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UNIT Lithosphere – II
Exogenetic Processes
2
Learning Objectives

„„To comprehend the various external processes of the Earth

„„To study the different types of weathering and the resultant features
„„To learn how the weathered materials are transported
by mass movement
„„To study about the erosional and depositional landform features associated with
rivers, underground water, glaciers, winds and waves

 Pathway we will study about the role of external

While travelling, we come across a variety forces in shaping the earth’s crust and the
of titled, broken and twisted landforms. evolution of landscapes.
How were these landforms formed, and The Earth is a dynamic system that
how are they related to one another? All undergoes various changes due to internal
deformation on the face of the Earth is and external processes. The continuous
due to the continuous influence of various interaction of these two processes controls
forces on the earth’s surface. In this lesson, the structure of the earth’s surface.
Info Graphics

Exogenetic Process

Weathering
and Mass Gradation
Movement

Physical Chemical Biological Degradation Aggradation

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The external processes are the consequence

of solar energy and gravitational forces,
whereas the internal processes are an
outcome of the earth’s internal heat.

 Weathering and Mass

1
Movement
Weathering is the disintegration and
decomposition of materials of the earth’s
crust by their exposure to atmosphere.
Movement of huge volumes of Granular Disintegration:
weathered rock material down the slope
due to gravity is called mass movement or Granular disintegration takes place in
mass wastage. Example: rock slide, land crystalline rocks where the grains of the
slide, debris fall, mud flow. rocks become loose and fall out. This is
due to the action of temperature and frost.
The nature and magnitude of
weathering differs from place to place and
region to region. Weathering is affected and
controlled by factors such as temperature,
rock structure, land slope and vegetation.
There are three types of weathering
• Physical weathering,
• Chemical weathering and
• Biological weathering

Physical weathering
Block Disintegration:
It is the breakdown of rocks without changing
their chemical composition, through the Repeated expansion and contraction of
action of physical forces. The constant rocks during day and night respectively
freezing and thawing of rocks during the causes stress on the joints of the rocks
night and day leads to the expansion and which results in block disintegration
contraction of rocks. Cracks are formed and
disintegration occurs eventually. Exfoliation,
block disintegration, granular disintegration
etc., are the different types of weathering.

Exfoliation
The alternate heating and cooling on
rounded rock surfaces leads to the peeling
of rocks, layer by layer like an onion.
Hots
This is called exfoliation. Sheeting
and shattering are the other forms of Is weathering a pre-requisite in the
exfoliation. formation of soil?

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region. When the carbonic acid reacts

Fact
with the carbonate rocks, the rocks get
The disintegrated rock materials, in disintegrated.
due course of time, are w ­ eathered
further, to form soil. Soil is a mixture of Solution
disintegrated rock material and decayed
The process of dissolution of rock
organic matter called ­humus.
substances in water result in the loosening
of the rock particles. This inturn breaks
down the rocks.
Chemical Weathering
Hydration
Disintegration and decomposition of rocks
due to chemical reactions is called Chemical Certain chemicals in the rock enlarge in
Weathering. This is predominantly high size in humid conditions. These minerals
in the hot and humid regions such as the found in the rock swell and this results in
equatorial, tropical and sub tropical zones. the development of cracks and the rock
Chemical weathering takes place through wears down. This type of weathering is
the processes of oxidation, carbonation, called hydration.
solution, and hydration. The agents
of Chemical weathering are Oxygen, Biological Weathering
Carbon-dioxide and Hydrogen.
Biological weathering occurs due to the
penetration and expansion of plant roots,
earthworms, burrowing animals (rabbits,
rats) and some human activities.

Oxidation
Oxygen in the atmosphere reacts with
the iron found in rocks, thus leads to the
formation of iron oxide. This process is
known as oxidation, which results in the 2  Gradation
weakening of rocks. Gradation is the process of levelling of
the land by means of natural agents like
Carbonation rivers, ground water, winds, glaciers, and
sea waves. These agents produce various
Carbonation is the mixing of water with gradational relief features in due course of
the atmospheric carbon-dioxide, forming time. Gradation takes place in two ways:
carbonic acid. Carbonation is important degradation and aggradation
in the formation of caves, in limestone

