Cortir Handbook 2019

WIND TURBINE
BLADES
Handbook
Edition 2019 CORTIR
KIRTxTHOMSEN
Concept & Design
Communication design, illustration and graphic design
KIRTxTHOMSEN
Editor & contributor
Contributors
Partners
|
The Blade Handbook™ A shared lingo of terms and definitions for wind turbine blades
Developed by Bladena and KIRT x THOMSEN in LEX, RATZ, EWIC and CORTIR projects mainly funded by EUDP (Energy Technology
Development and Demonstration Programme)

Input by Find Mølholt Jensen & Co (Bladena), Rune Kirt & Co (KIRT x THOMSEN), Søren Horn Petersen & Co (Guide2Defect), Jan Vig
Andersen & Co (FORCE Technology), John Dalsgaard Sørensen & Co (AAU), Lars Damkilde & Co (AAU), Christian Berggreen & Co (DTU
Mek), Torben J. Larsen & Co (DTU Wind) Peder Jacobsen & Co (Global Wind Service), Mads Lübbert & Co (DIS)
Handbook conceptualized and produced by KIRT x THOMSEN
N
SWA ECO
C
DI
LA
ISBN 978-87-971709-0-8
NOR
BEL
THE BLADE
HANDBOOK™
A shared lingo for the future of wind
Copyright © 2019
Although the authors and publisher have made every effort
to ensure that the information in this book was correct,
they do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any
parts for any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors
or omissions, whether such errors or omissions result from
negligence, accident, or any other cause. No part of this
publication may be reproduced, distributed, or transmitted in
any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording,
or other electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior
written permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical reviews and certain other non-
commercial uses permitted by the copyright law.
CONTENTS
PART I
1 | BLADE ANATOMY 10
Blade & cross section
Surface
Inside
Root
Load cases
2 | STRUCTURAL 22
Strain & Stress
Materials
Beam structure
Bending & Torsion
Local effects
3 | LOADS 32
Wind conditions
Turbulence
Aerodynamics
Structural dynamics
PART II
4 | VIBRATIONS 42
Aeroelastic instability
5 | FAILURES 46
Failure modes
Root causes
Safety margins
6 | TESTING 60
Hybrid testing/hybrid simulation
4 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

7 | DAMAGE AND DEFECTS 64
Damage, defect & failure
NDT
8 | FRACTURE MECHANICS 70
Fracture modes
Crack loading
Cohesion strength in composites
PART III
9 | INSPECTION & SERVICE WORK 82
Working conditions
Inspection
10 | MARKET 86
Operation & maintenance
IEC references
Market map
Market & Decision Drivers
Decision Making / Operator's Focus
11 | PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 114

Design drivers
Technology Readiness Level
Storyboarding
NOMENCLATURE 118
THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 5

WHY A HANDBOOK
During the three EUDP projects LEX, RATZ and CORTIR partners from all segments
of the wind industry value chain has been involved in how to communicate with
each other about wind turbine blades. In the industry many different ways of
describing the same has been the reality. The reason for this handbook is to
improve the common understanding of everyday blade related issues, to get a
common language in the wind industry and to help newcomers to the industry
with getting an overview. The present Blade Handbook is a direct further
development of the RATZ Handbook.
Thus, this Blade Handbook is aimed at helping all parties involved in R&D of wind
turbine blades to get a common understanding of words, process, levels and
concepts.

PART I
1 | BLADE ANATOMY
Blade & cross section
Surface
Inside
Root
Load cases
2 | STRUCTURAL
Strain & Stress
Materials
Beam structure
Bending & Torsion
Local effects
3 | LOADS
Wind conditions
Turbulence
Aerodynamics
Structural dynamics
1 | BLADE ANATOMY
ANATOMY OF A BLADE
BLADE SECTIONS
A wind turbine blade is divided into different sections as shown
Tip Section
Mid Section
Leading Edge L
Max Chord Section

L 2/
3
Root Section Trailing Edge

Suction Side
L/
3
Transition Zone

CROSS SECTION
Blade cross section indicating main construction elements
Suction Side (SS)

Spar cap
Leading Edge (LE)
Trailing Edge (TE)
Shear
Webs
Spar cap
Pressure Side (PS)
Types lof cross

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e g dE g n i da eL e g dE g n i l i a r T
e d i S er u s s er P
Closed shell Box spar Load carrying shell
pa C ra p S e d i S n o i t c u S
e d i S n o itc u S b e W r a e h S t n or F
b e W raehS tfA
b e W raehS pa C ra p S e d i S n o i t c u S
t n i o P n o i t s i s narT e g d E g n i da eL
e s i w d r o h C e n i L r e t n e C e da lB
dE g n i da eL t n i o P n o i t c e n n o C e g dE g n i da eL
e g dE g n i l i a r T
t n i o P n o i t s i s narT e g d E g n i da eL t n i o P n o i t c e n n o C e g d E g n i l iarT
dr o h C e da lB dr o h C e da lB
C ra p S e d i S er u s s er P
pa C ra p S e d i S er u s s er P thgieH THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo
pa C ra p S e d i S er u s s er P t h g i efor
H the future of wind 11
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1 | BLADE ANATOMY
ANATOMY OF A BLADE
FUNCTION
The primary function of the blade is to capture the wind and transfer the load to the shaft.
This creates a bending moment on the root bearing, and a torque on the main shaft.
A blade can be regarded as a large cantilever beam
Wind
Flap Flap
Flap
Gravity
Edge Edge
Edge

CONSTRUCTION
A blade can be segmented into 4 main parts, each parts fulfilling a specific function (shell,
caps, shear webs, root).
Shell 1
Spar caps (1+2)
Shell 2
Shear web(s)
Root

1 | BLADE ANATOMY
SURFACE
SHELLS
The SS and PS shells are large aerodynamic panels designed to transfer lift, created by the
shells, to the spar caps.
SS
SS PS
Adhesive joint
PS
Adhesive
They are typically moulded in two blade shell jointand PS moulds), and adhesively
tools (SS
bonded to each other along their leading and trailing edge, and to the SS and PS spar caps
Core
in the middle. The shell skins are lightweight glass fiber skins (often 2 to 54 layers of triax
Core
material at 0, +45 and -45Deg), of low thickness; they therefore need to be stabilised by the
use of a core (PVC or PET core, balsa, etc.). Without a core, they would buckle and would
therefore not be able to keep their required profile.
Adhesive
Adhesive Core
Core
Skins
Adhesive
Adhesive
Skins

SPAR CAPS
The primary function of the spar caps is to pick up all the loads from the aerodynamic profile
(PS caps working in tension, SS cap working in compression) from the tip to the root, and to
transfer them in to the cylindrical root tube (working mainly in shear).
They are long, narrow and slender components; thick at the root end, thin at the tip end.
They are mostly made of unidirectional fibers (0°) and some off-axis material (up to 20%),
which makes them less sensitive to twist, torsion and other induced loads.
Tip
n
Root
SS Com pressio
ion
Tens
PS
Wind
Spar cap 1
Spar cap 2
Spar cap 3
Several spar caps are found in large blades.
Biax THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 15
Tip
1 | BLADE ANATOMY
INSIDE Spar cap 1
SHEAR WEBS
Spar cap 2
Shear webs are one of the simpler parts to design and manufacture. The primary function of
Spar cap 3
the shear web(s) is to keep the PS and SS caps away from each other, allowing the blade to
behave as a beam and retain its global stiffness.
Biax
Tip
Root
Core
They only carry shear loads, and the challenge from a design point of view is to stop them
crushing and/or buckling.
Construction is typically 2 to 8 plies of +/-45° glass biax either side of a low density core
(PVC, balsa, PET, etc.).

SPAR CAPS
There can be one, two or three webs in a blade depending on length and design choices.
They sometime include feets or flanges, a transition where the skins join each others to
facilitate the load transfer to the shells or spar caps.
1 web, 2 caps 2 webs, 2 caps
Box spar 2 webs, 4 caps
3 webs, 6 caps

1 | BLADE ANATOMY
ROOT
SHEAR WEBS
The primary function of the root is to transfer the bending moment of the blade to the root
bearing in the most uniform way, without damaging it.
This is usually achieved by progressively re-directing the loads carried in the UD caps into the
root tube, then into the metallic inserts that connect the root to the bearing.
Thin
UD
Thick
Biax
Triax
The metallic inserts usually extend from the hub and between 10 to 20% of the blade length
(R2.5 on a 25m blade, R9 on a 45m blade)
The root is typically a thick laminate, with a limited amount of fibers at 0° and most fibers at +/- 45°.
The thickness is needed to accommodate the root bolts, that create weakness in the laminate.

MANUFACTURING
The methods of manufacturing influence the lifetime of a wind turbine blade.
Blade manufacturing procedures can introduce conditions in the composite which strongly
influence fatigue life and potential failures. These conditions include local variations in resin
mixture homogeneity, local porosity variaions, local fiber curvature and misalignment of fibers
as well as local residual stresses. Such conditions are variables in all composite manufacturing
processes and should be considered in design.
Regardless if the exact same manufacturing process is achieved with the exact same
manufacturing conditions and materials, the composite specimen will never be completely
identical to the previously manufactured composite specimen.
1. Prepare mould 2. Build-up dry layers 3. Resin infusion
4. Add webs 5. Join shells, curing 6. Demould, trim & polish
Generic steps of composite blade production

1 | BLADE ANATOMY
LOAD CASES
MAIN LOAD DIRECTIONS
FLAPWISE DIRECTION
• PTS - pressure side towards suction side
• STP - suction side towards pressure side
FLAPWISE DIRECTION
• TTL - trailing edge towards leading edge
• LTT - leading edge towards trailing edge
COMBINED LOADING
• Combination of flapwise direction with edgewise direction.
TORSIONAL LOAD (COMPONENT)
• Torsional load component generated by the combination of

flapwise and edgewise loads. The transition zone and max chord
regions are subjected to this load.

PTS
a
Combined
α
TTL b
LTT
PTS Load offset in relation

to elastic shear center Elastic shear center
Aerodynamic center
a
Combined
TTL
α STP LTT
b
Load offset in relation

to elastic shear center Elastic shear center
Aerodynamic center
STP
Flapwise
Flapwise
Edgewise
Edgewise Torsional load by combined

edge/flapwise loading
Torsional load by combined

edge/flapwise loading
2 | STRUCTURAL
STRAIN & STRESS

When loading a structure, one can achieve direct response of stresses or strains. Strains are relative changes in length,
and define the deformation of the structure. The stresses are the response of the material to the strains. The strain and
stresses are coupled via the material model e.g. Hookes law.
AXIAL STRAIN
The strains are divided into axial strains (longitudinal and transverse strains) and shear strain.
E.g. elongation of the individual fibers in the axial direction.
a) Axial strain due to axial load. b) Axial strain due to bending.
SHEAR STRAIN
The other type of strain is shear strains that changes the angles between fibers.
Shear
Stress

Stress
Stress
AXIAL STRESS
Similar to strains the stresses can be axial i.e. in the direction of the fiber. Axial stresses can be
a result of bending of a beam or stretching a rod.
a) Axial stresses due to stretching a rod
b) Axial stresses du to bending.
SHEAR STRESS
Another type of stress is shear stress and will be directed along the surfaces of the fibers.
Shear stresses can be seen in overlap joints (a) or in torsion of a cross section (b).
a) b)
Stress
Stress
THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ Stress
A shared lingo for the future of wind 23
2 | STRUCTURAL
MATERIALS
ELASTIC BEHAVIOR
Materials can behave in many ways but for wind turbine
blades the most important is the elastic behavior.
An isotropic material has equal properties in

all directions. The properties are described
by the Modulus of Elasticity (E) which defines
the stress for a strain increment in a given
direction and the Poisson ratio (v) which
defines the deformation perpendicular to the
stress direction.
STATIC AND FATIGUE STRENGTH

Materials subjected to repeated loads may fail due to fatigue. The number of load cycles in
a wind turbine blade is very large. The fatigue problems will often occur in bondlines where
peeling stresses are high, and due to bending in the panels, which will over time cause skin-
debonding. Bending in the laminate can also introduce interlaminar failure.
Load
Time
a) Load cycles induces fatigue over time. b) Example of fatigue cracks in the trailing
edge due to peeling stresses.
Large strength

