE 3 The density at any point on a semicircular lamina is

proportional to the distance from the center of the circle.
Find the center of mass of the lamina.
Solution Let’s place the lamina as the upper half of the circle
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 . (See Figure 6.) Then the distance from a
point (𝑥, 𝑦) to the center of the circle (the origin) is
√𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 . Therefore the density function is
where K is some constant. Both the density function and the shape of the lamina suggest that
we convert to polar coordinates. Then √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 and the region is given by 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎, 0 ≤
𝜃 ≤ 𝜋. Thus the mass of the lamina is

Both the lamina and the density function are symmetric with respect to the y-axis, so the center
of mass must lie on the y-axis, that is, 𝑥̅ = 0. The -coordinate is given by

Therefore the center of mass is located at the point (0, 3𝑎⁄(2𝜋)).

MOMENT OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia (also called the second moment) of a particle of mass 𝑚 about
an axis is defined to be 𝑚𝑟 2, where is the distance from the particle to the axis. We extend this
concept to a lamina with density function 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) and occupying a region 𝐷 by proceeding as we
did for ordinary moments. We divide 𝐷 into small rectangles, approximate the moment of inertia
of each subrectangle about the -axis, and take the limit of the sum as the number of subrectangles
becomes large. The result is the moment of inertia of the lamina about the x-axis:
Similarly, the moment of inertia about the y-axis is

It is also of interest to consider the moment of inertia about the origin, also called the
polar moment of inertia:

Note that 𝐼0 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 .

EXAMPLE 4 Find the moments of inertia 𝐼𝑥 , 𝐼𝑦 , and 𝐼0 of a homogeneous disk 𝐷 with

described by 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑝, center the origin, and radius 𝑎.

Solution The boundary of 𝐷 is the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 and in polar coordinates 𝐷 is described

by
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋, 0 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎. Let’s compute 𝐼0 first:

Instead of computing 𝐼𝑥 and 𝐼𝑦 directly, we use the facts that 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 = 𝐼0 and 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 (from
the symmetry of the problem). Thus

In Example 4 notice that the mass of the disk is

so the moment of inertia of the disk about the origin (like a wheel about its axle) can be written
as

Thus if we increase the mass or the radius of the disk, we thereby increase the moment of inertia.
In general, the moment of inertia plays much the same role in rotational motion that mass plays
in linear motion. The moment of inertia of a wheel is what makes it difficult to start or stop the
rotation of the wheel, just as the mass of a car is what makes it difficult to start or stop the
motion of the car.
The radius of gyration of a lamina about an axis is the number 𝑅 such that

where 𝑚 is the mass of the lamina and is the moment of inertia about the given axis. Equation
9 says that if the mass of the lamina were concentrated at a distance 𝑅 from the axis, then the
moment of inertia of this “point mass” would be the same as the moment of inertia of the lamina.
In particular, the radius of gyration 𝑦̅ with respect to the x-axis and the radius of gyration
𝑥̅ with respect to the y-axis are given by the equations

Thus (𝑥,
̿ 𝑦̿) is the point at which the mass of the lamina can be concentrated without changing
the moments of inertia with respect to the coordinate axes. (Note the analogy with the center of
mass.)

EXAMPLE 5 Find the radius of gyration about the -axis of the disk in Example 4.
Solution As noted, the mass of the disk is = 𝑝𝜋𝑎2 , so from Equations 10 we have

1
Therefore the radius of gyration about the x-axis is 𝑦̿ = 𝑎, which is half the radius of the disk.
2

PROBABILITY
We considered the probability density function of a continuous random variable X. This
∞
means that 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 0 for all x, ∫−∞ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 1 , and the probability that X lies between a and b is
found by integrating f from a to b:

Now we consider a pair of continuous random variables X and Y, such as the lifetimes of
two components of a machine or the height and weight of an adult female chosen at random.
The joint density function of X and Y is a function f of two variables such that the probability
(𝑋, 𝑌) that lies in a region D is

In particular, if the region is a rectangle, the probability that X lies between a and b and Y lies
between c and d is
(See Figure 7.)

Because probabilities aren’t negative and are measured on a scale from 0 to 1, the joint density
function has the following properties:

The double integral over 𝑅2 is an improper integral defined as the limit of double integrals over
expanding circles or squares, and we can write

EXAMPLE 6 If the joint density function for X and Y is given by

find the value of the constant 𝐶. Then find 𝑃(𝑋 ≤ 7, 𝑌 ≥ 2).