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Degradation or denudation is the of water, velocity of the river, slope of land,

wearing down of the land surface by load of sediment and structure of rock,
various natural agents. and load of sediment.
Aggradation is building up of landforms
due to natural agents. Courses of River:
Gradation = Erosion + Rivers generally originate from
Transportation + Deposition mountains  and end in a sea or lake. The
whole path that a river flows through is
Agents of Gradation called its course. The course of a river is
divided into:
Running water (River)
i. The upper course
The work of running
ii. The middle course and
water (rivers) is the most
extensive among all the iii. The lower course
other agents of gradation.
Rivers originate on i. The Upper Course
higher landforms like, Erosion is the most dominant action of
mountains, hills and plateaus that receive river in the upper course. In this course,
water from various sources like the rain, a river usually tumbles down the steep
glaciers, springs, lakes, etc.The place mountain slopes. The steep gradient
where the river originates is called its increases the velocity and the river channel
source and where it joins the sea is known performs erosion with great force to widen
as its mouth. and deepen its valley. The land features
The primary functions of a river carved by a river in its upper course are
are (i) erosion (ii) transportation and V- shaped valleys, gorges, canyons, rapids,
(iii) deposition. The work of a river pot holes, spurs, and waterfalls.
depends on various factors such as volume

Water fall
Meander Estuary
Source of river
Tributary
Flood Plain
Delta
Ox bow Lake
h
out
er M

Sea
Riv

Upper course Middle course Lower course

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ii. The Middle Course-

The river enters the plain in its middle
course. The volume of water increases
with the confluence of many tributaries
and thus increases the load of the river.
Thus, the predominant action of a river
is transportation. Deposition also
occurs due to the sudden decrease in
velocity. The river in the middle course Canyon
develops some typical landforms like
alluvial fans, flood plains, meanders, ox-
bow lakes etc., Waterfall
When a river flows in a region where hard
iii. The Lower course rocks lie over soft rocks horizontally, the
soft rocks get eroded quickly and the hard
The river, moving downstream across a
rocks projects outwards. Thus, the river
broad, level plain is loaded with debris,
falls vertically from a steep slope to form
brought down from its upper and
a waterfall. When the water falls with
middle courses. Large deposits of
great force, it erodes the rock material
sediments are found at the level bed and
beneath and creates a depression called a
the river, splits into a number of
plunge pool. Shallow fast flowing water in
channels called distributaries. The main
a stream is called a rapid.
work of the river here is deposition and
it develops typical landforms like delta
and estuary. The highest waterfalls in the world is
Angel falls (979 m) in Venezuela.

„„Tributary – Small streams that join

the main river. Eg. River Bhavani
„„Distributary – River channels that
get separated from the main river.
E.g., River Kollidam.

Erosional Landforms of River

Rapid
Gorges and Canyons:
When the river flows through a
mountainous region made up of hard V-shaped valley
rocks, it forms a valley with almost vertical
sides called gorge. In India, deep gorges A ‘V’- shaped valley is formed by the
have been formed by Brahmaputra and vertical erosion of the river where the
Indus in the Himalayas. valley is deepened and widened.
A deep gorge with steep sides that
runs for hundreds of kilometres is referred
to as canyon e.g. Grand Canyon of the
river Colorado in the U.S.A.
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Ox bow lake
Meanders in due course of time become
almost a complete circle with narrow necks.
This in turn gets abandoned and forms a
lake. This is called an Ox-bow lake.

The world's largest oxbow lake is

Lake Chicot is Arkansas of USA. Lake
Kanwar in Bihar (India) is Asia’s largest
fresh water ox bow lake.

Depositional Landforms of River

Pot hole
Alluvial Fan
Due to the river action, cylindrical holes
A fan shaped deposition made by the
are drilled vertically in the river bed, with
river at the foothills is called an alluvial
varying depth and diametre. These are
plain
called pot holes.
Flood Plain
Fine sediments are deposited on river
banks when a river floods. These
sediments make the region rich and fertile.
This is called a flood plain. As the height
of the river banks gets increases due to
continuous deposition of a flooded river,
levees are formed.
Pot holes
Estuary: Estuary is formed where the rives
Meander meets the sea. Deposition of silt by the
river is not possible here in the estuaries
As the river loaded with debris flows like delta as if the waves keep on eroding
slowly, it forms sweeping loops and bends. the deposits. Ex. River Narmada and Tapti.
It is referred to as meanders.
Delta
A triangular shaped low lying area formed
by the river at its mouth is called delta.
Deltas have fine deposits of sediments
enriched with minerals. Eg. Cauvery
Delta, Tamil Nadu.

