Programme: University of Kashmir

B. Ed.
PROGRAMME
Paper : Foundations of Education
Course No. : BED-15101
Semester : 1st
Directorate of Distance Education

University of Kashmir
Hazratbal, Srinagar.
Course Prepared By
Habibullah Shah
Assistant Professor (Education)
Srinagar
Showkat Rashid Wani

Srinagar
Programme Coordinator and Format Editing
Habibullah Shah
Srinagar
Course Co-ordination Team
Prof. Neelofar Khan

Mr. Showkat Rashid Wani
Mr. Habibullah Shah
Mr. Javaid Ahmad Puju
Dr. Firdous Ahmad Sofal
Miss. Shabnum
Published By
Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Director
Srinagar
Year of Publication: 2016

ISBN:
© Directorate of Distance Education

Srinagar
Course Code: BED-1501 Foundations of Education
Unit I Education and Philosophy
i) Nature & Meaning of Education

ii) Aims of Education – individual and social.
iii) Nature and Meaning of Philosophy
iv) Relation between Philosophy & Education
Unit II Major Educational Philosophies and

Educational Thinkers
Philosophies
i) Naturalism
ii) Idealism
iii) Pragmatism
These Educational Philosophies shall be discussed with
special reference to Aims, Curriculum, Methods, Role
of Teacher & Concept of Discipline.
Thinkers:
i) Mahatma Ghandhi: Basic Education
ii) Swami Vivekananda : Man making Education
iii) Froebel: The play way method
iv) Montessori: The Didactic Apparatus
Unit III Education & the Social Frame of Reference

i) Education & Democracy - Basic Principles of
Democracy- Education for Democracy
ii) Education & Socialism Meaning, Importance &
Role of Education in achieving the goals of
Socialism.
iii) Education & Secularism – Meaning of
Secularism. Role of Education in multi religious
society like India.
Unit IV Culture & Social Change

i) Concept & Characteristics of Culture
ii) Relationship between Culture & Education with
special reference to conservative and creativity
roles
iii) Concept of social change
iv) Factors of social change
v) Roles of Education Vis-à-vis social change
Introduction to Paper
Dear Students,
This paper comprises of four units which highlights the conceptual understanding
of philosophical and sociological foundations of education The main objective of this
paper is to orient you to the substance of “philosophical and sociological thinking” on
problems and issues related to education.
Unit I: It deals with meaning and scope of education and aims of education. It also deals
with the nature and meaning of philosophy. It also explains the relationship between
philosophy and education.
Unit II: This unit tends to explain western schools of philosophy as well as thinkers on
education. In dealing with the Western philosophy and its impact on (or implications for)
education, we have included idealism, pragmatism and existentialism. Each of these
schools is based on its distinct and separate view of theory of reality, theory of knowledge
and theory of values. This unit also deals with the educational thought of Gandhi,
Vivekananda, Frobel and Montessori.
Unit III: This unit highlights the relationship of education and democracy. It also
discusses the relationship of education with socialism and secularism.
Unit IV: This unit discusses the concept of culture and social change with special
reference to role of education. It also highlights the relationship between education and
culture. Overall, this paper explains the basic concepts of education that is why this
concept constitutes the foundations of education. It bears to mention here that the units (1
& 4) authored by myself are not entirely creative work of mine but are compiled one so
every effort has been done to cite the sources. Suggestions and feedback is most
welcome.
Wish u a happy reading!

Coordinator
Course No. BED-1501 Foundations of Education
CONTENTS
Lesson No Theme Page No
1. Nature, Meaning And Scope of Education 1-32
2. Meaning and Scope of Philosophy 33-46
3. Relationship of Education and Philosophy 47-56
4. Naturalism 57-75
5. Idealism 76-94
6. Pragmatism 95-109
7. Mahatma Gandhi: Basic Education 110-125
8. Swami Vivekananda: Man Making 126-154
Education
9. Froebel: The Play Way Method 155-172
10. Montessori-The Didactic Apparatus 173-195
11. Education and Democracy 196-208
12. Education and Socialism 209-219
13. Education and National Integration 220-223

14. Education and Secularism 234-238
15. Education and Culture 239-251
16. Education and Social Change 252-286

BED =15101
UNIT I
LESSON NO: 01 NATURE, MEANING AND SCOPE OF

EDUCATION
Lesson Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Meaning of Education
1.3 Banking and Problem Posing Concept of Education
1.4 Education as a Fundamental Right
1.5 Four Pillars of Education as Recommended by Delor’s Report
1.6 Nature and Modes of Education
1.7 Morphology of Indian Educational System
1.8 Scope of Education
1.9 Let us Sum Up
1.10 Check your Progress
1.11 Suggested Readings
1.0 Introduction
Education is a very common ad globally widespread term and in one way or other
appears to be as old as mankind, though during the time, its concept, meaning, objectives
and modes of delivery have inevitably remained in a constant flux. As a student of
1
BED =15101
education, and as a prospective teacher, it is vital for you to understand the nature,
meaning and concept of education and different perspectives that have shaped its context
from time to time. Understanding the meaning and concept of education will help you to
develop insights about the various processes of education. Education is considered both a
field of knowledge and an area of operation. As a field of knowledge, it deals with a
number of concepts, ideas, principles and thoughts which are educative in nature. On
another side, education is a field of practice. Educational practices occur in different
environments, namely formal, non-formal and informal environments. Education operates
in a wide spectrum of situations both at macro and micro levels. In this lesson, we shall,
carry out a conceptual analysis of education with special reference to its nature, meaning
and aims.
1.1 Objectives
After going this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of education;
 Define different definitions of education;
 Describe banking and problem posing concept of education;
 Discuss the four pillars of education as recommended by UNESCO;
 Explain nature and modes of education;
 Describe the structure of education in India; and
 Discuss individual and social aims of education.
1.2 Meaning of Education
Education is a perennial process originating from the origin of humankind. When

we speak of education as a system or process, the first thing we need to do is to widen up
the horizons of our mindset. That will help us to understand the education in a broader
context. The word "Education" is derived from the Latin words “Educare” and "Educere".
2
BED =15101
Educare means "to bring up" and Educere means “to bring forth”. Education, therefore,
means both to bring forth as well as to bring up. It implies that through organized
questions the knowledge, understanding and the potentialities of children have to brought
out; it is not filling of knowledge assuming that children are like empty vessels.
Accordingly education does not merely mean the acquisition of knowledge or experience
but it means the development of habits, attitudes and skills which help a man to lead a full
and worthwhile life. Education is the manifestation of the inner faculties and moral
nobility of every human being but, unfortunately, this conceptual vision is blurred and
even blanked out by waves of money-manic, epicurean globalization and corporate
privatization Education is not commodity but more than that. Listen to John Ruskin
“Education is the leading of human souls to what is best, and making
what is best of them; and these two objects are always attainable
together, and by the same means. The training which makes men
happiest in themselves also makes them most serviceable to others”
Education can be viewed from different perspectives and approaches. Different
philosophers and thinkers have defined in the light of what they have thought about
education. Education is wide in connotation and universal in application that it cannot be
defined to a single interpretation. Some common and universally disseminated definitions
of education are as:
Education: How Thinkers View it?

1. According to Plato, “Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the
right moment”.
2. According to Aristotle, “Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound
body”
3. According to John Dewey, “Education is the development of all those capacities
in the individual which will enable him to control his environment and full fill his
possibilities.”
3
BED =15101
4. According to Gandhiji, “Education is drawing out of the best in child - body,

mind and spirit”.
5. Swami Vivekananda defined education as the "manifestation of the perfection
that is already in man".
6. According to Shankaracharya, “Education is the realization of the self.”
7. According to Indria Gandhi, “Education is a liberating force, and in our age it is
also a democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth and other circumstances.”
8. Dr. Zakir Hussain. “Education is the process of the individual mind getting to its
full possible development.
9. Froebel. “Education is the unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It
is the process through which the child makes internal external.”
10. Redden. “Education is the deliberate and systematic influence existed by the
mature upon the immature, through instruction, discipline and harmonious
development of physical, intellectual, aesthetic, social and spiritual powers of the
human being, according to the individual and social needs and directed towards
the union of the educated with his creator, at the final end”.
From the above definitions, it is clear that education is the dynamic process which
is having different dimensions as discussed below:
1. Education as acquisition of knowledge: Education is defined as acquisition of
knowledge in relation to a definition of philosophy as love of knowledge. The
famous Greek philosopher, Socrates had said that "knowledge is virtue" and he who
is knowledgeable is virtuous and Francis Bacon opined that "knowledge is power"
and knowledge is instrumental for the progress of any society. Hence, the concept of
education, as acquisition of knowledge, was prevalent since the beginning of history
of education till recent times. As former President of India , A.P.K Abdul Kalam has
said,
4
BED =15101
“On the earth, above the earth and under the earth,
I will keep the lamp of knowledge burning,
To achieve the vision – Developed India”
In the words of Whitehead, education is knowledge. He further said,
“The educated man is one who possesses a broad range of knowledge...
of different types of knowledge of faiths, practical knowledge of how to
do things knowledge of acquaintance with work of art and other
subjects.”
2. Education as a tool to discipline the intellect: John Locke, the English
philosopher of the 17th century conceived of the mind as a function of different
components like memory, imagination and thinking. In his most significant work,
the Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Locke set out to offer an analysis of
the human mind and its acquisition of knowledge. However, the mind at the time of
birth of the child will be like a clean slate, "tabula rasa". He believed that child's
mind is just like plastic and it is pliable. It is just like a twig. It will grow in the
direction you try to bend it. Therefore, education is a toll to discipline the intellect.
3. Education as a preparation for life: Every individual desires to live a successful
life. In order to achieve this, the skills and the abilities are to be leant. These skills
will definitely help the individual in solving the problems of life. Thus, a child must
be familiarized with the problems of adult life and one has to provide the solutions
there in when they are studying in school. In this sense, education is a preparation
for life.
4. Education as a direction: Educating a child means directing the child
appropriately. It is the prime concern of education to direct the underdeveloped
capacities attitudes, interests, urges and the needs of the young people into the most
desirable channels. Children are born with instincts. These instincts are to be
properly directed in a socially acceptable way. Children have many desires. They
have desire to play, for asking questions, to know the world around them and for
5
BED =15101
receiving attention from their elders. All these desires are not only to be satisfied but
have also to be led continuously. It is the duty of the teacher to see that these active
tendencies are not dispersed aimlessly. This is what “directing” means. Educative
process is nothing but directing the children to have worthy interests in various
phases of life. Education creates an environment which stimulates to develop
desirable attributes of individual. It must open out to the people a wide universe of
worthy objects. The children should be so directed that they love the worthy objects
and hate the evil tendencies of man. They should not only be given an insight into
what is best but also be given such firmness of mind that they always choose the
best. Effective direction includes in it “guidance” and “control”. While directing a
child, care should be taken that the nature of the child is not dishonored.
5. Education as growth: An individual undergoes many changes during his life time.
These changes are seen from cradle to death. These changes are cognitive, affective
and psycho- motor. Whenever changes take place there is growth and
development. Education plays a vital role in the growth and development of an
individual. According to John Dewey, "Since growth is the characteristic of life,
education is all one with growing; it has no end beyond itself".
6. Education as modification of behavior: Education is an activity or a process,
which transforms the behavior of an individual from instinctive behavior to human
behavior. Human, instead of acting impulsively, acts rationally. Education gives a
new shape to man. Thus, education acts as a tonic which modifies our behavior.
That is why education is termed as modification of behavior.
An English poet Robert Bridges has beautifully said:
“And since we see how man’s judgment of right and wrong,
Varieth with education…. We conclude there form,
That education sharpeneth our moralities”.
7. Education as a continuous process: Education is a process through which the
inborn tendencies or latent powers of the child are improved and unfolded, so that
6
BED =15101
his/her personality is fully developed. This process of education is said to have its
beginning from birth and culminates finally with death. Various psychologists hold
that it starts even before birth. It is believed that education commences from birth
and goes on throughout life. This notion has been accepted beyond truth. It goes on
and on without any break or barrier. Man learns every now and then; every moment
of the day, every day of the month, every month of the year and every year of his
life. Modern Science and technology has also proved it. Thus, education is a
lifelong process which keeps its wheel in continuous process. This what Alvin
Toffler has beautifully said,
“The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but
those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn” – Alvin Toffler.
From the above discussion, it can be established that education is the process in
which an individual works into fruition of its own inner nature; it is a man's means to
realize his/her destination, his/her goals, joy and services. Thus, enabling human to
develop all around capacities. Education is the emancipation from ignorance. Education is
the influence of the environment upon the individual. Such influence brings a change in
the overall personality of the individual. Thus, in short, education enables an individual to
develop all those capacities which enable him to control his environment, adjust himself
to his environment and realize his possibilities and fulfill them in a socially desirable
manner. Education is not limited to teaching of three R’s or certification. It is life itself. It
is really life that educates. Lodge has rightly said,
“In the wider sense life is education and education is life….. whatever
broadens our horizon, deepens our insight, refines our reactions and
stimulates our thoughts and feelings educates us”.
7
BED =15101
1.3 Banking and Problem Posing Concept of Education
Banking Concept of Education
Paulo Freire, a Brazilian thinker was highly critical of prevailing educational

practices during his time. He conceptualized education from a radical perspective by
advocating two new concepts of education named as ‘banking’ and “problem” concept
of education. In the banking concept, education is treated and practiced as a depositing
activity. In this depositing act, students become depositories and teacher the depositor.
The scope of action allowed to the students, 'extends only as far as receiving, filling, and
storing the deposits.' By acting as a depositor, the teacher 'domesticates' the child into
oppressor consciousness. The banking concept of education, says Freire, has done
massive damage to teacher-taught relationship and process of education.
Freire’s description of banking education and his prescription of problem-posing
education are based on his understanding about man, his consciousness and relation to the
world. According to him, banking education begins with a false understanding of men as
objects. Implicit in banking concept is the assumption of a dichotomy between man and
the world; man is merely in the world, not with the world or with others; man is spectator,
not re-creator. Accordingly, man is not a conscious being; he is rather a possessor of
consciousness; an empty mind passively opens to the reception of deposits of reality from
the world outside.
Teacher-Taught Relationship under Banking Education
Freire believed that the banking concept of education has done a great harm to
teacher-taught relationship by portraying them as opposites. "The teacher presents himself
to his students as their necessary opposite; by considering their ignorance absolute, he
justifies his own existence" says Freire. Critically looking at education from the dialectic
of teacher-student relationships, Freire perceives that education is suffering from
'narration sickness'; 'education, inside or outside the school, reveals its fundamentally
8
BED =15101
narrative character.' In the school that is suffering from ‘narration sickness’, the
relationship involves a narrating subject (teacher) and the patient, listening objects
(students). Narration turns the students into empty vessels to be filled by the teacher. The
banking approach to education, will never propose to students that they should consider
the reality critically. Classroom teaching is dominated by verbosity; 'words are emptied of
their concreteness and become a hollow, alienated and alienating verbosity’ advocates
Friere.
Banking education maintains and even stimulates teacher-student relationships
through fostering and practicing the following attitudes.
 The teacher teaches and the students are taught.
 The teacher knows everything and the students know nothing.
 The teacher thinks and the students are thought about.
 The teacher talks and the students listen-meekly.
 The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
 The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply.
 The teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the action of
the teacher.
 The teacher is the authority to select the academic content, and the students (who
were not consulted) have to adapt it in letter and spirit.
 The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his own professional
authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students.
 The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere
objects.
 The teacher is active while as student is passive in educational process.
Problem Posing Concept of Education
As against banking concept of education which considers consciousness as ‘an

empty vessel to be filled’, problem-posing education considers human as a conscious
9
BED =15101
being, as consciousness is directed towards the world. Problem-posing education as

practice of freedom denies that human is abstract, isolated, independent, and unattached
to the world. It also denies that the world exists as a reality apart from man. ‘Authentic
reflection considers neither the abstract man nor the world without men, but men in their
relations with the world.’ With this conceptual understanding of man-world relation.
Freire critiques banking education and its practices and simultaneously advocated for
problem posing concept of education where education is considered as a liberating force.
In the first instance, Problem-posing education demands a resolution of the
teacher-student contradiction. Authentic education is not carried on by for or by about but
rather by with mediated by the world. Through dialogue, 'teacher-of-the-student' and
"student-of-the-teacher" cease to exist and a new term emerges-teacher-student with
student-teacher. They become jointly responsible for a process in which all grow together.
In problem-posing education, we respond to the essence of consciousness rejects
dictatorship and symbolize authentic communication. It represents the special
characteristic of consciousness: 'being conscious of” and does not dichotomize the actions
of the teacher-student; he/she is not cognitive at one end and narrative at another but
he/she is always cognitive. As banking concept of education fails to recognize the human
as historical beings but in problem posing concept, we take human’s historicity as their
starting point. Here education is for revolt and rebel against the oppression and
victimization. Education is not only means of live hood but an agent for social revolution
The purpose of education is to make the people aware of themselves as reflective
human persons who created both history and culture. The unfinished character of men and
the transformational character of reality necessitate that education be an ongoing activity.
Education is for radical approach and divergent thinking. Freire explicitly turned his
attention to education as a necessary means for bringing about a revolution; problem-
posing education, he said, is “revolutionary futurity”.
10
BED =15101
Banking and Problem-Posing Education - A Comparison
The fundamental difference between the banking and problem-posing educational

concepts and practices can be presented as follows:
Banking Concept of Education Problem-Posing Education
Dichotomizes man-world relations. No dichotomous relations.

Man is not conscious; he is only Man is not mere possessor of
possessor of consciousness consciousness; he is a conscious being
Man in the world. Man is not in the world but with the
world
Dichotomizes teacher – student relations Resolves the dichotomy.

Teacher is essentially narrative'. Teacher is ‘cognitive’
Emphasis on memorization. Emphasis on critical thinking.
Monologue dominates the class. Dialogical classroom.
Teacher issues communiqués. Teacher believes in communication
Education for domestication. Education for liberation.
Student is passive and receptive. Student is active and revolutionary.
Here convergent thinking is promoted. Here divergent thinking is promoted.
1.4 Education as a Fundamental Right
Education is the most powerful mechanism for the advancement of human beings
in this universe. It enlarges, enriches and improves the individual's image of the future.
Education emancipates the human beings and leads to liberation from ignorance.
According to Pestalozzi, education is a constant process of development of innate powers
of man which are natural, harmonious and progressive. In 21st century, any nation's ability
11
BED =15101
to convert knowledge into wealth and social good through the process of innovation is
going to decide its future. According to National Knowledge Commission of India,
knowledge has been recognized as the key driving force in the twenty–first century, and
Indi as ability to emerge as a globally competitive player will substantially depend on its
knowledge resources. The significance of education was very well explained in case of
Brown V Board of Education, in following words:
"Education is the very foundation of good citizenship. Today, it is principal
instrument in awakening the child to cultural value, in preparing him for later
professional training and in helping him to adjust normally to his environment. "
This is now gospel truth that child is the future of nation. Therefore all efforts should be
made to provide education to all children irrespective of cast, creed, religion and sex.
International cooperation related to what is now called 'the right to education' has a more
limited history. A much broader approach was chosen, however with the establishment of
UNESCO, United Nations, on 10th December, 1998 adopted Universal Declaration of
Human Rights. The Preamble to the UDHR stated that:
“Every individual and organ of society...., shall strive by teaching and education
to promote respect for these rights and freedoms...."
In accordance with the Preamble of UDHR, education should aim at promoting
human rights by importing knowledge and skill among the people of the nation states.
Article 26 (1) of UDHR proclaims that:
Everyone has a right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the
elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory.
Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher
education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit."
Article 26 (2) states that Education shall be directed to the full development of the
human personality and to the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms; It shall promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations,
racial or religious groups, and shall further the activities of the United Nations for
12
BED =15101
maintenance of peace. Further, Article 26 (3) provides that parents have a prior right to
choose the kind of education that shall be given to their children."The right to education
has also been recognized by The International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights (ICESCR) which is a multilateral treaty adopted by the United Nations
General Assembly on 16 December 1966, and in force from 3 January 1976. Article 13 of
said treaty deals with right to education and articulates as;
 The states parties to the present covenant recognize the right of everyone to
education. They agree that education shall be directed to the full development of
the human personality and sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for
human right and fundamental freedoms.... Article 13
 Further provides that the states Parties to the present covenant recognize that,
with a view to achieving the full realization of this right:
(a) Primary education shall be compulsory and available free to all;
(b) Secondary education in its different forms, including technical and vocational
secondary education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all
by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive introduction
of free education;
(c) Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of
capacity, by every appropriate means, and in particular by the progressive
introduction of free education;
(d) Fundamental education shall be encouraged or intensified as far as possible
for those persons who have not received on completed the whole period of
their primary education;
(e) The development of a system of schools at all levels shall be actively pursued,
an adequate fellowship system shall be established, and the material conditions
of teaching staff shall be continuously improved.
13
BED =15101
During the general discussion by the committee on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights on the Right to Education (1998), an agreement was drafted and below mentioned
elements defines its core content:
 No one shall be denied a right to education;
 Everyone is entitled to basic (primary) education in one form or another; this
includes basic education for adults. Primary education must be compulsory and
free.
 . No one may withhold a child from primary education. A state has an obligation
to protect this right from encroachment by third persons;
 The minorities have the right to be taught in the language of their choice, in
institutions outside the official system of public education. UNESCO has adopted
a number of normative documents, conventions and recommendations ensuring
the enjoyment of the right to education for everyone.
The famous document is the Convention against Discrimination in Education, which was
adopted by the General Conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization, in its meeting held in Paris from 14 November to 15 December
1960, at its eleventh session on 14thDecember 1960, by the General Conference and
which entered into force in 1962. The role of international organization regarding the
implementation of the right to education is just not limited to the preparation of documents
and conducting conferences and conventions but it also undertakes the operational
programmes assuring, access to education of refugees, migrants, minorities, indigenous
people, women and the handicaps. India participated in the drafting of the Declaration and
has ratified the agreement; Hence India is under obligation to implement such provisions.
It is an established fact that throughout world maximum countries have declared
education as a fundamental right of every child. In this context, recently Indian state also
passed an act to ensure education as a fundamental right. The act is called as “The Right of
Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act or Right to Education Act (RTE),”
which was passed by the Indian parliament on 4th August 2009, describes the modalities of
14
BED =15101
the provision of free and compulsory education for children between 6 and 14 in India under
Article 21 (A) of the Indian Constitution. The act received the assent of the President on the
26th August, 2009. India became one of 135 countries to make education a fundamental right
for every child as the act came into force on 1stApril 2010. The brief information about the act
is tabulated below.
The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory

Education Act 2009
A Major Milestone
Citation Official Act
Enacted by Parliament of India
Date Enacted 4 August 2009
Date Assented to 26 August 2009
Date Commenced 1st April 2010
Summary
Provides for free and compulsory education to all

children of the age of six to fourteen years.
Kapil Sibal, former Minister of Human Resource Development, India while

realizing the importance of this act has said.
“The three pillars of education are expansion, inclusion and excellence. The
enactment of “The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009” will
bring access to quality education to an estimated 8.1 million children presently out of
school. The Act provides for quality education through quailed teachers and seeks to
provide learning opportunities to children in a stress free environment. This has been
supplemented with Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan for universalisation of
15
BED =15101
education at the secondary level. The government has also launched Sakshar Bharat
Mission with focus on Female Literacy. These efforts at the elementary and secondary
education are expected to provide a critical mass of students to enter the portals
p of higher
education.”
The act came into force from 11-4-2010
10 in India with the speech of the then Prime
Minster of India. Some excerpts from the former PM’s speech are reproduced in the
below box 1.1.
Dr. Man Mohan Singh’s Address to the Nation on the Fundamental Right of Education
Briefly speaking,, Education is the fundamental kkey

ey to the task of nation building as well
as to provide requisite knowledge and skills required for sustained growth of the economy
16
BED =15101
and to ensure overall progress. The Indian education system also recognizes the role of
education in instilling the values of secularism, egalitarianism, equity, respect for
democratic traditions and civil liberties and quest for justice. It aims at creating citizens
equipped with necessary knowledge, skills and values to build an inclusive, just and
progressive society. Keeping all this in view, the Indian Government filled an important
commitment to the people of the nation on 4th, August 2009, when Indian Parliament
passed a landmark Bill providing for free and compulsory education to all children aged
6-14. The notification to enforce Article 21A in the Constitution and the corresponding
legislation as ‘Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act 2009’ has come
into effect from 1st, April 2010. In this way, education is now a fundamental right in India
for every citizen except for Jammu and Kashmir state subjects because unfortunately the
act is not extended to the state of J & K as it is mentioned in the chapter 1 of the act. As
on date the Jammu and Kashmir government, has not come with its own right to
education act.
1.5 Four Pillars of Education as Recommended by Delor’s Report
Jacques Delor in his report, International Commission on Education for the

21stCentury (Learning: The Treasure Within) which he along with is team submitted to
UNESCO in the year 1996 which advocated that in confronting the many challenges that
the future holds in store, humankind sees in education an indispensable asset in its
attempt to attain the ideals of peace, freedom and social justice. As it concludes its work,
the Commission upholds its conviction that education has a fundamental role to play in
personal and social development. The Commission does not see education as a miracle
cure or a magic formula opening the door to a world in which all ideals will be attained,
but as one of the principal means available to foster a deeper and more harmonious form
of human development and thus to reduce poverty, exclusion, ignorance, oppression and
war. The commission recommended that the system of education should be built on four
pillars which are reproduced here.
17
BED =15101
The first of these is learning to know. Given the rapid changes brought about by
scientific progress and the new forms of economic and social activity, the emphasis has to
be on combining a sufficiently broad general education with the possibility of in-depth
work on a selected number of subjects. Such a general background provides, so to speak,
the passport to lifelong education, in so far as it gives people a taste – but also lays the
foundations – for learning throughout life.
Learning to do is another pillar. In addition to learning to do a job of work, it
should, more generally, entail the acquisition of a competence that enables people to
deal with a variety of situations, often unforeseeable, and to work in teams, a feature
to which educational methods do not at present pay enough attention. In many cases,
such competence and skills are more readily acquired if pupils and students have the
opportunity to try out and develop their abilities by becoming involved in work
experience schemes or social work while they are still in education, whence the
increased importance that should be attached to all methods of alternating study with
work.
The Report has put greater emphasis on another pillar that it proposes and
describes as the foundations of education: learning to live together, by developing an
understanding of others and their history, traditions and spiritual values and, on this basis,
building a new spirit which, guided by recognition of our growing interdependence and a
common analysis of the risks and challenges of the future, would convince people to
implement common projects or to manage the inevitable conflicts in an intelligent and
peaceful approach. While the Commission has indeed a vision of the kind of education
that would create and underlay this new spirit, it has not disregarded the other three pillars
of education which provide, as it were, the bases for learning to live together.
Last, but far from least, is the fourth pillar: learning to be. This was the
dominant theme of the Edgar Faure report Learning to Be: The World of Education
Today and Tomorrow, published by UNESCO in 1972. Its recommendations are still
very relevant, for in the twenty first century everyone will need to exercise greater
18
BED =15101
independence and judgment combined with a stronger sense of personal responsibility

for the attainment of common goals. This report stresses a further imperative: none of
the talents which are hidden like buried treasure in every person must be left
untapped. These are, to name but a few: memory, reasoning power, imagination,
physical ability, aesthetic sense, the aptitude to communicate with others and the
natural charisma of the group leader, which again goes to prove the need for greater
self-knowledge.
At last, this commission emphasized that education should focus on leaning as the
title of the Commission turned to one of La Fontaine’s fables.
The Ploughman and his Children:

Be sure (the ploughman said), not to sell the inheritance
Our forebears left to us:
A treasure lies concealed therein.
Readapting slightly the words of the poet, who was lauding the virtues of hard
work, and referring instead to education – that is, everything that humanity has learned
about itself –:
But the old man was wise