COMPOSITES
Composites are a number of layers (laminas) bonded by a resin (matrix) creating an
anisotropic material. An anisotropic material possess directionally dependent material
properties.
+ + = COMPOSITES
Biax
In composite materials the fibers can be

arranged in many different ways, so that the
strength and stiffness will depend on the
direction in the material.
In a wind turbine blade there will be more

fibers in the longitudinal blade direction in
order to handle the bending of the blade. There
will be fewer fibers in the transverse direction.
The directional differences makes the analysis

more complicated as the secondary direction
(the transverse) experience a small impact
from the loads but also a low strength due to
fewer fibers.
Fibers in 2 directions
Weak in shear
Fibers in 2 directions
Stronger in shear
+ Biax
2 | STRUCTURAL
BEAM STRUCTURE
Wind turbine blades acts as a beam i.e. say a structure with a dominant length direction. Beams used in e.g. building
design normally have constant cross-sections. For various design reasons the beam can also be tapered or twisted.
Constant
Tapered
Twisted

IN A BLADE
A typical wind turbine blade will
be both tapered and twisted.
Furthermore, the material
thicknesses will be relatively
small, and the cross sections
are prone to deformation. In
traditional beam theory the
cross-sectional deformations
are restricted, but in wind
turbine blades it can be
observed e.g. in shear distortion.
+
B C
Tapered (straight) Twisted
Tapered + Twisted
Together that is a PRE-TWISTED STRUCTURE
(eg. similar to a helicopter blade)

2 | STRUCTURAL
BENDING & TORSION

The load on a wind turbine blade in operation stems primarily from wind pressure, gravity and acceleration contributions
e.g. centrifugal forces.
A. BENDING
The primary way of carrying the loads are through bending.
Aerodynamic forces
Gravity
B. AXIAL FORCE
Gravity and centrifugal load creates an axial force which can be tension or compression.
1
Tension
Certifugal
Compression 2 Tension
C. TWISTING
Wind loads act excentrical and creates twisting in the blade.
Twisting Torsion Shear distortion
The twisting will give a rotation of the cross-section (Torsion) and a change in the cross-
section (Shear distortion). Shear distortion becomes more dominant for larger wind turbine
blades (60m+). The contribution is not covered by traditional beam theory, but will be seen
in a Finite Element analysis.
BENDING + SHEAR FORCE NORMAL + SHEAR STRESS
The bending moments create normal and shear stresses
Normal and shear stress
AXIAL FORCE NORMAL STRESS

The axial force creates normal stresses
Normal stress
TORSION SHEAR STRESS

The twisting moment creates primarily shear stresses in the blade. However the shear distortion may also create
local bending and shear in the transverse plane of the blade, this may reduce the fatigue life of the blade.
Torsional forces will increase the localized bending of the trailing edge panels in the max chord region.
Shear stress

2 | STRUCTURAL
LOCAL EFFECTS
In classical beam theory the load perpendicular on the blade is not accounted for in detail. However wind load acting
on the blade will create bending/shear in the transverse plane in the blade. These stresses may reduce the fatigue life
of the blade.
BLADE TESTS TODAY VS REAL LIFE

Wind loads are today referred directly to the stiff part of the structure, when load
calculations and FEM analysis are being done, and this is not on the conservative side
compared to a distributed pressure load closer resembling the actual load..
TODAY’S PRACTICE
Point loads
REAL LIFE
Distributed loads

GLOBAL VS LOCAL
The wind load, gravity and centrifugal loads primarily give axial stresses in the blade direction
and some shear stresses in the transverse plane.
The longitudinal stresses from the global deformation (bending) of the blade are far larger
than the local stresses in the transverse plane. Longitudinal stresses stem from the transfer
of the load into the beam. The local stresses can e.g. be due to panel bending, buckling or
cross sectional shear distortion and can have a very large impact on composite structures,
where the main strength direction is the longitudinal and the transverse strength typically is
weaker.
Global
a) Global deformations include bending in
flap and edge. Global deformations are
easily observed with the eye.
Local
b) Local deformations can be measured in

various ways with measuring equipment.

3 | LOADS
WIND CONDITIONS
GLOBAL
Polar high
Polar easterlies
The sun is the key source of the wind systems on
the planet. The heat over equator causes rising air Polar front
and flow near the surface from north and south. Westerlies
Horse latitudes
NE
The Coriolis force “bends” the flow causing three trade winds
Hadley cell
layers of wind circulation zones on the Northern

Doldrums 0o
and Southern Hemisphere.
SE
trade winds
30o
60o
REGIONAL
More locally, but still on a large scale, the wind is H
104
HTK
driven from local high to low pressure regions. The T
1025
25
10
101
flow is still “bent” due to the Coriolis force. These

905
1005
5
high and low pressure regions are responsible for 1035

1015
H
10
05
the mean wind speed in timespans from hours

HTK 100
1015
to days. 5
5
102
HTK
1005
T
H
T
1015

PROBABILITY
Weibull distribution
The probability density function medium wind
0.09 = small damage
of hours at a certain wind speed
0.08
is typically given as a Weibull 0.07 high wind
= large damage
distribution. Probability 0.06 Weibull
Probability 0.05 distribution
0.04 curve
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
1010min
minavarage wind
average speed
wind (m/s)
speed [m/s]
SCALE & TIME

Weather system can roughly be classified into y Weibull distribution
large system (meso-scale) driven by high and
Planetary waves
106 10 days
low pressure and a smaller scale (micro-scale)
Fronts and weather systems
driven by local roughness of the surrounding 105 1 day
10 hours
Local wind systems
Duration of motion sec
terrain. The meso scale effects are important 104

1 hour
for the total power production, whereas the
103 Turbulence Showers
10 min
micro scale effects are important for the Convection
102 (thermal conditions)
turbine load level. Notice the relation between 1 min
vortex size in meters (x-axis) and duration in 10
seconds/days (y-axis). 1
Microscale Convective scale Mesoscale
x
Courtesy
0.01 0.1 Courtney,
1 M,10Troen,10
I. 2(1990).
103Wind10
Spectrum
4
105 for 10
one6 year
10of7
continuous 8Hz measurements.
Geographical dimension m Pp 301-304, 9th symposium on Turbulence
and diffusion.

3 | LOADS
TURBULENCE
HEIGHTS
The type of terrain near the turbine has a friction level z
u(z)
on the wind - also denoted a terrain roughness. The
roughness causes a near surface boundary layer with
increasing wind speed for increasing height. The roughness
also creates turbulent vortices with length scales
increasing with height.
DAY VS NIGHT
Temperature effects in the boundary layer has a direct impact on the turbulent flow. The mixing of warm and cold
air near the surface causes unstable conditions yielding increased turbulent mixing - with a large shear in the mean
wind speed.
1.5km
200 m

HEIGHT & TIME
Measured wind speed in different heights at the Høvsøre test site. Cold temperature at night causes very stable
conditions where the heating from the sun causes unstable conditions with a significant turbulent mixing.
Wind speed, mean

14.0
116m
12.0 100m
Wind speed (m/s)
80m
10.0 60m
40m
8.0
10m
6.0
4.0
2.0
00:00 03:00 06:00 09:00 12:00 15:00 18:00 21:00 24:00
Time of day
TERRAIN
A change in terrain roughness cause a change in tubulence regions with height. Here is an example of water - to -
land change causing the lowest level to be dominated by high turbulence (land conditions), the highest level with low
turbulence (water conditions) and an intermediate zone in between.
Wind 10m
5m
2m 2m 2m
2m
Water 40m 80m 120m

3 | LOADS
AERODYNAMICS
AIRFOIL TERMINOLOGY
2D airfoil terminology
Angle of Leading edge Upper surface

attack
Camber
Relative velocity
Lower surface
Chord line Mean line Downwas
h angle
Trailing edge
LIFT & DRAG

Lift
The presence of an airfoil in a flow will cause a Drag
bending of the air flow. As the air particles are
forced downwards due to the pressure induced
by the airfoil, there will be an equal sized reaction
force from the flow to the airfoil. This is the lift
Airfoil Lift
force. For increasing angles of attack the lift force motion
Drag
also increases until a point where separation
occurs which lowers the lift and increase the drag
force.
Lift
Drag

VORTEX
Detailed vortex system behind
a turbine. (In this particular
case a two-bladed downwind
turbine). The tip and root vortex
system can be seen as well as
the tower shadow. Details of
the aerodynamic rotor/tower
interaction are seen on the right.
Courtesy Zahle, F., Sørensen, N. N., & Johansen, J. (2009). Wind Turbine 1x wind turbine
Rotor-Tower Interaction Using an Incompressible Overset Grid Method.
Wind Energy, 12(6), 594-619. 10.1002/we.327
WAKE
Courtesy: Machefaux, E., Larsen, G. C., & Mann, J. (2015). Multiple Turbine Wakes. DTU Wind Energy. 4x wind turbines
(DTU Wind Energy PhD; No. 0043(EN)).
Wake pattern from a row of 4 turbines behind each other. The wind speed reduction seen with red colors “waves” in
a pattern caused by the large scale structures in the incoming free wind field. This has a direct negative impact on
the production and also causes increased load levels on the downwind turbines.

3 | LOADS
STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS
OPERATIONAL FREQUENCY
A wind turbine is a highly flexible structure. The blades deflect noticeable, but the tower and main shaft are also
highly dynamic - and low damped dynamic systems.
1P, 2P, 3P, etc

Blade loading from turbulence
3P, 6P, 9P
Tower loading from turbulence
0P, 1P
Foundation loading from turbulence
MODE SHAPES
Natural frequencies and modeshapes of a
turbine in standstill with the rotor shaft
locked. The order of mode shapes is
more or less always the same. Frequen-
cies decrease for larger turbines. The
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
first two modes mainly consist of tower f= 0.4173 Hz f= 0.4187 Hz f= 1.0553 Hz
motion (lateral and logitudinal), the next

three modes are dominated by blade
flapwise bending, then two edgewise
blade bending modes and above this the
second blade bending modes appear. Mode 4
f= 1.1100 Hz
Mode 5
f= 1.1583 Hz
Mode 6
f= 1.3467 Hz
Mode shapes with frequencies above 5Hz

do normally not contribute to dynamic
loads on the structure.
Mode 7 Mode 8 Mode 9

f= 1.4575 Hz f= 1.4766 Hz f= 2.5370 Hz

NATURAL FREQUENCY DURING ROTATION
When the turbine rotates, the assymetric rotor modes change frequency. They enter whirl mode. The modes split up
with +/- 1P seen from a fixed frame of reference (eg. the tower system). In a rotating coordinates system (following
the blade) the blade frequencies remain the same as a standstill – but may be increased slightly due to centrifugal
stiffening. The frequencies therefore appear differently depending on which component that is observed.
Courtesy Hansen, M. H. (2003). Improved modal dynamics of wind turbines to avoid stall-induced vibrations. Wind Energy, 6, 179-195. 10.1002/we.79

PART II
4 | VIBRATIONS
Aeroelastic instability
5 | FAILURES
Failure modes
Root causes
Safety margins
6 | TESTING
Hybrid testing/hybrid simulation
7 | DAMAGE
Damage, defect & failure
NDT
8 | FRACTURE MECH.
Fracture modes
Crack loading
Cohesion strength in composites
4 | VIBRATIONS
VIBRATIONS
NATURAL FREQUENCY
Blades have different natural frequencies depending on the direction of vibration i.e. flapwise,
edgewise and twisting/torsion. Natural frequencies are the inherent frequencies which a
blade will adopt its free vibrations when set in motion by a single impact or a momentarily
displacement from its rest position, while not being influenced by other external forces. A
blade has many different natural frequencies and each has its own distinct mode of vibration.
However, the lower the frequency is – the larger the amplitude of that mode's vibration. Hence,
in practice it is just a few of the lowest frequencies that are governing the overall vibration of
the blade. The natural frequencies of a blade are given by the stiffness, mass-distribution and
damping of the structure.
RESONANCE
Resonance can occur when a blade is excited by external periodic forces at a frequency close
to one of its natural frequencies. Small periodic forces at a resonant frequency can build up to
produce large and violent oscillations of the structure. If the resonance occurs, the structure
could in the worst case collapse.
DAMPING
Damping reduces the amplitude of vibrations in a structure by dissipation energy from the
system. Energy can be dissipated in the structure due to friction and generation of heat or by
means of mechanical devices i.e. a viscous damper (dashpot).

