TESOL Methodology

Teachers of English to Speakers

of Other Languages
TESOL Methodology

What is Methodology?

• Methodology is the systematic, theoretical

analysis of the methods applied to a field of
study, or the theoretical analysis of the body of
methods and principles associated with a
branch of knowledge.
TESOL Methodology

• Methodology is defined as:

 “the analysis of the principles of methods,
rules, and postulates employed by a discipline”,
 “the development of methods to be applied
within a discipline”
 “a particular procedure or set of procedures”
TESOL Methodology

Learning Styles

Learning style is an individual's natural or

habitual pattern of acquiring and processing
information in learning situations. A core
concept is that individuals differ in how they
learn.
TESOL Methodology
Learning Styles
TESOL Methodology
Learning Styles
TESOL Methodology
Learning Styles

Visual Kinesthetic Auditory

Picture Gestures Listening

Drawings Touching Sounds Patterns

Shape Body Movements Rhythms

Object
Sculpture Manipulation Tone

Paintings Positioning Chants

TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

1. Linguistic Intelligence:

Linguistic intelligence can be defined as

ability to use language and words in an
effective manner, regardless of whether the
medium of expression is a written or spoken.
People who have the linguistic intelligence
can also understand the linguistic messages
from other people.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Linguistic Intelligence:

In terms of foreign or second language

learning classrooms, it can be noted that
students with predominant linguistic
intelligence can easily express themselves in
a spoken or written manner, can easily match
synonyms, comprehend a reading text or
write a paragraph.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:

Logical- mathematical intelligence can be

described as ability to reason and use
numbers effectively. People who posses this
type of intelligence can successfully carry out
different mathematical operations, categorize
and classify objects or phenomena easily,
sequence events in order, calculate and
generalize.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence:

In terms of second or foreign language

learning, students can sequence described
events in chronological order, classify
language items easily, or successfully
manage to work on problem-solving activities.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

3. Visual-Spatial Intelligence:

Spatial intelligence is described as ability to

imagine or form an image which represents
the spatial world.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Visual-Spatial Intelligence:

In terms of foreign language teaching and

learning, different tasks such as pictures,
concept mapping or diagrams successfully
help the students who possess visual-spatial
intelligence.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

4. Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence:

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence is the ability to

use the body or a body part in order to
successfully perform a task or solve a
problem.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence:

Students whose predominant intelligence is

bodily kinesthetic learn foreign languages
effectively by games, miming out different
actions, drama, role plays and other activities
which require bodily movements.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

5. Musical Intelligence:

Musical intelligence can be described as

sensitivity to rhythm and melody.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Musical Intelligence:

In foreign language learning context, learning

for students with this particular type of
intelligence can be fostered by using music,
songs or rhymes, as well as tongue twisters.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

6. Interpersonal Intelligence:

Interpersonal Intelligence can be described

as ability to understand and to empathize with
other person’s emotions. This type of
intelligence also involves the ability to
understand the motivations and intentions of
others.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Interpersonal Intelligence:

In a language learning classroom, learners

who posses this type of intelligence stand out
in analyzing characters, retelling stories from
a different points of view or discussing
different opinions.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence:

Intrapersonal Intelligence can be defined as

the ability to understand oneself, your own
wishes, intentions, motivations and feelings.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Intrapersonal Intelligence:

Foreign language learners with predominant

intrapersonal experience excel in activities
which require self analysis. For instance,
writing reflections or journal keeping can
effectively cater for this type of intelligence.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

There is a wide range of activities which

might be used in order to cater for the
different types of intelligences and applied in
EFL/ESL classroom.
These activities can be grouped as follows:
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic Intelligence: reading a story,
choosing appropriate word to fill in a gap in a
sentence, choosing an appropriate synonym
or antonym for a given word, answering
multiple questions related to a text.

Logical Mathematical Intelligence:

sequencing events in a chronological order,
finding logical errors, presenting timelines of
events presented in a story or a text, jigsaw
puzzles and games, concept maps.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence: drawing,

coloring, mime, dramatization, making
models of objects and using realia (real
objects), games.

Visual Spatial Intelligence: drawing

diagrams, concept maps, matching pictures
with words, describing pictures or images.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Musical Intelligence: songs, tongue twisters,

rhymes, playing songs in order to introduce a
topic or analyze the lyrics, transforming lyrics
into a text.

Interpersonal Intelligence: analyzing a

character, reflections on characters and their
actions or motivation, analyzing or
retelling/rewriting a text from another’s
character point of view, group work.
TESOL Methodology
Multiple Intelligences

Intrapersonal Intelligence: journal keeping,

activities in order to elicit personal
experiences (reflections, discussions and
sharing personal experiences).