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The percolated water in course of

time returns back to the surface in the
form of springs, geysers, hot springs, wells,
tanks, artesian wells etc. that are useful for
human activities.

The world’s best known geyser is the

Old Faithful geyser in the Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming, U.S.A

As an agent of gradation, under-

ground water creates distinct ­landforms
Fact in limestone regions called Karst Topog-
The Greek letter ( )pronounced delta raphy.
closely resembles the triangular delta of
the river Nile. The Ganga-Brahmaputra Karst Topography
Delta is the largest delta in the world. Ground water is an
active agent in limestone
regions. Karst topography
Groundwater
is formed due to the
Water that percolates through the pores dissolution of soluble
and fissures of rocks gets collected beneath rocks such as limestone,
the earth’s surface. This is normally dolomite and gypsum.
referred to as groundwater or sub-surface
Limestone topography of Western
water. The rate of percolation depends on
Slovenia extends for a distance of 480 km
the nature of the rocks.
in length and 80 km in width which is
„„The rocks that allow water to percolate termed as Karst in the Slavic language. The
are called porous rocks or permeable world’s largest karst area is the Nullarbar
rocks. located on the Great Australian Coast.
„„The rocks that does not allow water Karst regions are also found in
to seep through them are called non- Southern France, Spain, Mexico, Jamaica,
porous rocks or impermeable rocks. Western Cuba, Central New Guinea, Sri
Lanka and Myanmar.
Karst topography also exhibits both
Percolation of water erosional and depositional features.
Fact
Karst Areas in India
Guptadham caves - Western Bihar,
Robert cave and Tapkeshwar temple -
Uttarakhand. Pandav caves Pachmari
- Madhya Pradesh, Kutumsar - Bastar
district in Chattisgarh, Borra caves of
Visakhapatnam - Andhra Pradesh

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 rosional Landforms of
E Sinkhole
Underground Water A funnel shaped depressions formed due
Most of erosion takes place due to the to dissolution of limestone rock is called
process of solution. When rain water sinkholes. Their average depth ranges
mixes with carbon-di- oxide and enters between three and nine meters
into a limestone region, it dissolves and
destroys much of the limestone. As a result,
landforms such as Terra rossa, Lappies,
sinkholes, swallow holes, dolines, uvalas,
poljes, caves and caverns are formed.

Terra Rossa (Italian term for

Red soil)

The World's deepest sinkhole is China's

xianozhai Tienkang at 2172 feet. There
are as many as 15000 Sinkholes in
Illinois

Deposition of red clay soil on the surface Activity

of the Earth is due to the dissolution of
limestone content in rocks. The redness Take a trough filled with sand. empty
of the soil is due to the presence of iron a portion of sand in the middle and
oxide. fill it with sugar. Now level the sand
over the sugar. Pour water into the
Lappies trough and observe what happens.
The sugar dissolves and forms a
When the joints of limestone rocks are depression. This is similar to the
corrugated by groundwater, long furrows formation of sinkhole.
are formed and these are called LAPPIES.
Caves and Caverns
Caves and caverns are subterranean features
of karst topography. Caves are hollows that
are formed by the dissolution of limestone
rocks when carbon di oxide in air turns into
carbonic acid after its reaction with water.
They vary in size and shape. Caverns are the
caves with irregular floors. Eg. Guptadham
caves in Western Bihar.

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All types of deposits in the caves

and caverns are collectively called
s­ peleothems which includes travertines,
tufa, dripstones.
Swallow Holes, Uvalas, Dolines, Poljis are
other erossional Features of karst regions
predominant in other parts of the world.

Glaciers:
A Glacier is a large mass
of ice that moves slowly
over the land, from its
place of accumulation. It
is also known as ‘River
of ice’. The place of
accumulation is called
snowfield. The height above which there
cave is a permanent snow cover in the higher
altitude or latitude is called snowline.
Fact Higher the latitude, lower the snowline
from sea level.
GeoConnect
Cave insects lose their senses of Hots
sight and develop extraordinary long Snowline of Alps is 2700 metre where
antenna to compensate the loss of sight as the snowline of Greenland is just
600 metre. Find out the reason.
Depositional Landforms
Underground Water
It is interesting to know that a variety of
depositional features are formed on the Activity
floor, ceiling and walls of the caves and Fake Snow
caverns of the Karst Topography.
Materials needed
Stalactite, Stalagmite * Cup of Baking Soda
and Column * Shaving Cream
When the water containing dissolved
Method
calcite gradually drips from the ceiling
of the caves, water evaporates and the * Pour one cup of baking soda
remaining calcite hangs from the ceiling. * Spray the shaving cream
Thus Stalactites are formed. When the
calcite deposits rises upward like a pillar The snow will start forming almost
Stalagmites are formed. Sometimes, immediately.
Stalactites and Stalagmites meet together
to form Columns and Pillars.