Amplitude RESONANCE OCCURS
of vibration
NO DAMPING
Frequency of excitation
Amplitude
of vibration
WITH DAMPING
RESONANCE OCCURS
Amplitude RESONANCE OCCURS

of vibration
INCREASED
STIFFNESS

4 | VIBRATIONS
AEROELASTIC INSTABILITY
TWO PHENOMENAS
The phenomenon of aeroelastic instability, also called flutter, can can occur due to the structural
flexibility of wind turbines. Structural deformations induce changes in aerodynamic forces, i.e.
operation above rated speed or during standstill or parked position. The additional aerodynamic
forces cause an increase in the structural deformations, which lead to greater aerodynamic
forces in a feedback process.
The additional forced vibrations interacting with one or two of the blade natural modes of
vibration can result in violent self-feeding vibrations - such as classical flutter, stall flutter
and galloping. Self-feeding vibrations might result in catastrophic structural blade failure, if
resonance occurs.
Vibrations
Wind flow

CLASSICAL FLUTTER involves the coupling between Classical Flutter
torsional- and flapwise-vibration.
Flow
IN OPERATION
STALL FLUTTER involves the coupling
Classical Flutter between separated Stall Flutter
and attached flow to the surface of the blade in a cyclic
manner.
Flow Flow Flo
GALLOPING involves only separated flow over bluff

Stall Flutter Galloping
structures. PARKED / STANDSTILL
Flow Flow

5 | FAILURES
FAILURE MODES (1)

FIVE MODES OF FAILURE
Failures are catagorized in 5 defined failure modes:
CERTIFICATION
Used in
Failure Mode Recommended industry Required Mentioned
1 Buckling (non-linear approach) YES YES NO YES

2 Bondlines (Peeling test) YES (YES) NO YES
3 Skin debonding from core (Test) YES (NO) NO NO
4 Interlaminar failure (Bending test) YES (NO) NO NO
5 Strain based (failure criteria) NO YES YES YES

BUCKLING (FAILURE MODE 1)
Buckling is a non-linear in-plane stability phenomena. It can be predicted by non-linear FEM.
Using a combined loading load case for both numerical simulations and testing will capture
the phenomenon.
Premises for failure: The bending of the blade due to aerodynamic forces and reduced
buckling capacity of the blade in mid span and mid span towards the tip creates premises for
failure.
Buckling in the trailing edge

5 | FAILURES
Bond line width
FAILURE MODES (2-3)
BONDLINES, TE (FAILURE MODE 2)
Bondlines
The magnitude of the peeling stresses is not influenced by the bond line width.
The peeling stresses will have the same magnitude regardless of the width of the bond lines.
Bond
Bond line
line width
width
Bond
Bond line
line width
width
Different lengths of the bond line
Crack in trailing edge

bondline due to
peeling stresses

Skin
Skin debonding
debonding
SKIN DEBONDING (FAILURE MODE 3)
Skin debonding refers to the detachment of the skin from the core material. Full-scale
testing or subcomponent test can be used to capture this.
core
core
Skin/face
Skin/facesheets
sheets
debonding
debonding
debonding
debonding

5 | FAILURES
FAILURE MODES (4-5)

INTERLAMINAR FAILURE (FAILURE MODE 4)
Bending of the laminate causes interlaminar failure
Undeformed
Deformed
Strains

STRAIN BASED FAILURE (FAILURE MODE 5)
Strain based failure criteria is not valid for wind turbine blades composites due to:
- In-plane strain levels are much lower than the actual capacity of the fibers
- Bending generates interlaminar stresses and peeling in bondlines that could cause failure
Wind turbine blades have thick laminates which are very strong in the fiber direction but
very weak in out-of-plane direction that will lead to delamination. Due to the airfoil shape
of wind turbine blades and the structural design with unsupported panels, the laminates
experience bending that causes out-of-plane stresses. While in-plane loads are effectively
carried by fibers, out-of-plane loads are controlled by matrix strength which it is sensitive
to the presence of defects such as porosity and debonding. For wind turbine blades strain
based failure criteria is not relevant since it does not identify the major blade failure modes
(buckling, bondlines, skin debonding and interlaminar failure).

5 | FAILURES
ROOT CAUSE 1
SHEAR DISTORTION
OPERATIONAL FATIGUE
Normal operation
> Cross sectional shear distortion (CSSD)
> Bondlines damage
Bondlines damage
Hot spots
Deformed shape
Peeling stresses appear in the adhesive bondlines along the
Un-deformed shape blades in certain hot spots

The combination of edgewise loads and aerodynamic
forces result in load combinations which could end up into
a critical cross sectional shear distortion. This distortion
gives a deformation that can lead to bondlines damage.
AERODYNAMIC
TWIST COUNTERTWIST
FORCES
Aerodynamic forces Aerodynamic forces Aerodynamic forces
Gravity Gravity
Twisting Twisting

5 | FAILURES
ROOT CAUSE 2
PANEL BREATHING
OPERATIONAL FATIGUE
Normal operation
> Panel breathing
> Bondlines damage
Blade panel deformations induced by edgewise gravity induced loads during any
operation of any wind turbine makes the panels breath.

Deformed shape
Un-deformed shape
BONDLINES DAMAGE
There is a direct connection between the breathing

and the peeling stresses in the adhesive bond lines: The
higher the magnitude of breathing, the higher the peeling
stresses.
Bond line width
Debonded
shear web
Peeling in the adhesive
bondlines
Undeformed panel
Suction side
Deformed panel
Pressure side

5 | FAILURES
ROOT CAUSE 3
ROOT TRANSITION ZONE
OPERATIONAL FATIGUE
Normal operation
>Panel bending and shear forces
> Root failures
Operational fatigue In the transition zone the blade has relatively

fast changes from convex to concave geometry
as well as tapering in two dimensions. This adds
up to a very complex geometry and will be
critical to failures.
Convex surface
Concave surface

Complex load scenarios

5 | FAILURES
SAFETY MARGINS
Large differences can be found in the safety margins against various types of failure modes,
which indicates that current wind turbine blade designs need to be optimized to a higher
degree with regards to structural strength.
The chain is only as strong as its weakest link.
Unit Force
Material Strength-
inplane loads
Safety Strength-
4x t Unit Force
Material
inplane loads
Safety 4x t
TYPICAL CHAIN OF MARGINS: Structural Strength-
Safety 1x t
Weaknesses are perceived Structural Strength-
Safety 1x t
Material Strength-
out-of-plane loads
compensated by strengthening Safety 1x t
Material Strength-
out-of-plane loads
other links. Buckling Strength-
Safety 1.2x t
Safety 1x t
Unit Force Buckling Strength-

Safety 1.2x t
Unit Force
2x Unit Force
Material Strength-
inplane loads
NEW DESIGN PHILOSOPHY: Safety 2x t 2x Unit Force
Material Strength-
inplane loads
Strict focus on strengthening Safety 2x t
Structural Strength-
the weakest link and optimizing Safety 2x t Material Strength-
out-of-plane loads
Structural Strength- Safety 2x t
the other links. Safety 2x t Material Strength-
out-of-plane loads
Buckling Strength- Safety 2x t
Safety 2x1.2x t
2x Unit Force
Buckling Strength-
Safety 2x1.2x t
2x Unit Force

FMEA
Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA)—also "failure modes", plural, in many publications—
was one of the first highly structured, systematic techniques for failure analysis. It was
developed by reliability engineers in the late 1950s to study problems that might arise
from malfunctions of military systems. An FMEA is often the first step of a system reliability
study. It involves reviewing as many components, assemblies, and subsystems as possible
to identify failure modes, and their causes and effects. For each component, the failure
modes and their resulting effects on the rest of the system are recorded in a specific FMEA
worksheet. There are numerous variations of such worksheets.

6 | TESTING
TESTING
LEVELS OF TESTING [SIZE]

FIELD
FULL SCALE
SUB-STRUCTURE
SUB-COMPONENT
MATERIAL
Hybrid testing is sub-structure testing
FIELD
FULL SCALE
3 SUB-STRUCTURE
SUB-COMPONENT
MATERIAL

TESTING
There are different levels of testing. Due to the uncertainty in fatigue behaviour of blade
materials, it is necessary to test as complementary to blade design. According to standard
it is only mandatory to test at material and full-scale level. At the full-scale level it is only
mandatory to test in the pure edgewise and flapwise loading. This loading does not represent
the real field loads. Thus, there is a need to include combined loading and other levels of
testing that represent failure modes.
LENGTH SCALE
Testing is defined on a length scale from micro scale to structural scale
LENGTH SCALE (M)
10-4 10-2 101 102

a. Micro scale b. Laminate scale c. Substructural scale d. Structural scale
0 1cm 2 03 4
1cm 5
2 3 4 5
a. Micro scale b. Laminate scale
c. Substructural scale d. Structural scale

6 | TESTING
HYBRID TESTING/
HYBRID SIMULATION
Blade cut (not full-length blade test)
)
70 m
r (15-
m) om pute
st (0-15 in c
in te lblade
lade igita
ical b D
Phys
Dynamic testing by adding weight block to blade side

Dialogue between physical and digital blade
Hybrid Simulation is a tool that can be used in substructural testing. Testing at present is
performed mainly on laminate and full scale level.

7 | DAMAGE AND DEFECTS
DAMAGE, DEFECT & FAILURE

DEFINITIONS OF TERMS
DAMAGE:
Harm or physical change that impair the normal function of a blade
(from an impact, fatigue, wear and tear, etc.).
DEFECT:
A flaw or a weakness in a blade that cause failure.
FAILURE:
The loss of an intended function due to a defect (tensile, shear, compressive etc.).
COLLAPSE:
Complete failure of a blade impossible to repair. Replacement needed.
DAMAGE- / FAILURE- / DEFECT-TYPES (EXAMPLES)
• Defects are faults in the blade that might come from manufacturing.
• Failures are faults in the blade that have occured during the lifetime of the blade, due to
outside events (excessive loads, fatigue of materials, etc.)
• A lightning strike which results at the opening of the trailing edge of the blade is
considered as damage on the blade.
• The failure of the adhesive in a joint due to excessive loading is considered as a defect
for the blade, but as a failure for the adhesive joint.
• The lack of adhesive in a joint is a manufacturing defect.
• A failure of a root bolt can lead to a defect on the root.

DAMAGE CATEGORY DEFINITION
The blade damages can be prioritized when it comes to the impact they have on the wind
turbine blade itself. To define the category of the damage, it is important to assess the
location, the impact and the time it requires to repair the damage. Below the different
categories are described as a guideline to use when inspecting the blades.
CATEGORY DAMAGE ACTION TURBINE
1
Cosmetic No need for immediate action Continue
Readings of lightning system Operation
below 50mΩ
2
Damage, below wear and tear Repair only if other damages Continue
are to be repaired Operation
3
Damage, above wear and tear Repair done within next 6 Continue
Readings of lightning system months Operation
above 50mΩ
4
Serious damage Repair performed within next Continue
3 months. Operation
Damage monitored
STOP
5
Critical damage Immediate action required to
prevent turbine damage. Operation
safety is not
Contact technical support ensured
NB! More information about damages and inspections can be found in the NGIR-reports (Next Generation Inspection
Reports), please contact Bladena to require these documents.

NDT
DETECTION OF DEFECTS IN WTG BLADES
8. LIGHTNING RECEPTOR SYSTEM
b. Thermography
2. AIR INCLUSIONS/ c. Shearography

POROSITIES
d. Digital X-ray
1. DELAMINATION
5. KISSING BOND
3. DRY AREA
At the trailing edge
a. Ultrasonic testing
7. WRINKLES IN LAMINATES
5. KISSING BOND
or missing glue
6. SKIN/FACE SHEET DEBONDING

4. ADHESIVE DEFECTS
Potential defects and the different NDT methods
Kissing bond
Can be difficult to detect because there is almost
no visual difference when blade is stopped. It
is preferable to use automated UT (Ultra-sonic
BLADE IN MOTION BLADE STOPPED testing) for detection. It enables the possibility to
compare adjacent areas.