Naturalistic Intelligence: comparison

between a novel and a film, news
broadcasted by two different resources,
categorizing, analyzing settings, field trips
and projects.
TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking
What is Critical Thinking?
• Critical thinking is the ability to think
clearly and rationally. It includes the ability
to engage in reflective and independent
thinking.

• Critical thinking is not a matter of

accumulating information.
TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking
What is Critical Thinking?
• Critical thinking should not be confused
with being argumentative or being critical of
other people.

•Although critical thinking skills can be used

in exposing fallacies and bad reasoning,
critical thinking can also play an important
role in cooperative reasoning and
constructive tasks.
TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking
What is Critical Thinking?
• Critical thinking can help us acquire
knowledge, improve our theories, and
strengthen arguments.

•We can use critical thinking to enhance

work processes and improve social
institutions.
TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking
What is Critical Thinking?
• Critical thinking is an essential part of
creativity because we need critical thinking
to evaluate and improve our creative ideas.
TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking
Who is a Critical Thinker?
• A critical thinker is able to deduce
consequences from what he knows, and he
knows how to make use of information to
solve problems, and to seek relevant
sources of information to inform himself.
 TESOL Methodology
Critical Thinking

Someone with critical thinking skills is able to do the

following :
•understand the logical connections between ideas
•identify, construct and evaluate arguments
•detect inconsistencies and common mistakes in
reasoning
•solve problems systematically
•identify the relevance and importance of ideas
•reflect on the justification of one's own beliefs and
values
TESOL Methodology

DIFFERENT CONTEXTS AND PURPOSES FOR

LANGUAGE LEARNING

What is Language?

• Language is grammar and its rules;

• Vocabulary words that need to be learned;
• And phonetics, that is the ways to pronounce
words
TESOL Methodology

DIFFERENT CONTEXTS AND PURPOSES FOR

LANGUAGE LEARNING

Why do we use Language?

We use language to express our needs and

feelings, exchange ideas, and tell stories or jokes,
among many other things.

Language has different FUNCTIONS!!!

 TESOL Methodology

LANGUAGE FUNCTION
SOME COMMON LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS I-N

A-B identifying someone or something

imagining
accepting offers and invitations instructing someone how to do something
accepting compliments interrupting politely
acknowledging someone's interest keeping the conversation going
agreeing making introductions
apologizing making invitations
asking for information making requests
asking for permission making offers
attracting attention making suggestions
C-D
P-W
checking understanding
persuading
clarifying information
refusing invitations
complaining
correcting information stating intentions
describing a person, place, thing, or an experience stating preferences
disagreeing suggesting an alternative
discussing probability talking about similarities and differences
discussing possibility warning

E-G
encouraging
expressing emotions such as surprise,
excitement, and disappointment
giving advice
giving compliments
giving information
giving opinions
giving reasons
greeting someone
TESOL Methodology

LANGUAGE FUNCTION
A: Can I help you take out the garbage?

B: No. That's okay. I can take it out myself.

A: Please. Let me help you.

B: Well, all right. If you don't mind.

A: No, not at all.

B: Thanks I appreciate it.
 TESOL Methodology

1. Speaker: I don't want to go to the park today.

The language function this speaker uses is [refusing] / [making an
invitation] .

2. Speaker: I'm too busy and too tired all the time.
The language function this speaker uses is [complaining] / [giving a
compliment] .

3. Speaker: Paris has so many beautiful buildings.

The language function this speaker uses is [giving advice] / [describing] .

4. Speaker: We're going to get lunch. Do you want to come with us?
The language function this speaker uses is [asking for permission] /
[making an invitation] .
 TESOL Methodology

5. Speaker: Your new bag is really beautiful.

The language function this speaker uses is [giving a compliment] /
[refusing] .

6. Speaker: Can you print this document for me?

The language function this speaker uses is [complaining] / [making a
request] .

7. Speaker: You should really try to rest for a few days.

The language function this speaker uses is [giving advice] / [describing] .

8. Speaker: Can I park here?

The language function this speaker uses is [asking for permission] /
[making an invitation] .
TESOL Methodology

What is Language Learning?

TESOL Methodology

A Foreign Laguage?

Or

A Second Language?
TESOL Methodology

A Foreign Language? Or A Second Language?

• It is often learned in an environment where a different first
language is spoken and used.

• It can also be learned in an environment where that

language is spoken by other people in the community.

• Students sometimes need to learn its grammar,

vocabulary, and sound system, in a very deliberate way.

• Students may also need to practice grammar rules and

vocabulary by repeating them, memorizing them, and
using them.
 TESOL Methodology

Language learning is acquiring a

new language by instruction, study,
memorization and retention, and
practice.
 TESOL Methodology

Learning a language may occur at

different times of life: in different living
circumstances, in different schools or
places of learning, and for different
reasons. So, it's necessary to say that
people learn a new language in various
contexts and for many different
purposes.
TESOL Methodology

Principal factors of language learning

• The learning context which is the situation in which the
learner is learning the language.