To show them before he died
That learning is the treasure.
1.6 Nature and Modes of Education
Nature of Education: The following points will highlight the nature of education.
1. A lifelong Process: Education is a lifelong process. It cannot be kept confined to a
few years of schooling. Span of education is wide as life. Education according, to
most of the philosophers continues from birth to death. As Madam Paul Richard
pointed out that “the education of man should begin at his very birth and it is to
continue the whole length of his life”.
19
BED =15101
2. A Bipolar Process: Education is a bi-polar process involving both students and

teachers in order to carry the educational process.
3. A Tri-Polar Process: Education is a tri-polar process, the three poles of which are
pupil, teacher and social environment.
4. A Multi-Polar Process: The modern educational process cannot be bipolar or tri-
polar, but multi- polar where a large number of agencies are engaged for
educating the individual with multimedia package of subject matter.
5. Multiple Agencies of Education: Education can be imparted through formal,
non-formal and informal agencies.
6. A Deliberate Process: Education as a process in not only conscious but also
deliberate one.
7. An Academic Discipline: Education is an academic discipline having its roots
from United Kingdom. But unfortunately largely throughout world, it has been
confined to teacher training programmes only.
8. Education is theoretical as well as practical in nature. Theoretical and practical
knowledge of education broadens the intellectual horizons of the child, deepens his
insight, enhances his efficiency and helps him in solving educational problems.
9. Education – a science as well as an art. Education is both a science as well as
an art. It is a science because of the various reasons. Some are as :
i. It undertakes systematic and methodical study of certain facts.
ii. It employs the scientific methods of observation and experimentation.
iii. It discovers, establishes and formulates a number of generalizations
about its methodology, learning, memory, attention, interest,
motivation, curriculum, construction, methods of teaching and
evaluation.
Education is an art because of the various reasons like;
a. Educationist is just like an artist who moulds the raw material of the child into a
standard one.
20
BED =15101
b. Educationist is inspired by practical end. It has practical end to attain, i.e., to help
the child in acquisition of knowledge, integrated growth, social and vocational
efficiency, and continuous reconstruction and reorganization of experiences.
Modes of Education
It is a gospel truth that education is a lifelong process which cannot be confined to

four walls of schools and educational institutions. A famous educationist and thinker,
Ivan Illich has said, universal education through schooling is not feasible and we have to
look for other alternatives. So it is obvious that there should be different means of
education. The different types of education on the basis of mode or means are as:
1. Formal Education: The education which we impart in schools, colleges and other
institutions on regular basis under proper structure is termed as formal education.
It is consciously and deliberately planed. The main regulators of it are schools,
colleges, universities and other formal educational institutions.
2. Non-Formal Education: Non-formal Education is an arrangement wherein
flexibility is the key word. Such a system is an open one with regard to various
aspects of education, i.e., admissions, eligibility criteria curriculum, place of
instruction, mode of instruction and the time and duration of instruction. Various
examples of such a system are the Open Schools, Distance Education Departments
and open Universities like IGNOU, NIOS in India, Open Learning and the
Correspondence Courses. It can be imparted through Radio, T.V, ICT, also etc.
3. Informal Education: A sizeable number of thinkers and educationist’s like
Rousseau, Illich, Tagore etc. have opined that much learning takes place casually
and unintentionally. In the words of Ivan Illich, real learning takes place through
social interaction. Education which takes place casually outside formal and non-
formal institutions through interaction and discussions is labeled as informal
education. Such education takes place though discussions and conversations. The
main agencies of informal education are homes, family and social spaces.
21
BED =15101
Briefly speaking, education is a lifelong process and from that perspective we learn
knowledge and skills both inside the formal/non-formal system as well in formal system.
Education has no full stop. Somebody has rightly said, education is never ending process.
“Education is a liberating force, and in our age it is also a democratizing force,

cutting across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out inequalities imposed
by birth and other circumstances.” Indria Gandhi,
1.7 Morphology of Indian Educational System
The term morphology has been borrowed by the author from the field of life
sciences which means of study of structure and has been used first time in the discipline
of education by the author. Off course every educational system of any country has its
own structure and setup which varies from country to country. So far as India is
considered, here educational system comprises of different levels like Pre-primary,
Elementary level (Primary and Upper Primary), Secondary, Higher Secondary and Higher
level which includes university education. The diagrammatic representation of
educational structure prevailing in India is as under.
22
BED =15101
1.8 Scope/Aims of Education
So for as the scope of education is considered, it is very wide as it is related with

every aspect of our life. Somebody has rightly said that “education is life” as education is
backbone for human resource development. Education is considered as a tool of
individual and social development. In order to map out the scope of education, one must
have knowledge regarding the aims of education because aims of education both
individual and social reflect the scope of education in our life. Let us discuss in detail the
aims of education.
Importance of Aims
Aims are the declarations which describe the kind of modification that we want to
bring about in the learner in different domains of life. Aims also provide the starting point
on which all the learning experiences are based. It provides necessary direction and the
formation for the entire educational structures. In the same spirit, it is said that the process
of education is not only continuous, but also dynamic. Like every activity, it should have
its aims. But due to the changing scenario of education, its objectives also change from
time to time. Since education grows and develops according to the needs and conditions
of the society, the aims of education also fluctuate from society to society and structure to
structure. From the times of Aristotle to the contemporary era, there are no universally
fixed aims of education.
The hunt for ideals in education is never ending. But there is always a lack of
agreement about, ideals. T.P. Nunn has rightly said, “Educational aims are correlative to
ideals of life”. Hence as long as these ideals differ educational aims vary in letter and
spirit. Without the definite aims of education the curriculum, methods of teaching, school
organization, teaching-learning materials and media cannot be determined. Like a sailor
in a rudderless vessel, an educator without the knowledge of the aims of education moves
aimlessly here and there in the educational boundary being unable to reach the
destination. Dewey has stressed, “to have an aim is to” act, with meaning, not like an
23
BED =15101
automatic machine; it is to mean to do something and to perceive the meaning of things in

the light of that intent. The aim, as a foreseen end, gives direction to the activity: it is not
an idle view of a mere viewer, but influences the steps taken to reach the end. Thus
educational process is either defective or irrationally operative without aims.
There are various aims of education which are considered to be of very
importance in bringing about the desirable changes in the personality of human being and
his social system. Generally there are two categories of aims which are individual and
social. Let us discuss them one by one in detail.
a) Individual Aims of Education: The interests and needs of an individual should
be given due weight. The individual freedom and dignity, which is the very basis
of democracy, should be emphasized in the individual aim of education. Every
individual is unique and can contribute to the social development in his own way.
Following are some important individual aims of education.
1. Development of Natural Abilities: When a child is born, he/she is having
many inborn abilities. As the child grows, the mind also grows, but the
innate abilities and qualities do not develop quite so naturally and without
support. It is often said that if the mind is not trained, its abilities cannot be
developed. Hence, the first aim of education is to try to develop such
abilities as power of imagination, of thinking, etc., by providing
appropriate opportunities and stimuli. It is for this reason that, as a part of
child education, one of the first steps is to put various kinds of instruments
and apparatus before the child so that he/she can learn to use his/her sense
organs. Gandhi has also advocated for the same when he said,
"Education is drawing out of the best in child - body, mind and spirit".
2. Formation of Character: It is believed that education is the modification
of behaviour. Education should touch our heart and morally it should make
us more human and truthful. Education should mould our character as
Mahatma Gandhji was once asked, “What is your goal of education?” He
24
BED =15101
replied, “character building”. Swami Vivekananda emphasized the

importance of character -building as the aim of education. In his own
words,
“If you are assimilated fine ideas and made them the basis of
your life and character, you have more education than any man
has got by heart a whole library.”
Briefly speaking character is the reflection of man’s education.
3. Education for Vocation: Economic factors controlling life in the present
day world have become so complex that no one who is not properly
educated and skilled can hope to successfully earn his/her living. As a
general rule, highly paid jobs require specialized training of a very high
caliber. The ability to earn enough is not the only factor to be considered
in the preparation for adult life. Education aims at training the individual
to earn his livelihood, to marry, to bring forth children, to fulfill his duties
towards other individuals and society in general. In fact, if the child is
helped to develop a balanced personality and a good character, there can
be no better preparation for adult life. If education can perform this task,
then men and women become highly responsible and useful citizens.
Mahtma Gandhji says, “True Education ought to be for them (boys and
girls) a kind of insurance against unemployment.” He further advocated
that earn while learn and learn while earn.
4. Education for Knowledge: It is a gospel truth that the basic aim of
education is dissemination of knowledge. Socrates had said that
"knowledge is virtue" and he who is knowledgeable is virtuous and just.
Francis Bacon opined that "knowledge is power" and the knowledge of the
universe around is instrumental for the progress of a society. Hence, the
concept of knowledge as aim of education was prevalent since the
25
BED =15101
beginning of history of education till recent times. Knowledge is the seed

for education.
5. Self-Realization: Self-realization means the actualization of the highest
potentialities of the self. Self-realization or “spiritual becoming” is the
ultimate aim of education. Self-realization is the goal of life and hence can
be considered as one of the aim of education. A self-realized man is an
ideal man. As Allmah Iqbal has beautifully said,
ApnayMun May Doob Kar Paja Suragi Zindigi
Too Agar Mera Neehey Banta Mah Ban Apna too Ban
6. Development of International and Global Feeling: As a result of the
unprecedented improvements in the means of transport and
communications, people of different nations are constantly coming into
contact with each other. People across the globe are also realizing the
importance of global feelings, after having witnessed the consequences of
recent world wars. All contemporary educationists in India, including Sri
Aurobindo, RabindraNath, Vivekanand, have stressed the importance of
creating this feeling of internationalism among the Indian citizens. In the
present context, therefore, one of the main tasks of education is to generate
this sense among students as we are members of a global village.
7. Development of Individuality: T. P. Nunn believed that we should
use education as a means of making the individual capable of developing
his own individuality and of contributing to society and also between man
and nature. Rousseau is of the opinion that education should develop the
child according to his natural ability and it is accepted today that education
should conform to the child's abilities.
8. Intellectual Development: Education should develop the intellectual
capacities of an individual and should increase his/her imaginative and
creative abilities.
26
BED =15101
b) Social Aims of Education: Education has a very vital role in social life
because human is regarded as a social entity. He is born in the society and lives
and interacts within his members till the last moment of life. The society makes
him a civilized citizen. According to Aristotle, man is a social animal and has also
rightly said that a man, who does not live in the society, is either a god or a beast.
He communicates and exchanges his ideas with others. Through this, he receives
knowledge and makes himself educated. The social values, mores and milieus
make the individual socialized. Keeping this in view, education has to play social
functions which give birth to social aims of education.
According to the social aim of education, the individual has to be prepared to
behave as an integral component of the society. The social aim of education emphasizes
social cohesion, inclusion and control over the individual. But there is a range of
differences in the degree of such social control. It is believed, that the social aim of
education visualizes the state as an idealized metaphysical mechanism. The state is a
super body over and above the individual. It surpasses all desires and aspirations and
signifies all reasons and justice. The state is the glorified and magnified component which
has a mission to fulfill. Ross has, therefore, observed, “thus the aim of life in general and
of education in particular is definitely the good of the State”. The state must have
absolute control over the lives and destinies of its individuals. It has the impeachable right
to control the individuals and shape them to a particular pattern. It is thus strengthened
and exalted. Education is regarded as the most potential and powerful means of achieving
this objective. The authority of state is reflected in the curriculum, methods and materials
which states prescribes for its educational system
According to Ross, “of all nations in the history, ancient Sparta affords the most
perfect example of socialistic state”. Sparta gave no consideration to the individual
whoever he may be everybody "was born not for himself, but for his country" and all
"had not a wish but for their country". Ross has advocated that most of their energies
were devoted to military training; the state itself was a school and one main duty of adult
27
BED =15101
citizens was to engage actively in the training of the young. In Sparta, the immediate aim
of education was to make soldiers. Severe military training was imparted and moral
training was given through the elders. There was a brutal punishment for any omission
and commission and their whole education was an exercise of obedience. Women were
given equal opportunities with men for the simple reason that they would be the future
mothers of warriors. Briefly speaking, education was for nationalism and military power.
Another interpretation of the social aim of education is advocated by thinkers like
Professor Bagley, John Dewey etc. They hold that social aim of education is to bring
about social efficiency in the individual. Education should make each and every member
of the society socially efficient by utilizing the individual capabilities and aptitudes to the
maximum. According to Bagley, “social efficiency is the norm against which educational
practice must be judged, and this aim ought to occupy an important place in the system of
education”. The main characteristics of the socially efficient individual are: (1) economic
efficiency or ability to "pull his own weight" in economic life, (2) negative morality, or
the willingness to sacrifice his own desires when their gratification would interfere with
the economic efficiency of others; (3) positive morality or the willingness to sacrifice his
own desires when their gratification would not contribute, directly or indirectly to social
progress. That is, all the activities must be weighed against these criteria of social welfare
and progress.
In the UK, USA and some other Western countries the social aim of education
takes the form of “social service” and “citizenship training” in education. These concepts
states that education should be provided and organized in a broader way for the well-
being of the masses and success of democracy. Emphasis must be laid on training
individuals for citizenship and organizing social services in the community through
various programmes and practices. Education should cultivate the virtues like
cooperation, fellow-feeling, self-sacrifice etc., for the good of the society. It is also made
clear that individual desires are to be sacrificed if they clash with the community interests
and social demands are to be given priority over individuals. Briefly speaking, the social
28
BED =15101
aim of education is to make a man social being by in calculating social and civic values in
him.
c) Synthesis of Individual and Social Aims of Education: After this debated
discussion on social and individual aims of education, it may be concluded that
synthesis of these two perspectives has to be worked out for safeguarding welfare
of the individual as well as the society.
The first interpretation of the social aim of education seems to be quite
unsustainable rather uncompromising under the present circumstances of scientific
humanism and democratic citizenship. Although the State is gradually becoming a super
body, the individual cannot be accepted as a nonentity. The State has to occupy a
magnified as well as glorified position only to promote individual well-being and social
progress, which are complementary to each other.
The second and third interpretation of this concept seems to be complementary as
well as conducive to the growth of the individual and the society. According to these
meanings, social service and citizenship training are the aims of education. Schools
should emphasize the duties and responsibilities of the individual citizens. They ought to
teach citizenship and work as miniature society. All this social service as well as
citizenship should also be practiced in and outside the educational institutions. The spirit
of service, sacrifice and co-operation ought to be fostered and developed in the school
programmes and practices.
Similarly, the capacities of the individuals are to be developed to the optimum
level and sufficient freedoms as well as facilities are to be provided for the purpose.
Social progress is possible only through the development of individuals. Education as a
potential instrument of social advancement cannot be complete unless it promotes the
development of all individuals in their unique fields. In fact, there should not be any
conflict between the self-realization of the individual and growth of the society. In the
words of Ross, “Thus individuality is of no value and personality is a meaningless term
apart from the social environment in which they are developed and made manifest. Self-
29
BED =15101
realization can be achieved only through social service and social ideals of real value can
come into being only through free individuals who have developed valuable individuality. The
circle cannot be broken”.
In India, the Constitution and many other Acts and laws have guaranteed
individual freedom of all kind-social, political and economic. The sovereign, secular and
democratic Republic has to flourish only through the all-round as well as optimum
development of individuals irrespective of religious, racial and economic barriers. The
very nature of the Indian culture based on peace, fraternity, toleration and fellow-feeling,
is conducive to a congenial synthesis of the social and individual aims of education.
To sum-up, education as an enterprise has both aims as well as purposes. The aim
of education is to produce a dynamic human being –an educated individual who meets the
various requirements /criteria of intellectual, physical, moral and aesthetic development.
Education can, of course, have other aims too: for example, the development of scientific
attitude, civic sense and logical thinking. Actually the aims of education differ from
context to context. The purpose of education, it might be said, is to increase literacy,
skilled manpower or to produce sufficient number of professionals like doctors,
engineers, teachers etc. Here the reference is to valuable ends which lie outside the actual
practice of education: social, political, economic or religious ends.
1.9 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, we attempted to understand the meaning, nature, modes and aims of
education at length. In the beginning, we discussed that education is a perennial process
originating from the origin of humankind. We advocated that when we speak of education
as a system or process, the first thing we need to do is to widen up the horizons of our
mindset. We also highlighted how education is viewed by different persons as Indra
Gandhi former PM of India, opined that “education is a liberating force, and in our age it
is also a democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out
inequalities imposed by birth and other circumstances”. We came to know that Paulo
30
BED =15101
Frier discussed education from radical point of view. He gave the banking and problem
posing concept of education. Banking education which considers consciousness as an
empty vessel to be filled, while as problem-posing education considers man as a
conscious being, as consciousness directed towards the world while as problem-posing
education as practice of freedom denies that man is abstract, isolated, independent, and
unattached to the world. It also denies that the world exists as a reality apart from man.
We also thrown light on four pillars of education as advocated by Delor and his team in
the report titled as Learning: the treasure within submitted by to UNESCO. The modern
concepts of education emphasized self-learning in a culture of lifelong education under a
democratic setup. It is to be realized that education should not be monopolized by the
school as the only agency and by the teacher as the only giver. There are so many
informal as well as non-formal agencies, besides the school as the formal agency of
education. The educator is exposed to massive materials and multiple media in the
modern society. Even the existing social conditions and milieus cannot determine the
present learner who will dream about the future. Hence, the subject matter of the
anticipated world and unforeseen society must continue the curriculum of the modern
education. Education should have a democratic spirit and the system must be
fundamentally democratic. The process of education must be open, free and flexible. The
learners should be offered many paths without any bar to the quest for truth. At the end a
detailed discussion was carried on in order to outline the individual and social aims of
education in a broader way.
1. Explain the concept of education and how different thinkers view it?
2. Describe the banking and problem posing concept of education?
3. Critically evaluate the social and individual aims of education?
4. Describe the aims of education from your perspective ?
31
BED =15101
1. Brubacher, John S. (1962). Modern Philosophies of Education. Tokyo: McGraw-

Hill Book Company, Inc.
2. Butler, J. Donald (1968). Four philosophies and their practice in education and
religion. New York & London: Harper and Row.
3. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in historical perspective. New
Delhi: Thomson Press (India) Ltd.
4. Robert, R (2007) Philosophical Bases of Education New Delhi. Surjeet Publications
5. Khan, M.S. (1990) Education, Religion and Modern Age. New Delhi: Asia Publishing
House.
6. NCERT (2015). Basics in Education. New Delhi. NCERT
32
BED = 15101
UNIT I
LESSON NO: 02 MEANING AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY
Lesson Structure
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Historical Background of Philosophy
2.3 Meaning of Philosophy
2.4 Scope of Philosophy
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.0 Introduction
Traditionally, philosophy is referred to as a body of views resulting from

systematic reflection on what are considered to be the most fundamental questions of life.
The questions include those of reality, truth and value. However, with the development of
philosophic thought in modern times, philosophy is now looked upon more as an
intellectual activity of analysis, clarification and criticism of epistemological issues,
beliefs and ideas. This lesson presents a broad introduction about the meaning and scope
of philosophy. This lesson also presents the detailed discussion on the different aspects of
philosophy and how different thinkers have defined it. Contemporary philosophers,
however, view philosophy not as a body of knowledge but rather as an activity of analysis
and conceptual clarification. Scope of philosophy is so wide that it touches every aspect
33
BED = 15101
of our life. In this lesson, an attempt has been made to elaborate the several of fields of
philosophy so that scope of philosophy is outlined.
2.1 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of Philosophy; and
 Discuss the scope of Philosophy.
2.2 Historical Background and Development of Philosophy
Historically, philosophy is one of the oldest disciplines on earth from the time of
Greeks. Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher was the first person who used the term
philosophy but I personally believe that the philosophy has been originated on this earth
when first human being appeared on this planet. Socrates was the founding father of
philosophy but it was Thales, Heraclitus, Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers
who gave their blood and sweat for the growth and development of philosophy during its
infancy stage. The history of philosophy is customarily divided into six periods: Ancient
philosophy, Medieval Philosophy, Renaissance Philosophy, Modern Philosophy and
Contemporary Philosophy.
Late modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of

Immanuel Kant at the beginning of the 19th century. German idealists, such as Fichte,
Hegel, and Schelling, transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is
constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.
Schopenhauer's identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational will to
live would influence later 19th and early 20th-century thinking, such as the work of
Nietzsche and Freud. The main exponents of modern philosophy are as:
 Frege's work in logic and Sidgwick's work in ethics that provided the tools for
early analytic philosophy.
 Husserl initiated the school of phenomenology.
34
BED = 15101
 Peirce and William James initiated the school of pragmatism.

 Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the groundwork for existentialism and post-
structuralism.
 Karl Marx began the study of social materialist philosophy.
Contemporary Philosophy
Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become an activity practiced
within the university, and accordingly it has grown more specialized and more distinct
from the natural sciences. Much of philosophy in this period concerns itself with
explaining the relation between the theories of the natural sciences and the ideas of the
humanities or common sense. In the Anglophone world, analytic philosophy became the
dominant school. In the first half of the century, it was a cohesive school, more or less
identical to logical positivism, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and
should be solved by attention to logic and language. In the latter half of the 20th century,
analytic philosophy diffused into a wide variety of disparate philosophical views, only
loosely united by historical lines of influence and a self-identified commitment to clarity
and rigor. Recently, the experimental philosophy movement has reappraised
philosophical problems through the techniques of social science research.
On continental Europe, no single school or temperament enjoyed dominance. The
flight of the logical positivists from central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, however,
diminished philosophical interest in natural science, and an emphasis on the humanities,
broadly construed, figures prominently in what is usually called “continental philosophy”.
20thcentury movements such as phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, critical
theory, structuralism, and post structuralism are included within this category.
Major philosophers of the 20th and 21stcentury include:
 Ludwig Wittgenstein, who profoundly shaped both logical positivism and
ordinary language philosophy.
 Bertrand Russell, whose pioneering work in logic was a model for the early
development of analytic philosophy.
35
BED = 15101
 John Dewey, whose pioneering work served as a model for the development of
pragmatic and reconstructive philosophy.
 Martin Heidegger, who drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl
to propose an existential approach to ontology.
 Karl R. Popper, whose work on falsifiability is seen as a major development in the
Philosophy of Science.
 W.V.O. Quine, whose work in logic and the philosophy of language underpinned
a highly influential form of naturalism.
 Saul Kripke, whose work in modal logic and the philosophy of language led to a
revival of metaphysics in English-speaking philosophy.
Briefly speaking, Philosophy has been emerged as a growing discipline throughout
world. According to the New York Times, Philosophy has been a growing subject during
the year 2008 in the United States of America that is why UNESCO has named the second
Thursday of November of each year as “World Philosophy Day” since 2002. The first
formal ceremony on this occasion was held on 21st November 2002 in the seat of
UNESCO in Paris.
2.3 Meaning of Philosophy
The origin of the term philosophy is from two Greek words, “Philos” and
“Sophia”. “Philos” means love and “Sophia” means wisdom or knowledge. Thus literal
meaning of philosophy is love of wisdom. Traditionally, philosophy is referred to as a
body of views resulting from systematic reflection on what are considered to be the most
fundamental questions of life. The questions include those of reality, truth and value.
However, with the development of philosophic thought in modern times, philosophy is
now looked upon more as an intellectual activity of analysis, clarification and criticism of
beliefs and ideas.
Philosophy is a well-coordinated and systematized attempt at evaluating life and
the universe as a whole, with reference to first principles that underlie all things as their
causes and are implicit in all experience. It is an impartial approach to all problems and
36
BED = 15101
aspects of life and existence, and its studies are not devoted merely to the empirical
world, as in the case of the physical and biological sciences; but it is an intensive
investigation for search of truth regarding various aspects of life and hereafter. That is
why, Plato has beautifully said that “a philosopher is one, who has a taste for every sort of
knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied.” Philosophy investigates the
very possibility and conditions of knowledge, its extent, nature and value. It bases itself
on facts already known and rises above them to absolute facts, on which all phenomena
depend and by which alone they can be rationally explained. It is not bounded by the
limitations of the past, present and future, by the laws of this place or that country, but
refers to all times, places and conditions. Philosophy is the most inclusive of all branches
of learning, and acts as a benchmark to all other aspects of human knowledge.
Philosophy is a rational enquiry into the forms, contents and implications of
experience. It is an attempt to etymologize the knowledge sources critically. The
discovery of the ultimate meaning and essence of existence is the central purpose of
philosophy. It is the art of the perfect life, the science of reality, the foundation of the
practice of righteousness, the law of the attainment of freedom and bliss, and provides a
key to the meaning and appreciation of beauty. It is a moral and intellectual discipline
which tries to explain the reality behind appearances by reducing the phenomena of the
universe to ultimate causes, through the application of reason and law. Philosophy is the
attempt to answer ultimate questions of life critically, after investigating all that makes
such questions puzzling and, after realizing the vagueness and confusion that underlie our
ordinary ideas.
Philosophy: How Thinkers View It?

Hegel : Philosophy is that which grasps its own era in thought.
William James: Philosophy is at once the most sublime and the most trivial of human
pursuits.
Herbert Spencer: Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.
George. F. Kneller: Philosophy is an attempt to think in the most general and systematic
way abouteverything in the universe-about the whole reality.
37
BED = 15101
Edgar S. Brightman: Philosophy is essentially a sprit or method of approaching

experience rather than a body of conclusions about experience.
Karl Marx: Philosophy is an interpretation of the world in order to change it.
Plato: Philosophy is the acquisition of knowledge.
Francis Bacon: Philosophy only is the true one which reproduces most faithfully the
statements of nature, and is written down, as it were, from nature's dictation, so
that it is nothing but a copy and a reflection of nature, and adds nothing of its own,
but is merely a repetition and echo.
Friedrich Nietzsche: To grasp the limits of reason – only this is true philosophy.
Wittgenstein: Philosophy is not a theory but an activity. The task of philosopher is not to
produce philosophical propositions, but to make propositions clear.
Cicero. Philosophy is mother of all arts” and “true medicine of mind.
Arstippus. The ability to feel at ease in any society.
Dewey. Whenever philosophy has been defined, it has been assumed that it signified
achieving a wisdom that would influence the conduct of life.
Radhakrishnan. Philosophy is the logical inquiry into the nature of reality.
Ludwig Wittgenstein: The object of philosophy is the logical clarification of thoughts.
Philosophy is not a theory but an activity. A philosophical work consists
essentially of elucidations. The result of philosophy is not a number of
‘philosophical propositions’, but to make propositions clear. Philosophy should
make clear and delimit sharply the thoughts which otherwise are, as it were,
opaque and blurred.
Edgar S. Brightman. Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching
experience rather than a body of conclusions about experience.
Duccase. Where I limited to one line of my answer to it, I should say that philosophy is
general theory of criticism.
Leighton. Philosophy, like science, consists of insights arrived at as a result of
systematic reflection.
Herbert Spencer. Philosophy is concerned with everything as a universal science.
38
BED = 15101
The other definitions of philosophy as quoted by various dictionaries and

encyclopedias are as:
 the discipline concerned with questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts
of things exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as
genuine knowledge (epistemology); and what are the correct principles of
reasoning (logic) (Wikipedia Encyclopedia )
 investigation of the nature, causes, or principles of reality, knowledge, or values,
based on logical reasoning rather than empirical methods (American Heritage
Dictionary)
 the study of the ultimate nature of existence, reality, knowledge and goodness, as
discoverable by human reasoning (Penguin English Dictionary)
 The rational investigation of questions about existence and knowledge and
ethics. (WordNet)
 The search for knowledge and truth, especially about the nature of man and his
behaviour and beliefs. (Kernerman English Multilingual Dictionary)
 The rational and critical inquiry into basic principles of knowledge. (Microsoft
Encarta Encyclopedia)
 The study of the most general and abstract features of the world and categories
with which we think: mind, matter, reason, proof, truth, etc. (Oxford Dictionary
of Philosophy)
From the above definitions, it is clear that it is not easy to define philosophy in a
universally acceptable way. There are various definitions of philosophy giving rise to
different meanings of philosophy. These meanings correspond to the diversities of the
life. As these meanings of philosophy are at variance with each other. The following
meanings of philosophy have been useful for the systematic and comprehensive
understanding of the term. It will also reflect the nature of the philosophy.
Philosophy as loveof knowledge: This meaning of philosophy is etymological in nature.

As discussed above the origin of the term is from the two Greek words, “Philos” and
“Sophia” means love of wisdom or knowledge. The ancient Greeks believed that a
39
BED = 15101
person becomes wise by knowledge and understanding. According to Plato, "he who has
a taste for every sort of knowledge and who is curious to learn and is never satisfied may
be termed as a philosopher". It is to be noted in the above definition that a philosopher is
interested in all types of knowledge. Briefly speaking, philosophy revolves around
knowledge as knowledge is power and back bone for the development of any nation or
society. National Knowledge Commission of India (2005) has beautifully realized the
importance of knowledge for India as:
“Knowledge has been recognized as the key driving force in the 21st
century and India’s ability to emerge as a globally competitive player
will substantially depend on its knowledge resources.”
Philosophy as an activity: Philosophy is just as good as engaging in an activity.
Various thinkers have considered philosophy as primarily an activity of intellectual
nature. According to Levison, "Philosophy is first of all an activity of a certain kind and
only secondarily, a subject matter consisting of a definite body of literature". Philosophy
is an intellectual activity; thinking about the problems of mankind. This activity must not
be restricted to a study and discussion among a few persons but be able to stimulate the
interest of humanity at large. Similarly according to Russel, “Philosophy properly deals
with matters of interest to the general educated public and loses much of its value; if only
a few professionals can understand it”. According to Henderson, “Philosophy is a
rigorous, disciplined, guarded analysis of some of the most difficult problems which man
has ever faced”.
Philosophy as a Comprehensive Picture of the Universe: Philosophers have attributed

this meaning to philosophy right from the earlier times. The Greek philosopher Sophocles
had once opined that a philosopher has to see life steadily and see it as a whole. He must
have a complete view of the universe. According to Henderson, “Philosophy gives a
synoptic view of the “universe”. It gives a total picture, a synthetic understanding of
synoptic vision and an integrated view. The philosopher would study generalizations of
all the above sciences and on the basis of his accumulated understanding would offer an
organized and systematic knowledge of the universe. In this regard Kilpatrick is quoted,
40
BED = 15101
"Philosophy is a point of view, outlook on life. The test of a good philosophy is: it should
stand the test of scrutiny, re-examination and revision in the light of new problems and
new insights."
Philosophy as Speculation: Since the earliest of recorded history, individuals have

speculated about the nature of reality and of meaning of life itself. In doing so, these
persons have dealt with one of the most basic but also most pervasive concerns of human
existence. The history of philosophy records the efforts of ancient Indian thinkers like the
Vedic seers and sages, Sankara, Aristotle, Locke, Kant, Dewey and others. These
philosophers and many others have speculated about the nature of reality. When they
recounted or recorded their speculations, they attempted to describe the nature of reality.
Based upon their insight into reality, philosophers have also sought to prescribe values
and ideals.
Philosophy as a Guide to a Way of Life: It is an established fact that philosophy is a

way of life. It gives a direction to life, offers a design for living. Philosophy directs life
and refines the foundation of life on the ground of experience. When man is caught in
ambiguous situations, he thinks about morality, duty, justice, right, goodness in
world and its management etc. and reaches to his own conclusions. Philosophy is created
out of life’s experiences and life is through the light of such philosophy. According to
Arnold Reid, “I repeat that philosophy is, in the end, about life, and that one must live
richly in order to think and talk sense." Wisdom is regarded as knowledge for the conduct
of life and philosophy is valued as a way of life. Everyone in his life thinks about the
existence, about nature of world, God, his relation to his environment of things and
people. During the course he develops genuine philosophy of life and tries to live in
accordance with it. Thus philosophy becomes a way and guide of life. That is why a great
philosopher has said, every man has his own philosophy.
From the above discussion, it can be believed that philosophy is the mother of all
sciences and social sciences. Philosophy is an attempt to answer the ultimate questions of
life. It is a search of knowledge and wisdom. Philosophy explores the things, makes
41
BED = 15101
critical study of problems related to our experience. It is concerned to solve the puzzles
of life. Philosophy actually influences the conduct of life. It goes deep into secrets and
unknown things. Philosophy helps us to inquire new light about life, gives new ways and
new hopes. It defines the most complicated problems and situations of life. The concept
of philosophy is dynamic. It changes with the change of time. During the course of
centuries, the meaning attached to it and subject matter of this branch of knowledge has
undergone many changes. In an effort to define philosophy, one arrives at the difficulty
that there is no genius in this case and also no differentia. In order to arrive at the
contemporary meaning of philosophy, we have to discuss its problems, attitude, method,
process, conclusion and results in context of contemporary era. In brief, philosophy is
philosophical process of solving some characteristic problems through characteristic
methods from a characteristic attitude and arriving at a characteristic conclusions and
results. It is a never ending thirst for knowledge. It is a method of critical thinking and it
answers the ultimate questions of life. Philosophy is a living force and is a way of living.
It is the oldest and original discipline of thoughts and is a search for truth and reality. It is
based on inquiry about life and existence. It is logical in approach and is ever growing
and developing. It varies from individual to individual, place to place and from time to
time.
To be very brief, Dewey opined that, “Philosophy deals with aims, ideas and
processes in a certain totality, generality or ultimateness”. It involves an attempt to
comprehend varied details of life and the world and to organize them in an inclusive
whole. It also involves philosophical attitude indicated by endeavor to achieve unified,
consistent and comprehensive outlook on human experience. Prof Philipp Keller of
University of Geneva, Switzerland, while delivering a lecture “what philosophy is” in his
University Auditorium on May 22, 2006 has expressed his views about philosophy as:
“Philosophy simply is what philosophers do – or rather, what some

philosophers, and perhaps also some other scientists, do some of the time. It is a
theoretical activity aiming, like all theoretical activities, at discovering the truth.
It has a subject-matter, and discipline-specific methods, though it is unclear what
42
BED = 15101
exactly they are. But this is true of other disciplines as well. More important than
the question what philosophy is the question what it is not. Philosophy is neither
cultural criticism nor political activism. Like every other science, philosophy aims
at the truth and sometimes achieves it. It then delivers knowledge, albeit often of a
uninteresting or negative kind. But even uninteresting or negative knowledge is
worth having and we gained some of it through recent philosophical research, on
knowledge, essence, skepticism, duties, modality and values for example.”
2.4 Scope of Philosophy
Every discipline has some content area which constitutes its subject of study and
scope. In other words, field of inquiry is the scope of a particular discipline. So for as the
scope of philosophy is concerned, it is very wide and broad as philosophy is directly
related to the entire life. In other words, we can say that scope of philosophy is as wide as
universe. Traditionally, philosophy has been dealing with three kinds of basic problem
and logic is its principal instrument or tool of investigation. These problems are the
problems of reality, knowledge and value. As the knowledge explosion has taken place,
the scope of philosophy is expanding day by day. The following are main branches or
field of inquiry of philosophy which clarifies its scope in the contemporary era.
 Metaphysics is the study of the nature of being and the world. It is the study of
existence, reality and essence. Its other branches are cosmology , ontology and
eschatology.
 Epistemology is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. It is the
branch of philosophy which is concerned with the discussion of the problem
concerning knowledge. It deals with knowledge as a universal matter and aims to
discover what is involved in the process of knowing. The word epistemology is
derived from the Greek word, "Episteme” which means knowledge. It studies the
nature, conditions and values of knowledge without deciding before what
consequences of its study would be. Briefly speaking, epistemology is the
43
BED = 15101
fundamental branch of philosophy dealing with all aspects, issues and problems
pertaining to knowledge.
 Axiology: This branch of philosophy studies values. It has been divided into the
following branches:
 Ethics, or "moral philosophy", is concerned with questions of how persons ought
to act. It discusses the criteria of right and good. Ethics is also associated with the
idea of morality.
 Aesthetics deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values,
perception, and matters of taste and sentiment.
 Logic is the study of valid argument forms. The subject matter of logic includes
the methods judgment, types of propositions, hypothesis, comparison and
fundamental laws of thought.
 Philosophy of Sciences: This branch of philosophy is concerned with the
philosophical examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.
The philosophy of science is mainly concerned with developing a world ---view
based on the conclusions of different sciences.
 Philosophy of Social Sciences: The philosophical problems in different social
sciences are giving birth to different areas of philosophy of which the main are as:
 Philosophy of Education: It is an established fact that every educational problem
has a philosophical background as a result it has given birth to separate branch of
philosophy dealing with all educational problems and issues from philosophical
point of view. This branch of philosophy has roots from the period of Greeks.
 Political Philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of
individuals and communities to the state. It includes questions about justice, the
good, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen.
 Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of
social processes and social institutions.
 Philosophy of Technology : This is the emerging branch of philosophy which
aims at inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of technology
44
BED = 15101
 Philosophy of Mind deals with the nature of the mind and its relationship to the
body, and is typified by disputes between dualism and materialism. In recent years
there has been increasing similarity between this branch of philosophy and
cognitive science.
 Philosophy of Language is inquiry into the nature, origins, and usage of
language.
 Philosophy of Religion is a branch of philosophy that asks questions about
religion.
In addition, a range of academic subjects have emerged to deal with their basic
areas from philosophical perspective as a result, most academic subjects have a
philosophy, for example the philosophy of economics, the philosophy of law, and the
philosophy of history etc. The above discussion clarifies the scope of philosophy. More
than this, its scope includes the criticism, analysis, synthesis, speculation, and normative
role for discussing various issues pertaining to its field of inquiry. In the words of, C. D.
Broad,
“The object of philosophy is to take over the results of the various
sciences, add to them the result of religious and ethical experiences of
mankind and then reflect upon the whole, hoping to be able to reach
some general conclusions as to the nature of the universe and as to our
position and prospectus in it.”
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, we have attempted to clarify the origin, meaning and development
of Philosophy as a field of study. To start, we examined the development of philosophy
during different ages. To further clarify the meaning of philosophy, a detailed discussion
was given in order to have a broader perspective of the philosophy. It was discussed that
philosophy is an attempt to think in the most general and systematic way about everything
in the universe-about the whole reality. We also studied the various definitions of
philosophy in order to have a deeper understanding of philosophy.
45
BED = 15101
We also described the content of philosophy as a discipline in order to highlight

the scope of philosophy. We got acquainted with the different branches of philosophy like
epistemology, axiology, metaphysics, ethics and other related branches. It is crystal clear
that scope of philosophy is very broad and it influences both the personal and social
aspects of life. Most of the Eastern and Western philosophers have considered the goal of
philosophy is the achievement of wisdom but wisdom is not every body’s cup of tea as
great German philosopher Spinoza when he was awarded with the professorship in the
discipline of philosophy in a leading university of Germany, he refused to accept it by
saying that,
“Philosophy is not for sale.”
1. Discuss the meaning and relevance of philosophy in man’s life?