DEFECTS DETECTED WITH NDT
1. Delamination: Lack of fusion between layers/ two fiber laminates which are
separated.
2. Air inclusions/Porosities: Small or large air pockets or impurities in material.
3. Dry areas: Lack of resin.
4. Adhesive defects: Adhesive not present, insufficient amount of adhesive or not
placed correctly.
5. Kissing bond: Little or no adhesion.
6. Skin/face sheet debonding: The deattachment of the outer or inner skin from
the core on a sandwich material.
7. Wrinkles in glass/carbon fiber laminates: Misalignment of fibers before or during
curing.
8. Placing and integrity of Lightning Receptor System: Are Receptors and internal
connectors intact and placed correctly?
6. Skin/face sheet debonding
7. Wrinkles in UD laminates
3. Dry area 2. Air inclusions/

Porosities
5. Kissing bond
4. Adhesive defects
1. Delamination

NDT
DETECTION METHODS
CCD camera CCD camera

Transciever Transciever Light source Light Light
sourcesource Light source
Heat source HeatHeat
source
source Heat source
IR-Camera IR-Camera
Reflected EmittedReflected Emitted

waves waves waves waves
Transmitter Reciever
Normal bond Delamination N

Acoustic energy
a. ULTRASONIC b. THERMOGRAPHIC
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is a Thermographic inspection refers
family of non-destructive to the non-destructive testing
testing techniques based on the
Lightning system Lightning system
of parts, materials or systems
propagation of ultrasonic waves through the imaging of the
in the object orUDmaterial
Wrinkles in laminate tested. Wrinkles in UD laminate thermal patterns at the object’s
Perpendicular to surface Perpendicular to surface Parallel to surface Parallel to surface
surface.
Cracks Cracks
Parallel to surface Parallel to surfacePerpendicular to surface Perpendicular to surface

Gelcoat disbond Gelcoat disbond
Thick laminate ThickThin
laminate
laminate Thin laminate
CCD
CCD camera
camera
Kissing bond Kissing bond
Light
Light source
source Light
Light source
source
Heat source Thick laminate ThickThin
laminate
Heat source
Adhesive defects Adhesive defects
Thick laminate ThickThin

laminate
X-ray
X-ray emitter
emitter
Dry areas Dry areas
Transmitter
Transmitter Reciever
Reciever
Air inclusions Air inclusions a. Ultrasonic

Thick laminate Thick laminate b. Thermographic
Thin laminate Thin laminate
c. Shearography
Delamination Delamination d. Bond testing
e. Digital X-ray
Normal
Normal bond
bond
Parallel Delamination
Delamination
to surface Parallel to surface Perpendicular to surface Perpendicular to surface
Acoustic
Acoustic energy
energy
c. SHEAROGRAPHY d. DIGITAL X-RAY

Shearography uses coherent Digital radiography is a form of
light or coherent soundwaves X-ray imaging, where digital
to provide information about X-rayLightning
sensors
Lightning are used instead
system
system
the quality of different materials of traditional photographic

in non-destructiveParallel
testing
Parallel
to to and
surface
surface film. Advantages
Wrinkles
Wrinkles in UD
in UD laminate
laminate
includePerpendicular
time
Perpendicularto to surface
surface Parallel
Parallel to to surfac
surface
defect detection. efficiency through Cracks

Cracks
bypassing
Perpendicular
Perpendicular to to surface
surface chemical processing and theto tosurface
Parallel
Parallel surface Perpendicular
Perpendicular to to surface
surface
Thick
Thick laminate
laminate Thin
Thin laminate
laminate
abilityGelcoat
to digitally
Gelcoat disbond transfer and
disbond
Thick
Thick laminate
laminate Thin
Thin laminate
laminate
enhance images.
Kissing
Kissing bond
bond
Thick
Thick laminate
laminate Thin
Thin laminate
laminate Thick
Thick laminate
laminate Thin
Thin laminate
laminate
Adhesive
Adhesive defects
defects
Thick
Thick laminate
laminate
68 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™
Thin
Thin laminate
laminate
A shared lingo for the future of wind Thick
Thick laminate
laminate Thin
Thin laminate
laminate
DryDry areas
areas
a. Ultrasonic
a. Ultrasonic
AirAir inclusions
inclusions
b. Thermographic
b. Thermographic
NDT METHODS GRADING SYSTEM
Rating of the NDT detection probability for different defects.
Worst Best
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
[1] DELAMINATION
[2] AIR INCLUSIONS
[3] DRY AREAS
[4] ADHESIVE DEFECTS
[5] KISSING BOND
[6] SKIN/FACE SHEET DEBONDING Thin laminate
Thick laminate
Worst Best
Parallel to surface
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Perpendicular to surface
[7] WRINKLES IN LAMINATE
[1] DELAMINATION a. Ultrasonic

b. Thermographic
c. Shearography
[8] LIGHTNING SYSTEM d. Digital X-ray
[2] AIR INCLUSIONS
Thin laminate
[3] DRY AREAS [9] CRACKS Thick laminate

Worst Best
Parallel to surface
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Perpendicular to surface
[4] ADHESIVE DEFECTS
[1] DELAMINATION a. Ultrasonic

b. Thermographic
c. Shearography
[5] KISSING BOND
d. Digital X-ray
[2] AIR INCLUSIONS
KIN/FACE SHEET DEBONDING

[3] DRY AREAS THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 69
[7] WRINKLES IN LAMINATE

8 | FRACTURE MECHANICS
FRACTURE MODES
DEFINITION
A structure can fail via a propagating crack when a concentrated stress exceeds the material’s
cohesive strength. When a material is subjected to fatigue loading above a certain threshold,
microscopic cracks begin to form in areas with stress concentrations (such as the grain
boundaries in metals or at the fibre-matrix interface in fibre-reinforced composites). The
property which describes the resistance of a material towards the propagation of a crack
is called fracture toughness. The field of mechanics concerned with the study of cracks in
materials is called fracture mechanics.
In a typical structure with defects, if the cracks are sufficiently small, loads redistribute around
cracks with little effect on the global response. Under these conditions, the crack growth
rate can be predicted knowing the material properties, the geometry and the applied loads.
When flaws are sufficiently large, significant load redistribution may lead to uncontrolled crack
propagation, eventually causing the whole structure to fail catastrophically. It is important to
know these operational limits, to inspect and treat damages before they reach a critical size.
The capacity of a structure to fulfill its design function (e.g. to support loads and deform as
expected) under the presence of cracks, is called Damage Tolerance. This term is also used to
describe the design method that takes into account the natural degradation of the materials
and the structural damages occurring during its lifetime. The goal is to provide sufficient safety
and redundancy in case of predictable and unexpected damage.
Safe-life
Safe-life
Safe-life Fail-safe
Fail-safe
Fail-safe Damage
Damage
Damagetolerance
tolerance
tolerance
Damage tolerance as a design principle.
THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

Mode
ModeI/II
I/II
70
FRACTURE AND DAMAGE MODES IN COMPOSITES
In laminated composites, different modes of fracture can be identified:
Interlaminar cracks, (also known as delaminations) are cracks that grow between two plies.
These usually require little energy as they are characterized by low fracture toughness values.
Intralaminar cracks, involve the microscopic debonding between matrix and fibres, and are
typically limited in thickness by the two adjacent plies, but can grow under tension and shear
through a panel.
Translaminar cracks, similar to the previous, but involve the fracture of the fibre by either
traction or compression. Since very high forces are required to fracture fibers, these cracks
typically appear later than the other described above, and are an indication of an advanced
damage state.
Translaminar
cracking
Intralaminar Interlaminar
cracking cracking
z
y
(z - stack direction)
Intralaminar, interlaminar and translaminar cracks.

FRACTURE MODES
FRACTURE AND DAMAGE MODES IN COMPOSITES
Composite materials are made of numerous weaved fibre bundles (the reinforcement)
embedded and held together by a resin material (the matrix). In this highly discontinuous
structure, it is common to observe multiple microscopic cracks in different locations. Being
very small, they are hard to detect with conventional methods, but do not pose any significant
risk: It is found that small cracks are present in a composite structure at an early stage, or
already after manufacturing, but these are largely unaffected by loads for a great part of its
operating life.
For this reason, composites are considered more damage tolerant than metals.
Nevertheless, after prolonged loading, these small cracks may eventually coalesce and form a
450
400
350
300
250
macroscopic fracture. Only at this point, a growing macroscopic crack will start to weaken the
200
150
100
50
0
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
structure, eventually leading to failure. R-curve (carbon/epoxy)

Specimen 1
Specimen 2
Specimen 3
Damage
1. Intralaminar 2. Delamination 3. Crack 4. Failure

fracture coalescence
Fatigue Life 100
Fatigue life: The development of cracks under applied stress.

z
y
FRACTURE MODES IN SANDWICH STRUCTURES
In sandwich x panels, in addition to the fracture modes described above, another type of
damage exists: This involves the adhesion between the face sheet and the core and takes the
(z - stack direction)
name of face-core debonding.
A debonded sandwich panel will not be able to carry the prescribed loads and has much lower
bending stiffness.
An example of sandwich debond and loading mode in

a WTG blade.
P
P1 ,d1
CRACK LOADING
MODES OF CRACK LOADING
There are three types of loading that a crack can experience:
Mode I (tearing): The load is opening the two crack faces apart.
Mode II (sliding): The two crack faces slide with respect each other, parallel to the crack
propagation direction.
Mode III (shearing): The two crack faces slide with respect to each other in the out-of-plane or
transverse direction.
A crack experiences mixed-mode loading when a combination of these three modes is applied.
In homogeneous materials, cracks predominantly advance in the most favourable direction,
which coincides to pure mode I: under mixed-mode loading the crack will tend to orient itself
towards a direction where pure mode I exists.
This is not the case for discontinuous materials such as composites: ply interfaces and fibre
alignment act as boundaries which cracks cannot go through. In this case, cracks are forced
to propagate under mixed-mode and the growth rate depends on the particular mixed-mode
fracture toughness.
Mode I Mode II Mode III

Opening Shearing Tearing
Schematic representations of mode I, mode II and mode III
Fracture Process Zone

TESTING AND CHARACTERIZATION
Several test methods are available to evaluate the fracture toughness of composite laminates.
These tests aim to reproduce the crack deformation shown earlier by applying controlled loads
to a specimen. Standard methods are only available for pure mode I, pure mode II and mixed-
mode I/II. For mode III the only way to have a stable and measurable crack is by applying a
combination of all three modes.
Mode I
Mode I
Double Cantilever Beam (DCB) Mode

specimen
I
for pure mode I

Mode I
Mode I
Mode II
Mode II
End Notched Flexure (ENF) specimen

Mode II for
pure mode II Mode II
Safe-life Fail-safe Damage tolerance
Safe-life Fail-safe Damage tolerance
Mode III
Mode I/II
ModeI/IIIII
Mode
Mode II
Mode III Mode III
Mixed Mode Bending (MMB) specimen

for mixed mode I/II
Mode III
Shear-Torsion-Bending test (STB)

specimen for mixed mode I/II/III

FRACTURE MECHANICS
ENERGY RELEASE DURING CRACK PROPAGATION
A crack in a structure propagates if it has sufficient energy to do so. Several methods are
available to measure the amount of energy released during propagation, in basic terms, this can
be found simply from the load-displacement curve.
The amount of energy “contained” into a crack is called the energy release rate. When a crack
propagates, this quantity reaches a critical value, which takes the name of Fracture Toughness
(Gc). It is found that the fracture toughness is independent from the crack length, it is therefore
a constant material property. These are the fundamental quantities used in linear elastic
fracture mechanics.
PP
P1P,d,d
1 1 1
P2P,d,d aa
2 2 2
Gc
Gc
dd==displacement
displacement
Load displacement curve.

CRACK PROPAGATION RATE
For a generic composite or sandwich material, where cracks can propagate in different modes,
the fracture toughness assumes different values. It is then convenient to identify a curve that
links this with the mode of crack propagation.
2000
1800
1600 Fracture toughness varies depending
G)n
1400 on the mode in which the crack
1200 propagates. For laminated composites,
Gc [J / m2]
1000
mode I is 3 to 5 times weaker than
800
mode II..
n
600
400
200
0
0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 90o
Mixed mode angle
100
m2]
Ultimately, when applying cyclic loads to a structure, the speed at which a crack grows is also
well defined if the loads are expressed using this fundamental material property. The Paris-law
curve, indicates that there is a linear correlation between the energy applied to a crack and the
speed of propagation.
2000
1800
10 -4
da 1600
= C(ΔG)n
dN Note that the quantity G is not equal to
10-5 1400
the applied load. A long crack contains
da/dN [in / cycle]
1200
Gc [J / m2]
a high amount of energy, so it will grow

10-6 1000
faster than a short crack under the
n 800
same loads.
10-7
600
400
10-8
200
10-9 0
0o 15o 30o 45o 60o 75o 9
Mixed mode angle
10 -10
1 10 100
ΔG [J / m2]
Crack growth rate / crack propagation rate.