• The learning purpose, in other words the reason why this

person is learning a language.

• The learning goals--the ways that the learner plans to use

the language.
TESOL Methodology

Principal factors of language learning

CONTEXT PURPOSE

 evening business school  learn business language

 high school class  pass the class final exam

 on-the job training  learn basic communication

 adult class in an English-  find a better-paying job

speaking country
 TESOL Methodology

“Knowing our students' needs and

reasons for learning English will make
our teaching more successful and
effective”.
 TESOL Methodology

In lesson planning, which of these statements is

true?

a) The learning context is more important than the learning

purpose.

b) The learning purpose is more important than the

learning context.

c) Both the learning context and purpose are equally

important.
TESOL Methodology

Theories of language learning

Learning theories are attempts to understand how we learn
and describe the process of learning.

We will discuss three basic schools of thought:

• Behavioral psychology
• Cognitive psychology
• Constructivism

Each school of thought is unique and was created as

a reaction to the previous school.
 TESOL Methodology

Behavioral Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on observable actions,

particularly stimulus-response methods.

Behavioral psychology led to Structural Linguistics

[1900s – 1950s]

Structural Linguistics,
A school of thought popular in the 1940s and 1950s that
focused on structural characteristics of human language.
TESOL Methodology

Behavioral Psychology
 TESOL Methodology

Behavioral psychology and structural linguistics

According to behavioral psychology, human learning is the

acquisition of new habits through a stimulus-response process.

According to the “structuralist” theory, language consists of

small units that are arranged into a system according to
certain rules. Sounds, words, and sentences are the units
that form a language system. They are learned by practice
and repetition.
 TESOL Methodology

Behavioral psychology and structural linguistics

Structuralists see language production as one type of human

behavior. They believe that repeating behaviors, such as using
correct grammatical forms, help create language habits.

They favor activities such as “drills” and “pattern practice” to

help develop habits like using the correctly learned form or
structure.

Language learning, therefore, is seen as the process of

developing correct habits.
 TESOL Methodology

Behavioral psychology and structural linguistics

 TESOL Methodology

Behavioral psychology and structural linguistics

 TESOL Methodology

Behaviorism and Structuralism in the classroom

• Students learn to use correct forms and vocabulary through

repetition and reinforcement.

• Teachers reinforce the use of correct language forms by:

giving positive feedback for correct usage and responding
negatively to incorrect forms.

• Encouraging positive language behavior and discouraging

negative language behavior is central to behaviorism and
“structuralist linguistics”.
 TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on human perception and

learning, in contrast with behavioral psychology which focuses
on observable behavior.

Cognitive Psychology led to Generative Linguistics

[1960s – 1980s]

Generative Linguistics,
A school of thought that views language as a set of fixed
rules that can be used to create an unlimited number of
sentences.
TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Psychology
 TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Psychology and Generative Linguistics

According to cognitive psychology, learning is a rational activity

based on understanding rules that we cannot immediately
observe.
Cognitivists try to answer the question why something
happens or is formed in a particular way.

Learning is a complex mental process.

 TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Psychology and Generative Linguistics

Generative Linguistics views language as systematic.

A system of universal, or common, rules create language

forms.

Language isn't simply learned through habit-forming

processes; it is a mental process that involves perception,
motivation, and experience.
 TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Psychology and Generative Linguistics

Learning tools that cognitivists favor:

1. Logic: Recognize logical relationships between things to

see how they are connected.
2. Reason: Use thinking processes, not repetition of
behavior, to understand how language structures work

3. Exploration: Discover connections between forms and

rules .
4. Inference: Understand rules through looking at examples
first.
 TESOL Methodology

Cognitivism and Generative Linguistics in the

classroom

Teachers give detailed explanations of grammar points and

structures because they believe this will help learning. Then
the students engage in meaningful practice of that point and
structure.

According to the theories of cognitive psychology and

generative linguistics, students will remember rules better
when they have come up with them on their own, before
the teacher writes them on the board.
 TESOL Methodology

Constructivism

A school of thought which integrates psychological and

linguistic principles and emphasizes social interaction and
the discovery, or construction, of meaning.

Constructivism led to Sociolinguistics and a focus on social

interactions [1980s – today]

Sociolinguistics,
A school of thought that focuses on the relationship
between language and culture.
TESOL Methodology

Constructivism
 TESOL Methodology

Constructivism

According to constructivist theory, we build knowledge by

sharing and communicating with each other. So, knowledge is
socially constructed.

Constructivism is a multidisciplinary approach to language

learning because it combines linguistic, psychological, and
sociological ideas about learning. It is most closely
associated with sociolinguistics.
 TESOL Methodology

Constructivism – Language and Language Learning

Learning is as an active process in which learners discover
new meaning by interacting with the environment and one
another.