2. Explain the historical development of philosophy?

3. Durant, W. (1961) The Story of Philosophy, New York: Simon and Schuster
4. Hocking, W. E. (1959). Types of Philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
5. Howrad, T. (1980) Philosophy, An Introduction, Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
46
BED -15101
UNIT I
LESSON NO: 03 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHILOSOPHY

AND EDUCATION
Lesson Structure
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Philosophy and Education: An intimate Relationship
3.3 Impact of Philosophy on Educational Theory and Practice
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
3.0 Introduction
In the previous two lessons, we had discussed the nature and meaning of
philosophy as well as education. Education is intrinsically a phenomenon of enriching the
potential spark of perfection already hidden in every human being. As a process,
education should aim at rousing, nurturing and shaping the budding personality to its
perfection. One of the primary steps, particularly for teachers, trainers and thinkers of
education, needed to bring this about is to have a clear, comprehensive and complete
understanding of philosophy and its application to education. This lesson aims at
answering the question how philosophy, with its conceptual tools and distinctive mode of
inquiry, contributes to education. This lesson will also reflect how education is affected
47
BED -15101
by philosophy and philosophy by education. Our aim here is to distinguish and establish
inter-linkages between philosophy and education.
3.1 Objectives

 Explain the relationship between education and philosophy;
 Define different viewpoints of different thinkers on the relationship between
education and philosophy; and
 Discuss the impact of philosophy on educational theory and practice.
3.2 Philosophy and Education: An Intimate Relationship
In previous lessons, we have come to learn that both philosophy and education are
separate disciplines, but cannot go ahead without each other because reflections on the
subject of education reveals that philosophy contributes even more significantly to
education than to other subjects. Robert R. Rusk opined in his book “Philosophical Bases
of Education” that a noteworthy feature of the doctrines of the great educators who are
also great philosophers, is the emergence, and reflection, of their philosophical views in
their educational schemes or in the educational systems of their times. We need here to
cite Plato's idealism and his cultural scheme of education; rationalism and formal training;
empiricism in philosophy and encyclopaedism in education; Rousseau’s anti-social
philosophy and his negative or natural education; Spencer's hedonism and his discipline
by natural consequences; and pragmatism and the project method in education. This
connection suggests that the benefit may have been mutual, that in the development of the
philosophical thought of such writers their educational ideas may have played a vital role.
The latter may have served as a control or corrective of their philosophical views, and
their philosophy may have gained as much from their consideration of education as their
theory of education from their philosophy.
48
BED -15101
This mutual dependence was affirmed by Fichte in his book” Addresses to the
German Nation:
“The art of education”, he said, “will never attain complete clearness
in itself without philosophy.”
There is an interaction between the two, and either without the other is incomplete and
handicapped. This intimate relationship between philosophy and education has given
birth to philosophy of education as it is crucial area of philosophy. Dewey has even gone
so far as to assert that the most penetrating definition of philosophy which can be given is
that it is the theory of education in its most general phases. The modern rupture of
philosophy and education is doubtless unfortunate for both. Certain present-day
exponents of philosophy affect to despise education, thus betraying the restricted view
they take of their own sphere; we need only remind them that such ancient philosophers
as Plato and Aristotle, and such modern philosophers as Locke and Kant, to instance but
two from each period, did not regard education as a study unworthy of consideration, and
that for the sake of both subjects a spirit of mutual toleration had better again be
cultivated. Dewey in Problems of Men supports this view. The philosophy of education is
not a poor relation of general philosophy even though it is often so treated even by
philosophers. It is ultimately the most significant phase of philosophy. For it is through
the process of education that knowledge is obtained Our concern, however, is rather with
the dependence of education on philosophy so for as Spencer has said, true education is
practicable only to a true philosopher, and Gentile in The Reform of Education has
warned us that the belief that men may continue to educate without concerning
themselves with the subtle problems of philosophy, means a failure to understand the
precise nature of education.
Understanding the philosophical basis for an educational system can help us to
improve the academic success of students on a wide spectrum of learning abilities and
styles. Combining philosophy with other modes of instruction can also provide a new and
intriguing way to present educational concepts. Philosophy of education is concerned
both with facts and values about all aspects of human learning.
49
BED -15101
Philosophy of education deals with controversial educational issues. It is

characterized in part by the more traditional educational issues, including analyses of the
deeper purposes of education. In addition, it is characterized by the development of clear
conceptual frameworks that aid in the examination of educational policy and practice.
Philosophical scholarship clarifies the broad aims and meanings of education in general.
More traditional philosophical work addresses questions such as: what is knowledge?
What is education? What should be the aims and objectives of education? And similarly
discusses other fundamental questions pertaining to education.
The relation that education bears to philosophy depends on the meaning attributed
to philosophy. As such, there can be multiple approaches to the determination of the
relation between the two as there are varied meanings of philosophy. However, if
philosophy is taken to be a determiner of the constituents of a worthy way of life;
education then becomes a means to inculcate that worthy way of life. It is believed that
philosophy tells the goals and essentials of good life. As we know that “Knowledge
Explosion” has taken place and in order to provide proper and right education to a child is
a crucial issue because due to knowledge explosion, all knowledge is not good so it is
only philosophy which guides us in such a situation so that we can say that education
cannot move forward unless it is guided by philosophy. To be more precise philosophy
and education are inter-related and interdependent. Both go hand in hand with each
other. It is the foundation out of which come the objectives of education. Every aspect of
education has philosophical background. The following are few quotations that establish
the relationship between education and philosophy:
a) According to Ross, "Philosophy and education are like the two sides of the same
coin, the one is implied by the other, the former is the contemplative side of life,
while the latter is the active side".
b) According to John Dewey, “Education is the theory of philosophy in its most
general phase".
c) According to Spencer, "True education is practicable only to true philosophies".
d) According to John Adams, "Education is the dynamic side of philosophy".
50
BED -15101
e) According to Gentile's view, “Education without philosophy would mean a

failure to understand the precise nature of education".
f) According to Butler, the two ways in which philosophy and education are
related to each other are: Philosophy yields a comprehensive understanding of
reality, a world view, which, when applied to education, lends direction and
methodology.
After considering these views we can describe the relationship between the
philosophy and education as under:
1. Philosophy determines the destination towards which education has to go:
Philosophy has always inspired educational theory as well as practice. It determines
the real destination, towards which education has to go. Philosophy is wisdom and
education transmits that wisdom from one generation to the other. Philosophy
represents a system of thought whereas education embraces that thought in the
content of instruction. Philosophy embodies a way of life and education is a
preparation for life. Philosophy is a knowledge obtained by natural reason,
education is the development of that reason and other powers of mind.
2. Education is the means to achieve the goal: Philosophy deals with the ends and
education is the means to achieve those ends. Philosophy gives ideals, values and
principles; education works out those ideals, values or principles. In the words of
Herbert Spencer, “Education has no time to make holiday till all the philosophical
questions are once and for all cleared up.”
It can, therefore, be said that philosophy is the contemplative side while education
is its active side. Philosophy is the theory of education while education is the practical
thereof.
3. Great philosophers have been great educators also: Great philosophers like
Plato, Socrates , Aristotle, Dewey, Gandhi, Tagore, Radha Krishnan, Aurobindo
Ghosh, etc. have been great educators. They reflected their philosophical views in
their educational schemes. Socrates gave to the world the method of questioning
and cross questioning in teaching. Rousseau suggested that education should follow
51
BED -15101
nature; Gandhi propagated the scheme of basic education. Ross rightly said, “if
further agreement is needed to establish the fundamental dependence of education
on philosophy, it may be found that all great philosophers have been great
educationists.”
3.3 Impact of Philosophy on Educational Theory and Practice
Philosophy and Education are intimate disciplines. It is believed that philosophy is

wisdom and education transmits that wisdom from one generation to another. Philosophy
has got a tremendous significance on educational theory and practice. It also considers
almost all the aspects of education i.e. the aims of education, curriculum, discipline, role
of teacher, the text books etc. All these aspects clearly show the significance of
philosophy and how philosophy influences on educational practice and theory is
discussed as follows;
I. Aims of Education: Every system of education must have an aim. Without aim
education is meaningless. Aims of education are directly related with the aim of life
and the aim of life is always dependent on the philosophy that prevails. Aims of
education are determined with the help of educational philosophy. Without the help
of educational philosophy the teacher finds it hard and difficult to set up, fix or
reach the goals of education. It is educational philosophy which determines whether
the aim of education should be moral perfection or intellectual development,
whether education should be vocational or liberal, should it be for the development
and happiness of the individual for the good of the society. Such conflicting views
regarding the aims of education are reconciled in the light of philosophical
background.
II. Preparation of Curriculum: Curriculum is the content of education. It is just like
a seed for the Gardner. Through curriculum education becomes ordered, fashioned
and meaningful. Curriculum is the means through which aims of education are
fulfilled and finally depend on the aims of life as revealed by various schools of
philosophy. Aims of education determine the curriculum which is well suitable for
52
BED -15101
the learners. It is only with the help of educational philosophy that various contents
required for the curriculum are obtained and arranged in sequential order.
Educational philosophy helps in deciding what contents are all right and why these
are more suitable?
Curriculum is linked with the aims of life. For instance, philosophers
belonging to idealism believe in moral and spiritual development of the child. Such
philosophers try to advocate moral and artistic subjects in the curriculum. Similarly,
the philosophers belonging to naturalism believe in complete freedom of the child,
so such philosophers try to introduce those subjects which are in accordance with
the needs and the interests of the students in the curriculum. Likewise, philosophers
belonging to pragmatism believe in usefulness. Hence, they try to faring those
subjects in the curriculum, which are of some use to the students like the social
studies.
III. Realities Behind Teaching-Learning Methods: Educational philosophy plays a
very important role in guiding the teachers about the proper methods of teaching.
Method of teaching has an important place in education. It is through proper
method of teaching that the teacher establishes and maintains the contact between
the child and subject matter. Educational philosophy helps to know about the nature
of school, nature of learner, nature of society and nature of world. Right answers to
different questions that crop up in the mind are possible only through the knowledge
of educational philosophy.
Every school of philosophy has its own methods of teaching. In this regard
Ross says, "The methods of teaching are the natural results of the philosophical
thoughts". Naturalistic philosophy has emphasized child centered methods of
education. They lay emphasis on motivation, illustrative aids, and play way
methods, learning by doing, excursion and freedom in education. Pragmatists
recommended projects and problem solving methods of teaching. Idealists
primarily emphasize lecture method and discussion method. Some methods
advocate the intervention of teachers; others advocate their non intervention in the
53
BED -15101
process of education. In short, all the methods of education have been the result of
one philosophy or the other.
IV. Nature and form of Discipline: The philosophy of an era is reflected in the
discipline of its educational institutions. Educational philosophy determines the
nature and the form of discipline whether the school discipline should be strong,
strict, free and flexible; is purely a philosophical problem. Discipline reflects
political philosophy prevalent in the country.
Educational philosophy plays a very important role in guiding the teacher in
keeping the right kind of discipline. However, different philosophers have
advocated different types of disciplines. Naturalists want to give unrestricted
freedom to the concept of discipline by natural consequences. Idealists rely much
on the personality of the teacher for the maintenance of discipline. Idealists thus
favour inner discipline - discipline of mind or intellect. Pragmatists advocate
freedom from external pressure. They emphasize free and social discipline. They
give complete freedom to the child and stress the educational value of interest
which is of empirical biological, and social in nature. Thus, the problem of the
discipline is closely related to philosophy.
V. Role of Teacher: Teacher has a very important role to perform in the process of
education. A teacher who is well aware of the philosophy of life and education is
very successful in his job. Philosophy has a great influence on the teacher both in
the area of thinking and behaving. Every teacher is a philosopher; he influences the
child and gives him a new outlook of life. Teacher has a specific role to play in
each and every philosophy of education. Philosophy rather gives a sense of
adventure to the teacher. According to naturalist, the teacher should not interfere
with the education of the child. It throws the teacher to the background. According
to Idealists, the teacher is indispensable for the education of the child. Unless there
is no teacher, there can be no education. It gives highest rank to the teacher. The
pragmatists adopt via media so far as the place of teacher is considered. Teacher
simply acts as a guide to the child in various learning activities.
54
BED -15101
To be brief, philosophy of education has got much significance. It plays a very

prominent role in the determination of aims, the decision of suitable curriculum or even
text books, the use of suitable methods, the decision about the types of discipline to be
maintained and how to maintain it, the problems of examination and mental testing etc. It
is said that, "the art of education would never attain complete clearness in itself without
philosophy". To quote Butler, "Philosophy is a guide to educational practice, education as
field of investigation yields certain data as a basis for philosophical judgment". Thus
philosophy has a positive impact on educational theory and practice.
3.4 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, we discussed how education and philosophy are related to each
other. We came to know that philosophy is the basis of education. Besides, it is the
foundation to decide the goals of life and education then equips people suitably to achieve
the said goals. Philosophy determines what is worth living and education then educates
the man and prepares him for that type of life which is worth living. Philosophy indicates
the values to be pursued in life and education then in calculates those values among the
learners. Philosophy helps in clarifying the numerous educational issues and problems in
educational process and set up especially in contemporary era where knowledge
explosion has taken place. We also highlighted the impact of philosophy on educational
theory and practice. We came to know that philosophy provides zeal and inspiration to
the teachers for accomplishing the educational tasks. Thus, philosophy is indispensable
for every aspect of education. There is need of philosophy in every aspect of education.
Education without philosophy becomes irrelevant, meaningless, lifeless and colorless.
Education is the dynamic, active and practical side of philosophy. Let us close our
discussion with the words that the art of education would never attain complete clearness
in itself without philosophy.
55
BED -15101
3.5 Check Your Progress
1. Critically evaluate the role of philosophy in shaping the educational policies and
theories in any educational system?
2. All educational problems are the problems of philosophy. Discuss?

2. Howard, A. Ozmon & Samuel, M. Graver (1981). Philosophical Foundations of
Education. London: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.
3. Sharma, P. (2005) Philosophy of Education .New Delhi: A.P.H Publications.
56
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 04 NATURALISM
Lesson Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Meaning of Naturalism
4.3 Characteristics of Naturalism
4.4 Forms of Naturalism
4.5 Principles of Naturalism
4.6 Basic Postulates of Naturalism
4.7 Education and Naturalism
4.8 Characteristics of Naturalistic Education
4.9 Naturalism and Aims of Education
4.10 Naturalism and Curriculum
4.11 Naturalism and Methods of Education
4.12 Naturalism and Freedom
4.13 Naturalism and Role of Teacher
4.14 Naturalism and School
4.15 Evaluation of Naturalism
4.16 Merits of Naturalism in the Field of Education
4.17 Limitations of Naturalism
57
B.Ed - 15101
4.18 Contribution of Naturalism
4.19 Let Us Sum Up
4.0 Introduction
Naturalism is a simple term with an early history. According to J. Donald Butler

(1968), naturalism finds its roots among the oldest philosophies in the western world.
Ancient philosophers such as Thales, Anaximander, and Anaximenes found no reason to
look beyond nature for truth. As the name implies, the philosophy of naturalism suggests
an explanation of life based solely on the laws of nature. With the understanding that
natural laws are sufficient to explain all phenomena and life, naturalism abandons the
need for a higher power, creator, and God. John Haught (2008) defines naturalism by as
“Only nature, including humans and our creations, is real; that God does not exist; and
that science alone can give us complete and reliable knowledge of reality.” Philosophies,
like naturalism, develop over time through the intellectual development of great thinkers
and philosophers. In this lesson, we shall discuss in detail origin and meaning of
naturalism. We shall also discuss basic postulates of naturalism and its impact on
educational theory and practice.
4.1 Objectives

1. Explain the meaning of naturalism;
2. Discuss the basic forms of naturalism;
3. Highlight the underlying assumptions of aims of naturalism with special
reference to:
 Aims of education,
58
B.Ed - 15101
 Methods of teaching,
 Role of teacher,
 Curriculum,
 Concept of freedom and discipline
4. Describe the educational implications of naturalism; and
5. State the merits and limitations of naturalism?
4.2 Meaning of Naturalism
Naturalism is a doctrine which separates nature from God, Subordinates spirit to

matter and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme. Naturalism is also termed as
materialism. According to this philosophy the basis of the world is matter. Mind is also a
form of matter or an element of matter or synthesis of both. Naturalistic philosophy
defined life in terms of material and chemical laws and emphasizes the relationship
between power, speed and matter as of the nature of causal relationship. According to
naturalism only nature is everything nothing is before and beyond it.
Naturalism is an artistic movement advocating realistic description: in art or
literature, a movement or school advocating factual or realistic description of life,
including its less pleasant aspects. In literature, the doctrine rejecting spiritual
explanations of world: a system of thought that rejects all spiritual and supernatural
explanations of the world and holds that science is the sole basis of what can be known. A
belief that all religious truth is derived from nature and natural causes, and not from
revelation. The whole universe is governed by laws of nature and they are changeable.
It’s through our sense that we are able to get the real knowledge. The senses work like
real gateways of knowledge and exploration is the method that helps in studying nature.
Naturalism does not believe in spiritualism. It denies the existence of a spiritual
universe — the universe of ideas and values. According to naturalism, the material world
is the only real world. It is the only reality. This material world is being governed by a
system of natural laws and the man, who is the creation of the material world, must
59
B.Ed - 15101
submit to them. The naturalists have regard for actual facts, actual situations and realities.
For them nature is everything. It is the whole reality.
Behind everything there is Nature. It denies the existence of anything beyond
nature. Naturalism believes that everything comes from nature and returns to nature.
Nature, according to naturalism, is a self-sufficient entity. It is self-determined and
governed by its own laws.
The naturalists see things as they are. They apprehend reality as it is in its own
nature. They do not believe that there are any spiritual values or absolute truths.
Naturalism takes recourse to such concepts as appetites, emotions, instincts and evolution.
According to naturalists, instincts are responsible for all our activities — biological,
psychological or social. To them there is no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of
life, according to naturalism, are created by the human needs. Man creates them when he
reacts to — or interacts with — his environment. He must adapt himself to the
environment.
According to the naturalists there is inherent goodness in man. In man there is an
innate capacity for morality. Man is born rational. The naturalists, thus, have idolized
man. Nature, according to the naturalists, is complete in itself, having its own laws. It
does not, therefore, require us to have insight or intuition to understand Nature.
Naturalism believes that mind is an accident in the process of evolution and it can
be explained in terms of nature. Mind is a function of the brain which is material in
nature. Mind is not the source of knowledge; all knowledge is acquired from without, and
senses are the gateways of all knowledge.
4.3 Characteristics of Naturalism
The following are the characteristic of naturalism.

i. Nature is along entire reality “Return to nature and back the chains of society” are
its slogans.
ii. Laws of nature are unchangeable and the entire universe is governed by them.
60
B.Ed - 15101
iii. Science reveals the mysterious of nature hence only that knowledge is true that is
derived from science and through scientific methods.
iv. Material world is the real world. All things have originated from matter and all are
ultimately to be reduced to that matter is made of atoms empty space and motion.
v. Experience imagination, thinking, reasoning etc are all processes and mental
activity which is the function of brain.
vi. Naturalism emphatically denies super naturalism. Naturalists do not have any faith
in divine spirit, soul, God or Religion. The state that they are all illusions and
mislead humans. They do not believe in spiritualism.
vii. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. All matter is within the keep of human
senses. The final truth is known through senses.
4.4 Forms of Naturalism
 Physical Naturalism: It explains human activities and experiences in terms of

material objects and Natural laws. In other words physical Naturalism lays more
stress on the external material phenomena than the conscious human being.
 Mechanical Naturalism: According to this Naturalism is a lifeless huge machine
which gets its form through matter and motion. In the movements of this machine
no mind or mental activity is required, nor is any spiritual power needed.
 Biological Mechanism: Biological Naturalism is based upon the Darwinian
theory of evolution that man has evolved from lower animals by a gradual process
of development. Man is supreme product of this process of evolution. The
advocates of the school uphold that heredity has a powerful influence on the
nature and temperaments of an individual human being.
61
B.Ed - 15101
4.5 Principles of Naturalism
 The universe is a huge machine. Man is also a part of this machine and a complete
machine in himself also.
 Life comes out of dead matter and is a sum total of physical and chemical
reactions.
 Man, because of his own nature is the supreme creation of nature.
 The present life is the real life.
 Reality is of the external natural only.
 Unchanging laws of nature explain all the events and occurrences of the world.
4.6 Basic Postulates of Naturalism
1. Concept of God: Naturalist believe that God is within Nature .He is not all nature
nor more than nature .He is that particular structure in nature which is sufficiently
limited to be described as making possible the realization of value and as the
foundation of all values
2. The Concept of Self: The self seems to be an organization of experience in each

individual which is constantly developing and changing.. The human self is seen by
naturalism as an offshoot of Nature, and not as springing from beyond Nature.
Naturalists are not much interested in the concept of soul of man. According to
them, man is the child of nature; in the evolutionary processes that have been at
work in the universe so far, he is on the very crest of the wave.
3. Concept of Knowledge: In terms of theory of knowledge, Naturalism highlights the

value of scientific knowledge, through specific observation, accumulation and
generalization. It also lays emphasis on the empirical and experimental knowledge.
Naturalism also lay stress on sensory training as senses are the gateways to learning
62
B.Ed - 15101
4. The Logic of Naturalism Simple induction is the logic of naturalism. Simple

induction involve careful observation of Nature, accurate description of what is
observed, and caution in formulating generalizations
5. Concept of Values: Naturalism believes that. Nature is versatile. Instincts, drives

and impulses need to be expressed rather than repressed. According to them, there is
no absolute good or evil in the world. Values of life are created by the human needs.
 Ethical Value-Ethics of naturalism is hedonistic, as long as this characterization
is accompanied by the caution that in the conscious though at least of many
naturalists the highest good is the most highly refined and abiding pleasure.
 Aesthetic Value-The principles enunciated above regarding the ethical values of
naturalism hold also for aesthetic values. They, too, are rooted in nature and do
not depend on any source outside nature for their validation. Nature itself provides
the criterion for beauty.
 Religious value-The prime imperative of a naturalistic religion is that its
adherents ally themselves with the value-realizing force in Nature and help to
bring into existence values which are not actual in the present.
 Social Value-Rousseau’s naturalism rooted man in Nature rather than society. So
much did he regard man as a child of Nature, as over against society, that he
proposed in his Emile to keep Emile away from society until adolescences.
Individual man, he contended, is not a man unless he is free; if he is in bondage,
he is less than a man.
4.7 Naturalism and Education

Naturalism as a philosophy of education has exercised a great influence on the
theory and practice of education. “It decries all external restraint in education and it
condemns all unnecessary formalities in education. In the naturalistic system of education
there is no place for class-room, textbooks, time-table, formal lessons, curricula or
examination. The ‘chalk and talk’ method has no scope. The teacher has no significant
role to play. External discipline has no place in naturalistic system of education. The only
63
B.Ed - 15101
discipline applied in this system is the discipline of natural consequences. Naturalism has
no faith in formal education. To the naturalists, formal education is artificial and vicious.
Good education can be had only by a direct contact with nature.
Naturalism in education stands for the doctrine of “follow nature” in education. It

wants all education to be in strict conformity with the nature of the child. It stands for
complete freedom to be given to the child in learning. He is to be left alone, absolutely
free. Let him learn from the pages of nature without interference from any quarter. He is
to be thrown into Nature as an explorer and discoverer. Naturalism emphasizes free and
spontaneous self-expression of the child. Its watchword is “Back to Nature” as expounded
by Rousseau and Gandhiji. Thus, the whole of the child’s learning will come from his
own experiences and their natural consequences. His whole education will be according
to the natural laws of human development.
Much of the Naturalistic movement finds its root in the pages of Rousseau. He
brought the child into the foreground of the educational arena and pleaded that
educational material should be the facts and phenomena of nature.
4.8 Characteristics of Naturalistic Education
1. Back to nature: Out of three essential factors of education namely nature, man,
and objects Naturalism gives prime importance to nature. Hence, its call is ‘Back
to Nature’. According to naturalists, the best teacher of the child is nature. Hence
to develop the child according to his nature, education should provide natural
environmental.
2. Education a natural necessity: The naturalist regards education as a natural
necessity. For them, educational institutions are unwanted creation of man’s
superimposed upon Nature.
3. Education-development of the natural life: According to Naturalistic thought,
education is a process of development of the natural life. As Monroe perceives it,
64
B.Ed - 15101
“Education is the process of development into an enjoyable, rational harmoniously

balanced, useful and hence natural life”
4. Freedom of the child: It gives prominent place to the concept of freedom in the
education of the child.
5. Child centered educational process: Child occupies the central and pivotal role
in the Naturalistic set-up. The child’s nature is in the fore front while all other
things such as education, the books, the curriculum, the school, are in background.
4.9 Naturalism and Aims of Education
Naturalism believes that education should aim at:

1. Self-Expression: It is the main aim of education. It means giving the child
full opportunity to express or reveal his hidden capabilities and qualities.
2. Perfection of human Machine: Mechanical naturalism suggests that
education should aim at the efficiency and perfection of human machine.
3. Preparation for struggle of life: Biological Naturalists believe that life is a
struggle, in which only stronger living beings are successful. Hence the aim of
education should be to prepare the individual for the struggle of life.
4. Development of Individuality: According to T.P. Nunn every individual
possesses his individuality and Special traits. The aim of education should be
the development of his Individuality.
5. Secure Adjustment: Lemark and his followers believe that the aim of
education is to enable the individual to adjust himself physically and mentally
to his environment and to the changing circumstances in life.
6. Progress: Bernard Shaw told that education should accelerate the face of
evaluation and thus achieve social progress much earlier than other wise.
65
B.Ed - 15101
4.10 Naturalism and Curriculum
Regarding the concept of curriculum, naturalists emphasized:

1. No rigid curriculum: Naturalism does not advocate any rigid or fixed type of
curriculum. Child learns best in a natural setting and nature is a grand book.
Naturalistic curriculum is based upon the psychology of child and gives maximum
importance to the age and stage of his development.
2. Sciences: Idealists lay emphasis on the study of humanities but naturalists believe
in science subjects viz. Physics, Chemistry, Zoology and Botany. They also give due
importance to Mathematics and languages.
4.11 Naturalism and Methods of Education
In methods of teaching, naturalism is a revolt against the old, traditional and

bookish system of education. It, therefore, attaches no importance to formal schools and
textbooks as these hinder the natural development of children. It condemns note-learning
and encourages learning by doing. They emphasize auto-education and self-development,
and learning through personal experience of the child. The creed of the naturalists is
“follow nature” as it supplies all laws of learning. The naturalist method is to gather direct
experience from nature, men and things. Rousseau’s advice was: “Give your scholar no
verbal lessons, he should be taught by experience alone.” All knowledge must emerge out
of actual life situation and experience. According to the naturalists the proper method of
imparting scientific knowledge is through observation and experimentation. They decry
“chalk and talk method”. Let the child discover the truth. This was the advice of the
naturalists. They advocated a heuristic method. Pedocentricism was the key-note of the
naturalistic method.
The naturalists say that there are two methods of teaching — the positive and the
negative. When systematic and sustained efforts are made to impose knowledge on the
66
B.Ed - 15101
child without considering his interests and aptitudes, it is called positive method of
teaching.
In the words of Rousseau positive education is “one that tends to form the mind
prematurely and instructs the child in the duties that belong to man. It is negative
education when the child is left free to develop his body and senses. Rousseau defines
negative education as “one that tends to perfect the organs that are the instruments of
knowledge. A negative education does not mean a time of idleness; far from it. It does not
give virtue, it protects from vice; it does not inculcate truth; it protects from error. It
disposes the child to take the path that will lead him to truth.”
The naturalists do not want to superimpose anything on the children. They want
the children to acquire everything with their own efforts. “The naturalistic educator
allows the child to follow the lines of his natural interests and to have free choice of
activity, with no interference or thwarting.” The naturalists want an “ideal environment of
freedom for the development of the growing child.” Coercive methods are not permitted
for imparting knowledge. The way of the naturalist is “auto-education or self-education.”
They do not advocate much teaching but emphasize much learning experience of the
pupils. They attach great importance to creative activities and self-expression.
The greatest attraction of the child is play. The naturalists, therefore, have given a
prominent place to the play-way method. It is play which helps the child to express
himself fully. It is in his free play that the child most clearly reveals his nature and the
lines of his natural development. Play is nature’s mode of education. The principal aim of
education should be an integrated growth of the child. This is possible if each child is
permitted freedom to grow at his own pace and according to his own nature.
Discarding the old system as stagnant Naturalism prescribed:
 Leaning by doing
 Learning by experience
67
B.Ed - 15101
 Learning by play as the basis of teaching

To the naturalists book reading is unpsychological. The child engages himself in
those activities and experiences, which appear to him interesting and joyful. He does all
learning by his own interest and effort as ‘Emile’ of Rousseau used to do. The principle
advocated by Naturalists have brought into being the modern methods of teaching which
are;
1. Observation method.
2. Experimental method.
3. Play way method
4. Heuristic method
5. Dalton method
6. Montessori Method
All these methods are self-learning methods and as such they are very effective
and purposeful.
4.12 Freedom and Discipline- Naturalistic Approach
Nature will punish the child if he contravenes the law of nature and thus he will
learn by the consequences of his own action. Thus nobody should interfere in this process
of nature. The child should be allowed full freedom to indulge in the activities of his
choice. The teacher should provide such experiences for free activity. For harmonious
development of the child, naturalists believe that the child should be given freedom to
plan his own activities. But this freedom means individual freedom and not social
freedom. To regulate the school society, government is required, but it must be self-
government. Naturalists have no faith in discipline based on external force. They
condemn corporal punishment as it represses the impulses and instincts of the children.
Naturalism stands for a “hands-off’ policy in education. The only discipline to be applied
is the discipline of natural consequences. The child should be left perfectly free to act in
any way he likes and then face the consequences of his actions.
68
B.Ed - 15101
If the consequences of his action turn out to be pleasant and favourable, it would
be repeated and, therefore, learnt. On the contrary, if the consequences of an action are
found to be unpleasant, it shall be given up. Thus, the forces of pleasure and pain will
effectively teach discipline to the child. Rousseau is of the opinion that children should
never be punished for their wrong deeds. Nature spares none. Every action is inevitably
followed by its natural consequences. All immoral or undesirable actions will result in
unpleasant consequences and these unfavorable results will make the individual avoid the
repetition of such actions in future. Herbert Spencer also supports the doctrine of natural
discipline.
He wishes that children should be left to suffer the natural unpleasant

consequences of their wrong actions and learn from them. But Spencer does not wish to
apply this principle during infancy. He says, “A three-year-old urchin, playing with an
open razor, cannot be allowed to learn by this discipline of natural consequences, for the
consequences may be too serious.”
4.13 Naturalism and Role of Teacher
The educator should not interfere in the natural development of the child. He
should not impose ideals or ideas on him. He is only to help the child in the discovery of
truth. He should a have critical and scientific bent of mind and supreme reverence for
truth. The educator must see that the child develops freely. He should not make an
artificial effort to educate the child. He has to provide suitable opportunities and create
conditions which are conducive to the natural development of the child. The place of the
educator is not primary but secondary. He is an observer of the child’s development
rather than a giver of information. The child’s education is the free development of his
interests and motives.
The role of the educator is that of a friend, philosopher and guide. Such a role of
the teacher is advocated by all the modern educators and in all the modern methods of
teaching. Rousseau, Fichte, Montessori and Ross are in favour of non-intervention of the
69
B.Ed - 15101
teacher in the education of the child. They contend that the child’s nature is essentially
good, and any intervention is, therefore, harmful. Ross is of the opinion that the teacher
has only “to set the stage, supply the materials and opportunities provide an ideal
environment and create conditions conducive to natural development”, and then he is to
“recede in the background.”
4.14 Naturalism and School
The organization of school is rigid, controlled and artificial and as such the growth
and development of children is stunted and spoiled. Thus they assert that school
environment should be completely free, flexible and without any rigidity. Nature will do
all the planning and processing for the natural development of children. Children are
given full freedom to plan their own thinking and activities according to their own
interests and natural tendencies. These creative and self-creative activities go to develop
the character and the personality of the individual through self discipline and freedom to
experiment.
4.15 Evaluation of Naturalism
 One sided and unsatisfying aims of education: The child will become unsocial
with no feeling of social service or social good. He will develop into a pure animal
tendencies are to be socialized through education, and then social environment is
greatly essential.
 Emphasis on present needs: Naturalism lays stress on the solution of present
needs and problems of an individual. It advocates no concern for spiritual values
and the remote future.
 Ignores Books: Naturalism emphasizes that education of the child should be
based on his activities and life experiences. But only activities and experiences
cannot ensure the total development of the child’s personality.
70
B.Ed - 15101
 More important to scientific subjects in curriculum: Naturalism emphasizes

scientific education. Herbart Spencer, a staunch Naturalist has given prime
importance to scientific subjects and secondary place to humanities in the
curriculum.
 No importance of teacher: Naturalism assigns to the teacher the role of a mere
guide and observer. He is to be a sympathetic guide and helper in structuring
experiences for the child and observe the activities undergone. He is not to
interfere or plan any teaching directly.
4.16 Merits of Naturalism in the Field of Education
• Development of child psychology.