Solution We find the value of C by ensuring that the double integral off is equal to 1.
Because 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0 outside the rectangle [0, 10] × [0, 10], we have
( )
 1
Therefore 1500𝐶 = 1 and so 𝐶 = 1500.

Now we can compute the probability that X is at most 7 and Y is at least 2:

Suppose X is a random variable with probability density function 𝑓1 (𝑥) and Y is a random
variable with density function 𝑓2 (𝑦) . Then X and Y are called independent random variables
if their joint density function is the product of their individual density functions:

We modeled waiting times by using exponential density functions

where is the mean waiting time. In the next example we consider a situation with two independent
waiting times.

EXAMPLE 7 The manager of a movie theater determines that the average time moviegoers
wait in line to buy a ticket for this week’s film is 10 minutes and the average time they wait to
buy popcorn is 5 minutes. Assuming that the waiting times are independent, find the probability
that a moviegoer waits a total of less than 20 minutes before taking his or her seat.

Solution Assuming that both the waiting time X for the ticket purchase and the waiting time
Y in the refreshment line are modeled by exponential probability density functions, we can write
the individual density functions as
Since X and Y are independent, the joint density function is the product:

We are asked for the probability that 𝑋 + 𝑌 < 20:

where D is the triangular region shown in Figure 8. Thus

This means that about 75% of the moviegoers wait less than 20 minutes before taking their seats.

EXPECTED VALUES
If X is a random variable with probability density function, then its mean is

Now if X and Y are random variables with joint density function f, we define the X-mean and Y-
mean, also called the expected values of X and Y, to be

Notice how closely the expressions for 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 in 11 resemble the moments 𝑀𝑥 and 𝑀𝑦 of a
lamina with density function 𝜌 in Equations 3 and 4. In fact, we can think of probability as being
like continuously distributed mass. We calculate probability the way we calculate mass—by
integrating a density function. And because the total “probability mass” is 1, the expressions for
𝑥̅ and 𝑦̅ in 5 show that we can think of the expected values of X and Y, 𝜇1 and 𝜇2 , as the
coordinates of the “center of mass” of the probability distribution.
 In the next example we deal with normal distributions. A single random variable is
normally distributed if its probability density function is of the form

where 𝜇 is the mean and is the standard deviation.

EXAMPLE 7 A factory produces (cylindrically shaped) roller bearings that are sold as having
diameter 4.0 cm and length 6.0 cm. In fact, the diameters X are normally distributed with mean
4.0 cm and standard deviation 0.01 cm while the lengths Y are normally distributed with mean
6.0 cm and standard deviation 0.01 cm. Assuming that X and Y are independent, write the joint
density function and graph it. Find the probability that a bearing randomly chosen from the
production line has either length or diameter that differs from the mean by more than 0.02 cm.

Solution We are given that X and Y are normally distributed with 𝜇1 = 4.0, 𝜇2 = 6.0, and
𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 0.01. So the individual density functions for X and Y are

Since X and Y are independent, the joint density function is the

product:

A graph of this function is shown in Figure 9.

Let’s first calculate the probability that both X and Y differ from their means by less than
0.02 cm. Using a calculator or computer to estimate the integral, we have

Then the probability that either X or Y differs from its mean by more than 0.02 cm is approximately
References:
1. https://wheelerdrice.edublogs.org/files/2019/01/James-Stewart-Calculus-Early-
Transcendentals-7th-Edition-2012-1-20ng7to-1ck11on.pdf
2. https://i.ytimg.com/vi/zlIHJoClDjg/maxresdefault.jpg

Triple Integrals

In the preceding sections we defined and discussed properties of double integrals for functions
of two variables. In this section we will define triple integrals for functions of three variables.