Constructivists see language is a system for expressing

meaning.

Language learning, therefore, involves communication,

exchange of ideas, and participation in meaningful tasks. In
other words, language learning happens when people are
engaged in social interaction.
 TESOL Methodology

Constructivism in the Classroom

In the constructivist classroom, cooperative learning is the

center of class activities.

Cooperative learning is a process where learners work

together in groups and each group member has specific
responsibilities.

In most cases, there is very little need for explanations of

grammar and structures by the teacher because interaction
and communication with peers is believed to help learning.
 TESOL Methodology

Language Learning Theories (Summary)

Well-informed teachers are aware of the many theories and

their applications in the classroom, so that they can help their
students be successful in their language studies.
Knowing the theories can help the teachers to:

• better plan lessons by focusing on problem areas in learning

• develop methods and techniques that best suit their
students' needs
• realize that only one type of learning, such as memorization,
may not be sufficient
TESOL Methodology

Language Learning Theories (Summary)

TESOL Methodology

Application of Language Learning Theories

 TESOL Methodology
Grammar-Translation Method

• Students are given explanations of grammar points and

example sentences that contain the grammar.

• Students use dictionaries to translate the sentences into the

first language.

• Grammar-translation may still be used for very specific

teaching purposes, such as teaching classical Latin or other
ancient languages, and to read (not speak) a foreign language.
 TESOL Methodology
Grammar-Translation Method
Main characteristics
• classes are taught in the first language and there is little active
use of the target language
• there are long explanations of grammar
• students read difficult and/or long texts
• there is little or no attention to pronunciation
• students translate disconnected phrases or sentences from
one language to another

Limitations
• students gain reading knowledge of a second language, but
not communicative competence
 TESOL Methodology
The Audiolingual Method (ALM)

• The Audiolingual method (ALM) is based in structural

linguistics and behavioral psychology.

•It relies on repetition and substitution drills.

•Audiolingualism became popular in the 1950's and is still used

today in language programs that focus on speaking skills
 TESOL Methodology
The Audiolingual Method (ALM)
Main characteristics

• new material is presented in dialogue form

• there is imitation and memorization of set phrases
• structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills
• there is little or no grammatical explanation
• there is limited vocabulary learning done in context
• audio, videos, visual aids, and language labs are used
extensively
• great importance is attached to pronunciation
• successful responses are immediately reinforced
 TESOL Methodology
The Audiolingual Method (ALM)
Limitations

• a lot of repetition may bore students

• there is a strong focus on accuracy
• not much opportunity for students to develop their
communication skills
• focus mainly on oral production – reading and writing are
neglected
TESOL Methodology
 TESOL Methodology

Cognitive Code Learning Method

• It is grounded in generative linguistics and cognitive

psychology.

• It focuses on the rule-governed nature of language and

language learning.

• This method was a reaction to the Audiolingual method's focus

on the surface forms, imitation, and repetition
 TESOL Methodology
Cognitive Code Learning Method
Main characteristics

• activities that focus on rule explanation

• an emphasis on deductive learning
• sequencing material by grammar
• drilling of grammar forms and structures
• grammar explanation precedes practice activities

Limitations
• lack of communicative proficiency in learners
• excessive explanation of grammatical rules may frustrate
student
TESOL Methodology
Designer Methods

Method Main characteristics Limitations Applications today

Community  counseling and  not enough teacher  student-centered

Language guidance in learning direction learning
Learning (CLL)  non-threatening  too much inductive  development of
environment reasoning student
 translation  impractical independence
 independence

Suggestopedia  rich sensory input from  impractical  relaxation and

music, dramatizations,  not communicative non-threatening
and games enough environment
 relaxed setting,
students listen to and
use language
TESOL Methodology
Designer Methods
The Silent Way  learners discover what  not enough  student-centered
they need to focus on direction learning
 teacher silently guides  not communicative  development of
with colored rods and enough student
charts independence

Total Physical  simple actions with  loses effectiveness  vocabulary and

Response (TPR) commands at higher levels grammar-
 students listen, only  limited language building tool
speaking when ready  not communicative
enough

The Natural  rich in language  managing classes  allowing students

Approach  "silent period" in which students' to use their "silent
 games, role plays, and speech naturally period" to build
discussions "emerges" at confidence
 focus is on meaning, different times
not form
 TESOL Methodology
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

• It developed in reaction to other theories and approaches, in

this case cognitivist and structuralist theories.

•CLT sees language as a system for interaction and

communication.

•It draws on the constructivist idea that knowledge is

constructed through social interaction with others.