• Scientific study of society and sociology.
• Emphasis on experiences-centred curriculum.
• Important contribution in the field of methods of teaching.
• Opposition to Repression in the field of discipline.
4.17 Limitations of Naturalism
1. Naturalism has its own limitations and disadvantages. It altogether ignores the
spiritual and moral aspects of human nature. It totally neglects the moral
development of the child.
2. Naturalism takes into account only the present needs of the child and ignores his
future needs and the ultimate goals and purposes of man’s life.
3. Naturalism leaves the child purely to the discipline of natural consequences
which, often, involves grave risks.
4. Naturalism throws the teacher with superior knowledge and experience into the
background. He takes secondary position in the educative process.
71
B.Ed - 15101
5. Naturalism allows complete freedom to the child from the very start of his life,
even when he has no yet learnt the right use of freedom. This is no doubt a very
risky experiment inasmuch as sometimes absolute freedom degenerates into
license. In the early state of life some guidance is necessary.
6. Naturalism attaches too much importance to the animal nature of man — his
instincts, impulses and emotions, and completely ignores the spiritual and cultural
values of life.
7. Naturalism gives too much emphasis on the heredity of the child and neglects the
influence of environment on “raw” nature.
4.18 Contribution of Naturalism:
Naturalism has tremendously influenced the modern educational theories and

practices. Its permanent contributions in the field of education may be summed up:
1. “Follow nature” is the watch-word of naturalism. The innate nature of the child
should be developed in natural environment and not in the artificial atmosphere of
the school.
2. Instincts, impulses and emotions should form the basis of all education of the
child. According to the naturalists, instincts should be the main instrument of
education.
3. Pedocentricism is another important contribution of the naturalists in the field of
education. In the educative process the child takes the pivotal position. “It is the
child himself rather than the educator, the school, the book or the subjects of study
that should be in the foreground of the educational picture.” Children should be
treated as children and not as adults in miniature.
4. The freedom of the child is another important feature of naturalistic education.
The child should grow freely according to his own nature and pace without
interference from the educator or the parents. True education takes place when the
72
B.Ed - 15101
nature, powers and inclinations of the child are allowed to develop freely with a
minimum of guidance. The naturalists strongly advocate freedom for the child.
5. Senses are the gateways of knowledge. Education is very much effective when it
comes through sensory channels. As such, naturalists consider the training of
senses very important.
In conclusion we can say that naturalism has secured freedom for the child and has
further succeeded in freeing the child from many a tyranny of rigidity, interference and
strict discipline. Naturalism has given an impetus to new psychological methods in
education. Self- expression, follow nature, auto-education, play-way, Pedocentricism,
sense-training, self- discipline and learning by doing are some of the main characteristics
of modern education.
4.19 Let Us Sum Up
We have in this lesson, discussed the philosophical concepts of naturalism and its
educational implications. We came to know that Naturalism is a doctrine which separates
nature from God, Subordinates spirit to matter and sets up unchangeable laws as supreme.
Naturalism is also termed as materialism. According to this philosophy the basis of
the world is matter. Mind is also a form of matter or an element of matter or synthesis of
both. Naturalistic philosophy defined life in terms of material and chemical laws and
emphasizes the relationship between power, speed and matter as of the nature of causal
relationship. According to naturalism only nature is everything nothing is before and
beyond it. According to J.S Ross “Naturalism is a term loosely applied in educational
theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the
manipulation of the actual life of the educated”. Naturalism is a very old philosophy, yet
the credit of introducing it into the realm of education goes to the revolutionary changes
in the eighteenth century. These revolutionary ideas took their roots from the 13th and
14th century as movements of reformation and Renaissance which often took the shape of
pietism, Realism, Puritanism and other reformatory movements. The main aim of all
73
B.Ed - 15101
these movements was to end absolutism in the field of religion and formalism in the
social field.
1. Evaluate the development of Naturalism with special reference to the contribution

of J.J Rousseau?
2. Discuss the basic postulates of Naturalism and its relevance to modern
educational thought and practice?
1. Broudy, Harry S. (1965). Building a philosophy of education. New Delhi: Prentice

Hall of India (Private) Ltd.
2. Brubacher, John S. (1962). Modern philosophies of education. Tokyo: McGraw-
4. Chandra, S. S. & Sharma, R. K. (2006). Philosophy of education. New Delhi:
Atlantic.
6. Hocking, W. E. (1959). Types of philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.
7. Howard, A. Ozmon & Samuel, M. Graver (1981). Philosophical Foundations of
8. Khalid, T. (1998). Education: An introduction to educational philosophy and
history.Karachi: S. M. Printers.
9. Morrish, I. (1967). Disciplines of education. London: George Allen & Unwin.
10. Pathak, R. P. (2007). Philosophical and sociological perspectives of education.
New Delhi: Atlantic.
11. Sahu, B. (2002). The new educational philosophy. New Delhi: Sarup & Sons.
74
B.Ed - 15101
Seetharamu, A. S. (2004). Philosophies of education. Delhi: J. N. Printers.

Shahid, S. M. (2000). History and philosophy of education. Lahore: Majeed Book
Depot.
12. Sharma, P. (2005) Philosophy of Education. New Delhi: A.P.H Publications.
13. Singh, Y. K. (2007). Philosophical foundation of education: New Delhi: APH
Publishing Corporation.
75
B.Ed -15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 05 IDEALISM
Lesson Structure
5.0 Introduction
5.1 Objectives
5.2 Meaning of Idealism
5.3 Basic Postulates of Idealism
5.4 Idealism and Aims of Education
5.5 Idealism and Curriculum
5.6 Idealism and Methods of Education
5.7 Freedom and Discipline- An Idealistic Approach
5.8 Idealism and Role of Teacher
5.9 Let Us Sum Up
5.0 Introduction
Among the modern schools of philosophy, idealism is perhaps the oldest one and
began with the dawn of civilization, when man could systematize his ideas. As a school
of philosophy it is more religious in nature than other schools of philosophy. In this
lesson, we shall discuss in detail origin and meaning of idealism with special reference to
76
B.Ed -15101
Platonic idealism, religious and modern idealism. We shall also discuss basic postulates
of idealism and its impact on educational theory and practice.
5.1 Objectives

 Explain the meaning of idealism;
 Discuss the basic postulates of idealism; and
 Describe the educational implications of idealism.
5.2 Meaning of Idealism
Idealism is one of the oldest philosophies of the world. It dates back to the Vedic
period in India and Platonic period in Greece. Ever since it evolved into a coherent
philosophical system in the hands of Plato, Idealism has “in one form or the other
permeated the whole of history of philosophy”. It was born out of the minds of Socrates,
Plato, Beekly, Hegel, Hume, Kant etc. According to Oxford Dictionary, "idealism means
representation of things in an ideal form, imaginative treatment, system of thought in
which the object of external perception is held to consist of ideas".
First used by Plato, the word idealism has been derived from the word "ideal" and
"idea". The idea means true and testified knowledge. The main subject of this philosophy
is "idea" - the reality of everything lies in ideas, thoughts and mind and not in material
things. Ideas or higher values are essences. They are of ultimate cosmic significance.
In order to achieve a more adequate understanding of idealism, it is necessary to
examine the historical development of Idealism. This will be accomplished by an
exploration of three areas: Platonic idealism, religious idealism, and modern idealism.
Platonic Idealism
Dear Students, as cited above, Idealism is the oldest systematic philosophy in Western
culture, dating back at least as early as Plato (427-347 B.C.)in ancient Greece, Of course,
77
B.Ed -15101
there was philosophy and there were philosophers before Plato, but it was Plato who
developed one of the most influential philosophies dealing with education.Plato was a
Greek philosopher who started as a disciple of Socrates and remained an ardent admirer
throughout his life. Plato is largely known for his writings in which Socrates is the
leading protagonist in a series of dialogues dealing with almost every conceivable topic.
Two of his most famous works are the Republic and the Laws. After Socrates' death in
399 B.C., Plato opened up his own school, the Academy, where students and professors
engaged in a dialectic approach to problems. In this way, philosophy of Plato got exposed
before the public. According to Plato, men should concern themselves primarily with the
search for truth. Since truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot therefore be found in the
world of matter that is both imperfect and constantly changing.
Plato expressed his ideal thoughts in his famous book “Republic”. In it, Plato
wrote about the separation of the world of ideas from the world of matter. The world of
ideas (or forms) has the Good as its highest point—the source of all true knowledge. The
world of matter, the ever-changing world of sensory data, is not to be trusted. Man needs,
as much as possible, to free himself from a concern with matter so that he can advance
toward the Good. This can be done by transcending matter through the use of the dialectic
(or critical discussion) in which one moves from mere opinion to true knowledge.
Plato believed that until philosophers were rulers, states would never pursue the
highest ideals of truth and justice. He influenced all most all philosophers who came after
him, whether they supported or rejected his basic ideas. Indeed, there is a great deal of
merit in the observation by Alferd North Whitehead that modern philosophy is but a
series of footnotes to Plato.
Religious Idealism
It is a gospel truth that idealism is very close to religious philosophies as the

majority of the idealists are God believing. Its inception is taken from the very times
when man began to think, in West it was born out of the writings of Plato, Socrates and
Aristotle. In India it was born out of the scripts of Vedas, Purnas, Upanishads, since then
78
B.Ed -15101
it has been growing and developing. Idealism believes in the supernatural reality.
Idealism is, thus, commonly known as spiritualism and it seeks to offer an explanation of
the man and the universe in terms of spirit or mind. While as it is pertinent to mention
here that spirituality is the backbone of any religion.
Idealism has exerted a great amount of influence on all religions like Islam,
Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, Sikhism etc. For one thing, Judaism, a
precursor of Christianity, contained many beliefs compatible with idealism. The idea of
one God as pure Spirit and the Universal Good can be readily recognized as compatible
with idealism. For another, Greek culture was spread across the Mediterranean world by
Alexander the Great. Wherever there was a solid Greek influence. There were also Greek
schools; consequently, many of the writers of the New Testament had been at least
partially influenced by Greek culture and philosophy like Paul, who wrote a considerable
portion of the New Testament. One can find a heavy presence of idealism in Paul's
writings, stemming from both the Jewish and Greek traditions. The mutuality of idealism
and Judeo-Christian religion was brought together in a unity of European culture by the
Middle Ages and afterward. This may help explain several characteristics of modern
thought. To Plato, ultimate reality is idea, and our bridge to it is the mind. To the Judeo-
Christian, ultimate reality is God. It is a logical step to connect idea and God on the one
hand, and mind and soul on the other. Thus, human’s contact with ultimate reality is by
means, of mind and soul (or their congeners, self, consciousness, and subjectivity). This is
what idealism and religion advocates.
Modern Idealism
By the beginning of the modern period,idealism had come to be largely identified

with systematization and subjectivism; and this was encouraged by the writings of Rene
Descartes, George Berkeley, Immanuel Kant, Georg W. F. Hegel, and Josiah Royce.It is
difficult and misleading strictly to classify an original thinker such as Descartes by a
philosophical school. Certainly, much of his philosophy may be characterized as idealism,
but he also contributed a great deal to philosophical realism and other thought systems.
79
B.Ed -15101
For present purposes, the significant works of Descartes to be considered are his
celebrated Discourse on Method and Meditations on the first philosophy.
It was principally in the Discourse that Descartes explored his “methodical
doubt,” whereby he sought to doubt all things, including his own existence. He believed
doubt is the origin of Modern Philosophy. When we doubt something, it becomes a
problem. He was searching for an idea or ideas that are indubitable, and he thought that if
he could discover ideas that are "clear and distinct," then he would have a solid
foundation upon which to build other true ideas. He found he could throw all things into
doubt except one—that he himself was doubting or thinking. Although he could doubt
that he was doubting, and although this factor was a mirrorlike infinite regression,
Descartes could still not doubt that he was thinking. In this manner, he arrived at the
famous Cartesian first principle: Cogito, ergo sum, "I think, therefore I am."The Cartesian
cogito has served to stimulate quite a bit of philosophical thought since Descartes's time.
Traces of it may be found in many modern philosophies. However, the cogito is solidly in
the tradition of idealism, for it reaffirms the centrality of mind in the relation of man and
the world. Some famous pioneers of modern idealism are as under;
George Berkeley (1685-1753). Berkeley was born in Ireland, educated there, and
spent most of his professional life as a minister in the Episcopal Church of Ireland. While
still a young man, he developed most of his innovative ideas, writing a number of
treatises on philosophy, including The Principles of Human Knowledge- Basically,
Berkeley's position was that all existence is dependent on some mind to know it, and if
there are no minds, then for all intents and purposes nothing would exist unless it is
perceived by the mind of God. Berkeley was attacking the view of philosophical realism
that there is a material world existing independent of mind. According to Sir Isaac
Newton, the universe is composed of material bodies moving in space and controlled by
mathematical laws such as the law of gravity.Berkeley's philosophical views were
strongly conditioned by his religious views. He held that immaterial substance (ideas or
spirit) has been profaned by science, and science has brought on "the monstrous systems
of atheists." What exists or has being is not matter: it is Spirit, Idea, or God. Berkeley's
80
B.Ed -15101
efforts may be viewed as a kind of "last-ditch" stand against the encroachments of science
and scientific realism that holds to the materialistic thesis.
Berkeley refuted matter by showing that matter cannot exist except as a form of
mind. We can only know things as we consciously conceive them, and when we think of
the universe existing before finite minds can conceive it, we are led to assume the
existence of an Omnipresent Mind lasting through all time and eternity. Thus, we might
say that although people may not be conscious of the trees falling throughout eternity,
God is. Berkeley was a champion of ideal realities and values whose main purpose is to
make evident the existence of God and to prove that God is the true cause of all things.
Today, Berkeley's ideas may appear strange to us, but the concepts he developed
have influenced scholars in many fields. His notion of the centrality of subjective mind,
and that the existence of anything is dependent upon a perceiving mind, has helped
influence scholars to study the nature of perception and the objects of thought further.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). Kant was born in humble conditions, the son of a
saddler. Educated in the schools of his hometown, Konigsberg, he eventually rose to
become perhaps the most famous professor that the University of Konigsberg ever had.
Without a doubt, Kant is generally recognized as one of the world's great
philosophers.Kant's idealism basically comes from his concentration on human thought
processes. The rationalist, he held, thinks analytically while the empiricist thinks
synthetically. He worked out a system based on a posferiori (synthetic) and a priori
(analytic) logical judgments that he called synthetic a priori judgments.
Georg Wilhelm Friedrick Hegel (1770-1831). Hegel is perhaps the capstone of
idealistic philosophy in the modern era. He was born in Stuttgart, Germany and led a
rather normal and uneventful; life as a youth, receiving his education until the age of
eighteen in his native city. He then went to the University of Tubingen and majored in
theology, graduating in 1793. One of the striking characteristic of Hegel’s Philosophy is
his logic. He developed a perfect logical system that supposedly corrected the
inadequacies of Aristotelian logic. Hegel was the man behind “dialectic”. To Hegel,
Nature is the “otherness” of idea. He did not view Idea and Nature as finally separate.
81
B.Ed -15101
One of the major features of the Hegelian system is movement towards rich, more
complex and more complete syntheses.
Following Kant and Hegel, there was a continuing interest in idealism in a number
of countries. German idealism influenced an important movement in England, seen in the
writings of Coleridge, Wordsworth, Carlyle, and Ruskin. The English school of idealism
included such philosophers as Thomas Hill Green whose writings included suggestions
for ethical, political, and economic reforms; and Francis Herbert Bradley who argued
strongly against empiricism, utilitarianism, and naturalism.
In the United States, in addition to the work of Royce, there was much in the
writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson that reflected idealist philosophy as did the
transcendentalism movement in general. William T. Harris was another American
philosopher and educator involved with idealism in the United States. Harris later became
the director of the Concord School of Philosophy where he was very active in an attempt
to merge New England transcendentalism with Hegelian idealism.
5.3 Basic Postulates of Idealism
1. Truth: Idealist believes in three spiritual values. These are truth, beauty and
goodness. The "truth" is an intellectual value, the "beauty" an aesthetic value and
the "good" a moral value. Together they constitute the "good". For Plato, these three
values are identical to each other. As John Keats once spoke, “Beauty is truth and
truth is beauty”. That is all you know on earth and all you need to know.
2. Mind: Idealists believe that mind or spirit is ultimately real. For them, the universe
is an expression of a highly generalized intelligence and will - a universal
mind. Mind is the primary reality and the central core of personality development.
For Idealists, the enduring substance of the world is mind, which explains
everything. Mind is also treated as self or sprit. The individual's spiritual essence or
soul is durable and permanent. The physical world is just a manifestation of this
great spirit behind it. The physical world is subject to destruction and is changeable.
The idea behind it, which is the essence or the spirit of the universe, cannot be
82
B.Ed -15101
destroyed. To make this point more clear, one may destroy all physical structures in
the world but the idea of this physical structure cannot be destroyed. It is carried
that ideas are expressions of the mind. The mind is able to create them and they are
not perishable. As such the mind is real, whereas matter is a subject to decay and
destruction. In other words reality is spiritual and non-material.
In the words of Situ Rammu, "Every person has a 'mind’ or 'self or 'spirit'
which is spiritual." Individual 'minds' are considered to be the parts of the universal
mind. As such man is microcosm within the macrocosm. But all these microcosms
cannot by addition make up the macrocosm. The whole has a quality of its own
which the parts do not have by themselves. Idealists have used the concepts of
macrocosm and microcosm to explain their version of reality. As Macrocosm refers
to the universal mind, the first cause, creator or God. The macrocosmic mind is the
whole of existence. The microcosm is the limited part of the whole - an individual
or lesser self.
3. Reality: According to Idealists, ultimate reality lies in ideas. Mind is the source of
these ideas which is connected with universal mind. Ideas are the true representative
of the physical world. They are evergreen and relevant forever. The material
universe which we experience is only incomplete expression of the complete Idea. It
is not only incomplete; it is impermanent, temporary and secondary. Plato, in his
Republic, distinguished the world of ideas from the world of matter. For him, the
world of matter is only an appearance whereas the world of ideas is the essence.
Idea, being the essence of the universe, is primary, permanent, complete, absolute
and eternal. Whatever that is temporary, incomplete and only appearance cannot be
considered as reality; only whatever is permanent, absolute and eternal can be the
ultimate reality. Idea is what constitutes ultimate reality.Idealism expounds the
theory that ideas or forms are real because they are universal, absolute and eternal
and material things are not real since they are particular, relative and impermanent.
Particular things may come and go but Idea of that class of things remains forever
83
B.Ed -15101
4. Knowledge: According to Idealists, knowledge is the product of reason and

thinking which emerges from mind.For them, knowledge of the heart or spiritual
reality is the highest and the worthiest knowledge. This knowledge can be obtained
only throughintuition and thinking.Knowledge, for Idealists like Plato and Hegel, is
the correspondence of thought and reality. Hegel goes even further and says that
reality and our knowledge of it are one and the same; they are only different facets.
Reality being changeless, permanent, and universal idea, true knowledge is always
the knowledge of Ideas; knowledge of material things, since they are change prone,
temporary and relative cannot be true knowledge.Idealists make two basic
propositions regarding geniuses of true knowledge: True knowledge is the
knowledge of Ideas or Forms; True knowledge is possible only through rational
thought. The question to be considered now is about the locus of knowledge: where
does knowledge lie, in the mind or 'out there'? According to Descartes, knowledge
is always 'within' the child in the form of "innate ideas". Plato says that man does
not create knowledge; he discovers it. Since knowledge is 'within' the child, during
knowledge process there is no need for the child to come in contact with the object
of knowledge. The child has only to remember what he already knows, but has
forgotten. This retrieval happens through training in rational thought. Therefore,
rational reflection, rather than sense perception is the means for valid knowledge.
5. Values:To the idealists, values reflect the good inherent in the universe. They
believe that values are absolute, eternal and unchanging. Good and evil, right and
wrong, beauty and ugliness do not change from generation to generation or from
society to society. In their essence they remain constant at all times. Further, these
eternal values are rooted in the immutable Supreme Being. Plato considered the
happiness of the individual the highest good. He identified the Idea of Good, with
God. Thus, true happiness is to be found only when man frees himself from the
passions and desires of the body and acquires that wisdom which will enable him to
lead a virtuous life; only then man can be like God and only in being like God can
man attain true happiness.
84
B.Ed -15101
6. Human Being: The idealists believe that human being isevolutionary spiritual.
They view human being as crown of creation because of his spiritual relations with
God. Spiritual aspect of life is more important than material aspect because
spirituality helps him to establish a rapport between one’s one soul and universal
soul. The spiritual side of man distinguishes him from other animals. In nutshell,
they consider human being as spiritual being.
From the above discussion, we can say the following points are founding stones of
idealism.
 Idea is ultimate reality; it is universal, absolute, and eternal;
 Matter is only a construct of mind; material reality is impermanent;
 Idea being the ultimate reality is a priori;
 Knowledge is within; hence, cognitive relation is internal;
 True knowledge is the knowledge of ideas; Rational knowledge is the only
valid knowledge;
 Values are absolute and permanent; Truth, Beauty and Goodness are
ultimate values.
 Man is spiritual being.
Idealism and Education

Idealism had a powerful influence on every aspect of education from time to time.
Let us discuss the broad implications of idealism to educational theory and practice.
5.4 Idealism and Aims of Education
Idealism holds the view that man is the grandest handiwork of God. In the words
of Shakespeare, man is the "Paragon of creation". He has in him an individuality, a
pattern of "self" in born with him. Education ought to make this pattern perfect. Idealism
has given the meaningful aims of education. Some of the important aims of which are
reproduced as:
85
B.Ed -15101
1. Self-Realization or Exaltation of Personality: Self-realization means the

actualization of the highest potentialities of the self. Self-realization or "spiritual
becoming" is the ultimate aim of idealistic education. Self-realization is the goal
of life and hence can be considered also as the aim of education. A self-realized
man is an ideal man. He will have internalized the spiritual values. He will be
virtuous automatically. According to idealism, "man is the most beautiful creation
of God”, his grandest work. It lays great stress on the exaltation of human
personality. The aim of education is to develop the “self” of individuals higher till
self-realization is achieved.Thus, Gentile says, 'self-realization is the ultimate aim
of education'; by ‘self-realization’ he means 'a process of spiritual becoming'. In
the words of Home, 'the end of ends, the goal of goals, according to idealism, is
the increasing realization of the absolute idea for the individual, society and race'.
Therefore, self-realization, essentially its spiritual dimension occupies central
position in idealistic aims of education.
2. Universal Education: Idealism places more emphasis upon more universal
objects of education. According to Rusk, "The function of education is to help us
in our exploration of the ultimate universal values so that the truth of the universe
may become our truth and give power to our life. Education must aim at adapting
not only to the physical environment but to every kind of environment" They
believe that every man is equally the noblest work of God. There should be,
therefore, no exception made in the education of the children. Education should be
universal without distinction of wealth or status, creed, caste or colour. It should
not be for a favorite few. This is the idealistic character of universal education.
3. Preservation and Enrichment of Cultural Environment: Idealist education also
aims at the preservation, enrichment and transmission of culture. Education must
contribute to the development of this culture. It should help in enlarging the
boundaries of spiritual realm. The child needs to be introduced to his cultural
heritage so as to enable him to conserve, promote, and transmit it to coming
generation.
86
B.Ed -15101
4. Development of Moral Sense: The aim of education according to idealism

is to develop the child's moral sense and thus enable him to distinguish right from
wrong, to love good and despise evil. The goal of life, as well as of education,
should be the realization of moral values by developing the spiritual character of
the child.
5. Development of Inventive and Creative Powers: Man is not helpless like other
species; He has got certain inventive and creative powers. He is unique creation of
God. He must develop his inventive and creative powers. Through these
inventions and creative skills, he should change and modify the environment
according to his needs and purposes. Hence, the idealists aim at the development
and propagation of such inventive and creative powers through education.
6. Simple Living and High Thinking: Idealism advocates that simple living and
high thinking should be the another aim of education. More than the environment
it is the mind that needs to be controlled.
7. Proximate and Ultimate Aim of Education: Modern idealism emphasizes two
types of aims. The proximate aim and the ultimate aim. The proximate aim should
be the development of health, intelligence, skill, art, social justice and character.
The ultimate aim should be "the development of humanity in the 'image of
dignity'.
Briefly speaking, the aims of education according to idealism may be summed up
as under:
i) Spiritual self-realization of the individual;
ii) Exaltation of human personality, unfolding of the divine in man;
iii) Harmonious development of the personality;
iv) Simple living and high thinking;
v) Moral and ethical development of the individual;
vi) Character formation of the individual;
vii) Transmission of the cultural heritage; and
viii) Development of Religious outlook.
87
B.Ed -15101
5.5 Idealism and Curriculum
It is an accepted fact that curriculum construction involves knowledge selection

and organization. The criteria for the selection of knowledge in all the ‘isms’ invariably
depend upon the notion of reality and truth. For idealists, since idea is real and spirituality
of a phenomenon is the truth, their curriculum emanates from and is built around ideas
they conceive as truth. The idealist curriculum, constituting the cultural heritage of
mankind, is hierarchical. At the top are most general disciplines, philosophy and the
theology. If the aim of education, according to idealistic philosophy, is to achieve the
ideal man, the curriculum has to be such which should enable man to develop fully. Any
subject that creates an ideal or spiritual self is most welcome to an idealist. According to
the idealist, education must make available to each child vivid acquaintance with the
created order of God, human history, cultural and spiritual heritage. Since they believe
that objective universe is the creation of the mind, therefore, they attach greater
importance to the study of humanities than to positive sciences. They would not object to
the teaching of science and technology but are only eager to caution that they must be
humanized before they are taught, that is organized and directed towards goals of human
welfare. For example, while teaching about the atom; it is essential to teach only about its
peaceful uses, teach about the atomic reactor and not the atomic bomb.
A new type of arrangement of the curriculum has been proposed by Bogoslovsky
and his work, "ideal school" which is not to be found in the conventional schools. He
conceives the curriculum in terms of four inter related general areas of study directed
towards the development of a total personality. They are:
i. The universe division: wherein pupils learn about the physical and organic
aspects of the world around them;
ii. The civilized division: which includes the study of social sciences;
iii. The cultural division: comprising of philosophy, art, religion etc. and
iv. The personality division:comprising of subjects which touches the physical,
physiological, emotional and intellectual aspects of human life.
88
B.Ed -15101
The following subjects should be taught for developing these activities among
students:
i) Intellectual activity: The teachingof languages, literature, history,
geography, mathematics and science will encourage intellectual activity;
ii) Moral impulse: Moral impulse can be reinforced through art and poetry;
iii) Moral activities: Moral activities can be taught and instilled in
the educand through the teaching of religion, ethics etc;
iv) Physical activities: Besides intellectual, aesthetic and moral activities,
education should be physical. Without health and fitness the pursuit of
spiritual values gets hampered. Health and physical education cultivates
bodily skills. Idealists also advocate various kinds of handicrafts and
manual skills.
Briefly speaking, Home says that the way to get a solid foundation for curriculum
construction is to conceive clearly the ideal society. After selecting ideal characters of
man and society in order to make the children move in the direction, Horne says, 'select
those experiences, activities, life-situations, and studies that, according to one's best
judgment, best contribute to those ideal ends'. Therefore, a curriculum to be adequate
must include school equivalents of the three aspects of racial achievements, namely,
intellect, emotion and will. The school equivalents include: humanities consisting
languages, art forms, philosophy and social sciences; spiritual aspects including morality,
ethics and higher values leading to realization of ultimate self; sciences and vocational
knowledge leading to skill development.
5.6 Idealism and Methods of Education
Turning to methodology in education, idealists suggest that the methods must be

oriented to achieve the complete development of the innate abilities of child and to train
him for self-realization. In Rivers' words, “the process of education in childhood consists,
or should consist, in the direction of innate or instinctive tendencies towards an end in
harmony with the highest good of society of which the child is an active
89
B.Ed -15101
member.”Idealists believe in a harmony between individual and social objectives. The

child must be provided with a liberal environment for his development and his education
should be related to present experience. One finds, therefore, that many elements of the
idealist methodology are common with those of the naturalist, realist and pragmatist
methodology.Idealists believe that it is 'thinking' rather than 'doing' that constitutes
idealistic methods of education. Since education is carried through thought, idealists
believe that alternatives of thought and for thought are available. Idealism does not
propose the method rather asks us to follow various methods. However, the predominant
mode of 'activity' in the methods, idealism proposes is thinking and reflection. Methods
dear to idealism include: lecture, discussion, question-answer, dialogue, and dialectic
methods.
5.7 Freedom and Discipline- An Idealistic Approach
About freedom and discipline, V.R. Taneja opined that the whole theory of
discipline of the idealists is based on their concept of freedom. Their chief concern is
harmonic freedom of will with the restraint by an authority. They believe “that education
would be tyranny if it did not lead to freedom". But they want that the children should be
accustomed, “to endure a restraint of freedom” and at the same time should be guided to
use their freedom correctly. "Without this all education is mechanical”.
There are some idealists who believe that “everyone is born free and brings the
right of personal freedom into the world with him”. Froebel, the apostle of freedom of
child believes, on the contrary, that "man is born entirely fettered on all sides and truly for
this reason, that he can and must obtain freedom only by his own striving. Freedom
cannot be bestowed upon us. God himself cannot bestow upon us, since it must be the
product of our moral and intellectual unfettering, which it is possible to attain only by
self-activity. Every individual has to free himself from the various fetters of his
undeveloped conditions of childhood by the help of educative influences. It is, therefore,
"the task of the educator to act on mind and conscience in such a way as to render them
capable of thinking and judging of themselves to determine initiative, arouse spontaneity
90
B.Ed -15101
and fashion human beings into freedom". The course of training is to bring the child to
adapt himself to a specially prepared environment, not only submitting himself to its
necessities but also controlling it as he increases in strength and skill, at the same time he
learns to participate in the government of others of his own age, and in turn to submit
voluntarily to their government.
Sometimes freedom becomes a problem for the educator. But if freedom is
connected with creation, self-activity and originality, it cannot remain a problem. The
whole emphasis is on self-education rather than on imposition by external forces. The
children must understand the intrinsic values of doing certain things. They must know the
ideals which are conducive to the realization of spiritual potentialities. While the idealists
advocate freedom they emphasize the importance of guidance by the teacher.
The idealists believe in strict discipline. The students are required to submit to
laws and regulations and they have "not to reason why". It is through hard and rigorous
life that they will learn higher values of life like sympathy, cooperation and devotion to
duty.
5.8 Idealism and Role of Teacher
Idealism accords a prominent position to the teacher in the educative process.