 Definition of a Triple Integral

 Properties of Triple Integrals
 Evaluating Triple Integrals over Rectangular Boxes
 Evaluating Triple Integrals over more General
Regions
 Volume Calculated as a Triple Integral
 Integration in Other Orders

Lecture Notes:

DEFINITION OF A TRIPLE INTEGRAL

A single integral of a function f(x) is defined over a finite
closed interval on the x-axis, and a double integral of a function f(x,
y) is defined over a finite closed region R in the xy-plane. Our first
goal in this section is to define what is meant by a triple integral of
f(x, y, z) over a closed solid region G in an xyz-coordinate system.
To ensure that G does not extend indefinitely in some direction, we
will assume that it can be enclosed in a suitably large box whose
sides are parallel to the coordinate planes (Figure 1). In this case
we say that G is a finite solid.
To define the triple integral of f(x, y, z) overG, we first
divide the box into n “subboxes” by planes parallel to the
coordinate planes. We then discard those subboxes that contain
any points outside of G and choose an arbitrary point in each of
Figure 1 the remaining subboxes. As shown in Figure 1, we denote the
volume of the kth remaining subbox by ∆𝑉𝑘 and the point selected
in the kth subbox by (𝑥𝑘∗ , 𝑦𝑘∗ , 𝑧𝑘∗ ). Next we form the product
for each subbox, then add the products for all of the subboxes to obtain the Riemann sum

Finally, we repeat this process with more and more subdivisions in such a way that the length,
width, and height of each subbox approach zero, and n approaches +∞. The limit

is called the triple integral of f(x, y, z) over the region G. Conditions under which the triple
integral exists are studied in advanced calculus. However, for our purposes it suffices to say that
existence is ensured when f is continuous on G and the region G is not too “complicated.”

PROPERTIES OF TRIPLE INTEGRALS

Triple integrals enjoy many properties of single and double integrals:

Figure 2

Moreover, if the region G is subdivided into two subregions G1 and G2 (Figure 2), then

We omit the proofs.

EVALUATING TRIPLE INTEGRALS OVER RECTANGULAR BOXES

Just as a double integral can be evaluated by two successive single integrations, so a
triple integral can be evaluated by three successive integrations.
EXAMPLE 1 Evaluate the triple integral

over the rectangular box G defined by the inequalities −1 ≤ x ≤ 2, 0 ≤ y ≤ 3, 0 ≤ z ≤ 2.

Solution. Of the six possible iterated integrals we might use, we will choose the one in (2).
Thus, we will first integrate with respect to z, holding x and y fixed, then with
respect to y, holding x fixed, and finally with respect to x.

EVALUATING TRIPLE INTEGRALS OVER MORE GENERAL REGIONS

Next we will consider how triple integrals can be
evaluated over solids that are not rectangular boxes. For the
moment we will limit our discussion to solids of the type
shown in Figure 3. Specifically, we will assume that the
solid G is bounded above by a surface z = g2(x, y) and below
by a surface z = g1(x, y) and that the projection of the solid
on the xy-plane is a type I or type II region R. In addition,
we will assume that g1(x, y) and g2(x, y) are continuous on
R and that g1(x, y) ≤ g2(x, y) on R. Geometrically, this

Figure 3
 means that the surfaces may touch but cannot cross. We
call a solid of this type a simple xy-solid.

The following theorem, which we state without proof, will enable us to evaluate triple
integrals over simple xy-solids.

In (3), the first integration is with respect to z, after which a function of x and y remains.
This function of x and y is then integrated over the region R in the xy-plane. To apply (3), it is
helpful to begin with a three-dimensional sketch of the solid G. The limits of integration can be
obtained from the sketch as follows:

EXAMPLE 2 Let G be the wedge in the first octant that is cut from the cylindrical solid y2 + z2
≤ 1 by the planes y = x and x = 0. Evaluate
 Solution. The solid G and its projection R on the xy-
plane are shown in Figure 4. The upper surface of the solid is
formed by the cylinder and the lower surface by the xy-plane. Since
the portion of the cylinder y2 + z2 = 1 that lies above the xy-plane
has the equation 𝑧 = √1 − 𝑦 2 , and the xy-plane has the equation z
= 0, it follows from (3) that

Figure 4
For the double integral over R, the x- and y-integrations can
be performed in either order, since R is both a type I and type

II region. We will integrate with respect to x first. With this choice, (4) yields

VOLUME CALCULATED AS A TRIPLE INTEGRAL

Triple integrals have many physical interpretations. However, in the special case where
f(x, y, z) = 1, Formula (1) yields
 which Figure 1 suggests is the volume of G; that is,