•Communicative Language Teaching emphasizes

communication between students, and students and the teacher
 TESOL Methodology
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Main characteristics

• interactive and meaningful language use

• activities include tasks, information sharing, negotiation of
meaning, and interaction
• use of task-based and authentic materials
• syllabus is guided by learner needs
• focus is on fluency and clear communication
• focus is on grammatical, functional, and social components of
the language
 TESOL Methodology
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)

Limitations

• accuracy is not always achieved

• there is a lot of focus on fluency not accuracy
• communication is stressed over reading and writing
 TESOL Methodology
Eclectic Methods

Eclectic methods are combinations of different aspects of

individual methods that teachers use to tailor their classes.

An eclectic method choice will depend on several factors;

including the type of course you're teaching and the structure
and size of your class.
 TESOL Methodology
Eclectic Methods

Points to keep in mind to help your students to learn a new

language successfully

Students need to:

• interact with other students.
• experiment with the new language.
• be exposed to the new language both inside and outside the
classroom.
• focus on forms of the language and receive sufficient
explanation of forms they are learning.
• have sufficient time to learn the new language.
TESOL Methodology
Age Factors in Language Acquisition

Children learn their first language, also known as the L1,

subconsciously as part of their natural development. In
contrast, adults usually need to put conscious effort and
focus into learning a second or a foreign language.

In child L1 acquisition, the L1 is acquired from birth

onward - at first through constant exposure to parent talk,
and later through parents, friends, peer activities, and
school.
TESOL Methodology
Age Factors in Language Acquisition

Children are immersed in the L1 – they can learn from the

immediate environment. There is a lot of language input
and great frequency of language use, and parents
encourage and praise child language production.
TESOL Methodology
Age Factors in Language Acquisition

In adult second language L2 acquisition, the L2 is

acquired later in adolescence or adulthood.

There may be less input and a lower frequency of certain

forms or structures. L2 learners may be, but are usually
not, immersed in the L2 because they are in classes.

Teacher's praise is not as consistent and focused as

parental praise is, and L2 learners get far less individual
teacher's attention.
TESOL Methodology
Age Factors in Language Acquisition

How can we connect what we know about age-related

learning to the classroom?

1. Teachers can make sure there is a lot of L2 input in the

classroom through:
* their own speech (which provides language
modeling),
* video and audio with activities,
* and language practice in groups and pairs
TESOL Methodology
Age Factors in Language Acquisition
How can we connect what we know about age-related
learning to the classroom?
2. Teachers can provide opportunities for outside
exposure to the L2.

3. In ESL settings, teachers need to assign real-life tasks

that involve extensive real-life listening and language
activities.

4. In EFL settings, teachers can find L2 language

opportunities, such as going to institutions where
English is spoken.
TESOL Methodology
Basic Differences

There are three basic differences:

1. Cognitive
2. Affective
3. Linguistic
TESOL Methodology
Basic Differences
Cognitive Differences

Learning styles Children Adults

use of examples learn from examples: inductive learn from rules to

learning examples: deductive
learning

tolerance of ambiguities high tolerance; don't need low tolerance; need

explanations explanations

knowledge/abstract limited world knowledge world knowledge

concepts limited ability to understand ability to understand
abstract concepts abstract concepts
TESOL Methodology
Basic Differences
Affective Differences
Learning styles Children Adults
language ego language ego may be not very fully developed language
strong ego in L1
self-expression: their
character and personality in
L1 is strong so that lacking
the ability in L2 may bring
feelings of inadequacy and
frustration
self-awareness little self-awareness; self-image
(teenagers have more)
awareness of how others see
them
discomfort when using L2
TESOL Methodology
Basic Differences
Linguistic Differences

Learning styles Children Adults

Interference May experience some Adult knowledge of L1

interference in early may facilitate L2
stages of L2 acquisition learning
L1 interference may
occur with SLA second
language acquisition.
Accent If acquiring L2 before mastery of L2; has
puberty, seem not to accent
retain an accent
TESOL Methodology

More Differences…

There are more differences in:

• attention span and type,

• affect,
• sensory input,
• and language approach.
TESOL Methodology
Children
Children learn best when they can see and touch things, and
when they are involved in a lot of hands-on activities.

Therefore, it is good to give them a variety of tasks that involve

pictures, drawings, and movements.

Children may need accurate language reinforced but not

through explicit grammar instruction or explanation of rules.
Concepts and patterns should be reinforced indirectly through
repetition. One good method is the use of songs, rhymes, or
jazz chants.
TESOL Methodology

Teens

At around the age of twelve, children's cognitive capacity

expands to allow for more sophisticated intellectual processing
and logical thinking. Therefore, teens benefit from some
explicit instruction and explanation of concepts.

They also benefit from visual and auditory activities, so it is

important for teachers to provide a lot of sensory input.
TESOL Methodology

Teens

Teens can also focus their attention longer than children.

However, it is important not to overwhelm them with too much
theory and rule analysis.