COHESION STRENGTH IN
COMPOSITES
FRACTURE
Mode PROCESS
I ZONE Mode II Mode III
Opening
It is possible for interlaminar cracks to Shearing Tearing
be characterised by a long fracture process zone. In this
situation, it is not possible to identify a defined crack tip, but there are two distinct regions: A
zone where the material is beginning to be damaged and has reduced strength and a second
region where intact fibres behind the damage front bridge the crack.
Fracture Process Zone
450
Unbonded 400
Damage front
region Fiber bridging
350
Fracture process zone 300

250
200
150
450 100 Phenomena like fibre bridging and
400 friction lead to an increased resistance
50
350 towards fracture as the fracture itself
X2 0 grows (the fracture toughness is not
Gc [J/m²]
300
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
250 δ a constant). A graph correlating these
X2 two quantities takes the name of
200
150
R-curve.
100
50 R-curve Specimen 2
0 Specimen 1 Specimen 3
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035
Crack growth [m]

Example of an R-curve
R-curve Specimen 2
Specimen 1 Specimen 3
COHESIVE ZONE
To accurately characterize such damages, it is convenient to introduce a specialized material
model, a cohesive law. This is a simplified relation that links the forces transmitted between
the two crack faces and the displacement between them, it is thus called traction-separation
relation and is the mathematical representation of the fracture process zone.
Cohesive laws need to be experimentally measured for materials and interfaces. The correct
deduction and implementation of these laws enable the accurate prediction of the behaviour
of cracked composite structures. These are conveniently introduced in numerical Finite
Element tools and used to simulate the propagation of a crack under loads.
X2 σn
δn* δn σn
X1
δn0
δn
a) b)
a) b)
Cohesive zone
Delta(δ) describes the displacement and sigma(σ) describes the stress.
a) Illustration of a cohesive zone, which is specified along the anticipated cracking path
b) Example of the cohesive law describing the relation between the normal stress and the separation

PART III
9 | SERVICE & INSPECTION
Working conditions
Inspection
10 | MARKET
Operation & maintenance
IEC references
Market map
Market & Decision Drivers
Decision Making / Operator's Focus
11 | PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
Design drivers
Storyboarding
WORKING CONDITIONS
ACCESS
2 types of access - indoor or outdoor access
indoor outdoor
acces access

SPACE INSIDE A BLADE
Working conditions are very tight inside a blade
and operations need to be planned well in
advance before going up in the turbine. More
and more companies do not allow confined
workspace.
Highly narrow at R16000
Hatches
(outdoor access)
65
60
175cm
105 53
60
R5000
R10000 R16000
This example is a NM80

INSPECTION
INSPECTION METHODS
Visual inspection
Acoustic emission
Ultrasonic testing
Shearography
Thermography
Digital X-ray
POD (PROBABILITY OF DETECTION)

The probability of detection is used to quantify the ability of an non-destructive testing
procedure for detecting a damage with a given size. For wind turbine blades, there are a
few non-destructive testing procedures that are usually used.
100
For a specific crack size of a, PoD(a)
is the probability that cracks with
Probability of detection [%]
80 the size equal to a is detected is

PoD(a).
60
40
Easy access
20
Moderate access
Difficult access
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Crack size [mm]
This PoD curve was originally referred to a specific NDT technology used in oil & gas industry. It
schematically illustrates the basic idea of PoD. The PoD curves for wind turbine blades may take
another form.
Damage propagation
corresponding to:
Scheduled maintenance
Damage [%]
84 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™

CorrectiveAmaintenance
shared lingo for the future of wind
Condition-based maintenance
10 %10 %
10 %10 %
10 %
INSPECTION LEVELS 10 % 80 %80 %
LEVELLEVEL
1 1 LEVELLEVEL
2 2 LEVELLEVEL
3 3
Using both NDT, outside and inside surface inspection you get the80full picture of the blade’s %
LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3
condition.
10 %
10 %
80 %
LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2 LEVEL 3
The three inspection levels: Outside, inside and NDT inspection. The outside inspection only sees the tip
of the iceberg, by using NDT and inside inspections the whole iceberg can be uncovered.
INSPECTION DATA HANDLING
Photos taken directly on each blade Inspection reports
L2A
LT
L2A
LT
Photos taken with drones or from AI handles the majority of Individual cases are
ground. the data handling reviewed by people
L2A
LT
L2A

LT
85
10 | MARKET
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE

COMPONENTS - CLASSICAL RELIABILITY THEORY
fT(t)
FT(t) RT(t)
fT(t)
0 t t
Reliability function RT (t)
= probability that component life > t
h(t) FT(t) RT(t)
Probability of failure FF (t)
= 1 - RTT (t) = probability of failure of component before time t
0 t t
h(t)
t
‘Bathtub curve’
t
Hazard / failure rate
= average number of failures in a given time interval
[t ; t+Δt] given survival of the component up to time t

100
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE OF WIND TURBINES

80
Corrective (unplanned): Exchange / repair of failed components

60

Preventive (planned): PM is the planned maintenance of plant infrastructure and equipment
40
with the goal of improving equipment life by preventing excess depreciation and impairment.
This maintenance includes, but is not limited to, adjustments,
20
cleaning, lubrication, repairs,
Easy access
Moderate access
replacements and the extension of equipment life: Difficult access

0
0 50 Inspections
Scheduled: 100 after
150predefined
200 scheme.
250 300 350 400
Crack size [mm]
Condition-based: Monitor condition of system and decide if repair is necessary based on
degree of deterioration.
Risk-based: O&M planed based on risk assessment.
Damage propagation
corresponding to:
Scheduled maintenance
Damage [%]
Corrective maintenance
Condition-based maintenance
Time

5
5
t4
10 | MARKET 4

t3
3
t2
2
t1
1
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
Corrective maintenance is based uponDamage
the principle ofT Run toT Failure T T t Failures happen at
T T (RTF).
1 2 3 4 5 F
some discrete points as the stars shown in this figure.

t5
5
t4
Failure
4
t3
3
t2
2
t1
1
TF,1 TF,2 TF,3 TF,4
T T2 T3 T4 T5 TF t
Example of corrective maintenance, the turbines run until failure.
1
D(t)
CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE
DFailure
Condition-based
fail maintenance is a maintenance strategy that recommends maintenance
actions based on the information depicting the current condition of the wind turbine
blades. A model (no matter if it is a physics-based or data-driven model) characterizing
T1 theTwind t
the deterioration of 2 turbine blades, as the continuous curves shown in this
figure, should be defined. Pre-defined decision alternatives (rules) determines the damage
thresholds, and the maintenance
TF,1
actions to be done
TF,2 TF,3
when aT damage reaches one specific
F,4
damage threshold.
D(t)
Dfail
T1 T2 t
Example of condition-based maintenance. Decision alternatives define the damage thresholds.

RISK-BASED OPERATION & MAINTENANCE
Decision Decision Random Decision Random

outcome outcome Total costs
W(z, e, S, d(S), X)
- Initial design cost
- Inspection cost
- Possible maintenance /
repair costs
Initial Inspection/ Inspection/ Maintenance/ - Failure (collapse) costs
design monitoring monitoring repair plan
z plan result d(S)
e S
Optimal decision: Minimum total expected costs in remaining lifetime.
DECISION MAKING
Minimize the total expected total costs (in the remaining lifetime)
Probability of detection
or
Minimize the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)

Decision alternatives / parameters:
• When and how to inspect?
• When and how much to repair / exchange?
• Which decision rule to apply for choosing between repair alternatives?
• Lifetime extension, e.g. 4 years
0 10 20 30 40 50
Crack depth in mm
State Failure
yr r
yr-1 r-1
10 | MARKET

DECISION ALTERNATIVES
x 105
Decision alternatives
9
define the actual maintenance actions for a specific damage observed 100 at
Total maintenance cost [Euro]
an inspection, which is closely associated with the total maintenance costs. Based upon the
8

five-level damage6category scheme (p. 65), five decision alternatives are defined for illustration
80
and are summarized, see below.

5
60
5
It should be noted that for damage category 5 of offshore wind turbines, a heavy lifting vessel
40
4
(HLV) should typically be chartered to carry the equipment for major repair or replacement,
and a crew transfer
3 vessel (CTV) can often be deployed for the other damage categories.
6 months 1 year 18 months 2 years 3 years 4 years 20
Inspection interval
x 105 0
7 0 50
Cost of waittime
Cost of downtime 3 years
6 Cost of vessel
3 years
Cost of technician
Cost of replacement
5 Cost of repair
Cost [Euro]
Cost of inspection
4 1.5 years
1.5 years 1.5 years
3
0 Damage pr
Decision 1 Decision 2 Decision 3 Decision 4 Decision 5
correspond
Decision alternative
Damage [%]
The total maintenance cost for different decision alternatives - Transverse cracks
x 105
dq
9 100
Total maintenance cost [Euro]
= f(...stress intensity factor...)

dN
8
80
6
dq
= C(ΔG) n
dN
5
60
40
4
Damage categories
3
1 2 3
6 months 41 year 518 months 2 years 3 years 4 years 20
Inspection interval
x 10 5 0
Cost trend as 7function of inspection interval – Decision Alternative 2
Cost of waittime 0 50
Cost of downtime 3 years
6 Cost of vessel
3 years
Cost of technician
Cost of replacement
5 Cost of repair
Cost [Euro]
90 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind Cost of inspection
4 1.5 years
1.5 years 1.5 years
3
DECISION ALTERNATIVES - EXAMPLES
DECISION ALTERNATIVE A
1 No action
2 Minor
repair 3 Moderate
repair 4 Moderate
repair 5 Major
repair
DECISION ALTERNATIVE B
1 No action
2 No action
3 Moderate
repair 4 Moderate
repair 5 Major
repair
DECISION ALTERNATIVE C
1 No action
2 No action
3 No action
4 Moderate
repair 5 Major
repair
DECISION ALTERNATIVE D
1 No action
2 No action
3 No action
4 No action
5 Major
repair
DECISION ALTERNATIVE E SIMILAR TO CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
1 No action
2 No action
3 No action
4 No action
5 No action
A decision alternative implies the action “to repair or not to repair” dependent on the current damage
category. Above, five different decision alternatives is shown.

10 | MARKET

RELIABILITY MODEL - DISCRETE MARKOV CHAIN
Damages discretized in categories:
Category Description
1 Cosmetic / no damage
2 Damage below wear and tear
3 Damage above wear and tear
4 Serious damage
5 Critical damage
The Markov model gives the probability of evolution of damage from time step to time step,
e.g. the probability that a damage in category 2 develops to category 3 within the next month.
The model assumes that predictions for the future development of the damage can be made
solely on its present state.
Furtheremore it can be used to estimate e.g. the time to reach a category 5 damage (failure)
given it is in category 1 now, represented by a probability distribution function. Example:
(expected value: 12.4 years and standard deviation 6.5 years):
0.9
0.8
Cumulative Distribution Function CDF [-]
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Time to failure [years]

Maintenance
Corrective Preventive
(Repair after failure) (Repair before failure)
Scheduled Condition based

(Repair before failure) (Repair based on condition)
Maintenance costs
Expected failure costs
Total costs
Expected costs
Optimal strategy
Maintenance effort
The optimal maintenance strategy.

Initial Inspection/ Inspection/ Maintenance/ - Failure (collapse) cost
design monitoring monitoring repair plan
z plan result d(S)
10 | MARKET e S

RELIABILITY MODELING
Reliability modeling is the process of predicting or understanding the reliability of a
component or system prior to its implementation.
Probability of detection
Failure types
a) Failures that can be repaired / maintained
b) Collapse of blade - requiring replacement
A) FAILURE THAT CAN BE REPAIRED/MAINTAINED

Damage categorization model using a discretization of the damage level as shown on page 65.
A Discrete Markov Chain model can be used as a probabilistic model
0 10 20 30 40 50
Crack depth in mm
State Failure
yr r
yr-1 r-1
.
....
.....
y2 2
y1 1
y0 0
T0 T1 T2 ..... Tr-1 Time
Discrete Markov Chain Model -

Discretization is the process of replacing a continuum with a finite set of points.