EXAMPLE 3 Use a triple integral to find the volume of the

solid within the cylinder x2 + y2 = 9 and between the planes z =
1 and x + z = 5.
Solution. The solid G and its projection R on the xy-plane
are shown in Figure 5. The lower surface of the solid is
the plane
z = 1 and the upper surface is the plane x+z=5 or,
equivalently, z = 5 − x. Thus, from (3) and (5)

For the double integral over R, we will integrate

Figure 5 with respect to y first. Thus, (6) yields
 EXAMPLE 4 Find the volume of the solid enclosed
between the paraboloids

Solution. The solid G and its projection R on the xy-plane are

shown in Figure 6. The projection R is obtained by solving the
given equations simultaneously to determine where the
paraboloids intersect. We obtain

which tells us that the paraboloids intersect in a curve on

the elliptic cylinder given by (7).

Figure 6

The projection of this intersection on the xy-plane is an ellipse with this same equation. Therefore,
INTEGRATION IN OTHER ORDERS
In Formula (3) for integrating over a simple xy-solid, the z-integration was performed first.
However, there are situations in which it is preferable to integrate in a different order. For
example, Figure 7a shows a simple xz-solid, and Figure 7b shows a simple yz-solid. For a
simple xz-solid it is usually best to integrate with respect to y first, and for a simple yz-solid it is
usually best to integrate with respect to x first:

Figure 7

Sometimes a solid G can be viewed as a simple xy-solid, a simple xz-solid, and a simple
yz-solid, in which case the order of integration can be chosen to simplify the computations.

EXAMPLE 5 In Example 2 we evaluated

over the wedge in Figure 4 by integrating first with respect to z. Evaluate this integral by
integrating first with respect to x.
Solution. The solid is bounded in the back by the plane x = 0 and in the front by the plane
x = y, so
 where R is the projection of G on the yz-plane (Figure 8). The
integration over R can be performed first with respect to z and then y or
vice versa. Performing the z-integration first yields

Figure 8

which agrees with the result in Example 2.

References:
1. https://arslanhelpyoucom.files.wordpress.com/2016/05/calculus-early-transcendentals-
10th-ed-howard-anton-iril-bivens-stephen-davis-ebook.pdf
2. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.symbolab.com%2Fsolve
r%2Ftriple-integrals-
calculator&psig=AOvVaw1qIrFnYInfd_9y_Fg95BR6&ust=1596085553637000&source=im
ages&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCMDqnJzY8eoCFQAAAAAdAAAAABAb

Triple Integrals in Cylindrical and Spherical Coordinates

In this section we will study triple integrals in these coordinate systems.

 Triple Integrals in Cylindrical Coordinates

 Converting Triple Integrals from Rectangular to
Cylindrical Coordinates
 Triple Integrals in Spherical Coordinates
 Converting Triple Integrals from Rectangular to
Spherical Coordinates

Lecture Notes:

TRIPLE INTEGRALS IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES

Recall that in rectangular coordinates the triple integral of a continuous function f over a
solid region G is defined as
where ∆𝑉𝑘 denotes the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped interior to G and (𝑥∗𝑘 , 𝑦∗𝑘 , 𝑧∗𝑘 ) is a
point in this parallelepiped (see Figure 1). Triple integrals in cylindrical and spherical coordinates
are defined similarly, except that the region G is divided not into rectangular parallelepipeds but
into regions more appropriate to these coordinate systems.
In cylindrical coordinates, the simplest equations are of the form

The first equation represents a right circular cylinder centered on

the z-axis, the second a vertical half-plane hinged on the z-axis,
and the third a horizontal plane. (See Figure 3.) These surfaces
can be paired up to determine solids called cylindrical wedges or
cylindrical elements of volume. To be precise, a cylindrical
wedge is a solid enclosed between six surfaces of the following
form:
Figure 1

(Figure 1). The dimensions θ2 − θ1, r2 − r1, and z2 − z1

Figure 2 are called the central angle, thickness, and height of the
wedge.
To define the triple integral over G of a function f(r, θ, z) in
cylindrical coordinates we proceed as follows:

 Subdivide G into pieces by a three-dimensional grid consisting of concentric circular

cylinders centered on the z-axis, half-planes hinged on the z-axis, and horizontal planes.
Exclude from consideration all pieces that contain any points outside of G, thereby leaving
only cylindrical wedges that are subsets of G.
 Assume that there are n such cylindrical wedges, and denote the volume of the kth
∗
cylindrical wedge by ∆𝑉𝑘 . As indicated in Figure 2, let (𝑟∗𝑘 , 𝜃𝑘 , 𝑧∗𝑘 ) be any point in the kth
cylindrical wedge.
 Repeat this process with more and more subdivisions so that as n increases, the height,
thickness, and central angle of the cylindrical wedges approach zero. Define
For computational purposes, it will be helpful to express (1) as an iterated integral. Toward this
end we note that the volume ∆𝑉𝑘 of the kth cylindrical wedge can be expressed as

If we denote the thickness, central angle, and height

of this wedge by ∆𝑟𝑘 , ∆𝜃𝑘 and ∆𝑧𝑘 and if we choose the
∗
arbitrary point (𝑟∗𝑘 , 𝜃𝑘 , 𝑧𝑘∗ ) to lie above the “center” of the
base (Figures 6 and 3), the base has area ∆𝐴𝑘 = (𝑟𝑘∗ ,
∆𝑟𝑘 , ∆𝜃𝑘 ). Thus, (2) can be written as

Substituting this expression in (1) yields

which suggests that a triple integral in cylindrical

coordinates can be evaluated as an iterated integral of the
Figure 3
form

In this formula the integration with respect to z is done first, then with respect to r, and then with
respect to θ, but any order of integration is allowable.
The following theorem, which we state without proof, makes the preceding ideas more precise.
 The type of solid to which Formula (5) applies is illustrated
in Figure 4. To apply (4) and (5) it is best to begin with a three-
dimensional sketch of the solid G, from which the limits of
integration can be obtained as follows:
Determining Limits of Integration: Cylindrical
Coordinates
Step 1. Identify the upper surface z = g2(r, θ) and the lower
surface z = g1(r, θ) of the solid. The functions g1(r, θ)
and g2(r, θ) determine the z-limits of
Figure 4
integration. (If the upper and lower surfaces are
given in rectangular coordinates, convert them to cylindrical
coordinates.)
Step 2. Make a two-dimensional sketch of the projection R of the solid on the xy-
plane. From this sketch the r- and θ-limits of integration maybe obtained exactly as with double
integrals in polar coordinates.

EXAMPLE 1 Use triple integration in cylindrical coordinates to find the volume of the solid G
that is bounded above by the hemisphere 𝑧 = √25 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , below by the xy-plane, and laterally
by the cylinder x2 + y2 = 9.
Solution. The solid G and its projection R on the xy-plane are shown in Figure 5. In
cylindrical coordinates, the upper surface of G is the hemisphere 𝑧 = √25 − 𝑟 2 lower surface is
the plane z = 0. Thus, from (4), the volume of G is

For the double integral over R, we use polar coordinates:

Figure 5
CONVERTING TRIPLE INTEGRALS FROM RECTANGULAR TO CYLINDRICAL
COORDINATES

Sometimes a triple integral that is difficult to integrate in rectangular coordinates can be

evaluated more easily by making the substitution x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, z = z to convert it to
an integral in cylindrical coordinates. Under such a substitution, a rectangular triple integral can
be expressed as an iterated integral in cylindrical coordinates as

EXAMPLE 2 Use cylindrical coordinates to evaluate

Solution. In problems of this type, it is helpful to sketch the region of integration G and its
projection R on the xy-plane. From the z-limits of integration, the upper surface of
G is the paraboloid z = 9 − x2 − y2 and the lower surface is the xy-plane
z = 0. From the xand y-limits of integration, the projection R is the region in the
xy-plane enclosed by the circle x2 + y2 = 9 (Figure 6). Thus,

Figure 6
TRIPLE INTEGRALS IN SPHERICAL COORDINATES
In spherical coordinates, the simplest equations are of the form

As indicated in Figure 4, the first equation represents a

sphere centered at the origin and the second a half-plane hinged
on the z-axis. The graph of the third equation is a right circular cone
nappe with its vertex at the origin and its line of symmetry along
the z-axis for ∅ ≠ 𝜋⁄2, and is the xy-plane if φ = π/2. By a
Figure 7 spherical wedge or spherical element of volume we mean a
solid enclosed between six surfaces of the following form:

(Figure 7). We will refer to the numbers ρ2 − ρ1, θ2 − θ1,

and φ2 − φ1 as the dimensions of a spherical wedge.
If G is a solid region in three-dimensional space, then the
triple integral over G of a continuous function f(ρ, θ, φ) in
spherical coordinates is similar in definition to the triple
integral in cylindrical coordinates, except that the solid G is
partitioned into spherical wedges by a three-dimensional
Figure 8 grid consisting of spheres centered at the origin, half-
planes hinged on the z-axis, and nappes of right circular
cones with vertices at the origin and lines of symmetry
along the z-axis (Figure 8). The defining equation of a
triple integral in spherical coordinates is

where ∆𝑉𝑘 is the volume of the kth spherical wedge that is

interior to 𝜌𝑘∗ , 𝜃𝑘∗ , ∅𝑘∗ is an arbitrary point in this wedge,
and n increases in such a way that the dimensions of each
interior spherical wedge tend to zero.

For computational purposes, it will be desirable to express

(7) as an iterated integral. The volume ∆𝑉𝑘 in (7) can be
Figure 9
written as
 where ∆𝜌𝑘 , ∆∅𝑘 , and ∆𝜃𝑘 are the dimensions of the wedge
(Figure 9) this in (7) we obtain

which suggests that a triple integral in spherical coordinates

can be evaluated as an iterated integral of the form

The analog of Theorem 1 for triple integrals in spherical coordinates is tedious to state, so instead
we will give some examples that illustrate techniques for obtaining the limits of integration. In all
of our examples we will use the same order of integration—first with respect to ρ, then φ, and
then θ. Once you have mastered the basic ideas, there should be no trouble using other orders
of integration.
Suppose that we want to integrate f(ρ, θ, φ) over the spherical solid G enclosed by the sphere ρ
= ρ0. The basic idea is to choose the limits of integration so that every point of the solid is
accounted for in the integration process. Figure 10 illustrates one way of doing this. Holding θ
and φ fixed for the first integration, we let ρ vary from 0 to ρ0. This covers a radial line from the
origin to the surface of the sphere. Next, keeping θ fixed, we let φ vary from 0 to π so that the
radial line sweeps out a fan-shaped region. Finally, we let θ vary from 0 to 2π so that the fan-
shaped region makes a complete revolution, thereby sweeping out the entire sphere. Thus, the
triple integral off(ρ, θ, φ) over the spherical solid G can be evaluated by writing

Figure 10
 Table 1 suggests how the limits of integration in spherical coordinates can be obtained
for some other common solids.
TABLE 1
EXAMPLE 3 Use spherical coordinates to find the volume of the solid G bounded above by the
sphere x2 + y2 + z2 = 16 and below by the cone 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2.

Solution. The solid G is sketched in Figure 11.

In spherical coordinates, the equation of the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 16 is ρ = 4 and the equation of the
cone 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

which simplifies to

Dividing both sides of this equation by ρ cos

Figure 11
φ yields tan φ = 1, from which it follows that
Thus, it follows from the second entry in Table 1 that the volume of G is

CONVERTING TRIPLE INTEGRALS FROM RECTANGULAR TO SPHERICAL

COORDINATES
Referring to Table 1, triple integrals can be converted from rectangular coordinates to
spherical coordinates by making the substitution x = ρ sin φ cos θ, y = ρ sin φ sin θ, z = ρ cos
φ. The two integrals are related by the equation

EXAMPLE 4 Use spherical coordinates to evaluate

Solution. In problems like this, it is helpful to begin (when possible) with a sketch of the
region G of integration. From the z-limits of integration, the upper surface of G is the hemisphere
𝑧 = √4 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and the lower surface is the xy-plane z = 0. From the x- and y-limits of
integration, the projection of the solid G on the xy-plane is the region enclosed by the circle x2 +
y2 = 4. From this information we obtain the sketch of G in Figure 12. Thus,
 Figure 12

Teacher’s Insights

In plane geometry the polar coordinate system is used to give a convenient description of
certain curves and regions. In three dimensions there is a coordinate system, called cylindrical
coordinates, that is similar to polar coordinates and gives convenient descriptions of some commonly
occurring surfaces and solids. As we will see, some triple integrals are much easier to evaluate in
cylindrical coordinates.

Another useful coordinate system in three dimensions is the spherical coordinate system. It
simplifies the evaluation of triple integrals over regions bounded by spheres or cones. The spherical
coordinate system is especially useful in problems where there is symmetry about a point, and the
origin is placed at this point.