Finally, it is critical to remember that teens are extremely self-

conscious and sensitive to others' perception of them.
Teachers, therefore, should avoid embarrassment of students
and assert each student's strengths and talents
TESOL Methodology

Adults

Adults generally need explicit instruction. They need to know

why certain forms are used and how grammar works. So,
teachers need to provide opportunities for grammar
explanations and lots of practice.

Adults also feel uncomfortable when they make a mistake, so

teachers need to use supportive, adult-like language when
addressing these students.
TESOL Methodology
More Differences…

Learner's characteristics Children Teens Adults

Attention span very short lengthens generally long
Attention type scattered focused focused
Affect less embarrassed easily easily
embarrassed embarrassed
Teacher's behavior Children Teens Adults
Sensory input benefit from a lot benefit from a lot benefit from
of it of it some of it
Language approach benefit from a benefit from benefit from
whole language some explicit explicit
approach instruction instruction
 TESOL Methodology

Communicative-Based Approaches
(Informed Approaches)
• Informed Approaches are based on the belief that
communication opportunities in and out of class can greatly aid
second language acquisition.
• Informed Approaches match student needs more closely
because they take real-life student goals into consideration and
target real-life language skills.

• All
of the informed approaches use student interaction as the
basis for classroom language activities.
 TESOL Methodology

Communicative-Based Approaches
(Informed Approaches)
Questions to consider:

What types of content and tasks are appropriate for different

language programs?

How can we integrate content and tasks with vocabulary,

grammar, and pragmatics?

Pragmatics is a subfield of linguistics and semiotics which

studies the ways in which context contributes to meaning.
 TESOL Methodology

Communicative-Based Approaches
(Informed Approaches)

1. Task-Based Instruction

2. Content-Based Instruction

3. Learner-Centered Instruction
 TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction

• Task-based instruction is goal-oriented.

• Students are given specific tasks to help them learn

English.

• The task types will vary depending on the needs of the

students, the curriculum, and the particular program.

• They also learn a skill that they may need in other classes
or in their lives.
 TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction

Examples:

• Learning how to speak at a job interview is a possible task

for students in adult English classes.

• Students in school and university programs might get a task

to outline a solution to a problem in their school or
community, such as expanding recycling efforts.
 TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction
Guidelines for Task-Based Instruction:
• Specific learning tasks should be used, such as a job
interview role-play or a telephone conversation role-play.
• Target language items need to be provided for students to
complete the task, such as language for question formation,
vocabulary for the interview, or model conversations.
• Use particular teaching techniques, such as role-play,
problem-solving, or information gap.

• Language tasks have real-life purposes beyond the

classroom.
 TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction

Some examples based on real-life situations :

• find information about a local childcare facility

• write an application form for college admissions
• role-play a phone conversation with a company that over-
charged you
• prepare a business presentation explaining a new product
TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction
Task: Create and conduct a survey about cell phone
use in public places.

1. Have students read an article about

the use of cell-phones in public
places.
2. In small groups discuss the
arguments for and against the
public use of cell phones.
3. Write six questions for a school-
wide survey of student attitudes
toward the public use of cell phones.
4. Create a survey with all the questions and answers.
5. Practice the interview questions and possible answers. Teacher
corrects errors, as needed.
6. Students go out of class to conduct the interview
7. Follow-up: Report findings during next class
TESOL Methodology

Task-Based Instruction
 TESOL Methodology

Content-Based Instruction

• Language is not the main focus of the class.

• The class focuses on particular subject matters, for

example, history, sociology, art, or literature.

• Language is taught, but only in the context of the content.

• Content-based language instruction is most frequently used

in college or academic settings.
TESOL Methodology

Content-Based Instruction

Content-based instruction can be applied in two ways:

using either sustained content or theme-based content.

• When the class uses sustained content, it means

that students will study the same subject matter
throughout the course.

• When the class uses theme-based instruction, it

means that students will study different themes over
a few chapters or a unit.
 TESOL Methodology

Sustained Content

Sustained content extends the exploration of a subject area

over several weeks, a month, or even one or more terms. A
very rich topic such as wars of the 20th century, for example,
might take an entire term.
TESOL Methodology

Sustained Content
 TESOL Methodology

Theme-Based Instruction

Theme-based instruction uses different themes for language

study. Some examples are advertising, pollution, family,
marriage, or technology. The theme is studied over a whole
unit or a few chapters. The teaching approach is the same as
for sustained content-based instruction, but on a smaller scale.
TESOL Methodology
TESOL Methodology

Content-Based Instruction

Sustained content and theme-based instruction are highly

beneficial for the learners, but they can pose challenges,
including:

• having knowledge of specific academic vocabulary

• understanding of specific academic subjects
• maintenance of student interest in a content or theme
TESOL Methodology
TESOL Methodology
 TESOL Methodology

Learner-Centered Instruction

• Learner-centered instruction is a highly communicative

approach to language teaching.
• It focuses on the learner and provides many opportunities
for language practice, even in large classes.