Although ideas are innate in the child, since the child is immature, the teacher has to
function as the 'universe made personal' to the child. The role of the teacher under
idealistic school of thought is of greater importance. Ideal personality is exclusively the
product of teacher's efforts. In the words of Ross, "The educator constitutes the special
environmental factor whose function is to lead the child nearer to reality, to guide him
towards his utmost possible perfection". To the idealist, "the school is a garden, the
educand a tender plant and the educator the careful gardener. But each plant must develop
according to the laws of its own nature, while it is impossible, for example, for a cabbage
to develop into a rose, there is yet a room for a gardener. The good gardener by his art
sees to it that both his cabbages and his roses achieve the finest form possible. His efforts
produce a final result better than would be achieved by the plant without him, yet it is in
91
B.Ed -15101
the nature of the plant to achieve that result under suitable conditions. The naturalist may
be contented with briars but the idealist wants fine roses. So the educator by his efforts
assist the educand, who is developing according to the laws of his nature."
It is the teacher who has to provide the right environment in the school. He must
be himself an ideal person in order to exercise wholesome influences on the young ones.
Example is better than percept. It is the teacher's forceful personality, his effective
methods, his sense of dedication to the work and child that make him exemplary such a
teacher inspires emotional contagion for developing worthwhile attitudes. The teacher
must be mature, completely aware of himself as well as of the world around him. His
professional ability must give him the faith in the nobility and educability of the child.
His sympathy, love and equable temper will create such qualities in the children. He must
help his pupils to self-education and self-development by enabling them to see how he
does this for himself. It is through this method that they will be able to solve many
problems. They must be guided in their effort and in seeking truths. As opposed to the
naturalists, the idealists wish the teacher to be a guide, friend and philosopher. The wise
direction on the part of the teacher is essential. This includes "guidance", "control" and
"creating stimulating environment". Briefly speaking,from idealistic perspective, the
teacher
a) is the personification of reality for the child;
b) should be a specialist in the knowledge of pupils;
c) should be an excellent technician;
d) should be the kind of person who commands the respect of the pupil by virtue of
what he himself is;
e) should be a personal friend of the individual student;
f) should be a person who awakens in the pupil the desire to learn;
g) should be a master of the art of living;
h) must be one who appreciates the subject he teaches; and
i) is an apostle of progress.
92
B.Ed -15101
More than all, the ideal teacher realizes that his profession is not one of glorifying
himself but one of helping his pupils in their self-realization.
5.9 Let Us Sum Up
We have in this lesson, discussed the philosophical concepts of idealism and its
educational implications. We came to know that to the idealist, forms and ideas and not
the phenomenal world of objects constitute the ultimate reality which is permanent,
eternal and changeless. True knowledge is knowledge of ideas and forms and not of
material objects and appearances. Reason is the primary instrument of knowledge. Values
are not subjective; they are objective, universal and eternal. The aim of education is to
lead the individual towards self-realization through harmonious development of
personality - physical, intellectual, social, moral and spiritual and transmission of cultural
heritage. Education is a process of unfolding knowledge that is already in the child. We
also have thrown light on role of teacher, curriculum discipline and methods of teaching
as advocated by idealism. Briefly speaking, mind is the core focus of idealism as science
also gives tremendous importance to human brain which we call as mind in philosophical
language.
1. Evaluate the development of Idealism with special reference to Platonic Idealism?
2. Explain the educational implications of Idealism?
3. Discuss the basic postulates of idealism and its relevance to modern educational
thought and practice?
4. Why we need Idealistic education in contemporary times ?
93
B.Ed -15101

religion. New York&London: Harper and Row.
4. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of Education in historical perspective.New
6. Howard, A. Ozmon& Samuel, M. Graver (1981). Philosophical Foundations of
7. Sharma, P. (2005)Philosophy of Education.New Delhi: A.P.H Publications.
94
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 6 PRAGMATISM
Lesson Structure
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Objectives
6.2 What is Pragmatism?
6.3 Philosophical Concepts of Pragmatism
6.4 Pragmatism and Aims of Education
6.5 Pragmatism and Curriculum
6.6 Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching
6.7 Freedom and Discipline- A Pragmatism Approach
6.8 Pragmatism and Role of Teacher
6.9 Let Us Sum Up
6.0 Introduction
Pragmatism is a philosophy that encourages us to seek out the processes and do

the things that work best to help us achieve desirable ends. Since this idea is so sensible,
one might wonder why people insist on doing things and using processes that do not
work. Of course, there are number of reasons why such impracticality exits, and among
95
B.Ed - 15101
these are the weight of custom and tradition, as well as fear and apathy. Pragmatism seeks
to examine traditional ways of thinking and doing, where possible and desirable, to
reconstruct our approach to life more in line with the human needs of today. In this unit,
we shall try to understand the basic postulates of pragmatism and its implications on
education.
6.1 Objectives

 Explain the meaning of pragmatism;
 Discuss basic postulates of pragmatism; and
 Describe the educational implications of pragmatism.
6.2 What is Pragmatism?
Pragmatism as a school of philosophy is recent in origin. Charles Sanders Pierce is

considered to be the founder of pragmatism although its core teaching - philosophy of
change was propounded by Heraclitus of Greece in B.C. 535. Whereas all other
philosophies of life and education originated either in Europe or in the East, pragmatism
originated in North America. While pragmatism is primarily viewed as a 20th century
philosophy developed by Americans for the most part, its roots can be traced backward in
time to British, European and ancient Greek philosophic traditions. The background of
pragmatism can be found in the works of such figures as Francis Bacon, John Locke, Jean
Jacques Rousseau and Charles Darwin. But the philosophical elements that give
pragmatism a consistency and system as school of philosophy is the works of William
James and John Dewey.
Pragmatism in its philosophical postulations and practices markedly differs from
all other schools of thought. Where as all other schools rooted themselves either in the
past or future, pragmatism firmly stands in the present. Unlike idealism and realism,
which began in wonder or doubt, pragmatism began as a method and subsequently
96
B.Ed - 15101
developed into a full-blown philosophy. William James says, 'pragmatic method is

primarily a method of solving meta-physical disputes which are unending.' Pragmatism
resolves these disputes by relegating age-old meta-physical questions to backyards.
William James further says that, 'pragmatist turns away from abstractions and
insufficiency, from verbal solutions, from bad a priori reasoning, from fixed principles,
closed systems and pretended absolutes and origins. He turns towards facts, towards
action and towards power.' James' explanation draws attention to the fact that pragmatism
moves away from meta-physical principles and towards consequences of action.
According to the Concise Oxford dictionary 'pragmatic' means dealing with
matters according to their practical significance or immediate importance. The dictionary
defines 'pragmatism' as 'the doctrine that evaluates any assertion solely by its practical
consequences and its bearing on human interests'. Pragmatism as a method welcomes and
proposes any idea which is testable and which leads to favorable outcomes.
The term Pragmatism is derived from the Greek word "Pragma” which means
'action', the words like 'Practice' and "Practical" have been derived from it. The roots of
pragmatism can be traced back to ancient Greek philosophy. It emerged as the twentieth
century revolution against the nineteenth century rationalism, dogmatism, idealism and
monism etc. Pragmatism is a philosophy that strongly reflects some of the characteristics
of American life. As mentioned already, Charles Sanders Pierce, the founder of
pragmatism, attacked Idealism and redefined truth and knowledge in terms of experience.
William James attained this outlook and he became the founding father of pragmatism.
Pragmatists lay down standards which are realizable. Pragmatists are
practical people believing in "finishing the book here, solving the problems now,
making the social contact immediately, and striking the business deal at once".
Whatever they wish to do, they examine its utility and do it immediately. Instead of day
dreaming about transcendental self, they want to grapple with concrete situations.
According to Prof. Arnaud Reid, "pragmatism makes activity, engagement,
commitment, and encounter" its central theme. The emphasis of pragmatism is on action
97
B.Ed - 15101
rather than on thought. The thought is subordinate to action. That is why pragmatism is
also called instrumentalism.
Pragmatism has no obstructive dogmas. It accepts everything that has practical
consequences. They do not believe in speculations. Even mystical experiences are
accepted if they have practical results. Pragmatism seeks to examine traditional ways of
thinking and doing, where possible and desirable, to reconstruct our approach to life more
in line with the human needs of today. Pragmatists consider it unnecessary to find
solutions of the puzzles that go beyond the concrete. The importance of pragmatism in
life cannot be overemphasized. Everyone needs it and needs it indispensably. In the
words of an Italian pragmatist, Papini, "Pragmatism lies in the midst of our theories, like
a corridor in a hotel, innumerable chambers open out of it in one you may find a man
writing a book on aesthetics; in the next someone on his knees may be praying for faith
and strength; in the third a chemist may be investigating your body properties. In the
fourth, a system of idealistic metaphysics is being evolved; in the fifth, the impossibility
of metaphysics is being shown. But all of them own the corridor and all must pass
through it, as if they want a practical way of getting into or out of their respective rooms."
Pragmatism is conceived as testing ground of all ideas.
6.3 Philosophical Concepts of Pragmatism
1. Truth: Examining the question of truth, Pragmatists believe that “any thing which
helps in achieving our purposes and goals of life and works best in advancing and
developing our life” is real and true. It believes that truth is that which works and
can be verified by experience and by public evidence. The pragmatists believe that
truth is neither absolute, nor universal, nor eternal as the idealists say. It is
immutable and is relative to man, time and place.
2. Reality: According to pragmatism there is no immutable, permanent reality;
reality is ever changing and dynamic. Reality is always in a constant flux. It is not
found in 'being'; it is always 'becoming'. The philosophy of constant flux was
98
B.Ed - 15101
proposed in the western world by the early Greek philosopher, Heraclites, when
he said, 'you cannot step twice into the same river'. To the pragmatist, the world as
reality is not 'made'; it is 'making'. The world is not a 'product'; it is a 'process'.
Reality is open ended, with no fixed ends. It is characterized throughout by
process and change. There is no transcendental reality beyond human experience.
3. Knowledge: Pragmatists do not distinguish between “truth and knowledge”. They
believe that it is knowledge, when we have apprehended truth. So they believe
that “if it is knowledge, it must be true”. In the words of Judges, thought and
knowledge emerges from enquiry and experience. All knowledge according to
pragmatists is output of experience, activity and actions.
4. Values: Pragmatic conceptions of axiology are highly situational. Like Idealist,
Pragmatists do not believe in any standard or ultimate or spiritual values. Values
are relative to time, place and circumstance. What contributes to human
and social growth and development is regarded as valuable; what restricts or
contracts experience is unworthy. Human experience is the main determiner of
values in life. It is necessary to test and re-examine value assumptions in the
same way that scientific claims are subjected to verification.
5. Human Being: The pragmatists believe that human being is a biological and
sociological organism possessing drives or impulses that function to sustain life
and to further growth and development. Every organism lives in a habitat or
environment. In the process of living, the human organism experiences
problematic situations that threaten his or her continued existence or that interfere
with ongoing activities. To the pragmatists, human beings are essentially active
and incidentally contemplative. They wish to produce results rather than sit, think
and understand.
6. Experience: Pragmatists do not believe in “abstractions”, “insufficiency”, “verbal
solutions", and ‘fixed principles “Closed system” and 'pretended absolutes and
origins'. They want concreteness, adequacy, facts and actions. Their slogan is,
99
B.Ed - 15101
"learn from experience and pin faith to belief and actions that promise to lead to
sensible results". Experience is the key word in pragmatism.
7. Mind: Pragmatists considers mind as ‘behaviour’ or an activity interacting in a
biological and social environment. It is not a substance or matter but it is a
function. To the pragmatists, mind is a dynamic process, which happens or
functions within a man, when he is intended upon constructive actions, upon the
objects around him - that is, when such objects present problems” which demand
reflection. They believe that growth of personality is the product of action and
discovery.
6.4 Pragmatism and Aims of Education
Being a philosophy of change, pragmatism does not believe in permanent and

absolute values; all values are relative. There can, therefore, be no permanent aims of
education. The aims of education also keep changing in an ever changing reality.
Pragmatists are opposed to any kind of fixed and static aims of education. They believe
that there should be specific objectives to each learning situation. In the words of Dewey,
"educational aims must possess the following three elements:
a) aims which are based on the educand’s action and needs,
b) aims which elicit the educand's cooperation, and
c) aims which are specific and temporary not permanent and general.
Keeping in view the above directive principles and educational theories of
pragmatism, it is easy to arrive at the following aims of education:
1. Creation of Values: The main aim of education, according to pragmatic school of
philosophy is the creation of values. Values are created by activity and experience.
In the words of Ross, "education must create new values.” The main task of
educator is to put the educand in such a position so as to develop values for
himself. Thereafter, education should provide physical, intellectual, aesthetic,
moral and religious activities as the media for creation of values. All these aspects
are developed not for their own sake but to meet the needs of man in society. The
100
B.Ed - 15101
aim of education, therefore, is to direct the impulses, interests and abilities

towards the satisfaction of the felt wants of the child in his environment.
2. Maximum Growth: Education should enable the individual to grow to his
maximum. All growth must be conducive to the welfare of the individual and the
society. Thus, the aim of education is to provide the conditions for the better and
continuous growth.
3. Harmonious Development: Like idealists, pragmatists do not believe in spiritual
values but they do not ignore the harmonious development of man - physical,
intellectual, aesthetic, social, moral and religious. Therefore, the aim of education
is to direct "the impulses, interests, and abilities towards the satisfaction of the felt
want of the child in his environment.
4. Social Efficiency: Social efficiency is another aim of education in
pragmatic philosophy. Natural urges do not agree with the life customs of the
group. The function of education is to habituate an individual to social control; to
develop a willingness to subordinate his natural urges to social rules. Social
efficiency includes industrial competence and good citizenship. Industrial
competence refers to economic efficiency and economic control. Good citizenship
means the ability to judge men and measure wisely and to take a determining part
in making as well as obeying laws. It means a capacity to share in a give and take
of experience. Such a capacity is essential especially in a democratic system of
education as democracy means shared power and shared responsibility.
5. Proper Adjustment: The main problem before any human being is the problem
of adjustment. Pragmatists believe that education should enable the human being
to be fairly adjusted in his existent environment. It is possible only if the needs of
both the individual and the society are fulfilled.
6.5 Pragmatism and Curriculum
101
B.Ed - 15101
Experience is education for pragmatism. Therefore it rejects the tendency of

traditional approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated from experience and
is fragmented or compartmentalized. When this happens, facts are torn away from
experience and made to fit general principles that may or may not be helpful. Thus
pragmatism has a very broad conception of the curriculum and by-passes the traditional
disciplinary boundaries.
Pragmatists neither approve a rigid, traditional pattern of curriculum wherein there
would be water-tight compartmentalization of knowledge into different subjects nor do
they support a laissez-faire policy in curriculum organization. They would also like to
integrate the curriculum with the life and experiences of children. According to John
Dewey, "the child and the curriculum are simply two limits which define a single
process". Pragmatists favour the curriculum which permits the educand to develop all his
qualities and obtain all knowledge. Pragmatist feels that it may help him in creation of
values, gaining social efficiency, developing harmonious personality, making proper
adjustment and solving the problems of life. The pragmatists have suggested the
following principles in determining a curriculum.
1. Principle of Utility: Pragmatists advocates that curriculum should be utilitarian.
According to the principle of utility, only those subjects, activities and
experiences be included in the curriculum which are useful for the present
needs of the child and also for the future requirements. In the overall plan of
curriculum, subjects like languages, physical training, geography, history,
agriculture, computer science and home science for girls, science, social science,
vocational and technical education, and mathematics for boys should find proper
place.
2. Principle of Child’s Natural Interests: Curriculum should be governed
by child's natural interests, aptitudes and tastes at the successive stages of his
development. Generally, in the elementary stages, children are interested in
communication, inquiry, construction, and artistic expression. Hence,
102
B.Ed - 15101
the elementary school curriculum should include reading, writing, counting, art,
craft, natural science etc.
3. Principle of Experience: Pragmatists advocate teaching through actual
experience rather than rote learning. Teaching through books should be
supplemented by programmes which provide practical experience of varied
nature. Thus, pragmatist's concept of curriculum is dynamic. It is desirable to
create such a community environment in the school which will enable the child to
evolve qualities of citizenship and learn the techniques of self discipline.
4. Principle of Integration: This principle deals with the integration of subjects and
activities. Pragmatism regards knowledge as one unit. It cannot be divided into
watertight compartments. Teaching of various units should be closely inter linked
and correlated so as to form right concepts and proper understanding in children.
Thus, pragmatic curriculum is dynamic, flexible and integrated which is related to
the realities of life.
6.6 Pragmatism and Methods of Teaching
Knowledge being the result of active experience and experience being 'the real test
of all things', pragmatism implies experience- based and action-oriented methods. The
concern of the pragmatists is with teaching how to solve problems, and not with passing
on readymade knowledge. As such, the emphasis in teaching is on problem-solving
method in real life situations. The pragmatic methods of education are based on
psychology and sociology; subject to the conditions that they give adequate scope for
active participation by the educand and also that the method adopted must be dynamic
and changeable. Both these conditions are laid down by the pragmatists because they
believe in teaching through actual experience. One of the methods evolved by them is
the project method. Pragmatic thinkers point out that success of any educational
philosophy lies in its ability to raise the standard of teaching. They are critical of the
traditional methods of teaching, because they believe in constant experimentation.
They revolt against the traditional belief that the educand should sit at the educator's feet
103
B.Ed - 15101
and learn anything that is thrown at him by the education. For the pragmatist, education
lies not in learning what the educator teaches, but in developing the ability of
independent, cogitation. And this is possible only when the method of teaching is
purposeful and is fashioned by the child's interests, desires and inclinations.
Pragmatism refuses to distinguish between theory and practice. True education
lies not in knowing but in doing, and the child learns by active work, either in group
activity or individual activity. This is known as the method of learning by doing. The
educand has to learn not from the educator's experience but by his own experience, and
this experience cannot be replaced by books, schools or any other institution. The first
element in any educational method is the educand's own effort once he motivates himself
to learn something, he needs no encouragement to gain knowledge. This does not imply
that verbal teaching is meaningless. All that is implied is that the teacher must create a set
of circumstances in which the child is inspired to face the situation. The educator must
also provide the child with the means of facing the situation and solving any problems
inherent in it.
The principle of integration is of major importance in pragmatic theory. It is
believed that knowledge should not be fragmented. The process of learning should be an
integrated one because it is natural for human beings to create a unity in their experience.
Man forever tries to create a unity in the myriad impressions which impinge upon him.
The educator must take care that the child achieves a synthesis of all the information that
he gathers in the process of education. One of the methods of achieving this is purposeful
teaching. All these qualities can be seen in the Project method proposed by Kilpatrick
(Dewey's follower). In Kilpatrick's own words, "A project is whole-hearted purposeful
activity proceeding in a social environment." In the project method the educand is
presented with a problem in the form of a project. He makes his best effort to try to put
this project into practice. And, because it is presented in the form of a problem, the child
is inspired to solve the problem. Most of the problems of day-to-day life, and the solution
of such problems requires more than mere mental activity. The educand is compelled to
bring into play all his other faculties, in order to solve the problem. During the task the
104
B.Ed - 15101
environment is entirely natural. As far as possible the educand is made aware of the
importance of the project. As the problem changes, the form of the project also changes.
In the early stages of growth the child is faced with simpler problems, which grow more
complex as he grows older and improves his ability to face it. Some of these educational
projects relate to handicrafts, linguistic difficulties, problems concerning scientific
subjects, problems of history and geography, trade and industry, etc. The first step in the
project method is to determine the objective, and then to consider the various ways in
which it can be achieved. The next step is to formulate a project for achieving it.
Following this, the project is put into actual practice and finally the success or failure of
the project is evaluated. All that remains is to prepare a complete detailed report of the
project. The merits of this method lie in the; fact that it involves active participation and
hence it takes the educand along the path of self-development and self-discipline. Being
psychological in nature, it helps to evolve social and civic qualities in the individual and
thus leads to success in adult life. The project method has been particularly successful in
the case of curricular programmes. On the whole, this method of education is natural,
purposeful and highly motivating.
6.7 Freedoms and Discipline- A Pragmatism Approach
Pragmatist aim of education is growth and it happens only under conditions of

freedom. Freedom, however, is not absence of discipline. The pragmatic view of
discipline is reflected in Dewey's ideas of "Play" and "Work". He says that it is the
"mental attitude" which makes play "a play" or work "a work". A foot ball game becomes
a work if it is played due to some external pressure. Similarly, very difficult algebraic
calculation becomes play if it is being solved on account of some inner urge and sincere
enthusiasm. Mental attitude towards play and work activities produce self discipline. Let
the natural interests of the children be aroused, satisfied and sustained and the problem of
indiscipline will not arise. Given such conditions to the children the question of external
force to impose discipline will not arise. The pragmatists advocates that purposeful and
cooperative activities, carried on in a free and happy environment, are conducive to
105
B.Ed - 15101
discipline. Purposeful cooperative activities create in the children virtues like initiative,
self reliance, tolerance and consideration for others. They help in building the morals and
training of the character. They encourage social virtues and discourage selfishness and
individualism.
In pragmatism, there is no place for rewards and punishments, as every activity is
to be pursued in social setting, where all the members are equal. Ultimately the child has
to become an enlightened and contributory citizen. His socialization must start in school.
The pragmatists maintain, that each new generation must establish its own moral
standards" and should not accept the "time honoured norms of thought and conduct. It is
true that such standards should not be super imposed on the child by external force or
authority, but no one should deny that the "superior knowledge and experience of the
teacher" is of immense benefit to the children. Morals, they believe, grow from
democratic living.
6.8 Pragmatism and Role of Teacher
The teacher is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. He should not
overshadow the personality of the pupil. He has to plan and organize the teaching-
learning situation, provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation. He
must not impose himself on children. The teacher should treat the pupils as his own
equals in regard to social life.
The pragmatic teacher is more concerned with the process of solving problems
intelligently. The pragmatist teacher does not ignore the importance of subject matter but
rather uses it instrumentally to fashion solutions to problems. The teacher does not
attempt to dominate learning but seeks to guide it by acting as a director or facilitator of
the student's research. In a pragmatic system of education, a teacher occupies a central
position. He has to be active, alert, and resourceful. He must be trained, efficient and a
man of foresight. He has to create learning situations for the child. In different situations,
he remains a friend and helper, but not superfluous nor the supreme authority. It is he who
educates the child about self discipline and active participation.
106
B.Ed - 15101
According to pragmatism, a teacher should be the embodiment of knowledge. He

should be intelligent, efficient and practical. He should have the knowledge of the child's
interests and changing needs of the society. He should have the knowledge of child's
psychology and other subjects which may help him both in the development of the child
and society. Pragmatist teacher works to make the classroom into a community. He
consciously encourages the students to share their interests, concerns and problems with
each other. Students build a sense of community as they work together to solve common
problems.
Teacher should have sympathetic and personal relations with the child. Stress is
placed on action rather than reflection. There is no spoon feeding. The pragmatic teacher
wants, "his pupils to think and act for them, to do rather than to know, to originate than to
repeat". His teaching should not be based on lecturing and repeating only. He should
create a problem solving attitude in his pupils. He should motivate the child in such a way
which may help him in solving the problems and developing in him social interests,
ethical habits and social attitudes. In short, teacher should act as a leader of group
education.
6.9 Let Us Sum Up
We have in this lesson discussed the philosophical concepts of pragmatism. It may

be said that pragmatic philosophy is practical philosophy, having no fixed or absolute
standards. Man always creates new values and education should help in doing so. He
should be provided with such a social environment, which enables him to modify his
mind in such a way that it becomes dynamic and adaptable. Such an important
development takes place only when man learns by doing, when he has regulated freedom
and is allowed to show his initiative. The pragmatist wants a universe of "real
possibilities, real beginnings, real ends, real evils, real crises, a real God and a real moral
life". We also discussed that according to pragmatic school of philosophy, the aims of
education also keep changing in an ever changing reality. Pragmatists are opposed to any
107
B.Ed - 15101
kind of fixed and static aims of education. They believe that there should be specific
objectives to each learning situation.
Experience is education for pragmatism. Therefore it rejects the tendency of
traditional approaches to curriculum where knowledge is separated from experience and
is fragmented or compartmentalized. Pragmatist advocated project method as a teaching
method which is based on pragmatic approach. In pragmatism, there is no place for
rewards and punishments, as every activity is to be pursued in social setting, where all the
members are equal. Ultimately the child has to become an enlightened and contributory
citizen. At last, we discussed the role of teacher according to pragmatic thought. Teacher
is not a dictator but only a leader of group activities. He should not overshadow the
personality of the pupil. He has to plan and organize the teaching-learning situation,
provide learning experiences and opportunities for experimentation. He must not impose
himself on children.
1. Discuss the basic postulates of pragmatism with special reference to reality and
values?
2. Critically evaluate the relevance of pragmatism to modern educational theory and
practice?

108
B.Ed - 15101
4. Dupuis, A. M. (1972). Philosophy of education in historical perspective. New

6. Howard, A. Ozmon & Samuel, M. Graver (1981). Philosophical foundations of
education. London: Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company.
7. Sharma, P. (2005) Philosophy of education. New Delhi: A.P.H Publications.
109
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 07 MAHATMA GANDHI: BASIC EDUCATION
Lesson Structure
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Objectives
7.2 Background of Wardha Scheme of Education
7.3 Wardha Conference
7.4 What Wardha Scheme Is?
7.5 Postulates of Wardha Scheme of Education
7.6 Fundamentals of Wardha Scheme of Education
7.7 Characteristics of Gandhian Educational Plan
7.8 Merits of Wardha Scheme of Education
7.9 Demerits of Wardha Scheme of Education
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
7.0 Introduction
In this lesson, an attempt has been made to enable the students to understand the
emergence of Basic Scheme of Education propounded by M. K. Gandhi. It would further
110
B.Ed - 15101
elaborated the postulates and fundamentals of Basic Scheme of Education. Dear students,
remember that Gandhiji has the opinion that true education is that which draws out and
stimulates the intellectual, spiritual and physical faculties of the children that is why
Gandhiji beautifully said that “ by education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best
in child and man – body, mind and spirit.” Hence Gandhiji emphasized in his scheme of
education that the aim of education is the complete development of the child with special
reference to its physical, mental and spiritual aspects.
7.1 Objectives
After going through this lesson, you should be able to:

 Describe the Wardha Scheme of Education;
 Explain the background of Wardha Scheme of Education;
 Discuss the postulates of Wardha Scheme of Education; and
 Discuss the fundamentals of Basic scheme of Education.
7.2 Background of Wardha Scheme of Education
Mohan Das Karam Chand Gandhi had been writing in Harijan since long. His
series of articles lead a concern about his educational ideals. Later on, these articles
formed the basis of “Basic Scheme of Education”. According to Gandhi, “By education, I
mean an all round drawing out of the best in the child and man - body, mind, and spirit.
Literacy is not the end of education nor even the beginning. It is only one of the means
whereby men and women can be educated. Literacy in itself is no education. Gandhi Ji
therefore asserted that I would, begin the child’s education by teaching him a useful
handicraft, enabling him to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus, every
school can be made self-supporting, condition being that state ‘”akes over the
manufacture of these schools”. Like Rousseau, Gandhiji also believes in child centered
education. He said, “True education is that which draws out and stimulates the spiritual,
111
B.Ed - 15101
intellectual and physical faculties of the children”. Hence, the aim of education is the
complete development of the child, its physical, mental and spiritual aspects. For him
character formation was more important than literacy.
It is clear from the foregoing account that Gandhiji viewed education from a
comprehensive or broadminded standpoint. Any education that develops only one aspect
of a child’s personality can be dubbed narrow and one-sided. Education must aim at
developing the child’s personality instead of limiting itself to providing the child with bits
and pieces of information. Gandhiji states that education must make the individual to live
and earn his daily bread to be the means of his sustenance. As he himself puts it, “ I value
individual freedom, but you must not forget that man is essentially a social being. He was
risen to his present status by learning to adjust his individuality to the requirements of
social progress”.
In this way, Gandhiji synthesized the individual and social aims of education. He
did not restrict education to the achievement of any one sided aim. Therefore, he assigned
different aims to education at different times, so so that something they looked mutually
contradictory and even self-defeating. A closer examination of all theses statements of
Gandhiji, however, shows that these aims of education are complementary to each other.
Gandhiji maintained that character formation and manual skill were equally
important. He wanted the child to earn while he learns. As has been already pointed out,
Gandhiji aimed at self-reliance through education. He visualized a craft-centered
education. Explaining his scheme of Basic Education as an insurance against
unemployment in India, Gandhiji said, “The child at the age of 14, that is, after finishing a
seven-year course should be discharged as an earning unit. Recommending this scheme of
education in the report on national education the Kothari Commission declared, “We
recommend that work-experience should be introduced as an integral part of all education
general or vocational. We define work-experience as participation in productive work in
school, in the home, in a workshop, on a farm, in a factory or in any other productive
situation.” On the other hand, he also wanted the child to develop his character. The aim
112
B.Ed - 15101
of education is the development of such a culture. Gandhiji’s plan of education laid stress
upon all types of education-physical, mental, moral, aesthetic and religious.
Gandhiji aimed at the evolution of democratic ideals through education. His basic
plan of education amply demonstrates this fact. He aimed at an education for ideal
citizenship. Education, according to him, should make children ideal members of a
democratic society. The school, according to Gandhiji, is itself a small democratic society
in which such democratic values are imparted to the children as wide outlook, tolerance
and good neighborhood. In the miniature society of the school the child learns the virtues
of sympathy, service, love, brotherhood, equality and liberty. All knowledge is useless
without a good character in his speeches to the students at various institutions. Gandhiji
laid emphasis upon the moral and spiritual aims of education. Emphasizing the moral aim
of education, Gandhiji said, “The end of all knowledge must be the building up of
character”. Character building is the moral ideal education. Western thinkers like
Emerson, Ruskin, etc. Gandhiji very much admired the Indian Gurukula system of
education and the ideal of Brahmacharya. In the words of Gandhiji, “Self-realization is in
itself an all comprehensive ideal’. This ideal includes other ideals of education. Gandhiji
believed that the ultimate aim of education is spiritual. He also agreed that spiritual
growth includes physical and mental, individual and social development. His educational
philosophy is based upon ancient Indian idealism. While he did not restrict the scope of
physical education his attention was mainly directed towards spiritual growth.
7.3 Wardha Conference
With the publication of the articles of Gandhi in Harijan, the Government of India
initiated a process of thinking about educational reforms as suggested by him.
Accordingly, in October, 1937 an All India Educational Conference was convened at
Wardha under the presidentship of Mahatma Gandhi. It was also attended by Education
Ministers of 7 provinces where congress was in power. A scheme called the Basic
113
B.Ed - 15101
Scheme of Education was drawn up and all the ideas of Gandhiji were incorporated in it.
The following resolutions were passed:
1. That in the opinion of this conference free and compulsory education be provided for
seven years on a nation wide scale;
2. That the medium of instruction be the mother tongue;
3. That the process of education throughout this period should center around to some
form of manual and productive work; and
4. That the system of education shall be able to cover the remuneration of teachers.
These resolutions led to the appointment of a committee with Zakir Hussain as its
chairman. It observed that even if it could not become self-supporting, still it was
acceptable “as a matter of sound education policy and as an urgent measure of national
reconstruction. Thus good education will incidentally cover the major portion of its
running expenses”. The Committee also took the cognizance of one danger that “in the
working of this scheme the economic aspect may be stressed at the sacrifice of the
cultural and education objective”. The committee also laid down the detailed syllabus and
made suggestions about several aspects like the training of teachers, supervision,
examination and administration.
The report was submitted on December 2, 1937 and after a thorough discussion at
Haripura National Congress in February 1938, the scheme was accepted by Congress and
the report of the Committee was published in March 1938. Accordingly, it is popularly
known as Wardha Scheme, because it has a concern with Wardha.
7.4 What is Wardha Scheme?
Wardha scheme, as conceived and explained by Mahatma Gandhi, is essentially

an education for life and an education through life. It is also called as “Nai-Talim” or
“Basic Education” but it is popularly known as “Basic Education”. Basic stands for
fundamentals. It means that this scheme of education was based on the national culture
and civilization of India. It shall have close relationship with the basic needs and interests
114
B.Ed - 15101
of the child life and is associated with the main occupation of the community life of the
country. It shall also try to impart such a knowledge to a student which will help him to
have a reasonable relationship with the environment. The central pivot of this scheme of
education shall be some handicrafts whose teaching shall enable the student to be able to
solve the problems of his livelihood. In short, the scheme aims at creating a social order,
free from exploitation and violence. That is why productive, creative and socially useful
work in which all boys and girls may participate, irrespective of any distinction of caste,
creed or class, is placed at the very center of the scheme.
7.5 Postulates of Wardha Scheme of Education
The principle of non-violence was the basis of Gandhi’s scheme of Basic

Education. Through this scheme he wanted to develop those qualities in future citizens of
India which he considered necessary for building a non-violent society. In 1937, Gandhiji
evolved a scheme popularly known as the Wardha Scheme or Basic National Education.
This Wardha Scheme was based on some principles of education which were listed by
Gandhiji in (Harijan) in 1932 in Yerwada Jail. These postulates were as follows:
1. Boys and girls should be taught together.
2. Their time should be mostly spent on manual work under the supervision of the
teacher. Manual work should be considered as part of education.
3. Work should be entrusted to each boy and girl after ascertaining his or her
inclinations.
4. The child should know the why and the wherefore of every process.
5. General knowledge should be given to the child as soon as he is able to
understand things. This knowledge should precede literacy education.
6. The hand of the child should be trained to draw geometrical figures before he
learns to write. This means a good handwriting should be taught from the very
beginning.
115
B.Ed - 15101
7. The child should learn to read before he is able to write i.e. he should learn to
recognize letters as if they were pictures and then draw their figures.
8. By this method and by word of mouth, the child should acquire much knowledge
before he is 8 years old.
9. Children should not be compelled to learn anything.
10. The child should be interested in whatever he learns.
11. The process of teaching should be conducted in a play way process.
12. All education should be imparted through the mother tongue of the child.
13. Every Indian child should learn Hindi – Urdu i.e. Hindustani as a national
language before his literacy training commences.
14. The second stage of the child’s education begins when he is eleven and lasts up to
sixteen.
15. Manual labour has a place in education during this period also. The time for
literary training should be increased according to need.
16. The child should learn some vocation as a preparation for his future life.
17. He should acquire general knowledge of world history, geography, botany,
astronomy, arithmetic, geometry and algebra.
18. A boy or a girl of 16 years should know sewing and cooking.
19. In the third stage which begins at 16 and ends at 25, a young man or woman
should receive education according to his or her desires and circumstances.
20. The education commencing at the age of nine should be self supporting. The
student, while he is learning, should be engaged in such a vocation that its produce
may meet the expenses of the school.
21. Production should, no doubt, begin right from the start. But it may not be enough
to meet the expenses during the initial years.
22. Teachers cannot possibly have attractive salaries but they must get enough to
maintain themselves. They should be involved by a spirit of service. They must
have a good character.
116
B.Ed - 15101
23. Education does not demand huge and costly buildings.