Cost of technician
Cost of replacement
5 Cost of repair
Cost [Euro]
Cost of inspection
4 1.5 years
1.5 years 1.5 years
3
0
Decision 1 Decision 2 Decision 3 Decision 4 Decision 5
DAMAGE PROPAGATION Decision alternative
Damage is modelled by a continous model
dq (increase per time unit) is modelled by the Paris Law:

The damage growth rate
= f(...stress intensity factor...)
dN
dq
= C(ΔG)n
dN
Damage categories
Damage
1 2 3 4 5
t5
5
t4
4
t3
3
t2
2
t1
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 TF t
Continuos damage propagation

10 | MARKET
IEC REFERENCES
WIND TURBINE STANDARDIZATION IEC
The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) is a worldwide organization for
standardization comprising all national electrotechnical committees. The object of the IEC
is to promote international co-operation on all questions concerning standardization in the
electrical and electronic fields. To this end and in addition to other activities, the IEC publishes
International Standards.
IEC 61400-1 Design requirements
IEC 61400-2 Small wind turbines
IEC 61400-3 Design requirements for offshore wind turbines
IEC 61400-3-2 TS Design requirements for floating offshore wind turbines
IEC 61400-4 Gears for wind turbines
IEC 61400-5 Wind Turbine Rotor Blades
IEC 61400-6 Tower and foundation design
IEC 61400-11 Acoustic noise measurement techniques
IEC 61400-12-1 Power performance measurements of electricity producing

wind turbines
IEC 61400-12-2 Power performance of electricity-producing wind turbines

based on nacelle annemometry
IEC 61400-12-3 Wind farm power performance testing
IEC 61400-13 Measurement of mechanical loads
IEC 61400-14 TS Declaration of sound power level and tonality
IEC 61400-15 Assessment of site specific wind conditions for wind power
stations
IEC 61400-21 Measurement of power quality characteristics
IEC 61400-22 Conformity Testing and Certification of wind turbines

IEC 61400-23 Full-scale structural testing of rotor blades
IEC 61400-24 Lightning protection
IEC 61400-25 Communication
IEC 61400-26 TS Availability
IEC 61400-27 Electrical simulation models for wind power generation
IEC 61400-28 TS Through life management and life extension of wind power assets
DESIGN LOAD CASES IN IEC 61400-1
• Normal operation – power production (DLC 1)

• Power production plus occurrence of fault (DLC 2)
• Start up (DLC 3)
• Normal shut down (DLC 4)
• Emergency shut Down (DLC 5)
• Parked (standing still or idling) (DLC 6)
• Parked and fault Conditions (DLC 7)
• Transport, assembly, maintenance and Repair (DLC 8)

10 | MARKET
MARKET MAP
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT
The development of a wind project – from the need is defined till the site is cleaned up
after decommissioning – involves several stakeholders each performing various activities as
specified below. The lead of the work till commissioning of the project is the Developer. After
that, the lead is called the Operator. Developer and Operator can be the same entity, but both
PROJECT DEVELOPMENT - CAPEX
Developer
Owners engineer
Financial advisor
FINANCING PLANNING &

SITING INFRASTRUCTURE C
(TENDERING) PROCUREMENT
Identification and Grid connection Business concept Final micrositing and M

securement of land and case project layout
Wind ressource PPA/income Equity investor Procurement of L

assessment model equipment and civil
works
Environmental studies Overall construction Debt financing Construction plan and C

plan permit i
Grid connection Building permits and Construction financing Insurance covering C

feasibility and loss required approvals
analysis
List of approved/ Contractual strategy Liability coverage plan

accepted turbines
Mico-siting and AEP Project plan and budget

estimate

will work for the Owner of the project. The current trend is that the Developer develops and
owns the project, and also operate for a short period of time after commissioning, and hence
is the operator for a while. Then the project is sold of to investors (new owners), but often
the Operators continue.
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE - OPEX
Operator
EPC contractor
Insurance company
Equity investor and financial institution
CONSTRUCTION OPERATION DECOMISSIONING
Manufacture Inspection Closing down
Logistics Service De-commisioning
Construction and Maintenance Clean-up

installation
Commisioning Repairs
Retrofits
Upgrades and
repowering

10 | MARKET
MARKET MAP
WIND TURBINE OPERATION & MAINTENANCE EXECUTION OPTIONS
The current trend among utilities (owners of distribution nets and end-users) with bidding
out projects in public tendering covering both financing, construction and operation of a
project paid by the developer via procurement of the electricity production to the tendered
Fit-in-Tariff is effectively an outsourcing of the operation and maintenance to an operator.
Identification Assesment
What are the risks? What is the likelihood of the risk
$ Return (benefit)
occuring?
$
OWNER'S/
Investment (cost)
= ROI
OPERATION IN OPERATION OUTSIDE WAR-
How severe will the risk impact
be? OPERATION OUTSIDE WAR-
PROJECT WARRANTY Monitoring RANTYControl RANTY
DEVELOPER'S
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN
Has the situation changed?
Are there new risks emerging? IN HOUSE What can we do to reduce
the impact of the risk? OUTSOURCED
n = Number of cash flows
RISK LEVEL
CFj
IRR
= Cash flow at period j
= Internal Rate of Return
Identification
What are the risks?
Assesment
What is the likelihood of the risk
k level $ Return (benefit)
occuring?
k
0 = ∑ CFj = 1ROI
(1 IRR)-n
j
(1
∑ nq
IRR)q<j CF0 How severe will the risk impact
Investment (cost)
j=1 IRR CONTINUOUS
be?
Turbine OEM Full outsourcing of both
1
$
IMPROVEMENT
Monitoring Control O&M to Operator (could be

Has the situation changed? AN What can we do to reduce
tendering)
DO
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN Are there new risks emerging? PL the impact of the risk?
ntracts n = Number of cash flows
dmin Contract realized revenue
CFj = Cash flow at period j
$ Return (benefit)
Contract realized total costIRR
for delivery
occuring? K
Contract margin
= ROI EC risk impact
AC
k
1 (1 IRR)-n
∑ nq
How severe will the
CH
j
0 = ∑ CFj (1 IRR)q<j CF0

CONTINUOUS
T
Investment (cost) be?

j=1 IRR
IMPROVEMENT
Maintenance Contract with
2
Monitoring Control
ASTRUCTURE FINANCING PLANNING & CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONHas DE-COMISSIONING
the situation changed? What can we do to reduce
theNimpact of the risk?
Turbine OEM
(TENDERING)
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURNPROCUREMENT
Identification
Are there new risks emerging? Assesment
LA
DO
nnection
benefit)
n =concept
Business
and case
Number of cash flows
Final micrositing
and project layout
Manufacture Inspection What are thedown
Closing risks? What isPthe likelihood of the risk
PLAN
CFj = Cash flow at period j occuring?
=IRRROI= Internal Rate of Return How severe will the risk impact
ntract
ome realized revenue
ent (cost) Equity investor Procurement of Logistics Service De-commisioning
be? DO
ntract realized total kcost for delivery
1 (1 IRR)equipment
-n and j
∑ nq
0 = ∑ CFj (1
civil works IRR)q<j CF0
CONTINUOUS K
EC
ntract margin IRR
AC
j=1
Monitoring Control
IMPROVEMENT CH
construction Debt financing Construction plan Construction and Maintenance Clean-up
ACT CHECK
T
and permit installation
Fleet wide organisation. Maintenance Contract
3
Has the situation changed? What can we do to reduce
g permits and Construction Insurance covering Commisioning Repairs
the impact of the risk?
TE OF RETURN financing
d approvals Identification
Are there new risks emerging? Assesment Either with own or sourced service with independent service
= Number of cash flows What are the risks? What is theLA
N
likelihood of the risk
DO
ANCING
tual strategy PLANNING
Liability
= Cash flow at period
plan
coverage
j & CONSTRUCTION OPERATION
Retrofits DE-COMISSIONING
occuring?P engineers or a combination of provider
OI
NDERING) PROCUREMENT
be?
those two.
Inspection Upgrades andClosing down
ness
case
concept
plan and
1 (1 IRR)-n j
Final micrositing
and(1
project
∑ nq
layout
Manufacture
repowering PLAN
IRR) q<j
CF0
for delivery
IRR CONTINUOUS
Monitoring Control
IMPROVEMENT CK
AC
ty investor Procurement of Logistics Service De-commisioning DO HE

What can we do to reduce
RegionalC organisation.
T
equipment and
Has the situation changed?
4
civil works
Are there new risks emerging? the impact of the risk?
t financing Construction plan Construction and Maintenance Clean-up Either with own or sourced service
AN
ws
and permit installation ACT CHECK
DO
j
CONSTRUCTION OPERATION DE-COMISSIONING
PL engineers or a combination of
LANNING &
those two.
struction
urn Insurance covering
ROCUREMENT
cing
∑ nq
1 IRR)q<j CF0
nal micrositing
lity coverage
d project layout
Manufacture Inspection
Retrofits
Closing down
CONTINUOUS
PLAN
IMPROVEMENT K
EC
AC
ocurement of Logistics Service De-commisioning

Upgrades and DO CH and
Localautonomous at project
T
5
uipment and repowering
il works
level.
AN
DO
nstruction plan
d permit
Construction and
installation
Maintenance Clean-up
PL ACT Either with own or sourced service
CHECK
CONSTRUCTION OPERATION DE-COMISSIONING engineers or a combination of
urance covering Commisioning Repairs
those two.
Manufacture Inspection Closing down
Retrofits PLAN K
EC
AC
CH
T
Logistics Service De-commisioning

Upgrades and DO
repowering
Construction and Maintenance Clean-up

ACT CHECK
Nnstallation
OPERATION DE-COMISSIONING
Inspection Closing down
PLAN
Retrofits
Service De-commisioning DO
Upgrades and
repowering
WIND PROJECT LIABILITIES AND INSURANCE COVERAGE OPTIONS
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION LIABILITY IN LIABILITY WTO INSURANCE

WARRANTY OUTSIDE OPTIONS
WARRANTY
WEAR AND TEAR Natural and inevitable degra- WTO WTO O&M cover, but only to cover
dation of the blade due to unexpected peaks in cost.
operation as per the operation-
al procedure.
OPERATION Damages due to operation Faulty operation: WTO None.

outside operational manual, WTO
faulty maintenance/inspections Other:
(or lack of), and faulty repairs. OEM
QUALITY Quality issues in material, OEM WTO Extended Warranty and/or O&M
workmanship, production Cover. Business interruption.
methods, transport, storage and Serial defects will only be
installation. covered until is is realised that
they are serial defects. If serial,
regress towards OEM.
DESIGN Either defects due to faulty OEM OEM Latent Defects and Business
cotnfiguration/selection of interruption. Regress towards
turbine or serial defects. OEM.
ACT OF GOD Lighting, flooding, extreme WTO WTO All risk and business
weather interruption.
ACCIDENT Any accidental damages to WTO WTO All risk and business
assets. interruption.
WILFUL Theft, vandalism, sabotage, WTO WTO Operator’s risk and business
terrorism interruption.
Most insurance policies include an element of own risk/deductibles. Hence, regardless of

insurance coverage, most events will equal cost for the WTO. Further, there will a coverage limit,
both on incident level and annual level.
10 | MARKET
MARKET MAP
WHAT DRIVES WHO WHEN IN A WIND PROJECT
Although the overall driver for the total project lifetime profitability is the full LCOE with all
its components, each stakeholder will sub-optimize on other cost components. As all other
projects, the construction, operation and maintenance of a wind project, there are inherent
conflicts among the stakeholders as regards to priorities in each specific situation.
STAKEHOLDER KEY DECISION STAKEHOLDER’S CHOICE OF WIND

DRIVER OPERATIONAL TURBINE OEM
FOCUS
END-USER Cost of Energy “Operational Profit” LCOE

The ultimate purchaser of the
produced electricity.
UTILITY (OFF-TAKER AND Cost of Energy Continuous Business LCOE

DISTRIBUTOR) and Availability Improvement
Owner of the distribution net,
end-users and effectively the
off-taker of the produced
electricity.
OPERATOR Operational Profit Continuous Business AEP and LCOE

Operator of either a single Improvement
project or a portfolio of projects.
Income model purely by sell of
energy.
OWNER Operational Profit Continuous Business Return on Investment

Owner of a project. Typically, a Improvement
special purpose company and
owned by either by an utility or
by an operator.
PROJECT DEVELOPER Contract Margin Risk Management AEP and Brand

Developer of a project.
OWNER’S ENGINEER Contract Margin Risk Management AEP, Availability and

Engineering companies offering Brand
engineering services to the Owner,
Project Developer or Operator
during the lifetime of a project,
predominantly during project
development.
FINANCIAL ADVISOR Contract Margin Risk Management Brand

Company who support the project
developer in seeking and finding
financing of a project.
INVESTOR Return of Investment Risk Management Brand and Return of

Investor, Fund, Utility or OEM Investment
102 THE BLADE
providing equity HANDBOOK™
for a project. A shared lingo for the future of wind
FINANCIAL INSTITUTION Contract Margin Risk Management Brand and Return of

Bank, Fund, Investor or Export Investment
project or a portfolio of projects.
Income model purely by sell of
energy.
OWNER Operational Profit Continuous Business Return on Investment

Owner of a project. Typically, a Improvement
special purpose company and
by an operator.
PROJECT DEVELOPER Contract Margin Risk Management AEP and Brand

Developer of a project.