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The gradual transformation of snow these glacial features are predominantly seen
into granular ice is called ‘firn’ or ‘ neve’ in countries like Switzerland, Norway etc.,
and finally it becomes solid glacial ice.
Cirque
Movement of Glacier The glacier erodes the steep side walls of the
The large mass of ice creates pressure at its mountain and forms a bowl-shaped armchair
bottom and generates heat. Due to this, the like depression, it is termed as Cirque
glacier melts a little and starts to move .The
rate of movement of a glacier varies from a few Arete
centimetres to several hundred meters a day. Aretes are narrow ridges formed when two
The movement of glaciers depends on slope, cirque walls joined together back to back,
volume of the glacier, thickness, roughness at and forms narrow knife like ridges.
the bottom (friction) etc., and Temperature.
Like the rivers, glaciers also carry out erosion, Matterhorn
transportation and deposition.
The pyramidal peaks formed when three
or more cirques meet together, are referred
Types of Glacier as Matterhorns.
Glaciers are broadly divided into two types
based on the place of occurrence, such as U-Shaped Valley
Continental glacier and valley glacier. When the glacier moves down along a
river valley, the valley further gets eroded
Erosional Landforms of glacier deep and wide to form a ‘U’ shaped valley.
Glaciers are powerful erosive agents. Some Hots
of the important erosional landforms are
Cirque, Aretes, Matterhorn, U-shaped Glaciers do not form deep narrow
valley, Hanging valley, Fiords etc., Most of valleys. Why?

Types of Glaciers

Continental Glaciers Valley Glaciers

Thick Sheets of ice The glacier which takes its

that covers vast areas origin from a snow covered
of a continent is called mountain range is known as a
Continental Glacier. Valley Glacier.

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Hanging Valley and sizes, like ground, terminal and lateral

These are valleys eroded by tributary moraines etc
glacier and that hangs over the main valley.
Horn
Arete
Cirques Hanging valley

Glacial
trough

Glaciated topography Drumlin

Drumlins are deposits of glacial moraines
Fjord that resemble giant inverted teaspoons or
half cut eggs.
Fjords are glacial valleys that are partly
submerged in the sea.
Esker
Long narrow ridges composed of boulders
gravel and sand deposited by streams of
melting water which run parallel to a
glacier are called eskers.

Outwash Plain
An outwash plain consists of glacial
sediments deposited by the melting ice
at the terminus of a glacier. It appears as
an extensive accumulation of sand, gravel
and silt.

Depositional Landforms of glacier

After getting eroded, fragments of rocks
and boulders along with dirt form glacial
debris. Glacial debris gets deposited in
the low lying areas and form depositional
features like moraines, drumlins, eskers,
kames and outwash plains.

Moraine
Activity
Landforms formed by the glacial deposits
of valley or continental glaciers are termed Discuss in a small groups about the
as moraines. They are of various shapes effects of global warming.

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Wind
When air blows horizontally at or near
the earth’s surface is called wind.
The erosional, transportational and
depositional action of wind is predominant
in arid regions. This is called as Aeolian
Process.

Erosional Landforms of wind

Some of the erosional landforms of wind
are mushroom rocks, Inselbergs and
yardangs. Yardang

Mushroom Rock In arid regions, certain rocks have hard

and soft layers arranged vertically. When
Rocks are made up of hard and soft layers. winds blow over these rocks, the soft
When a rock’s bottom is soft, the sand- layers get eroded leaving irregular crests.
laden winds blow against it and wear it These are called yardangs.
down. By the constant wearing down
action of the wind, the bottom gets eroded
away to form a mushroom like structure.
This is called a mushroom or pedestal
rock. Such rocks are found near Jodhpur
in Rajasthan.