24. English can and should have a place in the syllabus only as a language. Just as
Hindi is our lingua franca. English is a language of international intercourse and
commerce.
7.6 Fundamentals of Wardha Scheme of Education
Wardha scheme of education is a dynamic and progressive scheme which is based

on psychological and sociological factors. The various fundamentals of the Wardha
Scheme can be discussed as follows:
1. Free and compulsory education: Mahatma Gandhi asserted that from 07 to 14
years of age, education should be free, compulsory and universal. As a
concession, however, girls, if their guardians so desire, could be withdrawn from
the school after their twelfth year. During this period, Gandhiji planned to include
primary, middle and high school education. He stated that primary education was
the minimum which must be given to all. Hence, he simply emphasized minimum
universal education, which he considered indispensable, for the successful
working of democracy.
2. Mother tongue to be the medium of instruction: A staunch supporter of mother
tongue as the medium of education, Gandhiji said, “I must cling to my mother
tongue as to my mother’s breast, in spite of its shortcomings. It alone can give me
the life giving milk.” He was vehemently against English as the medium of
education in this country. He said. “To inflict English on children is to stunt their
natural growth and perhaps to kill originality in them”. He maintained that our
insistence on English is a remnant of our long slavery to the British. He
maintained that the national language alone could be the vehicle of creating a
common culture and rich literature. He was very much conversant with the
language problem in India. He wanted to keep the county united particularly from
the point of view of language. Therefore, he stressed that mother tongue should be
117
B.Ed - 15101
the medium of instruction. He believes that no real education is possible through a

foreign medium. The proper teaching of the mother tongue is the foundation of all
education. Without the capacity to speak effectively and to read and write
correctly and lucidly, no one can develop precision of thought or clarity of ideas.
Moreover, Gandhiji asserted that mother tongue it is a means of introducing the
child to the rich heritage of ideas, emotions, and aspirations of his countrymen and
can, therefore, be made a valuable means of social education. Also, it is a natural
outlet for the expression of the child’s aesthetic sense and appreciation and if the
proper approach is adopted, the study of literature becomes a source of joy and
creative appreciation.
3. Craft as the center of education: According to Wardha Scheme, education
should center around to some craft or productive work. All subjects like history,
geography, arithmetic, science, language, music, painting etc. should be correlated
with the craft. By teaching craft, Gandhi’s objective was not to produce craftsmen
but he wanted to exploit the craft for educative purposes of the students. Craft
centered education will develop certain qualities of head and heart. It will bring
into play, cooperative activity, dignity of labour, planning, accuracy, initiative,
responsibility authority and equalization of classes. The craft in basic education is
to be chosen keeping in view the local needs.
4. Self supporting element: The scheme of basic education is based on the
principle, “learn while you earn and earn while you learn”. In a poor country
like India, where it is not possible to provide the heavy educational budgets, self
sufficiency is the best solution. To Gandhiji, “self sufficiency is an acid test to
basic education”. The pupils must be able to meet the salary of their teachers
through the sale of the products of their crafts. The state should pay for the other
expenses such as, furniture, books, tools and school buildings. The state should
provide the marketing facilities for the goods produced in the school.
118
B.Ed - 15101
5. Cult of non-violence: Gandhiji emphasized the principle of non violence in every

field of life. He wanted the future citizens of his country to be imbued with the
ideal of non-violence. He said, “Non violence is the law of our species as violence
is the law of brutes”. Non violence is the penacea for all evils. Gandhiji said,
“where the whole atmosphere is redolent with the pure fragrance of ahimsa (non
violence), boys and girls studying together will live like brothers and sisters in
freedom and yet in self imposed restraint, the students will be bound to the
teachers in the ties of filial love, mutual understanding and mutual trust”. Even
act of students, according to Gandhiji, should be accomplished by love. He
remarked, “we cannot and will not think of exploitation and we have no
alternative but this plan of education which is based on non-violence”.
6. Ideal citizenship: Wardha Scheme of education encourages cooperation and lays
the foundation of ideal citizenship. It enables the child to discharge his duties and
responsibilities of a good citizen. Character of the students would be developed. It
promotes dignity, efficiency and a sense of social service.
7. Relation with life: Education divorced from life is valueless. It should be the
preparation for life and this system brings the school nearer to realities of life. It is
based on the socio-economic structure. The selection of basic craft is made with
reference to the community living in the vicinity of the school. The Wardha
Scheme envisages the school not as “a training ground for certain services and
professions for a small section of the urban population. It serves as an agency for
the practical and social education of hundreds of millions of the rural population
in whose life the central and significant factor is work.” The physical and social
environment of the child is made the starting point of education and it is achieved
through the principle of correlation and integration. Education should thus help
the child in understanding and solving the problems of life.
119
B.Ed - 15101
7.7 Characteristics of Gandhian Educational Plan
M.K. Gandhi viewed the process of education from many different angles and saw
that it must achieve something more than one objective. That is why he ascribed to it
many different aims. At times a superficial study of these aims may give the impression
that they are mutually contradictory or self-defeating, but a deeper examination will show
that they complement each other. Gandhiji’s educational plan exhibits all the major
qualities found in the Western educational patterns. For this reason, the following points
must be kept in mind in attempting an evaluation of his plan:
1. Naturalism: Gandhiji’s educational philosophy gives due recognition to biological
naturalism because it lays stress on man’s complete development. He laid more
stress on the child’s environment than on books. He wanted to give an indigenous
touch to education, and make it capable of achieving independence and naturalness.
But, at the same time, he did not neglect discipline. His education is centered on the
child, not around textbooks.
2. Idealism: On the one hand one finds a strong element of realism in Gandhiji’s
philosophy of education but on the other it also exhibits some signs of idealism.
There is no denying in the fact that he was always an idealist because he always was
a religious individual. He felt that the aim of man’s life was realization of God, and
that is why he stressed the importance of moral and religious education. He wanted
to use education as a means of developing a harmonized personality in the child.
Like Pestalozzi, he wanted to make the child the center of educational progress and
like Herbert he felt that the aim of education was building up a moral character. He
attached the greatest importance to the child’s interests and inclinations.
3. Pragmatism: Despite his inclination towards idealism, Gandhiji always attended to
the practical aspect of education. That is why he entitled his autobiography ‘My
Experiments with Truth’. In keeping with the pragmatic tradition he also believed
that the child should gather for himself all the knowledge from the environment and
120
B.Ed - 15101
select from it that which he should put to use in later life. Like Dewey, Gandhiji also
felt that that child should learn through actual work besides, he also agreed with
Dewey that education should seek to establish the democratic values in life. In short,
he wanted to relate education to life as far as possible.
4. Educational system is based on psychological facts: Although Gandhiji was not a
professional psychologist, he had gained remarkable insight into human psychology
through his acute observation of life around him. He felt that education should aim at
arousing curiosity and providing motivation to the child so that he should himself
achieve his own physical, mental and spiritual development. He was very much in
favour of the students indulging in games and sports and gymnastic activity, because
he felt that physical development is an essential prerequisite of mental development.
He also felt that education should not be allowed to become mechanical but should
be acquired through play.
5. Importance of impressions and actions: Gandhiji’s opinion that impressions of
early childhood have a tremendous impact on later development is in agreement with
the modern psychologists. Most educationists agree that learning through doing
helps in the complete development of the child and that this also enables him to earn
his livelihood later in life.
6. Sociological importance of Gandhiji’s Plan: Gandhiji’s plan of education is not
only psychologically valid but it has a sociological significance also. While thinking
of his plan of education, Gandhiji was not concerned with one or two individuals,
but with the vast multitude of illiterate men and women who make up the country’s
population. He advocated discipline as an essential part of freedom and liberty. He
wanted that education should help the individual to become an ideal democratic
citizen. He stressed the importance of social service, labour, agriculture, handicrafts,
hygiene, collective living, etc. and pointed out that they were more important than
any curriculum. Sarvodaya was as much his guiding principle in education as in the
121
B.Ed - 15101
field of politics. This concept of a Sarvodaya Society was based on traditional Indian
and modern democratic values.
7. Education conforming to the country’s needs: Whatever the arguments one may
advance against Gandhiji’s plan of education one cannot question his sincerity,
because it is only too obvious that in presenting it, he was perfectly aware of the
needs of his countrymen. He considered this the only kind of education, which can
be successful in this country. Most villagers cannot afford to pay for their children’s
education and in addition most of them require their children’s assistance in their
own occupations. Gandhiji wanted the students to be engaged in gainful work the
product of which could be sold to pay for his education.
8. Teaching Methods: The teaching methods in the Gandhian scheme of education can
be deduced from his Basic Education. As has been pointed out, Gandhiji pleaded that
the child should be educated through a basic craft. He should first be taught a basic
craft from among the different types of it and other subjects such as Arithmetic,
Language, Geography, History and Civics should be taught in association with the
basic craft. In his educational institutions children were busy in craft activities for
hours.
7.8 Merits of Wardha Scheme of Education
Wardha scheme of Education has the following merits:

1. Compulsory free education: This scheme aimed at imparting compulsory and
free education to the children of 7-14 years. Education was also free from the
point of view of poverty because they did not have to pay for the education of
their children. The educands themselves earned the cost of their education.
2. Productive: The education shall be imparted through some handicraft or
productive activity. This handicraft or productive activity shall be the means as
well as the end. Other subjects taught shall be related to it.
122
B.Ed - 15101
3. Mother tongue: The medium of instruction has been considered to be the mother
tongue instead of English. This created an interest among the masses for its
adoption.
4. Progress of Indian languages: Ample opportunities have been given for the
progress of Hindi as well as regional languages
5. Padeocentric: Wardha scheme of education treated the child as the center of
education. It lays great stress on the individual interest of the child and keeps him
to raise his aspiration level.
6. Ideals: The scheme runs with the ideals of nationalism, patriotism, secularism etc.
7. In consonance with environment: This scheme of education is in perfect
consonance with the geographical, economic and social conditions of the country.
It is started in the rural atmosphere which forms the basis of this education.
8. High principles: Basic or Wardha scheme of education is influenced and inspired
by the high principle of the truth and non-violence.
9. Trained teachers: Only trained teachers are appointed under this scheme of
education and they have more freedom in their job
10. No Wastage: There is no wastage involved in this scheme of education.
11. Citizenship traits: Children acquire traits of citizenship and learn to solve the
problems of their future life.
12. Close to life: Basic education has close relationship with life. It creates
responsibilities among the children.
7.9 Demerits of Wardha Scheme of Education
Wardha Scheme of education, instead of having so many merits, possessed some

demerits which are listed as follows:
1) Not good for urban people: It is said that this scheme of education is useful
only for the villages. It cannot do any good to urban population.
123
B.Ed - 15101
2) Industrialization of education: Much involvement on productivity, that the

basic schools are likely to become the centers of cottage industries. Teachers
may treat the schools as factory and children as means of earning money.
3) No correlation between basic craft and general education: It is not possible
to impart education of all subjects through the medium of some basic craft. Such
correlation may not lead to overall development of the students. They may not
be able to acquire general education.
4) Defects in the time-table: Too much time (3 hours and 20 min) was given to
the basic craft, while very little time had been given to other subjects. The basic
education provided 288 working days. It put a heavy burden of work on the
children of tender age.
5) Neglect of secondary and higher education: Too much stress has been laid on
primary education and no importance was attached to secondary education and
higher education.
6) Industrial retardation: In this age of technological advancement and scientific
development emphasis on spinning and weaving would retard the industrial
growth of the country.
7) Utopian: This scheme is only utopian dream and is far away from practical
utility. It lacks a definite philosophy of education. It is based more on
sentiments.
8) Un-psychological: It was un-psychological on the part of Gandhiji to assume
that children’s products will be easily sold and that its products will be sufficient
to meet the salary of teachers and other expenses required for basic schools.
7.10 Let Us Sum Up
Giving a detailed picture of Basic Scheme of Education envisaged by M.K.

Gandhi has been the espoused task of this lesson. From the aforementioned discussion,
we came to know about the postulates and the fundamentals of basic scheme of
124
B.Ed - 15101
education. The scheme aims at creating a social order free from exploitation and violence.
That is why productive, creative and socially useful work in which all boys and girls may
participate, irrespective of any distinction of caste, creed or class, is placed at the very
center of this scheme of education.
1. Discuss in detail Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of education?

2. What do you mean by Wardha scheme? What are its main postulates?
3. Explain the means of education according to M.K. Gandhi?
4. What are the main characteristics of Gandhian educational plan?
5. Critically evaluate the Basic Scheme of education as envisaged by M.K. Gandhi?
6. Discuss the fundamental principles of Basic Scheme of Education?
1. Agarwal, J.C. (2004). Development of Education System in India. Shipra

Publication, Delhi
2. Agarwal, J.C. (2006). Basic Ideas in Education. Shipra Publication, Delhi
3. Gandhi, M. K. (1951). Basic Education, Bharatan Kumarappa, ed. Ahmedabad:
Navjivan.
4. Gandhi, M. K. (1953). Towards New Education. Bharatan Kumarappa, ed.
Ahmedabad: Navjivan.
5. Mohanty, J. (2002). Primary and Elementary Education. Deep & Deep
publication, New Delhi.
6. Varkey, C.J. The Wardha Scheme of Education: An Exposition and Examination.
Madras: Oxford University Press, 1940.
125
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO 08: SWAMI VIVEKANANDA
Lesson Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Brief Life Sketch of Swami Vivekananda
8.4 Swami Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Life
8.5 Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda
8.6 Basic Principles of Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Education
8.7 Concept of Education
8.8 Aims of Education
8.9 Curriculum
8.10 Methods of Teaching
8.11 Role of Teacher
8.12 Place of Child
8.13 Education for Women
8.14 Education of the Masses
8.15 Man Making Education
8.16 Universal Education
8.17 Concept of Discipline
8.18 Vivekananda’s Contribution to World Culture

126
B.Ed - 15101
8.19 Vivekananda’s Contribution to Indian Society
8.20 Let Us Sum Up
8.1 Introduction
Swami Vivekananda, known in his pre-monastic life as Narendra Nath Datta,

was born in an affluent family in Kolkata on 12 January 1863. His father, Vishwanath
Datta, was a successful attorney with interests in a wide range of subjects, and his
mother, Bhuvaneshwari Devi, was endowed with deep devotion, strong character and
other qualities. A precocious boy, Narendra excelled in music, gymnastics and studies.
By the time he graduated from Calcutta University, he had acquired a vast knowledge
of different subjects, especially Western philosophy and history. Born with a yogic
temperament, he used to practise meditation even from his boyhood, and was
associated with Brahmo Movement for some time. In this lesson, we shall discuss
educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda and contribution.
8.2 Objectives
After reading this lesson, you should be able to:

 Discuss the contribution of Swami Vivekananda towards the modern education
thought and practice;
 Explain the salient features of Vivekananda’s philosophy of education and
 Describe the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda
8.3 Life Sketch
Swami Vivekananda, the great soul loved and revered in East and West alike as
the rejuvenator of Hinduism in India and the preacher of its eternal truths abroad, was
127
B.Ed - 15101
born a few minutes before sunrise, on Monday, January 12, 1863. It was the day of the
great Hindu festival Makarasamkranti, when special worship is offered to the Ganga by
millions of devotees. Thus the future Vivekananda first drew breath when the air above
the sacred river not far from the house was reverberating with the prayers, worship, and
religious music of thousands of Hindu men and women. Before Vivekananda was born,
his mother, like many other pious Hindu mothers, had observed religious vows, fasted,
and prayed so that she might be blessed with a son who would do honour to the family.
She requested a relative who was living in Varanasi to offer special worship to the
Vireswara Siva of that holy place and seek His blessings; for Siva, the great god of
renunciation, dominated her thought. One night she dreamt that this supreme Deity
aroused Himself from His meditation and agreed to be born as her son. When she woke
she was filled with joy. The mother, Bhuvaneswari Devi, accepted the child as a boon
from Vireswara Siva and named him Vireswara. The family, however, gave him the
name of Narendranath Datta, calling him, for short, Narendra, or more endearingly,
Naren. In 1871, at the age of eight, Narendra entered high school. His exceptional
intelligence was soon recognized by his teachers and classmates. During his school
days, his headmaster W.W Haesty gave his impression about him in following words:
“I have traveled far and wide, but I have not met such an intelligent and
scholarly student even in German Universities”
While he was a student in college at seventeen years of age, he came under the
influence of Sri Ramakrishna Parmhansa. Narendra Nath was an earnest student of
philosophy and poetry. He studied all the systems of Western philosophy.
Swami Vivekananda did for the gospel of Sri Ramakrishna what St. Paul did for
the gospel of Christ. He broadcasted the truths of Vedanta in India, Europe and
America, as realized in the experience of Sri Ramakrishna. He demonstrated to the
world that the great Indian spiritual-tradition was still alive and vigorous. He showed
both by precept and example that, if the ancient Vedanta were reinterpreted in the light
of Sr. Ramakrishna’s spiritual experiences as applied to modern life, India would be
128
B.Ed - 15101
able to solve many of her problems and would rise once again to deliver a message to
humanity. He taught theoretical Vedanta in the West and practical Vedanta in India. He
urged for the uplift of the masses and wanted to make them strong and self-reliant. As
he had sympathy for the poor and downtrodden in India, he was a fore-runner of
Mahatma Gandhi. He pleaded for social reform in India and for religious freedom in
the West. He recommended Vedanta for all without any distinction of the caste, colour,
creed or sex. Till his death in 1902, he repeatedly asserted that Indians had become
weak and poor because they did not apply their Vedanta to life. He asserted that India
needs strength-giving religion and a man-making education. It may not be out of place
to mention that in a speech made in 1993, Federico Mayor, Director-General of
UNESCO, stated:
I am indeed struck by the similarity of the constitution of the Ramakrishna
Mission which Vivekananda established as early as 1897 with that of UNESCO
drawn up in 1945. Both place the human being at the centre of their efforts
aimed at development. Both place tolerance at the top of the agenda for
building peace and democracy. Both recognize the variety of human cultures
and societies as an essential aspect of the common heritage.
8.4 Swami Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Life
The philosophy of life of Swami Vivekananda can be discussed under the

following sub headings:
1. Swami Vivekananda as Vedantist: Swami Vivekananda was a true Vedantist.
He regards the Vedanta as perfectly impersonal. The Vedanta is eternal. It is not
originated by any person or prophet. So, it is not built around any particular
individual as the centre. The Dvaita, the Visista-dvaita and the Advaita are the
different expressions of the Vedanta according to Swami Vivekananda. So to
him, they are not opposed to each other. They are not absolute systems. They
are merely the stages for helping the individual to proceed progressively
129
B.Ed - 15101
towards the realization of higher and higher ideals till everything is merged in
the wonderful unity with Creator.
2. Concept of God: As a staunch Vedantist, Swami Vivekananda gives three
attributes to God: i). Infinite Existence, ii). Infinite Knowledge and iii). Infinite
Bliss. God according to Vivekananda is Omnipresent and Impersonal. He is
manifested in all the creatures on earth. Man is an incarnation of God. Worship
of man is the true worship of God. To quote the Complete Works of Swami
Vivekananda, vol. II “Existence without knowledge and love cannot be;
knowledge without love, and love without knowledge cannot be. What we want
is the harmony of Existence, knowledge and Bliss Infinite. For that is our goal.
We want harmony, not one sided development. And it is possible to have the
intellect of a Sankara with the heart of a Buddha. I hope we shall all struggle to
attain that blessed combination.” Thus Vivekananda places very high ideal
before man.
3. Faith in Man: Swami Vivekananda has intense faith in man and realizes the
dignity and diversity of human beings. In fact, he finds the manifestation of God
in Man. According to him, “The only God to worship is the human soul, in the
human body. Of course, all animals are temples too, but man is the highest, the
Taj Mahal of temples. If I cannot worship in that, no other temple will be of any
advantage. The moment I have realized God sitting in the temple of every
human body, the moment I stand in reverence before every human being and
see God in him—that moment I am free from bondage, everything that binds
vanishes, and I am free.” To him, the ideal of Vedanta is to know man as he
really is. This is the message of the Vedanta. He asks, “If you cannot worship
your brother man, the manifestation of God, how can you worship a God who is
un-manifested? If you cannot see God in the human face, how can you see in
the clouds, or in the images made of dull, dead matter or in mere fictitious
stories of your brain? I shall call you religious from the day you begin to see
130
B.Ed - 15101
God in men and women.” Thus Vivekananda teaches eternal communion of

man with the God.
4. Concept of Religion: According to Vivekananda, no religion is inferior to any
other. All religions lead to the same goal. So one must remain in one’s own
religion. He had a very liberal concept of religion. He advocated a religion of
universal oneness and cosmopolitanism. He urged people to believe in universal
religion. Religions are not contradictory. To him, “Religions are different forces
in the economy of God, working for the good of mankind.” He observes that
every religion is progressive. He is of the view that universal religion exists in
the same way as the universal oneness between man and man already exists.
Realization of Divinity or the knowledge of Brahman is the ultimate goal for
man.
5. Faith in Universalism and Spiritual Brotherhood: Swami Vivekananda
emphasized universalism and spiritual brotherhood. The saint after having
realized the self sees the self in all creatures. Therefore he devotes himself
entirely to the service of all beings.
6. Perfection as one’s Heritage: According to Vivekananda, “Perfection is not to
be attained, it is already within us. Immortality and bliss are not to be acquired,
we possess them already, and they have been ours all the time.” Thus perfection
is one’s heritage.
8.5 Educational Philosophy of Swami Vivekananda
Vivekananda’s educational philosophy is based on Vedanta and Upanishads. He

believes that soul exists in every individual. The very recognition of this soul is
religion. Education is the process of self-development. The child educates himself. True
improvement is self-inspired. Vivekananda was severely critical of existing pattern of
education and asserted that mere bookish knowledge is useless. According to him, “We
want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind is increased, the
131
B.Ed - 15101
intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one’s own feet.” To him education
plays a vital role in curing the evils in society, and it is critical in shaping the future of
humanity. Although Vivekananda did not write a book on education, he contributed
valuable thoughts on the subject that are relevant and viable today. Swami Ji was a
great advocate of a national system of education. He was in favour of education of the
masses in general and women in particular. The various Principles of his educational
thought are as under:
8.6 Basic Principles of Vivekananda’s Philosophy of Education
1. Knowledge Resides within the Individual: Most of Western educationists

believe that knowledge is born in man because of interaction with his
environment, while Vivekananda holds that knowledge is inherent in man,
something inside him and not born out of the external environment. True
knowledge does not come to the individual from outside. It is instead
discovered within the individual because man’s soul within him is the source of
all true knowledge. Vivekananda observes, "All knowledge that the world has
ever received comes from the mind; infinite library of the universe is in your
mind. The external world is only the suggestion, the occasion which sets you to
study your mind.” Education, thus, according to Swami Vivekananda, has the
function of discovering or uncovering knowledge that lies hidden in your mind.
A person’s level of education is judged not by the number of books he has read
but by the thickness of the coat of ignorance lying on his mind. The thicker the
coat in the front of the eyes, the greater is the ignorance of the individual. As the
light of knowledge increases, the coat of ignorance gradually recedes into the
background.
2. Self-Education: Swami Vivekananda believes that the child learns through
self-education. The child teaches himself. Each one must teach. Things will be
made clearer to the child by his own power of perception and thought. Like
132
B.Ed - 15101
Froebel, Swami Vivekananda thinks that the child develops his own nature as
the plant does his own. The teacher is to arrange the necessary environment for
him so that he may do his growing. Man has all the knowledge. He requires
only an awakening. Nothing should be forced on children. They should be left
free to crave out their own path. They should not be scolded every now and
then. Kindness and encouragement will help their growth. Positive ideas should
be given to them.
3. Education According To Needs of Children: Vivekananda advises us to
regard every soul as the soul of God, and every child as God. So the teacher has
only to serve children. Hence the teaching should be adjusted according to the
needs of children. “These needs should be determined in terms of the tendencies
inherent in children and not according to what the parents or teachers think.” It
is foolish for the parent or teacher to think that they can determine the path
which the child should follow.
4. Concentration of Mind as the Essence of Education: Vivekananda considers
concentration of mind as the essence of education. Everyone wants this power
of concentration for success in his life. A man is called superior to other if he
has greater power of concentration. "The treasure-house of knowledge can be
opened only through the key of concentration." Education itself consists in
achieving a greater degree of concentration of mind.
5. Brahmacharya for Concentration: Brahmacharya or continence is essential
for developing the power of concentration. Brahmacharya gives mental and
spiritual power of the highest kind. Vivekananda demonstrated how
Brahmacharya helps to improve various psychological activities such as
learning, remembering, thinking, etc, and thus facilitated the process of
education. Brahmacharya transforms the sex drive into a spiritual force.
Chastity in thought, world and deed is Brahmacharya. Everybody should be
133
B.Ed - 15101
trained to practice this chastity or Brahmacharya in order to develop his power

of concentration which is the basis of all education.
6. Education for All: Swami Vivekananda is an ardent advocate of universal
education. He holds that education is the birth right of every human being. It is
a biological, social and spiritual necessity. Vivekananda states, "No amount of
politics would be of any avail until the masses in India are once more well
educated, well fed and well cared for." He believes that the root cause of all
evils in India is the poverty of the people. He considers education as the soul
remedy for improving the condition of poor in the country. He is an ardent
advocate of mass emancipation. He believes that a nation is advanced as
education and intelligence spread among the masses. The gems of spirituality
scored in our sacred books should be brought to the common man by spreading
education in the masses through the medium of mother-tongue.
7. National System of Education: Vivekananda was staunch advocate of national
system of education. He wanted to reorganize education on national basis. He
desired that education in the country should be wholly national in spirit. He
believed that the national system of education should begin by acquainting the
child with the home where he resides, the community in which he moves, the
country to which he belongs, ultimately his understanding and sympathy for the
humanity at large. He wanted to train the child in India into the various aspect
of Indian customs, manners, culture and philosophy and then acquire the
knowledge of various civilizations of the world.
8. Women Education: Vivekananda was an ardent advocate of women education.
He believed that the uplift of the women must come first and then only can any
real good come about for the country, for India. While emphasizing women
education he said, "Educate your women first, then they will tell you what
reforms are necessary for them. In matters concerning them, who are you?" He
himself says, "Where women are respected, there the goods delight; and where
134
B.Ed - 15101
they are not, there all works and efforts come to naught." He further says,
"There is no hope of rise for that family or country where there is no estimation
of women, where they live in sadness. For this reason they have to be raised
first." So he recommends that daughters should be brought up and educated just
as sons. He emphasized ideal of chastity for women. It helps them in attaining
perfect womanhood. He places the ideal of Sita for Indian woman. There can be
no hope of well being of the country unless the condition of women is
improved. He wanted to give a type of education that may make women
selfless, fearless and brave like Ahalya Bai and Mira Bai. He wanted to give
women an education which may form character and may increase the strength
of mind and may enable them to stand on their own feet. He held that along
with other things, women should acquire the valour and heroism of Rani Jhansi.
Such mothers will produce ideal citizens. Swami Vivekananda had all
admiration for those who did even a bit for the spread of female education in
India. Female education, according to Vivekananda, is to spread with religion as
its centre. Swami Vivekananda wanted to teach some women the ideals of
renunciation, so that they may take up the vow of life-long dedication to God.
Swami Vivekananda wanted to train up some Brahmacharnis who will take up
the education of women. According to him centres have to be started for
teaching women. Women should be taught history and the Puranas
(mythologies), housekeeping and the arts, the duties of home life and principles
which develop an ideal character. These subjects should be taught with the help
of modern science. He wanted that girls are trained up in ethical and spiritual
life.
9. Religious Education: Vivekananda himself was a saint and a philosopher who
won unparalleled fame in India and abroad. In his words "Religion is the
innermost core of education — Mind, I do not mean my own or anyone else’s
opinion about religion." All religions must be accepted, and only their essential
135
B.Ed - 15101
spirits should constitute religious education to be given to children.