Engineering companies offering Brand
engineering services to the Owner,
Project Developer or Operator
STAKEHOLDER
during the lifetime of a project,
KEY DECISION STAKEHOLDER’S CHOICE OF WIND
predominantly during project DRIVER OPERATIONAL TURBINE OEM
development. FOCUS
END-USER Cost of Energy “Operational Profit” LCOE

The ultimate purchaser of the
Company who support the project
produced electricity.
UTILITY (OFF-TAKER AND Cost of Energy Continuous Business LCOE
DISTRIBUTOR) and Availability Improvement
Owner
INVESTORof the distribution net, Return of Investment Risk Management Brand and Return of
end-users and effectively the Investment
Investor, Fund, Utility or OEM
off-taker of the produced
providing equity for a project.
electricity.
FINANCIAL
OPERATOR INSTITUTION Contract Margin
Operational Profit Risk Management
Continuous Business Brand
AEP and
and Return of
LCOE
Operator of Investor
Bank, Fund, either a single
or Export Improvement Investment
project or a portfolio
Credit Agency of projects.
providing
Income model
debt-based purely by
financing for sell of
a project.
energy.
EPC CONTRACTOR
OWNER Contract Margin
Operational Profit Risk Management
Continuous Business CAPEXon Investment
Return
Company
Owner of aexecuting the full EPC
project. Typically, a Improvement
contractpurpose
special (Turbines, electrical
company andwork
and civil work) for a project.
by an operator.
INSURANCE COMPANY
PROJECT DEVELOPER Contract Margin Risk Management Brand
AEP and Brand
Companiesof
Developer providing
a project.insurance
coverage of project liabilities.

Engineering
TURBINE OEM companies offering Contract Margin Continuous Business Brand
engineering servicesManufacturer
Original Equipment to the Owner, Improvement
Project
deliver Developer or Operator
the wind turbines for the
during
project.the lifetime of a project,
predominantly during project
development.
IN-HOUSE SERVICE Cost and Availability Continuous Business Maintainability and OPEX
ORGANIZATION Improvement
Operator’swho
Company ownsupport
service the project
organization.
SERVICE CONTRACT Contract Margin Continuous Business Contract Margin and

HOLDER Improvement Company Risk
INVESTOR Return of Investment Risk Management Brand and Return of
Service provider (either Management (Serial
Investor, Fund, Utility or OEM Investment
independent or OEM Defects)
providing equity for a owned)
project.
holding a long-term service
contract with operator.
FINANCIAL INSTITUTION Contract Margin Risk Management Brand and Return of
Bank, Fund, Investor or Export Investment
Credit Agency providing
debt-based financing for a project.
EPC CONTRACTOR Contract Margin Risk Management CAPEX

Company executing the full EPC
contract (Turbines, electrical work
and civil work) for a project.
INSURANCE COMPANY Contract Margin Risk Management Brand

Companies providing insurance
10 | MARKET
MARKET & DECISION DRIVERS

RETURN ON INVESTMENT
In priciple:
$ Return (benefit)
= ROI
$
Investment (cost)
$ Return (benefit)
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURNROI =

Investment (cost)
However, to include the time factor, most often calculated as Internal Rate of Return, via
discounted cash flows: CFj = Cash flow at period j
IRR = Internal Rate of Return
k ∑ nq
1 (1 IRR)-n j

j=1 IRR
Are
CFj = Cash flow at period j
IRR = Internal Rate of Return
k ∑ nq
1 (1 IRR)-n
j

j=1 IRR
ed revenue
ed total cost for delivery
gin
venue
1/4 Business
Improvement
Risk level
$ Return (benefit)
1/2 3/4
= RO
$
Investment (cost)
OPERATIONAL PROFIT AND CONTRACT MARGIN
Company level (given period):
Operational revenue n = Number of cash fl

Total direct cost for delivery of contracts CFj = Cash flow at perio
Gross margin IRR = Internal Rate of Re
evel Sales and general overhead and admin Contract realiz
k
Depreciation and amortization 1 (1Contract
IRR)-nrealiz
j
0 = ∑ CFj
Operational profit j=1 Contract
IRR marg
Contract level (given period):
SITING INFRASTRUCTURE FINANCING

racts (TENDERING
min Contract realized revenue
Identification and Grid connection Business concep
Contract realized of
securement total cost for delivery and case
land margin
Contract
Wind ressource PPA/income Equity investor

assessment model
Environmental Overall construction Debt financing

studies plan
STRUCTURE FINANCING PLANNING & CONSTRUCTIO
(TENDERING) PROCUREMENT
Grid connection Building permits and Construction
feasibility and loss required approvals financing
nection Business concept
analysis Final micrositing Manufacture
and case and project layout
10 | MARKET
MARKET & DECISION DRIVERS

LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY (LCOE)
CAPEX + OPEX
LCOE =
AEP
LCOE: Levelized cost of energy (Euro/Mwh)

CAPEX: Capital expenditure (Euro)
OPEX: Operational costs (Euro)
AEP: Annual energy production (MWh)
or
LCOE: Levelized cost of energy (Euro2012/Mwh)

I0: Capital expenditure in Euro
At: Annual operating costs in Euro in year t
Mel: Produced electricity in the corresponding year in MWh
i: Weighted average cost of capital in %
n: Operational lifetime (20 years)
t: Individual year of lifetime (1, 2, ..., n)
Wind Turbines
CAPEX (€/year) Foundations
Electrical
infrastructure
Assembly &
installation
Levelized Cost of Operation &

OPEX (€/year) maintenance
Energy (€/MWh)
Annual Energy Wind power plants with

Production (MWh) higher productivity
Ref.: MEGAVIND, 2013: THE DANISH WIND POWER HUB - Strategy for Research, Development, and Demonstration
10 | MARKET
DECISION MAKING /
OPERATOR'S FOCUS
OPERATIONAL RISK AND OPPORTUNITY ASSESSMENT
Overview of general elements to review to establish risk and opportunity elements for
operational management of a wind turbine project. For each element, the operational
management can execute investments to either improve performance, mitigate risk or limit
impact for malperformance.
Operational risk and

opportunity tree
$ Return (benefit)
control
=
Revenue OPEX
Investment (cost)
$ Return (benefit)
(income side) (cost
$ side)
= ROI
Investment (cost)
Climate Inspection and
analysis
Wind Wind turbine Service and n =

Wear andNumber
Has of
theca
ressource maintenance tear
INTERNAL RATE OF RETURN CFj Are there
= Cash flow atne
p
n = Number of cash flows IRR = Internal Rate o
Risk level
Availability Electrical system Repairs Damage
CFj = Cash flow at period j k
1 (1 IRR)-n
j
0 = ∑ CFj
IRR = Internal Rate of Return j=1 IRR
System powerk Wind turbine-n ∑ nq Liability coverage Defects and
1 (1 IRR) j
0 = ∑ CFj
performance (1 IRR)q<j CF0 failures
j=1 IRR
Feed-in tariff Electrical system
Off take
very of contracts
head and 108

admin Contract realized revenue
tization Contract realized total cost for delivery
Contract margin
RISK LEVEL VS TIME TO REACT
Time to
react
$ Ret
Damage control
Risk $
Inv
Management
1/2
INTERNA
Continuous
1/4 Business
Improvement
C
I
Risk level
1/2 3/4 k
0= ∑
j=1
CONTINUOUS BUSINESS IMPROVEMENT

Continuous business improvement is an ongoing process to improve the products, services
or processes of an organization. Assesment
Identification The improvements sought can be incremental over time or
achieved with a breakthrough moment.
occuring?
Operational revenue
Total direct cost
be? for delivery of contracts
Gross margin
The delivery of those processes
Monitoring is inoverhead
Control
Sales and general constant andevaluation
admin and change, so further
Contract realized revenue
Has the situation changed? Depreciation What can we do to reduce
and amortization Contract realized total cost for delivery
improvements
Are can be developedtheand
there new risks emerging? applied.
impact of the risk? The ruler to measure these changes is the
Operational profit Contract margin
efficiency, effectiveness and flexibility of these processes, and the objective is to increase the
profitability of the organization.
CONTINUOUS
IMPROVEMENT
SITING
N INFRASTRUCTURE FINANCING PLANNING &
A
DO
PL (TENDERING) PROCUREMENT
Identification and Grid connection Business concept Final micrositing

securement of and case and project layout
land K
EC
AC
CH
T
Wind ressource PPA/income Equity investor Procurement of

assessment model equipment and
civil works
Continuous business improvement
DE-COMISSIONING
Environmental Overall construction Debt financing Construction plan
studies plan and permit
Closing down
PLAN THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 109
Grid connection Building permits and Construction Insurance covering

De-commisioning DO and loss
feasibility required approvals financing
10 | MARKET
DECISION MAKING /
OPERATOR'S FOCUS
RISK MANAGEMENT
Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks (defined in ISO
31000 as the effect of uncertainty on objectives) followed by coordinated and economical
application of resources to minimize, monitor, and control the probability or impact of
unfortunate events or to maximize the realization of opportunities.
occuring?
be?
Monitoring Control
Has the situation changed? What can we do to reduce
Are there new risks emerging? the impact of the risk?
CONTINUOUS
DAMAGE CONTROL IMPROVEMENT
Damage control is action that is taken to make N the bad results of something as small as
Aresults
DO
possible, when it is impossible to avoid bad

P L completely.
K
EC
AC
CH
T
DE-COMISSIONING
PRIORITISATION OF INVESTMENT
Each activity to improve operations or reduce impacts will be an investment which will
be prioritized among the full portfolio of potential investments. A number of models and
parameters are used to prioritize between the portfolio:
Urgency (Continuous business improvement, risk management, damage control)
Cost of no action
Complexity of implementation
Return on Investment
Fit with Constraints:
Resource Constrain: Do we have resources including financial resources to implement?
Liability Constrain: Does implementation increase our liabilities to an unacceptable level?
Contractual Constrain: Will the implementation breach any contracts, either in word or spirit?
Policy Constrain: Does the implementation conflict with any of our internal policies, including
maximum payback time or minimum Return of Investment?
Time Constrain: Do we have time to implement?
10 | MARKET
DECISION MAKING /
OPERATOR'S FOCUS
PRIORITIZATION OF INVESTMENT
Most organizations will prioritize their investments within their constraints annually in the
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE - OPEX
Annual Operating Plan with an objective to maximize their overall Return on Investment in
the following order and to the limit of their budgeted investment capacity:
Operator
1. Damage Control Investments (must do’s) – often prioritized outside budgeting

2. Specific investments supporting overall strategic initiatives
nce company
#32
3. Low hanging fruits with high Return on Investment to a given minimum
4. Other investment ranked as per their Return on Investment or other predefined ranking
methods to the limit of the budgeted investment capacity.
stor and financial institution
DE-
OPERATION
COMISSIONING
For an investment request (for blade repairs, blade upgrades or optimization) to be
Inspection
successful, it has to be ranked so high in the priority list that it is within the investment
Closing down
capacity.
Service De-commisioning
INVESTMENT CAPACITY
Maintenance Clean-up
g Repairs
09
Retrofits
16
12
Upgrades and
repowering
38 18
08
05 29
23
32
15 26
SIZE MATTERS
As the blade size increases both the risk and opportunity related to blades and their impact on
the overall LCOE increases, and hence blade investments will be ranked relatively higher on the
priority list going forward. However, as the operating experience and hence realized operating
cost is limited, it is important to monitor and analyse performance of said blade and hence pre-
actively and consciously manage risk related to the blades.
125m
160 m
95m
140 m
80m
120 m
100 m 50m
80 m
60 m
23m
40 m
BLAD E 12m
20 m
1985 1995 2007 2013 2017 2020
CA PA CI TY 225 KW 660 KW 3,6 MW 6.0 MW 10 MW 20 MW
HUB HEIGH T 30 m 40 m 90 m 120 m .. m .. m
ROTOR SIZE ø25 m ø47 m ø100 m ø160 m ø190 m ø250 m
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
DESIGN DRIVERS
Key areas cover the entire area of design parameters, which are key for driving the product
development forward and minimizing the risk early on in the design process.
TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVEL (TRL)

TRL is a method of estimating technology maturity of Critical Technology Elements (CTE)
of a program during the acquisition process. They are determined during a Technology
Readiness Assessment (TRA) that examines program concepts, technology requirements,
and demonstrated technology capabilities. TRL is based on a scale from 1 to 9 with 9 being
the most mature technology. The use of TRLs enables consistent, uniform discussions of
technical maturity across different types of technology. A comprehensive approach and
discussion about TRLs has been published by the European Association of Research and
Technology Organisations (EARTO).