• Pair and group work are at the core of this approach.

• Successfully implementing learner-centered instruction

requires careful planning by the teacher.
 TESOL Methodology

Learner-Centered Instruction

There are many types of activities that can be used in group or

pair work. Here are some examples:

Interviews. Students can interview each other in pairs; the

teacher provides questions for the interview or gives them
topics.

Role-play. Students can role play a situation such as

complaining to a neighbor about noise in the building; the
teacher provides the lines for the dialogue.
 TESOL Methodology
Jigsaw. A reading is divided into two or more parts; students
read their part and share information.

Problem-solving. The teacher gives students a specific

situation, such as a problem with a co-worker or a family
member.

Research project. Students work alone or in pairs on a project,

such as gathering information on environmentally-friendly
careers, and

Information gap. Students work in pairs. They are assigned a

task, but are given different information. They have to get the
missing information from each other.
 TESOL Methodology

Learner-Centered Instruction

Roles of teachers:
• The teachers are seen as facilitators, managers, and
resources in learner-centered classrooms.

• They help organize the tasks, they manage them and they
supervise them.

• Teachers also give additional information and help students

with questions about some topics, so, they are a resource for
the students.
 TESOL Methodology

Learner-Centered Instruction

Roles of students:
• The learners are independent individuals and can be trusted
to carry out tasks.

• A learner-centered approach can help with student concerns

such as shyness, low self-esteem and anxiety.

• They also are not performing in front of the whole class, as is

often the case in teacher-centered classes.
 TESOL Methodology

Learner-Centered Instruction

How to make Learner-Centered activities successful?

• explain the activity in simple language

• model the activity so learners understand what to do
• check for understanding before beginning
• provide preparation time for each group
• monitor the activity closely
• join each group once the students get comfortable working in
groups
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction

The teaching of grammar in an ELT classroom.

Form-Focused Instruction utilizes grammar teaching to

various degrees and in various manners.

The teaching of a grammatical form, for example a verb tense

or a word form, comes from the instructional context and
should be communicative in nature.

Phonological, grammatical, and lexical forms are taught .

 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction

FFI differs from other types of grammar-based instruction

because it is not driven by a grammar syllabus.

The teacher does not start the lesson by teaching a grammar

point such as the present perfect tense and how to make
sentences with it. Instead, the lessons are based on topics,
themes, or other content, and the grammar comes out of this
material.
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
Examples of context-driven FFI:

Example 1: The class is reading material on future space

discoveries. The use of future tenses naturally arises, so the
teacher reinforces the use of future tenses, or addresses
different types of future tenses.

Example 2: A teacher distributes topic cards with "your best

elementary school memory." Students need to tell each other
what the memory was and why they think fondly of it. They will
use the past tense. The teacher takes notes of student
production, and writes examples on the board.
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
When to focus on form :

Age of Students Language Skills

Proficiency Level Register

Educational Background Needs and Goals

 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
Types of Grammar Instruction

1. Implicit teaching

Implicit teaching of grammar forms are highlighted in the

text and used multiple times in an activity, reading, or
listening.

The students may or may not notice the use of the form.
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
Difficulties with Implicit Teaching:

• Noticing can be a long process.

• Some learners do not readily notice forms.
• Teacher assistance may be needed with noticing.
 TESOL Methodology
Form-Focused Instruction
Example of Implicit Teaching:
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
2. Explicit teaching

Explicit methods use direct teaching of a grammatical form

through rule explanations, classroom grammar exercises,
and controlled production.
 TESOL Methodology

Form-Focused Instruction
Difficulties with Explicit Teaching:

• It is out of context and does not show language use.

• It may make communicative activities in the classroom
difficult.
• Teachers correcting students may interrupt the flow of
conversation.
• It is embarrassing for adult learners to be corrected in
front of the class frequently and directly.
 TESOL Methodology
Form-Focused Instruction
Example of Explicit Teaching:
TESOL Methodology
 TESOL Methodology
Lesson Planning
What is a Lesson Plan?
• A lesson plan is a teacher's plan for teaching a lesson.
• It can exist in the teacher's mind, on the back of an envelope,
or on one or more beautifully formatted sheets of A4 paper.
• Its purpose is to outline the "programme" for a single lesson.
• It helps the teacher in both planning and executing the lesson.
• It helps the students, unbeknownst to them, by ensuring that
they receive an actual lesson with a beginning, a middle and
an end, that aims to help them learn some specific thing that
they didn't know at the beginning of the lesson .
 TESOL Methodology
Lesson Planning
What is a Lesson Plan?

A lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular

lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are
supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method,
procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was
reached (test, worksheet, homework etc).
TESOL Methodology

“THE ABCD
METHOD
INSTRUCTIONAL
OBJECTIVES”
TESOL Methodology
TESOL Methodology

Jones, 1997 – "Clear objectives can help the instructor

design lessons that will be easier for the students to
comprehend and the teacher to evaluate".