Depositional Landforms of wind

Deposition occurs when the speed of wind
is reduced by the presence of obstacles like
bushes, forests and rock structures. The
sediments carried by wind get deposited
on both the wind ward and leeward sides
of these obstacles.

Inselberg Some of the depositional landforms

are sand dunes, barchans and loess.
Inselberg is a German term which means
an island mountain. Certain hard rocks
Sand Dune
like igneous rocks are more resistant to
wind action. Such isolated residual hills In deserts, during sandstorms, wind
rising abruptly from their surroundings carries loads of sand. When the speed of
are termed as inselbergs. Eg. Uluru or wind decreases, huge amount of sand gets
Ayers Rock, Australia. deposited. These mounds or hills of sand

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are called sand dunes. There are different Longitudinal Dunes

types of sand dunes. Longitudinal dunes are long narrow
ridges of sand, which extend in a direction
Barchan parallel to the prevailing winds. These
Barchans are isolated, crescent shaped dunes are called Seifs in Sahara
sand dunes. They have gentle slopes on
the windward side and steep slopes on the Loess
leeward side. The term loess refers to the deposits
of fine silt and porous sand over a vast
region. Extensive loess deposits are
found in Northern and Western China,
the Pampas of Argentina, in Ukraine
and in the Mississippi Valley of the
United States.

Transverse Dunes
Transverse dunes are asymmetrical in
shape. They are formed by alternate slow
and fast winds that blow from the same
direction.

The thickest known deposit of loess is,

335 metre found in the loess plateau in
China.

Wave
A steady up (crest) and down (trough)
movement of surface water are called
waves. Sea waves are the most powerful
agents of gradation and their erosional,
transportational and depositional
processes are confined to a very narrow
belt along coastal areas.

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Erosional Land Forms of Waves platform is also referred as beach, shelf,

Some of the erosional landforms of sea terrace and plain.
waves are sea cliff, sea cave, arch, stack,
beach, bar and spit and wave cut platform. Depositional Landforms of Waves

Sea Cave
Beach
Prolonged wave attack on the base of a
Sand and gravel are moved and deposited
cliff erodes rock materials, which result in
by waves along the shore to form beaches.
the formation of caves.
This is the most dominant and constructive
work of the sea. (Eg.) Juhu beach along
Sea Arch Mumbai coast, Puri beach in Odisha and
When two caves approach one Marina beach in Chennai.
another from either side of a headland
and unite, they form an arch. (Eg.) Neil
Island, Andaman and Nicobar. Do you remember?
Major land forms
• First order land form - continents and
oceans. • Second order land form  –
Mountains, plateaus and plains in both
continents and oceans.
Minor Land Forms
Third order land forms – deltas, fjords
coasts, sand dunes, beaches valleys,
cirques, Mushroom rocks, limestone
caves.
Sea Stack
Bar
Further erosion by waves ultimately
leads to the total collapse of the arch. The A bar is an elongated deposit of sand,
seaward portion of the headland will shingle or mud found in the sea, almost
remain as a pillar of rock known as stack. parallel to the shoreline.
Eg the Old man of Hoy in Scotland.

Sea Cliffs
Sea cliffs are steep rock faces formed when
sea waves dash against them. The rocks
get eroded to form steep vertical walls.

Wave Cut Platforms

Flat surface found at the foot of sea cliffs
are called as wave cut platforms. Wave cut

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Spit
Gradation — leveling of the Earth’s
A spit is a ridge or embankment of surface by natural agents.
sediment, attached to the land on one Landslides — rapid downward
end and terminating in open water on the movement of a rock mass
other end. Spits are common at the mouth
Erosion — t he process in which
of estuaries. Eg. Kakinada spit
earth's surface is worn away, often by
water, wind or ice.
Delta — the triangular depositional
features of the river at its mouth.
Meanders — the curving motion of
the river in its middle course.
terminus — End of a glacier
Headland — A coastal landform that
extends out into a nearby waterbody