Vivekananda left that education is incomplete without religious training.
Children should be taught lives of great saints of all lands. He believes that
temples and churches, books and forms are simply the kindergarten of religion.
They are mere preliminaries. In fact, "One must enter into the heart of religion,
that is, one must realize it in his own life." Thus according to Vivekananda,
"Religion must be a living experience with oneself," True religious education
should be imparted to children.
8.7 Concept of Education
According to Swami Vivekananda, “Education is the manifestation of the

perfection already in man .Knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes from
outside”. According to Vivekananda, Education is not mere book learning and also it
is not providing diverse knowledge, but it is training by which the current expression of
will is brought under control and makes life fruitful. To him, the very essence of
education is concentration of mind not the collecting of facts. Vivekananda’s definition
of education is one of remarkable insight. First of all, the word ‘manifestation’ implies
that something already exists and is waiting to be expressed. The main focus in learning
is to make the hidden ability of a learner manifest. As Vivekananda said, ‘what a man
“learns” is really what he “discovers”, by taking the cover off his own soul, which is a
mine of infinite knowledge’. According to the Vedanta philosophy, knowledge is
inherent in a human being, like a spark in a piece of flint, and all that is needed is the
strike of suggestion to bring it out. ‘Manifestation’ indicates spontaneous growth,
provided that the impediments, if any, are removed. Next in importance in the Swami’s
definition of education is the expression ‘already in man’. This refers to a human
being’s potential, which is the range of the abilities and talents, known or unknown that
he was born with. ‘Potential’ speaks of the possibility of awakening something that is
lying dormant.
136
B.Ed - 15101
Vivekananda’s point of view on education was that the education which does
not help the common masses to equip themselves for the struggle of life, which does
not’ bring out strength of character, a spirit of philanthropy and the courage of a lion
lacks essence. Real education is that which enables one to stand-up on his own legs.
Education is not the amount of information that is put into the young brains and
runs riot or which is undigested by the young. Education must make the whole man,
"Knowledge is inherent in man, no knowledge comes from outside; it is all inside." So,
education should enlighten the inherent knowledge of the child. His option was to
provide education to all the people of India. He advocated, "education, education,
education alone! traveling through many cities of Europe and observing in them the
comforts and education of even the poor people, here was brought to my mind the state
of our own poor people and I used to shed tears. What made this difference? Education
was the answer I got." Through education, Vivekananda wanted to establish the
brotherhood of man and reconciliation of human contrast. He said, education has to
train in the assimilation of great values in this country and help in the assimilation of
great vales of humanity. In short, he wanted to bring universal religion for the good of
the nation through education.
8.8 Aims of Education
Vivekananda has summed up his ideas about aims of education in one sentence,
“The end of all education and training should be man making.” Education should aim
at developing faith in one’s own self. His educational ideas can be summarized as:
1. Physical Development: Physical development of the individual is an important
aim of education. Vivekananda felt that both self-realization and character
building are impossible in the absence of physical development and education.
In a conversation Vivekananda said that people must know the secrets of
making the body strong, and they should also convey this knowledge to others.
He felt that it is necessary to develop both the mind and the body, and cited his
137
B.Ed - 15101
own example. He himself took physical exercise as part of his daily routine,
Vivekananda glorified power and was opposed to weakness in any form. He
said that power is life and weakness is a death. Power, in his opinion is
happiness, a long and perfect life while weakness is a never ending burden
which culminates in death. For this reason, he said that it is more important for
the youngman to play football than to study the Gita.
2. Mental Development: Mental development of the individual is an other
important aim of education according to Vivekananda. He believed that
knowledge is inherent in man. It resides within individual. Perfection is inherent
in man and education is the manifestation of the same. Thus the aim of
education is to discover or uncover the knowledge that lies hidden in our mind.
3. Moral, Spiritual and Character Development: Vivekananda asserted that
education should aim at development of character, morality and spirituality. He
stated that we must have life-building, man-making and character-making
education. In his opinion the chief aim of education is to create a human being,
and the true mark of a human being is character. Thus the main aim of
education is to build character and develop spirituality. The glory and beauty of
life lies in character-making and spirituality.
4. Vocational Education: Vivekananda gave important place to the vocational
aim of education for harmonious development of personality. Education which
does not enable the individual to stand on one’s own feet is useless. But it does
not mean that one should be striving to amass wealth. All that it means is that
everyone should be properly fed. But one must not think of exploiting others.
One must not suck the blood of fellow-beings in order to make one’s belly
bigger. For achieving vocational efficiency aim, Vivekananda recommended
training in agriculture and industry. He wanted to establish workshops for
solving the immediate problems of hunger and starvation in the country.
138
B.Ed - 15101
5. Reaching Perfection: According to Vivekananda one of the important aims of

education is the manifestation of the perfection. Every child has certain hidden
powers. Education helps in the manifestation and development of these powers.
6. Promoting Universal Brotherhood: For Vivekananda education is a means for
establishing brotherhood in all mankind. Education must promote the spirit of
universal brotherhood. Education must teach man that Atman (soul) is the same
in all. Only that education is worth the name which imparts this spirit to man.
Swami Vivekananda asserts that "from the highest good to the meanest grass
the same power is present in all—whether manifested or not." Education has to
call for this power in every man.
7. Developing Faith in one’s own Self: Vivekananda laid emphasis on the fact
that faith in one’s own self must be created through education. Education must
teach that a man can do everything if he has courage. Education must give one
the faith, "Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is achieved." This has been the
core of all that Swami Vivekananda has taught throughout his life, and he wants
to make this as the guiding stone of education. Education must aim at the
creation of self-confidence and self- reliance. It is Shradha or faith which moves
the world. The man who is devoid of Shradha runs to ruin.
8. Developing the Spirit of Renunciation: Education must create the spirit of
renunciation in man. Today our country needs the spirit of renunciation.
Without renunciation none can work for others. Education must inculcate the
feeling in man that "we are all debtors to the world and the world does not owe
us anything. It is a great privilege for one to be able to do something to the
world."
9. Searching unity in Diversity: Vivekananda believes that the aim of education
is searching unity in diversity. He told that spiritual and material world is one;
Brahma is also one. Vivekananda synthesized spiritual and material values.
Education should enable man to find out unity in diversity.
139
B.Ed - 15101
Briefly speaking, Vivekananda’s aims of education reflect his practical

Vedanta. Practical Vedanta neither negates nor neglects the immediate material and
social dimension of life. The ultimate aim of education, according to Vivekananda, is
spiritual self-realization and salvation - moksha. But he did not lose sight of immediate
material, social and political self. He said that the end of all education should be ‘man-
making’. In short, education must aim at the development of infinite energy, infinite
zeal, infinite courage, and infinite patience in man. Vivekananda himself stated, “We
want that education by which character is formed strength of mind is increased,
intellect is expanded and by which one can stand on one’s own feet.”
8.9 Curriculum
1. Harmony of Science and Vedanta: Vivekananda feels that curriculum must be

able to achieve the development of every aspect of child’s personality. On the
one hand he stressed the study of Vedanta, Upanishads, Puranas, Religion and
Philosophy for spiritual development while on the other hand he stated the
importance of scientific education. He believes that what is really needed in
India is a harmony between Western science and Indian Vedanta. Only a
synthesis between Vedanta and science can inspire man to use the resources of
science for peaceful purposes and the progress of mankind.
2. Art Education: Vivekananda observes that art is an indispensable part of life
and hence education in science must be supplemented by the teaching of arts.
Art is a part of religion. Vivekananda was in favour of replacing the ideal of
utility by an ideal of beauty.
3. Common Language: Vivekananda stressed the need for a common language.
Such a language is necessary for unity in the country.
4. Regional Language: In addition to common language, Vivekananda felt that it
was necessary to encourage every regional language. In fact, all education must
be given in regional language because it is the mother-tongue of child.
140
B.Ed - 15101
5. Sanskrit: Vivekananda believed that Sanskrit is the source of all Indian

languages. He said that mere sound of this language granted power, ability and
prestige to the race. He further added that our awareness of our cultural heritage
and past greatness depended upon our knowledge of Sanskrit. He felt that in the
absence of this language it would be impossible to protect Indian culture. It is
Sanskrit which gives stability and permanence to the progress of our country.
6. History, Geography, Economics, Home Science, Psychology etc.:
Vivekananda also recommended the study of subjects like history, geography,
economics, mathematics, home science, psychology and agriculture.
7. Physical and Vocational Education: Vivekananda recognised the importance
of physical as well as vocational education. He felt that both self-realization and
character building are impossible in the absence of physical development. He
also believed that vocational education should be imparted. He remarked,
"Make your nerves strong. What we want is muscles of iron and nerves of steel.
We have wept long enough. No more weeping but stand on your feet and be
men. It is man-making religion that we want. It is man-making education all
round that we want."
8.10 Methods of Teaching
Vivekananda did not conclude his educational philosophy only by talking the
aims of education. He has also expressed his views on the methods of education.
Vivekananda was very much influenced by the past methods of teaching in
ancient Ashrams and Gurukuls. The education was required to concentrate his mind
and control of emotions or feelings through Yoga. The teacher was required to follow
the lecture method or discussion method. Pupils were expected to imitate the gestures
and actions of their teachers and develop good qualities and form a sound character. He
was to give proper guidance and counselling to the students.
141
B.Ed - 15101
Besides Vivekananda did not conclude his educational philosophy only by

talking the aims of education. He has also expressed his views on the methods of
education.
1. Method of Concentration: Vivekananda laid emphasis on concentration as a
method of attaining knowledge. Concentration is the sole key to the treasure of
knowledge. Vivekananda considers the concentration of mind as the essence of
education. The literary figure and the scientist has to concentrate his attention
on his subject for a long time, and only then he can hope to discover something
new in the field. Greater attention always helps in working more.
2. Brahmacharya for Concentration: Vivekananda believes that Brahmacharya
is necessary for developing the power of concentration. By observing strict
Brahmacharya all learning can be mastered within a very short time.
Brahmacharya improves the power of mind and helps in power of retention.
Without Brahmacharya one cannot possibly have any spiritual power.
Brahmacharya gives mental and spiritual power of the highest kind.
3. Discussion and Contemplation: In addition to concentration, Vivekananda laid
emphasis on the importance of discussion and contemplation as methods of
education. The pupil can remove the difficulties in his path by discussing them
with his teacher (educand) in an informal atmosphere.
4. Faith and Reverence: The educand must have reverence for his educator. The
progress of any kind is impossible in the absence of reverence. Faith in one’s
own self is the first step towards advancement. One finds that people even
commit suicide when they have no faith. All the achievements of modern
science are the result of faith and devotion of the highest order. The foundation
of this faith and devotion is man’s own soul, but the educator inspires this
devotion.
5. Method of Individual Guidance and Counselling: pupils can be kept on the
right path through the method of individual guidance and counseling.
142
B.Ed - 15101
6. Freedom in Education: Vivekananda was a strong supporter of freedom in

education because he believed that it was the first pre-requisite of development.
Hence no teacher should exert any kind of pressure on his pupils.
Briefly speaking, Listening to lectures or reading books may help; but growth
comes only when the students put their mind into exercise. He said: ‘to me the very
essence of education is concentration of mind, not the collection of facts. If I had to do
my education once again, I would not study facts at all. I would develop the power of
concentration and detachment, and then with a perfect instrument, collect facts at will’.
8.11 Role of Teacher
Regarding the role of teacher, Vivekananda himself says, "The only true teacher
is he who can immediately come down to the level of the student, and transfer his soul
to the student’s soul and see through the student’s eyes and hear through his ears and
understand through his mind. Such a teacher can really teach and none else.”
Concomitant with his epistemological position, Vivekananda had the most
modern ideas about functions of the teacher. The teacher, he said, should not think that
he is making the child grow. ‘You cannot teach a child to grow... a child teaches
itself... you can take away the obstacles. but knowledge comes out of its own nature’.
Drawing on the analogy of a growing plant, he went on to say that ‘loosen the soil a
little so that it may come out more easily… you cannot do anything else. The rest is the
manifestation from within its own nature. So with the education of a child, a child
educates itself. The teacher can help, but the student has to draw on himself. The
external teacher offers only the suggestion, which rouses the internal teacher to work to
understand things. Vivekananda’s position on the role of teacher in child’s education is
very close to naturalism of Rousseau. He spoke of four essential characteristics in a
teacher –purity, knowledge of religious scriptures, spiritual force and finally a guide.
Briefly speaking the place of teacher as envisaged by Vivekananda can be
discussed under the headings that follow:
143
B.Ed - 15101
1. Provider of Suitable Environment: According to Vivekananda education is

the process of self- development because child educates himself. The real task
of the educator is to see that there are no obstacles in the child’s path of self-
development. Just as the gardener prepares the ground for his plants, protects
them from destructive hands and animals, and nourishes them with manure and
water from time to time, in the same manner the educator takes care of the child
and provides for him environment in which he can develop without any
hindrance. The child himself is the source of knowledge but it is for the
educator to wake it from its dormant condition. Hence the educator should try to
encourage the children to use their body, sense organs and brains.
2. Attitude of Worshipper: No teacher should exert any kind of pressure on his
pupils, as Vivekananda was a strong supporter of freedom in education,
Vivekananda stressed upon educators that their attitude of teaching should be
that of a worshipper.
3. Teacher as Guide: In the words of Vivekananda, "Teacher is a philosopher,
friend and guide helping the educand to go forward in his own way."
4. Qualities for the Teacher: Swami Vivekananda attaches great importance to
the personal life and character of the teacher. He thinks that only a Tyagi (the
one who has renounced his personal gains and the one who has dedicated his
life to the services of others) can be a good teacher. The teacher should be of a
very high character. He must be pure in mind and heart. He must have love for
his pupils. Love is the best medium to transmit the spiritual force. The teacher
must have full sympathy for the pupils. He can never teach without sympathy.
Vivekananda believes that it is only through sympathy that he can bring down
himself to the level of his pupils.
144
B.Ed - 15101
8.12 Place of Child
Like Froebel Vivekananda regarded child as the pivotal point of education. He

is the store-house of knowledge. Knowledge resides within him. Vivekananda laid
emphasis on the discovery of inner knowledge and said, “Go into your own and get the
Upanishads out of your own self. You are the greatest book that ever was or will be.
Until the inner teacher opens, all outside teaching is in vain.”
8.13 Education for Women
Vivekananda was a strict advocate of women’s education. He believed that the

uplift of the women must come first and then only can any real good come about for
the country. While emphasizing women’s education he said, "Educate your women
first, then they will tell you what reforms are necessary for them. In matters concerning
them, who are you"? He himself says, "where women are respected, there the goods
delight and where they are not, there all works and efforts come to naught. He
further asserted, "there is no hope of rise for that family or country where there is no
estimation of women, where they live in sadness. For this reason they have to be raised
first." So he recommends that daughters should be brought up and educated just as
sons. He emphasized ideal of chastity for women. It helps them in attaining perfect
womanhood. He places the ideal of Sita for Indian women. There can be no hope of
well being of the country unless the condition of women is improved. He wanted to
give a type of education that may make women selfless, fearless, brave,
courageous and confident. He wanted to give women an education which may form
character and may increase the strength of mind and may enable them to stand on their
own feet. He stressed that along with other things, women should acquire the valour
and heroism like of Rani Jhansi, Mother Terasa. Such mothers will produce ideal
citizens. Swami had all admiration for those who did even a bit for the spread of female
education in India. Female education, according to him, is to spread with religion as its
145
B.Ed - 15101
center. Swami wanted, to teach some women the ideals of renunciation, so

that they may take up the vow of life long dedication to God.
Swami wanted to train up some Brahmacharnis who will take up the education
of women. According to him, "centers have to be started for teaching women". Women
should be taught history and the puranas (mythologies), house keeping and the arts, the
duties of home life and principles which develop an ideal character. These subjects
should be taught with the help of modern science. He wanted that girls are trained up in
ethical and spiritual life.
8.14 Education for the Masses
Vivekananda believed in the utility of the education of the masses. Indifference

to the education of the masses has emerged as a national problem that is the real cause
of our national downfall. For national development, education should reach the masses.
He said, "No amount of politics would be of any avail until the masses in India are once
more well educated, well fed and well cared for". If we want to regenerate India, we
must work for them". Proper attention for mass education is needed for the progress of
nation. He asked young men to change the situation. He pleaded for universal,
compulsory and free education. He asked the educator to reach every village and every
hutment so that the country may awake from ignorance.
According to Swami Vivekananda a nation’s progress is depending on the
spread of education among the masses. The bane of India’s progress is that the whole
education and intelligence of the land became the monopoly of a handful of men.
Unless and until we care for the spread of education among the masses no progress will
be achieved in this country. Priest power and foreign rule have exploited the poor
people to such an extent that they don’t even think they are human beings. In a sad
situation like this we have to open their eyes and make them see what is happening in
the world around. "Our duty is to put the ideas into their heads, they will do the rest."
He contended.
146
B.Ed - 15101
Swami blamed ‘the cruel society which is interested to shower blows upon the
poor man instead of coming to his help in this terrible situation. Next he takes to task
the educated of our country. "So long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance “I
hold every man a traitor who, having been educated at their expense, pays not the least
heed to them”, said Vivekananda. He regarded the neglect of the masses as a great
national sin.
Vivekananda was fully convinced that only through education the lot of the
poor can be improved here. Through education we should develop in them their lost
individuality, Once they become conscious of their human dignity, they would
naturally try to rise up from their miserable state* But he was very much disappointed
to see that nothing substantial has been done for educating the people* The germs of
spirituality stored in our sacred books has to be brought to the common man. This can
be done by spreading education among the masses through the medium of mother—
tongue. Ideas can easily be understood and assimilated even by the common-eat man if
they are taught through their own mother-tongue. Our duty is to give those ideas and
culture. "Without giving them culture, there can be no permanence in the raised
condition of the masses", Vivekananda warned. Besides, they must be instructed in
simple words about the necessities of -life and in trade, commerce, agriculture etc.
Once the poor man is made conscious of his strength, that he is the
‘Omnipotent’ and the ‘Omniscient’, the rest of the work becomes easy. The moment a
fisherman thinks that is spirit, he will be a better fisherman. Likewise a student
becomes a better student, too. But so long as the poverty of the people is not banished,
the hope of mass education remains a pious wish. For even if free schools are opened in
villages, the children would rather so to help their parents in their work or try to make a
living than going to the school if the poor bony cannot come to school for education,
education must go to him.
147
B.Ed - 15101
8.15 Man Making Education
Vivekananda says, "Education is not the amount of information that is put into
the brain and runs riot there undigested all your life. We must have life building, man
making, character making, assimilation of ideas". Education should unveil the divinity
in man and this divinity should be seen in treating lunatics, in punishing criminals and
in everything that is connected with human life.
Vivekananda suggests that education should lay proper emphasis on creativity,
originality, and excellence. To him, good education is only that which unfolds all the
hidden powers in man. Real education requires the cultivation of a sense of humility.
This sense of humility is the basis of a man’s character, the true mark of a balanced
personality. The character of any man is really the aggregate of his innate tendencies,
the sum total of the bent of mind. Both pleasure and pain, misery and happiness are
equal factors in the formation of his character. In studying the characters of general
men the world has produced, it would be found that it was misery that taught more than
happiness.
8.16 Universal Education
Vivekananda advocated universal education. Its theoretical base, however, was

his belief in the equality of all human beings at the spiritual level and service to the
poor as service to God; He wanted young Sanyasis to take knowledge to the doors of
the illiterates. He says, ‘if poor cannot come to school for education, education should
go to them. He was very keen to see that women got opportunities to get educated. He
wanted women’s education to be developed and spread with religion as its center.
However, he outlined a separate curriculum for women, which included, besides
religious instruction, home science, photography and arts.
148
B.Ed - 15101
8.17 Concept of Discipline
Discipline is an important aspect of a person’s character. He believed that

teaching discipline to a child or disciplining him from outside is only a myth. Instead of
trying to discipline the child, the teacher can set an example of his own life. So that
children can cultivate good discipline among themselves. Therefore discipline is to be
caught rather than taught.
8.18 Swamiji’s Contribution to World Culture
Making an objective assessment of Swami Vivekananda’s contributions to

world culture, the eminent British historian A L Basham stated that “in centuries to
come, he will be remembered as one of the main moulders of the modern world…”
Some of the main contributions that Swamiji made to the modern world are mentioned
below:
1. New Understanding of Religion: One of the most significant contributions of
Swami Vivekananda to the modern world is his interpretation of religion as a
universal experience of transcendent Reality, common to all humanity. Swamiji
met the challenge of modern science by showing that religion is as scientific as
science itself; religion is the ‘science of consciousness’. As such, religion and
science are not contradictory to each other but are complementary. This
universal conception frees religion from the hold of superstitions, dogmatism,
priestcraft and intolerance, and makes religion the highest and noblest pursuit –
the pursuit of supreme freedom, supreme knowledge, and supreme happiness.
2. New View of Man: Vivekananda’s concept of ‘potential divinity of the soul’
gives a new, ennobling concept of man. The present age is the age of
humanism which holds that man should be the chief concern and centre of all
activities and thinking. Through science and technology man has attained great
prosperity and power, and modern methods of communication and travel have
149
B.Ed - 15101
converted human society into a ‘global village’. But the degradation of man has
also been going on apace, as witnessed by the enormous increase in broken
homes, immorality, violence, crime, etc. in modern society. Vivekananda’s
concept of potential divinity of the soul prevents this degradation, divinizes
human relationships, and makes life meaningful and worth living. Swamiji has
laid the foundation for ‘spiritual humanism’, which is manifesting itself through
several neo-humanistic movements and the current interest in meditation, Zen
etc all over the world.
3. New Principle of Morality and Ethics: The prevalent morality, in both
individual life and social life, is mostly based on fear – fear of the police, fear of
public ridicule, fear of God’s punishment, fear of Karma, and so on. The
current theories of ethics also do not explain why a person should be moral and
be good to others. Vivekananda has given a new theory of ethics and new
principle of morality based on the intrinsic purity and oneness of the Atman.
We should be pure because purity is our real nature, our true divine Self or
Atman. Similarly, we should love and serve our neighbours because we are all
one in the Supreme Spirit known as Paramatman or Brahman.
4. Bridge between the East and the West: Another great contribution of Swami
Vivekananda was to build a bridge between Indian culture and Western culture.
He did it by interpreting Hindu scriptures and philosophy and the Hindu way of
life and institutions to the Western people in an idiom which they could
understand. He made the Western people realize that they had to learn much
from Indian spirituality for their own well-being. He showed that, in spite of
her poverty and backwardness, India had a great contribution to make to world
culture. In this way he was instrumental in ending India’s cultural isolation
from the rest of the world. He was India’s first great cultural ambassador to the
West. On the other hand, Swamiji’s interpretation of ancient Hindu scriptures,
philosophy, institutions, etc prepared the mind of Indians to accept and apply in
150
B.Ed - 15101
practical life two best elements of Western culture, namely science and
technology and humanism. Swamiji has taught Indians how to master Western
science and technology and at the same time develop spiritually. Swamiji has
also taught Indians how to adapt Western humanism (especially the ideas of
individual freedom, social equality and justice and respect for women) to Indian
ethos.
8.19 Swamiji’s Contribution to India
In spite of her innumerable linguistic, ethnic, historical and regional diversities,

India has had from time immemorial a strong sense of cultural unity. It was, however,
Swami Vivekananda who revealed the true foundations of this culture and thus clearly
defined and strengthened the sense of unity as a nation. Swamiji gave Indians proper
understanding of their country’s great spiritual heritage and thus gave them pride in
their past. Furthermore, he pointed out to Indians the drawbacks of Western culture and
the need for India’s contribution to overcome these drawbacks. In this way Swamiji
made India a nation with a global mission. Sense of unity, pride in the past, sense of
mission – these were the factors which gave real strength and purpose to India’s
nationalist movement. Several eminent leaders of India’s freedom movement have
acknowledged their indebtedness to Swamiji. Free India’s first Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru wrote: “Rooted in the past, full of pride in India’s prestige,
Vivekananda was yet modern in his approach to life’s problems, and was a kind of
bridge between the past of India and her present … he came as a tonic to the depressed
and demoralized Hindu mind and gave it self-reliance and some roots in the past.”
Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose wrote: “Swamiji harmonized the East and the West,
religion and science, past and present. And that is why he is great. Our countrymen
have gained unprecedented self-respect, self-reliance and self-assertion from his
teachings.”
151
B.Ed - 15101
Swamiji’s most unique contribution to the creation of new India was to open the
minds of Indians to their duty to the downtrodden masses. Long before the ideas of
Karl Marx were known in India, Swamiji spoke about the role of the labouring classes
in the production of the country’s wealth. Swamiji was the first religious leader in
India to speak for the masses, formulate a definite philosophy of service, and organize
large-scale social service.
8.20 Let Us Sum Up
A regal, majestic figure of commanding presence, vast learning and deep

insight, Swami Vivekananda was barely 30 years old when he created a stir at the
World’s Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893. Three and a half years later, when
he returned to India, his homeland, it was as a colossus of strength, courage,
confidence, love and manliness – the embodiment of the ideal of the ‘man-making and
character-building’ education he propagated.
Swami Vivekananda was a social reformer, a world teacher, a great educationist
and a practical saint of modern India who wanted to revive ancient wisdom. He had
deep faith in Vedanta and laid emphasis on self-knowledge, self-reliance, courage,
concentration, Brahmacharya, women education and education for the masses.
Throughout his life, he preached and practised brotherhood of man, realization of God,
renunciation and righteousness. He synthesized, spiritual and material values and
advocated a national system of education. He established Rama Krishna Mission
Ashrams and tried to spread gospels of Vedas through these Ashrams. In the words of
Jawahar Lal Nehru, "Rooted in the past and full of pride India’s prestige Vivekananda
was yet modern in his approach of life’s problems and was a kind of bridge between the
past of India and her present. His mission was the service of mankind through social
service, mass education, religious revival and social awakening through education.
152
B.Ed - 15101
 Discuss in detail the educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda?

 Explain the principles of education as advocated by Swami Vivekananda?
 Explain in brief the viewpoint of Vivekananda towards the following:
 Women Education
 Education of Masses
 Universal Education
 Man Making Education
 Concept of Discipline
 Methods of Teaching
 Role of Teacher
 Discuss the contribution of Vivekananda towards the modern education thought
and practice?
1. Ahluwalia, B. 1983. Vivekananda and the Indian Renaissance. New Delhi:

Associated Publishing Co.
2. Avinashalingam, T.S. 1974. Educational philosophy of Swami Vivekananda. 3rd
ed. Coimbatore: Sri Ramakrishna Mission Vidyalaya.
3. Burke, M.L. 1984. Swami Vivekananda in the West: new discoveries, 6 vols.
Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
4. Dhar, S. 1975. A comprehensive biography of Swami Vivekananda. 2 vols.
Madras: Vivekananda Prakashan Kendra.
5. Gnatuk-Danil’chuk, A.P. 1986. Tolstoy and Vivekananda. Calcutta: The
Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.
6. His Eastern and Western Admirers. 1983. Reminiscences of Swami Vivekananda.
3rd ed. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
153
B.Ed - 15101
7. His Eastern and Western Disciples. 1989. The life of Swami Vivekananda. 2 vols.
6th ed. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama.
8. Hossain, M. 1980. Swami Vivekananda’s philosophy of education. Calcutta:
Ratna Prakashan.
9. Nivedita, Sister. 1999. The Master as I saw him. 9th ed., 12th printing. Calcutta:
Udbodhan Office.
10. Raychaudhuri, T. 1988. Europe reconsidered: perceptions of the West in
nineteenth century Bengal. Delhi: Oxford University Press.
11. Sengupta, S.C. 1984. Swami Vivekananda and Indian nationalism. Calcutta:
Shishu Sahitya Samsad.
154
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 09 FROEBEL: The Play Way Method
Lesson Structure
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Objectives
9.2 Origin of Interest in the Field of Education
9.3 Chief Features of Froebel’s Educational Theory and Principles
9.4 Kindergarten: Objectives and Environment
9.5 Play-Way Method
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.1 Introduction
You must have heard term ‘KG’. Do you know the full form of this term? It is
kindergarten which is a German term. Do you know how this term originated? Let us
find out. The first kindergarten was started by German educator Friedrich Froebel (1782-
1852) in 1837 in Blankenburg, Prussia (now part of Germany). Froebel chose the German
term kindergarten (literally, children’s garden) because he intended children in his school
to grow as freely as flowers in a garden. Frobel was born on April 21, 1782 in
Oberweiback, a village in South Germany. He lost his mother when he was just nine
months old. His father remarried when Froebel was only four years of age. His father was
indifferent towards him and his step mother's treatment was very unfair. Thus he was
155
B.Ed - 15101
deprived of parental affection, love and care. At the age of eleven he was adopted by his
uncle who was associated with a church near his village. In school, he was considered as
a dunce. At the age of fourteen, he became an apprentice with a forester. It was here that
he developed a deep love for nature and acquired the habits of observation and
concentration. At seventeen, he joined the University of Jena where he was profoundly
influenced by the idealistic philosophy of Fitche and Schelling. On account of financial
difficulty, he discontinued his studies. For four years, he remained a 'career-wanderer'. He
wandered from place to place, picking up professions of different nature and failing
miserably in them, one after the other. In this lesson, we shall discuss in detail his
philosophy of education with special reference to child study.
9.2 Objectives
After going through this lesson you will be able to:

 State the Friedrich Froebel’s personal background.
 Explain the concept of Kindergarten.
 Discuss the educational theory and principles of Friedrich Froebel.
 Describe the thoughts of Friedrich Froebel in the area of Education.
 Appreciate the contribution of Friedrich Froebel in the field of early
childhood care and education.
A turning point came in the life of Froebel when he began to study architecture at
Frankfurt. There he came in contact with Dr. Grunner who was the Director of a model
school. Dr. Grunner discovered that Froebel had the potential to become an excellent
teacher and persuaded him to join his school. This marked a turning point in his life.
Froebel was greatly satisfied and he found his 'long missed life element' and was
'inexpressibly happy'. He declared, for the first time, I found something I had always
longed for, but always missed, as if my life had at last discovered its native element, I felt
156
B.Ed - 15101
as happy as a fish in the water or a bird in the air". After spending three years at
Frankfurt, Froebel paid a visit to Pestalozzi's institute at Yverdun. There Froebel learnt in
detail the principles and method of Pestalozzi. Froebel's contact with Pestalozzi prepared
him for carrying out his own experiments which led to the founding of his own school.
Friedreich Froebel was influenced by the writings of Comenius, Rousseau and
Pestalozzi and expanded their theories and became the Father of Kindergarten Education.
Froebel's primary contribution to educational thought and practice were in the areas of
learning, curriculum, methodology and teacher training. His concept of children how they
learn was based on the idea of unfolding held by Comenius and Pestalozzi. Froebel
regarded teacher as a designer of experiences and activities and further stated teacher as
facilitator of education. And in this regard Froebel believed as follows: "Therefore,
education in instruction and training, originally and in its first principles, should
necessarily be passive, following (only guarding and protecting), not prescriptive,
categorical, interfering”.
In 1816, Froebel established a small school at Griesheim which later on was
shifted to Keilhau. In this school, Froebel developed his own principles and methods of
instruction. This school became a successful institution in a period of ten years. 'Play' and
'art work' were the chief features of this school.
In 1826, Froebel published his famous book “The Education of Man”. In this
book he says, "The true method of education is based on considering the mind of the child
as a whole in which all the parts work together to produce harmonious unity". After this
he started many schools in Germany. The Government suspected the revolutionary ideas
of Froebel and an enquiry was conducted. The Inspector gave a favourable report. The
Inspector wrote that: "I found here a closely united family of some sixty members held
together in mutual confidence and every member seeking the good of the whole-The aim
of institution is by no means knowledge and science merely, but free self-active
development of the mind from within".
On account of financial difficulties, Froebel shifted his work to Switzerland in
1830. The Swiss Government appreciated his work. He then moved to Burgdorf. There he
157
B.Ed - 15101
became a superintendent of an orphanage. He continued his work of training teachers.