Basic Applied Operational
Research Development Deployment
Feasibility Demonstration
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discovery/ Laboratory Open Water Commercial
Concept Definition Validation Validation Deployment
Proof of Test Facility System Demo &
Concept Validation Verification
BRAINSTORMING
This process involves generation of a vast number of ideas that can solve or mitigate a
specific problem. In the course of brainstorming, there is no assessment of ideas. So, people
can speak out their ideas freely without fear of criticism. Even bizarre/strange ideas are
accepted with open hands. In fact, the crazier the idea, the better. Taming down is easier
than thinking up.
Frequently, ideas are blended to create one good idea as indicated by the slogan “1+1=3.”
Brainstorming can be done both individually and in groups. The typical brainstorming group
includes six to ten people.
MORPHOLOGY MATRIX
User and stakeholder feedback method to put up options and possibilities in a simple form to
gain input, overview and generate alignment among key project participants.
PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT
STORYBOARDING
Storyboarding has to do with developing a visual story to explain or explore. Storyboards can
help creative people represent information they gained during research. Pictures, quotes
from the user, and other pertinent information are fixed on cork board, or any comparable
surface, to stand for a scenario and to assist with comprehending the relationships between
various ideas.
0,5m 45o
fibers
1,5m
8 plates 14 x sets
Glue
32 x sets Laminat
(4 layers)
Laser measuring
4m
1) 1,5m
5,5m
600mm 2) 3) Prepare installation area
4)
Area of installation
Reinforce manhole
Entrance
NB: Safety equipment
5) B2
As far as 6) Measure for Plates
Fitting with
cardboard plates
Install brackets
B2
room 7) Cut and Install Plate 1
Push in
1 - Cut brackets to fit curve in TE
2 - Bottom sucktion side B1 ?
B1
3 - Top sucktion side B2 B1
11) Install Brackets 12) Repeat

8) Install Brackets 9) Cut and Install Plate 2 10) Laminate Plates gap
B4
Push in Front and back
B4
B3 B3
PROTOTYPING
A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or
process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from.
Basic prototype categories.
Prototypes explore different aspects of an intended design:

1. A Proof-of-Principle Prototype serves to verify some key functional aspects of the intended design, but usually
does not have all the functionality of the final product.
2. A Working Prototype represents all or nearly all of the functionality of the final product.
3. A Visual Prototype represents the size and appearance, but not the functionality, of the intended design. A
Form Study Prototype is a preliminary type of visual prototype in which the geometric features of a design are
emphasized, with less concern for color, texture, or other aspects of the final appearance.
4. A User Experience Prototype represents enough of the appearance and function of the product that it can be
used for user research.
5. A Functional Prototype captures both function and appearance of the intended design, though it may be
created with different techniques and even different scale from final design.
6. A Paper Prototype is a printed or hand-drawn representation of the user interface of a software product.
Such prototypes are commonly used for early testing of a software design, and can be part of a software
walkthrough to confirm design decisions before more costly levels of design effort are expended.
APPENDIX
NOMENCLATURE
AEROELASTICITY
The science which studies the interactions among inertial, elastic, and aerodynamic forces.
AERODYNAMIC FORCES
Forces caused by the wind flow over structures.
ANNUAL ENERGY PRODUCTION (AEP)

The amount of energy produced by a yearly basis.
CAPEX
Capital Expense. The money the company spends to acquire or upgrade its physical assets.
CLOSE VISUAL INSPECTION (CVI)

A close examination by visual and/or tactile means of installation, assembly or a specific
item to detect damage, failure or irregularity. This level of inspection may require the use
of mirrors, magnifying lenses or other aids to provide a means to accomplish a focused
inspection. Available lighting is normally supplemented with a direct source of good lighting
at an intensity deemed appropriate.
COMPOSITE MATERIAL
A composite material is made by combining two or more materials – often ones that have
very different properties. The two materials work together to give the composite unique
properties.
COMBINED LOADING
A mix of two or more loads. I.e. the mix of gravitational load and flapwise load.
CONDITION-BASED MAINTENANCE (CBM)
A maintenance strategy that recommends maintenance actions based on the information on
the current damage severity.
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE (CM)

A maintenance strategy based upon the Run to Failure principle
CORTIR
Cost and Risk Tool for Interim and Preventive Repair. The title of an EUDP Project headed by
Bladena.
CRACK PROPAGATION RATE (CPR)

The rate that the transverse crack grows with.
CRITICAL TECHNOLOGY ELEMENTS (CTE)

The technological elements on which the system depends on to meet the operational
requirements.
DAMAGE CATEGORY (DC)

Wind turbine position i Damage category is used to quantitatively characterize a damage by
its size, which is called damage grade in the Guide2Defect database.
DECISION ALTERNATIVE/RULE
The decision alternative/rule defines the actual maintenance actions for a specific damage
observed at an inspection.
DOWNTIME
The time which the wind turbine is not producing electricity.
APPENDIX
NOMENCLATURE
FAILURE MODE AND EFFECTS ANALYSIS (FMEA)
FMEA is a risk assessment tool, that evaluates the severity, occurrence, and detection of risks
to prioritize which ones are the most urgent.
FATIGUE
The process in which damage accumulates due to application of loads reversals whose
magnitude are typically much lower than the strength of the material.
GENERAL VISUAL INSPECTION (GVI)

A general examination by visual means of an interior or exterior area, installation, assembly or
a specific item to detect obvious damage, failure or irregularity.
This level of inspection is made from within touching distance unless otherwise specified.
While maintaining this level of inspection, use of a mirror or other visual aids may be
necessary to allow visual access to exposed surfaces in the inspection area. This level of
inspection is made under normally available lighting conditions such as daylight, hangar
lighting, flashlight or drop-light.
GUIDE2DEFECT (G2D)
A Danish company (spin-off from Bladena) which has a blade database of failures from the
field.
ISP
Independent Service Provider.
LEVELIZED COST OF ENERGY (LCOE)

Measures lifetime costs divided by energy production. Calculates the present value of the
wind turbine and its operating costs over an assumed lifetime.
MATERIAL STRENGTH
Ability to withstand an applied load without failure.
MEAN WIND SPEED
Average wind speed over a 10 minute time interval.
MODE SHAPE
Specific pattern of vibration executed by a mechanical system at a specific frequency.
NATIONAL RENEWABLE ENERGY LABORATORY (NREL)

A national laboratory in the US.
NATURAL MODE OF VIBRATION

Each natural frequency has a unique pattern of vibration that occur if the structure is excited
at that frequency.
NDT (NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING)

Non-destructive testing is commonly used to localize and size defects in structures. The
detection ability for the NDT method is defined as a function of a defect size, through
probability of detection curves.
O&M
Operation and Maintenance.
OEM
Original equipment manufacturer.
OPEX
Operational Expenses. The money the company spends on an ongoing, day-to-day basis in
order to run a business (the wind turbine).
OWNERS REQUIREMENT
Additional specifications added to the existing certification requirements found in standards
today.
APPENDIX
NOMENCLATURE
PPA
Power purchase agreement.
PROBABILITY OF DETECTION (PoD)

The probability of detection is used to quantify the ability of a non-destructive testing
procedure for detecting a damage with a given size. For wind turbine blades, there are a
few non-destructive testing procedures that are usually used.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM)

PM is the planned maintenance of plant infrastructure and equipment with the goal
of improving equipment life by preventing excess depreciation and impairment. This
maintenance includes but is not limited to, adjustments, cleaning, lubrication, repairs,
replacements and the extension of equipment life.
PTC
Power tax credit.
RETURN ON INVESTMENT (ROI)

Measures the efficiency of an investment.
RISK
The probability that the investment will lose value.
STANDSTILL OR PARKED POSTION

Wind turbine position in which the rotor is not rotating.
TECHNOLOGY READINESS LEVEL (TRL)

TRL is a method of estimating technology maturity of Critical Technology Elements (CTE) of a
program during the acquisition process.
THE MARKOV MODEL
In probability theory, a Markov model is a stochastic model used to model randomly changing
systems. It is assumed that future states depend only on the current state, not on the
events that occurred before.
TURBULENCE (WIND)
Atmospheric turbulence is the set of apparently random and continuously changing air
motions that are superimposed on the wind’s average motion.
VALUE CHAIN
The Value Chain in the Wind Industry consists of three parties: Wind Turbine Manufacturers
(OEMs), Wind Turbine Owners (WTOs) and Insurance Companies.
WTG
Wind Turbine Generator.
WTO
Wind Turbine Owner.
BLADE
HANDBOOK
Visual dictionary for R&D

This Blade Handbook is aimed at helping
all parties involved in R&D of wind turbine
blades to get a common understanding
of words, process, levels and concepts.
Developed in 2012-2019 with input from

some of industry's leading experts and
universities within this field.
Developed by Editor
124 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind N
SWA ECO
KIRTxTHOMSEN
C
DI
LA
NOR
ISBN 978-87-971709-0-8
BEL

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WIND TURBINE

Editor & contributor

Development and Demonstration Programme)

Handbook conceptualized and produced by KIRT x THOMSEN

4 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

11 | PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT  114

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 5

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 7

Max Chord Section

Root Section Trailing Edge

10 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

Suction Side (SS)

Leading Edge (LE)

Trailing Edge (TE)

Pressure Side (PS)

Types lof cross

Closed shell Box spar Load carrying shell

A blade can be regarded as a large cantilever beam

12 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

Spar caps (1+2)

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 13

14 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

Several spar caps are found in large blades.

INSIDE Spar cap 1

16 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

1 web, 2 caps 2 webs, 2 caps

Box spar 2 webs, 4 caps

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 17

18 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

1. Prepare mould 2. Build-up dry layers 3. Resin infusion

4. Add webs 5. Join shells, curing 6. Demould, trim & polish

Generic steps of composite blade production

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 19

• PTS - pressure side towards suction side

• STP - suction side towards pressure side

• TTL - trailing edge towards leading edge

• LTT - leading edge towards trailing edge

• Combination of flapwise direction with edgewise direction.

TORSIONAL LOAD (COMPONENT)

• Torsional load component generated by the combination of

20 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

PTS Load offset in relation

Load offset in relation

Edgewise Torsional load by combined

Torsional load by combined

STRAIN & STRESS

a) Axial strain due to axial load. b) Axial strain due to bending.

22 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

a) Axial stresses due to stretching a rod

b) Axial stresses du to bending.

An isotropic material has equal properties in

STATIC AND FATIGUE STRENGTH

24 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

In composite materials the fibers can be

In a wind turbine blade there will be more

The directional differences makes the analysis

26 THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind

Tapered (straight) Twisted

THE BLADE HANDBOOK™ A shared lingo for the future of wind 27

BENDING & TORSION

11 | PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 114