Objectives are used to describe what learners will be

able to do at the end of an instructional unit.

Well-defined objectives support effective assessment.

 TESOL Methodology

The ABCD method of writing objectives is

an excellent starting point for writing
objectives.

In this system, "A" is for audience, "B"

is for behavior, "C" for conditions and
"D" for degree of mastery needed.
TESOL Methodology

AUDIENCE (A)
It describes the intended learner
or end user of the instruction.
• Who?
• Who are your learners?
TESOL Methodology

AUDIENCE (A)
• Example 1: The paramedic refresher
participant…
• Example 2: The EMT-B student…
• Example 3: The prehospital care
provider attending this seminar…
 TESOL Methodology

BEHAVIOR (B)
• It describes learner’s capability.
• It must be observable and measurable.
• If you can't see it, hear it, touch it, taste
it, or smell it, you can't be sure your
audience really learned it.
 TESOL Methodology

BEHAVIOR (B)
• What?

• What do you expect them to be able to

do?
 TESOL Methodology

BEHAVIOR (B)
• Example 1: … should be able to write a
report…

• Example 2: …should be able to

describe the steps
 TESOL Methodology

CONDITION (C)
It refers to:
• Equipment or tools that may (or may
not) be utilized in completion of the
behavior
• Environmental conditions may also be
included
TESOL Methodology

CONDITION (C)
• How?
• Under what circumstances or context
will the learning occur?
• What will the student be given or
already be expected to know to
accomplish the learning?
TESOL Methodology

CONDITION (C)
• Example 1: …given an oxygen wrench,
regulator and D tank with oxygen…
• Example 2: …given the complete works
of William Shakespeare…
 TESOL Methodology

DEGREE (D)
It states the standard for acceptable
performance (time, accuracy,
proportion, quality, etc)
TESOL Methodology

DEGREE (D)
• How much?

• How much will be accomplished, how

well will the behavior need to be
performed, and to what level?
 TESOL Methodology

DEGREE (D)
• Do you want total mastery (100%)?
• Do you want them to respond correctly
80% of the time, etc.?
• A common (and totally non-scientific)
setting is 80% of the time.
 TESOL Methodology

DEGREE (D)

• Example 1: … without error.

• Example 2: … 9 out of 10 times.
• Example 3: …within 60 seconds.
TESOL Methodology

After reviewing prepositions of time

and place, introducing entertainment
events and given a conversation model
(Condition), Ss of BNA-02 (Audience)
will be able to accept or decline an
invitation (Behavior) depending on their
availability (Degree)
TESOL Methodology

After carefully reviewing prepositions

of time and place, introducing
entertainment events and giving a
conversation model (Condition), BNA-
08 Ss (Audience) will be able to accept
or decline an invitation (Behavior)
orally with few or no errors in grammar:
tense and/or prepositions of time and
place (Degree).
TESOL Methodology

After carefully reviewing and

introducing complementary vocabulary
for locations and directions, giving a
conversation model and practicing it
(Condition), BNA-08 Ss (Audience) will
be able to ask for and give directions
(Behavior) at 100% accuracy (Degree).
TESOL Methodology

After discussing about kinds of movies

(Condition), INA01 Ss (Audience) will
read and analyze the effect of violence
in movies (Behavior), and share their
opinions about it written and orally
(Degree).
 TESOL Methodology
The Framework for Teaching
The Framework for Teaching is a research-based set of
components of instruction grounded in a constructivist view of
learning and teaching.
The complex activity of teaching is divided into 22 components
(and 76 smaller elements) clustered into four domains of
teaching responsibility:

1. Planning and Preparation

2. Classroom Environment
3. Instruction
4. Professional Responsibilities
 TESOL Methodology
The Framework for Teaching
Domain 1: Planning and Preparation Domain 2: Classroom Environment

1a Demonstrating Knowledge of Content and Pedagogy 2a Creating an Environment of Respect and Rapport
1b Demonstrating Knowledge of Students 2b Establishing a Culture for Learning
1c Setting Instructional Outcomes 2c Managing Classroom Procedures
1d Demonstrating Knowledge of Resources 2d Managing Student Behavior
1e Designing Coherent Instruction 2e Organizing Physical Space
1f Designing Student Assessments

Domain 4: Professional Responsibilities Domain 3: Instruction

4a Reflecting on Teaching 3a Communicating With Students

4b Maintaining Accurate Records 3b Using Questioning and Discussion Techniques
4c Communicating with Families 3c Engaging Students in Learning
4d Participating in a Professional Community 3d Using Assessment in Instruction
4e Growing and Developing Professionally 3e Demonstrating Flexibility and Responsiveness
4f Showing Professionalism