Recap EXERCISE
„„Levelling of uneven landform is
called gradation.
„„Weathering is the breaking down I. Choose the best answer:
of the rocks.
1. The disintegration or decomposition
„„Physical, chemical and biological of rocks is generally called as      
are the three types of weathering. a. weathering
„„Weathered rock materials carried b. erosion
away by gravity is called mass c. transportation
movement. d. deposition
„„Running water, glacier, 2. The process of the levelling up of
underground water, wind and land by means of natural agents.
waves are agents of weathering. a. aggradation
„„Soil is the top covering of the earth’s b. degradation
surface formed by weathering. c. gradation
d. none
GLOSSARY 3.       is seen in the lower
course of the river.
Weathering — the disintegration or
a. Rapids b. Alluvial fan
decomposition of solid rocks
c. Delta d. Gorges
Aggradations — process through
which low lying areas are elevated 4. Karst topography is formed due to
the action of      
Degradation — process of lowering
a. Glacier b. Wind
of highlands by wearing them down
c. Sea waves d. Ground water.
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5. Which one of the following is not a 3. Mention the three courses of a river
depositional feature of a glacier? with any two land forms associated
a. cirque b. Moraines to each course.
c. Drumlins d. Eskers 4. What are ox-bow lakes?

6. Deposits of fine silt blown by wind is 5. How does a cave differ from a sea
called as arch?
a. Loess b. Barchans 6. List out any four karst topographical
areas found in India.
c. Hamada d. Ripples
7. What do you mean by a hanging
7. Stacks are formed by       valley?
a. Wave erosion 8. Define: a) Moraine b) Drumlin
b. River erosion c) Esker.
c. Glacial erosion 9. Mention the various features formed
d. Wind deposion by wind erosion.
8.       erosion is responsible 10. What are wave cut platforms?
for the formation of cirque
a. wind   b.  glacial IV. Distinguish between:

c. river  d.  underground water. 1. Physical and chemical weathering.

9. Which one of the following is a 2. Delta and Estuary

second order land form? 3. Stalactite and stalagmite.
a. Asia b.  Deccan Plateau 4. Longitudinal and Transverse sand
c. Kulu valley  d. Marina Beach. dunes.
5. Inselbergs and yardangs
II. Match the following: 6. Continental glaciers and Valley
glaciers.
1. Distributaries – glacial action
7. Spit and bar.
2. Mushroom rock – action of sea
wave
V. Give Reasons:
3. Eskers – Lower course
of river 1. Chemical weathering is predominant
4. Stalactites – Aeolian in hot and humid zones.
process 2. Silt deposits are less at estuaries than
5. Cliff – karst deltas.
topography 3. The snow line is at the sea level in
Polar regions.
III. Answer in brief: 4. Wind can possibly erode the rocks
1. Define weathering. from all sides.
2. What do you mean by biological 5. In limestone regions, surface drainage
weathering? is rarely found.

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VI. Answer in Paragraph: c. The statement and reason are

1. Write a note on weathering classify wrong.
and explain. d. The statement and reason are
2. Explain the erosional landforms right.
formed by underground water.
3. What is a glacier? Explain its types. VIII. HOTS
4. Describe the depositional work of winds.
1. Is wind the only gradational agent in
5. Give a detailed account on the three
the desert?
orders of land forms.
2. Underground water is more common
VII. Consider the given in limestone areas than surface run
statements and choose the right off. Why?
option given below 3. The river channels in the lower

i 1. ‘I’ Shaped valley is an erosional course are wider than the upper
feature of the river course.
2. ‘U’ Shaped valley is an erosional
feature of the glacier IX. Map Skill:
3. ‘V’ Shaped valley is an erosional On the given outline map of the world,
feature of the glacier mark the following.
a. i, ii & iii are right 1. Any two deltas
b. i & ii are right 2. A Karst region
c. i & iii are right 3. Any two hot and cold deserts
d. only I is right 4. An area of continental glaciers.
ii Statement I: Running water is an
important agent of gradation X. Give geographical terms for
Statement II:  The work of the river
the following:
depends on the slop of land on which
if flows a. Chemical alternation of carbonate
a. Statement I is false II is true rocks on lime stone region.
b. Flat surfaces near cliffs.
b. Statement I and II are false
c. Erosion + Transportation +
c. Statement I is true II is false Deposition =
d. Statement I and II are true d. The bottom line of a snow field.
iii Statement: Limestone regions have e. Valley cut by glaciers.
less underground water.
Reason: Water does not percolate INTERNET RESOURCES
through limestone
1. www.usgs.gov.in
a. The statement is right reason
is wrong. 2. www.nasa.gov.in

b. 
The statement is wrong 3. https://www.isro.gov.in
Reason is right. 4. https://www.india.gov.in

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