There he realized that due to non-availability of education at the pre-school age, the
school suffered "and did not get good raw material-the educand”.
Froebel returned to Germany in 1836 and founded his first kindergarten in 1849 in
the village of Blankendurg. He married his kindergartener in 1849. He spent his whole
time in the founding of kindergartens and devising his apparatus for them.
His views were not accepted by the German Government. It forbade him from
establishing any school. This was a great shock and he could not long survive it. Froebel
died in 1852, in poverty, misery and agony. His grave is marked by a slab with a cube, a
cylinder and a sphere on it.
9.4 Chief Features of Froebel’s Educational Theory and Principles
Friedrich Froebel was one of these pioneers of early childhood educational

reform. As an idealist, he believed that every child possessed, at birth, his full educational
potential, and that an appropriate educational environment was necessary to encourage
the child to grow and develop in an optimal manner. Froebel's vision was to stimulate an
appreciation and love for children and to provide a new but small world--a world that
became known as the Kindergarten--where children could play with others of their own
age group and experience their first gentle taste of independence. This early educational
vision laid the foundation for the framework of Froebel's philosophy of education which
is encompassed by the four basic components of Froebel compared the child to a seed that
is planted, germinates, brings forth a new shoot, and grows from a young, tender plant to
a mature fruit producing one. In his kindergarten system i.e. garden of children, Froebel
advocated children be educated in close harmony with their own nature and the nature of
the universe.
In Froebel's own words, "The object of education is the realization of the faithful,
pure, inviolable and hence holy life. The divine essence of man should be unfolded,
brought out, lifted into consciousness, and man himself raised into free, conscious,
obedience to the divine principle that lives in him and to a free representation of this
158
B.Ed - 15101
principle in his life. Education should lead and guide man to clearness concerning himself
and in himself, to face with nature, and to unity with God".
Froebel maintained that the aim of education is not to make the mind of the child a
jumble of words. He wrote that, "The essential business of school is not so much to
communicate a variety and multiplicity of acts as to give prominence to the ever living
unity that is in all things". He wrote that "Human education" requires the knowledge and
appreciation of religion, nature and language in their intimate living reciprocity and
mutual interaction. Without the knowledge and appreciation of the intimate unity of the
three, the school and we ourselves are lost in the fallacies of bottomless, self-provoking
diversity". So the aim of education is to enable the child to realize the unity in diversity.
Froebel’s' book on 'Education of Man' described a system of kindergarten
education that provided a specific direction for early childhood education. He established
the importance of early education in the development of personality and also the need for
social education through children's group activities. As per Frobel “Human growth takes
place in stages, therefore, education should focus on the child's interests and activities,
and young children should be allowed to manipulate real objects that are useful”.
The basic ideas of Froebel are as follows:
 Principle of Development: Froebel asserted: "Each individual must develop
from within, self-active and free, in accordance with the internal law".
 Mind of the Child as a Living Whole: According to Froebel, "The true
method of education consists in considering the mind of the child as a living
whole in which all the parts work together to produce harmonious unity".
 Creativeness of Childhood : Froebel proposed a new concept of childhood.
He stressed that childhood is not merely a preparation for adulthood.
Childhood is a value in itself and possesses its own creation. An adult has no
right to feel superior and to interfere with the nature of children. Rather the
adult must first understand the child and then guide him accordingly.
 Inner Relatedness of all Education: This means that the educator ought to
lead the child through such situations as will help to relate his experiences
159
B.Ed - 15101
organically one with another. Only then can the child realize his own
personal unity and the unity inherent in the diversity of life.
 Totality of Educational Endeavour: In order to realize the driving character
of the universe and his part in it, man needs his senses and emotions as well
as reasons. They all are windows of the soul. Hence Froebel emphasized the
totality of educational endeavour.
 Play and Activity: According to Froebel, "Play is the purest, most important
activity of man at this stage. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment,
inner rest and peace with the world. It holds the source of all that is good".
Froebel recognized that play needs to be organized and controlled so that it
may not degenerate into aimless play "instead of preparing for those tasks of
life for which it is destined".
 Freedom to the Child: The child should be educated in free atmosphere.
Freedom means obedience to self-imposed law.
 Social Aspect: Froebel stressed the social aspect of education also. He
believed that all social institutions like the home, the school, the church and
the State, etc. are the agencies of development of the individual wherein he
is to realize the unity in diversity.
 Importance of Songs: He devised songs, gestures and construction as the
chief means of stimulating the imagination of the child.
 Role of the Teacher: The teacher is like a gardener who carefully nurses and
protects children in order to secure their full and free development along
most desirable lines. The educator by his efforts assists the educand who is
developing according to the law of his nature to attain levels that would be
denied to him.
This early educational vision laid the foundation for the framework of Froebel's
philosophy of education which is encompassed by the four basic components of
a) Free self-activity,
b) Creativity,
160
B.Ed - 15101
c) Social participation, and

d) Motor expression.
As an educator, Froebel believed that stimulating voluntary self-activity in the
young child was the necessary form of pre-school education. Self-activity is defined as
the development of qualities and skills that make it possible to take an invisible idea and
make it a reality. Self-activity involves formulating a purpose, planning out that purpose,
and then acting on that plan until the purpose is realized. One of Froebel's significant
contributions to early childhood education was his theory of introducing play as a means
of engaging children in self-activity for the purpose of externalizing their inner natures.
As described by Dewey, Froebel's interpretation of play is characterized by free play
which enlists all of the child's imaginative powers, thoughts, and physical movements by
embodying in a satisfying form his own images and educational interests. Dewey
continued his description by indicating that play designates a child's mental attitude and
should not be identified with anything performed externally; therefore, the child should
be given complete emancipation from the necessity of following any given or prescribed
system of activities while he is engaged in playful self-activity. In summarizing Froebel's
beliefs regarding play, Dewey concluded that through stimulating play that produces self-
activity, the supreme goal of the child is the fullness of growth which brings about the
realization of his budding powers and continually carries him from one plane of
educational growth to another.
To assist children in their development of moving from one plane of educational
growth to another, Froebel provided the children with many stimulating activities to
enhance their creative powers and abilities. Froebel designed a series of instructional
materials that he called “gifts and occupations”, which demonstrated certain relationships
and led children in comparison, testing, and creative exploration activities. A gift was an
object provided for a child to play with--such as a sphere, cube, or cylinder--which helped
the child to understand and internalize the concepts of shape, dimension, size, and their
relationships. The occupations were items such as paints and clay which the children
could use to make what they wished; through the occupations, children externalized the
161
B.Ed - 15101
concepts existing within their creative minds. Therefore, through the child’s own self-
activity and creative imaginative play, the child would begin to understand both the inner
and outer properties of things as he moves through the developmental stages of the
educational process.
A third component of Froebel’s educational plan involved working closely with
the family unit. Froebel believed that parents provided the first as well as the most
consistent educational influence in a child’s life. Since a child’s first educational
experiences occur within the family unit, he is already familiar with the home
environment as well as with the occupations carried on within this setting. Naturally,
through creative self-activity, a child will imitate those things that are in a direct and real
relationship to him-things learned through observations of daily family life. Froebel
believed that providing a family setting within the school environment would provide
children with opportunities for interacting socially within familiar territory in a non-
threatening manner. Focusing on the home environment occupations as the foundation for
beginning subject-matter content allowed the child to develop social interaction skills that
would prepare him for higher level subject-matter content in later educational
developmental stages.
Over one hundred and fifty years ago, Froebel urged educators to respect the
sanctity of child development through this statement:
“We grant space and time to young plants and animals because we know that, in
accordance with the laws that live in them, they will develop properly and grow well.
Young animals and plants are given rest, and arbitrary interference with their growth is
avoided,/because it is known that the opposite practice would disturb their pure unfolding
and sound development; but, the young human being is looked upon as a piece of wax or
a lump of clay which man can mould into what he pleases”.
Motor expression, which refers to learning by doing as opposed to following rote
instructions, is a very important aspect of Froebel’s educational principles. Froebel did
not believe that the child should be placed into society’s mould, but should be allowed to
shape his own mould and grow at his own pace through the developmental stages of the
162
B.Ed - 15101
educational process. Froebel believed that a child should never be rushed or hurried in
his development; he needs to be involved in all of the experiences each stage requires and
helped to see the relationships of things and ideas to each other and to himself so that he
can make sense out of both his subjective and objective world. Development is
continuous, with one stage building upon another, so that nothing should be missed
through haste or for any other reason as the child moves through the educational process.
Responsible educators should strive to recognize each child's individual level of
development so that essential materials and activities to stimulate appropriate educational
growth can be provided. Froebel believed that imitation and suggestion would inevitably
occur, but should only be utilized by the teacher as instruments for assisting students in
formulating their own instructional concepts.
For the complete education and training of child, Froebel devised a series of gifts.
The gifts comprise carefully graduated series of materials which possess all the novelty of
playthings, and form the basis of his educational method. They are to train the senses of
sight and touch, to give the child an idea of size and surface, and to present him a correct
idea of number. The activities suggested by these gifts are called occupations. The gifts
are given to the child in a certain order. The gradation and order elements of gifts are
determined by the principle of development. The gifts are twenty in number although
only the first seven are now usually called by this name.
 Gift I. It consists of six coloured woolen balls, three in primary colours, red,
yellow and blue, and three secondary colours, orange, green and purple. The
occupation involves rolling them about in play. Thus they develop in the children
the idea of colour and material, form, motion, direction and muscular sensibility.
 Gift II. It consists of a sphere, cube and cylinder made of hardwood. In playing
with these gifts, the child notices the difference between the stability of the cube,
and the mobility of the sphere. He observes that the cylinder is both stable and
movable, and that it harmonizes both the qualities in one.
 Gift III. It is a large cube divided into eight smaller equal cubes. From these the
child can build up a number of useful artistic forms such as benches, steps, doors,
163
B.Ed - 15101
bridges, etc. and for this reason the third gift is often called the first building box.
The child can also gain elementary ideas of addition and subtraction through these
cubes.
 Gift IV. It consists of the large cubes divided into eight oblong prisms in each of
which the length is twice the breadth and the breadth is twice the thickness. This
helps the child to construct different kinds of buildings and patterns when
combined with the third gift.
 Gift V. It is very much like the third gift. It consists of a large cube divided into
twenty-seven small cubes, three of which are again divided diagonally into halves
and three into quarters. The child can construct many beautiful forms and patterns
by combining the third, fourth and fifth gifts. Form and number can very well be
taught by the use of this gift.
 Gift VI. It is again similar to gift four. In it there is a large cube divided into
eighteen whole and nine small oblong blocks. Still further designs in forms and
construction may be made by the child. It is also useful in teaching numbers.
 Gift VII. It is also a set of square and triangular tablets made of fine wood in two
colours. It provides material for several exercises in geometrical forms and mosaic
work.
 Other gifts consist of materials, such as, perforating, paper-cutting, threading of
beads, mat-making, embroidery, basket-making, wire work, drawing and
modeling.
9.5 Kindergarten: Objectives and Environment
As you have already read that kindergarten is a German word which means a
children's garden. The name Kindergarten signifies both a garden for children, a location
where they can observe and interact with nature, and also a garden of children, where
they themselves can grow and develop in freedom from arbitrary political and social
imperatives. The kindergarten was essentially tri-partite:
164
B.Ed - 15101
 toys for sedentary creative play (these Froebel called gifts and occupations)
 games and dances for healthy activity
 observing and nurturing plants in a garden for stimulating awareness of the natural
world.
Froebel conceived the school as a garden, the teacher as the gardener and the
students as tender plants. The teacher, like the gardener looks after the little human plants
and waters them to grow to beauty and perfection. Froebel discovered great similarity
between a child and a plant. He believed that the process of growth and development of
the plant and the child is the same. The plant grows from within according to the seed that
is within. In the same way the child grows from within. He unfolds his tendencies and
impulses from within.
In the words of Froebel, "The objective of a kindergarten is to give the children
employment in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies, to exercise
their senses, to engage their awakening mind and through their senses to make them
acquainted with nature and their fellow creatures. It is specially to guide the heart and the
affections, and to lead them to the original ground of all life, to unity with themselves".
The environment of the kindergarten is to be that of freedom, play and joy-an
environment which fosters self expression. There are to be no books or fixed intellectual
tasks for children, but training in expression is to be given in three ways-songs,
movements and construction. These three are to go together. Though the means are
separate yet the process is connected as a whole, e.g. when a story is told or read, it is
expressed in song, dramatized in movement and gesture, and illustrated by construction
from blocks, paper, clay or drawing. Thus the child's imagination and thought are
encouraged and stimulated by concerted means. His hands and limbs, his eyes and other
senses are trained by making him do certain things.
Chief Characteristics of Kindergarten are as follows:
o Free Self-Activity : Froebel regarded self-activity as a process by which
the individual realizes his own nature and builds up his own world and
then unites and harmonizes the two. During the activity instruction
165
B.Ed - 15101
steadily goes on without any ticks, from the simple to the complex, from
the concrete to the abstract, so well adapted to the child and his needs that
he goes as easily to his learning as to his play. The following points should
be noted regarding activity:
o It should not be vague.
o It should be a sublimated or controlled activity.
o Social atmosphere is essential in order to secure meaningful activities.
o Self-activity may take the form either of work or of play.
 Play: According to Froebel, "Play is the purest, most spiritual activity of man at
this stage. It gives, therefore, joy, freedom, contentment, inner rest and peace
with the world. It holds the source of all that is good". Froebel recognized that
play needs to be organized and controlled on definite materials so that it may not
degenerate into aimless play "instead of preparing for those tasks of life for which
it is destined". There should be rational conscious guidance. Consequently,
Froebel has given seven gifts to children to play with.
 Songs, gestures and construction: Froebel saw an organic relationship between
songs, gestures and construction. He regarded these as three coordinate forms of
expression in the child. What is to be learnt by the pupil is first expressed in a
song, and then it is dramatized or expressed in gesture or movement and lastly
illustrated through some constructive work, such as, paper or clay. Thus, a
balanced development of the mind, the speech organs and the hand is aimed at.
These three activities provide exercise to the senses, limbs and muscles of the
child.
 Gifts and occupations: You have already studied about gifts and occupations in
the previous section. For providing appropriate activities, Froebel devised suitable
materials known as gifts. The gifts suggest some form of activity and occupations
are the activities suggested-by gifts. These have been carefully graded. They
possess all the novelty of play things. The order of the gift is devised in such a
way as it leads the child from the activities and thought of one stage to another.
166
B.Ed - 15101
 Role of the Teacher: The teacher is not a spectator and a passive person. He is
expected to suggest suitable occupations when gifts are given to children. He
demonstrates certain activities to them. He also sings a song with a view to help
the child to form appropriate ideas. A teacher has important responsibilities to
perform. He has to inculcate values like love, sympathy, humility, cooperation and
obedience to elders.
 Positive Discipline: The teacher has to avoid external restraint and bodily
punishment. The child should be made to realize that discipline depends upon his
love for order, goodwill and mutual understanding. Froebel stressed that women
should be trained for training children at this stage.
 Curriculum: It is in terms of activities. The divisions of the curriculum are:
i. Manual work.
ii. Religion and religious instruction.
iii. Natural science and mathematics.
iv. Language.
v. Arts and objects of art.
9.6 Play-Way Method
As per Froebel, human growth takes place in stages, therefore, education should
focus on the child's interests and activities, and young children should be allowed to
manipulate real objects that are useful. Specific stages of growth occur in sequence
infancy, childhood, boyhood, youth and maturity. Children’s growth and learning begin
in the family setting and extend in an orderly manner into school life.
Frobel encouraged young, unmarried women to become teachers. He regarded
teacher as a gardener who is responsible for guidance and direction. He provides an
environment of love and freedom. He plans his work very carefully and demonstrates the
play-way activity. So children can become creative, contributing members of society. To
167
B.Ed - 15101
achieve this end, Froebel developed a systematic and planned curriculum, based on (as
mentioned earlier) 'gifts', occupations', songs and educational games.
You already know that Froebel developed a variety of curriculum materials that he
called "gifts and occupations". The gifts were material that represented symbolic ideas in
a concrete form. These materials were arranged in a definite sequence with clear direction
for their use. Occupations means sequence of activities meant for developing different
skills such as sewing, cutting, weaving, drawing and pasting. For example the first 'gifts'
was a set of six balls of yarn, each a different colour, with six lengths of yarn the same
colour as the balls. Purpose of this gift was to teach colour recognition.
Children unfold their uniqueness in play. Froebel said, "Play is the purest, most
spiritual activity of man at this stage, and at the same time, typical of human life as a
whole - of the inner hidden natural life in man and all things. It gives, therefore, joy,
freedom, contentment, inner and outer rest, peace with the world. It holds the sources of
all that is good. A child that plays thoroughly, with self-active determination, persevering
until physical fatigue forbids, will surely be a thorough, determined man, capable of self-
sacrifice for the promotion of the welfare of himself and others. Spontaneous play of the
child discloses the future inner life of the man. The child's inner world will be awakened
through the manipulation of objects and by manipulating objects through play, children
will have opportunity for self-expression. Observation of child's behaviour provides
opportunities to examine the spontaneity of their actions and products.
Froebel's recognition of the importance of learning through play is reinforced by
contemporary early childhood professionals in their programmes. Froebel used play for
the development and growth of the child in the kindergarten established by him. This
method came to be known as the play-way method in teaching-learning.
Play-Way is thus a method which envisages that all work should be done in the
spirit of play. Play-Way is quite different from the normal meaning of the word play
which is considered as a form of physical activity. Play-Way, on the other hand is a
means for the cognitive, and affective development of the child, i.e. development of
intellect, skills and feelings.
168
B.Ed - 15101
Principles of Play-Way Method were as follows:

 Principle of growth and development of the child through play.
 Principle of self-development under teacher's guidance.
 Principle of self-activity.
 Principle of self-expression through play.
 Principle of spontaneity.
 Principle of freedom.
 Principle of happiness and joy in play activities.
 Principle of unity. .
 Principle of aesthetic appreciation.
 Principle of creativeness.
 Principle of drawing out.
 Principle of discipline through love.
 Principle of sense training.
 Principle of concrete to abstract.
The play-way method has a number of merits. These are as follows:
 It stresses the importance of play in the early education.
 The gifts and occupations of the Kindergarten give a new approach to
method of teaching.
 The inclusion of creative work in the school makes children creative
workers.
 There is sufficient: scope for activity in a Kindergarten.
 Various gifts provide sensory training.
 The inclusion of mature content in the curriculum helps to develop love for
nature and world in the mind of the students.
Despite its merits the play-way method has a number of limitations. These are as follows:
 In the Kindergarten, too much stress is laid on the development from within.
169
B.Ed - 15101
 Songs as given by Froebel are out of date. These cannot be used in every
school.
 The gifts of Froebel are formal in nature.
 The order of presentation of gifts is arbitrary.
 The gifts do not serve much purpose of sense training.
 There is little correlation in the teaching of various subjects.
 It is not possible to accept his excessive emphasis on play in education as it
is likely to detract the child from serious learning.
 Philosophy on which Froebel based his method is very complicated. It is
very difficult for children to understand his symbolism.
Froebel has made a very valuable contribution to educational theory and practice.
Froebel's Play-Way finds place in the teaching-learning process at all stages of education
and in all subjects.
9.7 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson you have learnt that Friedreich Froebel (1782-1852) was the founder
of “kindergarten” system. He opened the first Kindergarten, an institution for children
between ages 4-6 years at Blackenberg in 1837. He emphasized that play is the purest,
most spiritual activity of man. It gives joy, freedom and contentment. Thus in his
Kindergarten elements of play were considered important for self-development along
with special games of songs which served to enhance learning besides construction with
materials, practice at various tasks especially gardening that served to build character and
study of nature. He also emphasized the development of creativity in children through
play.
You also learnt that chief characteristics of Kindergarten are: free self-activity,
play, songs, gestures and construction, gifts and occupations, role of teacher as a gardener
and positive discipline. As per Froebel children unfold their uniqueness in play. Froebel
was influenced by the writings of Comenius, Rousseau and Pestalozzi and expanded their
170
B.Ed - 15101
theories .His concept of children how they learn was based on the idea of unfolding held
by Comenius and Pestalozzi.
You also learnt that Froebel compared the child to a seed that is planted,
germinates, brings forth a new shoot, and grows from a young, tender plant to a mature
fruit producing one. In his kindergarten system i.e. garden of children, Froebel advocated
children be educated in close harmony with their own nature and the nature of the
universe. As per Froebel curriculum comprises of following divisions: manual work,
religion and religious instruction, natural science and mathematics, language ,arts and
objects of art.
According to Frobel, the teacher is like a gardener who carefully nurses and
protects children in order to secure their full and free development along most desirable
lines. The educator by his efforts assists the educand who is developing according to the
law of his nature to attain levels that would be denied to him.
For the complete education and training of child, Froebel devised a series of gifts.
The gifts comprise of carefully graduated series of materials which possess all the novelty
of playthings, and form the basis of his educational method. They are used to train the
senses of sight and touch, to give the child an idea of size and surface, and to present him
a correct idea of number. The activities suggested by these gifts are called occupations.
The gifts are given to the child in a certain order. The gradation and order elements of
gifts are determined by the principle of development.
a) Self Check Exercise

1. What is the meaning of the term “Kindergarten’?
2. What are the demerits of Froebel’s method?
3. What are the activities suggested by gifts known as?
4. What do you mean by the term free self activity?
5. Describe the role of teacher in words of Froebel.
6. What were the broad divisions of curriculum given by Froebel?
171
B.Ed - 15101
b) Questions for Critical Reflection

1. Discuss the aim of education in words of Froebel.
2. What are the gifts devised by Froebel?
3. As per Froebel what kind of environment should be prevalent in
Kindergarten?
4. What are the chief characteristics of kindergarten?
5. What is play way method? Discuss the role of teacher in this method.
6. Describe the principles underlying play way method.
7. What are the merits of play way method?
9.9 Suggested Reading
1. Brosterman, Norman (2007) Inventing Kindergarten Bares and Noble Publishing

House London.
2. Seefeldt, Carol (1990). Continuing Issues in Early Childhood Education, Merrill
Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio.
3. Pugh, G. (1996). Contemporary Issues in Early Years: Working Collaboratively
for Children (2nd Ed.) National Children’s Bureau, London.
4. Govt. of India (2005). National Plan of Action for Children, 2005: Department of
Women and Child Development, New Delhi
5. Mishra, R.C. (2005). Early Childhood Education Today, Prentice Hall Publisher
New Delhi.
172
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT II
LESSON NO: 10 MONTESSORI: DIDACTIC APPARATUS
Lesson Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Objectives
10.4 Montessori’s Work in India
10.5 Chief Features of Montessori’s Educational Theory and Principles
10.6 Role and Functions of the Teacher
10.7 Children's House
10.8 Montessori Apparatus
10.9 Teaching of Reading and Writing
10.10 Merits and Demerits of Montessori’s Educational Thought and

Practices
10.11 Let Us Sum Up
173
B.Ed - 15101
10.1 Introduction
Mrs. Neelam Gopalkrishnan is staying in Gurgaon, Haryana. She wants to get

admission for her son in a good nursery school. Since she has recently shifted to Gurgaon
she starts searching for the nursery schools on the internet. She sees that there is”
Salwan Montessori School” which is situated near her house. She wonders why the term
‘Montessori’ has been used in the name of the school. She tries to find out why this term
is used? She comes to know that the ‘Montessori’ term has been derived from the name of
Maria Montessori. Now she wants to know more about Maria Montessori as a person and
searches for more information about her. Let us see what she finds out during her
exploration:
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was one of the greatest pioneers of education of
the children of the pre-school age. She worked in the fields of psychiatry, education and
anthropology. Most of you may be thinking that she must have got qualifications in the
area of early childhood care and education. But you will be amazed to know that Maria
Montessori was a doctor by qualification and profession at the beginning of her career. In
fact she was the first woman to become a doctor in Italy. The doors of the medical
colleges were not open for women in those days. How to get admission was the problem
before her. She tried a trick and signed herself as M. Montessori when she applied for
admission. The authorities could never visualize that a lady would apply in such a
manner. So they admitted her thinking that candidate was a man. Now you know she was
extremely smart and determined. The Montessori system of education, named after Dr.
Maria Montessori has today, become synonymous with pre-school education. Her
concepts revolutionized the way the world saw young children. In this lesson we will be
learning about the life and educational philosophy of Maria Montessori in detail with
special reference to her contribution towards child study.
174
B.Ed - 15101
10.2 Objectives

 State the Maria Montessori’s personal background
 Explain the Montessori’s work in India
 Discuss the Educational Theory and Principles of Maria Montessori
 Describe the thoughts of Maria Montessori in the area of Education and
 Appreciate the contribution of Maria Montessori in the field of Early
Childhood Care and Education.
Now let us examine as to how the interest in field of education originated in the
mind of Montessori who was basically a Doctor by profession. Montessori worked as a
professor of Anthropology in the University of Rome from 1900 to 1917. She supervised
the ward of mentally deficient children and took a keen interest in their education also. In
1917, she was appointed a supervisor of schools located in tenements and catered to the
education of children between the ages of 3 to 7 years. Thereafter, she opened a new
school on the basis of her experiments and named it 'Children’s house'. You will be
learning in detail about the features of this school in the Section 8.5. She did a deep study
of the various facets of child development.
The Government of Italy appointed her as inspector of infant schools in 1922. She
began to train teachers for infant schools on the lines of the new method discovered by
her. Teachers from several countries from Europe including England 'came to Italy for
training. Mussolini came to power in Italy and he was a Fascist dictator. He wanted to
educate children for war. Montessori, who was an ardent supporter of child's freedom,
could not work under such a regime. So she was obliged to run away from there and
preceded to Holland where she founded a school.
175
B.Ed - 15101
10.4 Montessori’s Work in India
The first meeting between Mahatma Gandhi and Maria Montessori took place
when Gandhi went to London in 1931 to attend the Round Table Conference. At that time
Dr. Montessori was holding International Training Courses for Teachers. Common
friends brought them together. This meeting inspired Gandhi who was also keenly
interested in education to visit Montessori Schools in Rome on his way back.
In the year 1939, the Theosophical Society of India extended an invitation asking
Maria Montessori to visit India. She accepted the invitation and reached India the very
same year accompanied by her only son, Mario Montessori Sr. She came to India in 1939
just after the outbreak of the First World War, and remained here up to 1946. This
heralded the beginning of her special relationship with India. In 1939 Gandhi sent her a
message of welcome. They met and corresponded during the next 10 years. It is an irony
of fate that during the war years, both Gandhi and Montessori were put under restrictions.
Gandhi expressed sympathy and regret when after Italy's entry into war; restrictions were
imposed on Dr. Montessori as she was considered as enemy alien. Gandhi fought for
freedom of the country from outer repression and Montessori for freedom of the child.
Gandhi wanted to reform the entire system of education especially elementary education
whereas Montessori devoted all her energies to reform the system of education at the pre-
elementary stage.
Annie Besant, a Theosophist, was powerfully influenced by Madam Montessori.
She and Rukmini Arundale helped Madam Montessori set up a teacher training centre at
Adyar, near Madras. She made the international headquarters of the Theosophical Society
at Adyar, Chennai, as her home. However the war forced her to extend her stay in India.
She spent her time in training teachers for young children according to her method in
Madras. With the help of her son, Mario, she conducted sixteen batches of courses called
the “Indian Montessori Training Courses”. These courses laid a strong foundation for the
Montessori Movement in India. Many early childhood educators received their training
under Madam Montessori at Adyar and then went out to various parts of the country and
176
B.Ed - 15101
spread the movement for early childhood education. In 1946 Madame Montessori again
met Mahatma Gandhi, who asked her to ‘indianize’ her method to make preschool
education available to a large majority of children. That was the beginning of ‘pre- basic
education’ in the rural parts of the country, largely through voluntary effort.
Gandhi, Tagore, Gijubhai Badekha, and Tarabai Modak were the first Indians to
conceptualize a child-centered approach to the care and education of young children.
Gijubhai Badheka and Tarabai Modak inspired by Madam Montessori adapted her
methods to suit Indian conditions. They set up the Nutan Bal Shikshan Sangh in 1925.
Gijubhai started a training centre at Bhavnagar Dakshinamoorti and, later, Tarabai set one
at Dadar, Bombay. The movement took strong roots in the Saurashtra region of the then
Province, and in Madhya Bharat and the Vidarbha region. The early pioneers attempted to
develop an indigenous educational system, imbibing the basic Gandhian philosophy and
integrating it with the educational principles and scientific pedagogy of Madam
Montessori.
In 1949 when she left for Netherlands she appointed Albert Max Joosten as her
personal representative, and assigned him the responsibility of conducting the Indian
Montessori Training Courses. Joosten along with Swamy S. R, another disciple of Dr.
Maria Montessori, continued the good work and ensured that the Montessori Movement
in India was on a sound footing. She again spent some time in India in 1950-51. She
returned to Holland in 1951 and breathed her last there in 1952.
10.5 Chief Features of Montessori’s Educational Theory and Principles
As per Montessori "Child is a body which grows and a soul which develops-these
two forms physical and psychic, have one eternal front, life itself'. It follows that ''we
must neither mar nor stifle the mysterious powers which lie within these two forms of
growth, but we must await from them the manifestations which we know will succeed
one another".
177
B.Ed - 15101
She believed that each child is born with a unique potential to be revealed, rather
than as a "blank slate" waiting to be written upon. Her main contributions in these areas
are as:
 Preparing the most natural and life-supporting environments for the child
 Observing the child living freely in this environment
 Continually adapting the environment so that the child may fulfill his or her
greatest potential, physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiritually.
Her message was always to turn one's attention to the child, to "follow the
child". She referred to the mind of a child between 3 & 6 years of age, as the absorbent
mind. During this time he literally absorbs everything in his environment through
sensorial exploration. By sensorially absorbing the surroundings, a child forms his
personality and himself. He constructs his mind, his memory, power to understand and
ability to think through impressions gained from the environment.
Dr. Maria Montessori believed that a child has the inbuilt tendency to learn by
himself/herself. The child is the constructor of the adult. Mother Nature has endowed the
child with necessary powers to fulfill this task. The child achieves various levels of
growth, within the time span fixed by nature. We have no control over them. All he needs
is an encouraging environment, which fulfills his developmental needs.
Montessori education has generally been identified as a quality programme for
young children, as it contains orderliness, independent children, self-directed learning, a
calm environment and children at the centre of the learning. As per Montessori each
child is unique. Therefore education should be individualized and she said, "The educator
must be as one inspired by a deep worship of life, and must, through this reverence,
respect, while he observes with human interest the development of the child life...").
She advocated that teachers and parents should show respect for children by
encouraging and promoting independence. Children should be allowed to have their
choices as an individual needs, this will help them to be self-regulating, developing skills
and abilities necessary for learning, autonomy and positive self-esteem.
178
B.Ed - 15101
Montessori believed that children are not educated by others. Rather, one must
educate oneself, she said, "it may be said that we acquire knowledge directly into psychic
life. Simply by counting to live, the child learns to speak his native language? This is
what she called the concept of the absorbent mind. From birth to three years, the
unconscious absorbent mind develops the senses used for seeing, hearing, tasting,
smelling, and touching. The child absorbs everything. From three to six years, the
conscious absorbent mind selects sensory impressions from the environment and further
develops the senses to distinguish, match and grade the things. Childhood passes from
conquest to conquest in a constant rhythm that constitutes its joy and happiness.
Early childhood is regarded as a sensitive period and learning occurs during this
period of rapid physical, language and cognitive development. Therefore, experiences
necessary for optimum development must be provided at this time. Children learn, best in
a 'prepared environment', which can be a classroom, at home, a room, nursery, and play
ground. The purpose of prepared environment is to make children independent of adults
and children can do things for themselves. Thus she emphasized on child-centred
education and active learning.
Children are capable of educating themselves. Thus the freedom plays a crucial
role in self-education. The role of the teacher is to demonstrate following behaviours in
order to implement child-centred approach:
a. Make children the centre of learning. The teacher's task is not to talk, but to
prepare and arrange a series of motives for cultural activity in a special
environment made for the child.
b. Encourage children to learn by providing freedom to them in the prepared
environment.
c. Observe children so as to prepare the best possible environment, recognizing
sensitive periods, and diverting inappropriate behaviour to meaningful tasks.
A Full and Multi-Determined Development: According to Montessori, human
beings have inborn "tendencies" (e.g. the tendency to explore, move, develop self-control,
use the creative imagination) which develop primarily during the infancy and early
179
B.Ed - 15101
childhood period. The recognition of the numerous and interconnected dimensions of

development and the importance given to the full development of every single child are
the fundamentals of the process of learning exposed in the Montessori Method.
The Educator as the Keeper of the Environment: Since during infancy and
childhood information passes from the environment directly to the child, the preparation
of the environment is vital. It is the role of the teacher/caregiver to prepare and continue
to adapt the environment, to facilitate the exploration and creativity of the child.
The Learning Process: According to Montessori method, there are three stages of
learning:
 Introduction to a concept (by a lesson, a reading, a lecture).
 Processing the information and developing an understanding of the meaning
through work, experimentation, creation. This gives the child a real ability to learn
and remember what he/she has learned. This is the most important stage since it
puts emphasis on the concepts of developing, experimenting, creating and
transformation.
 "Knowing", possessing the information, demonstrated by the ability to teach or
explain to others, or to express easily.
Children with Disabilities: Maria Montessori "I felt that mental deficiency
resented chiefly a pedagogical, rather than mainly a medical, problem", Maria Montessori
developed an educational theory in her method, which made her one of the pioneers in
finding new ways of education for children with physical or mental disabilities
Montessori believed that it is necessary for the teacher to guide the child without
letting him feel her presence too much, so that she may be always ready to supply the
desired help, but may never be obstacle between the child and his experience. She was
focused on teaching the students’ ways to develop their own skills at a pace they set,
which Montessori called "spontaneous self-development". A wide variety of special
equipment of increasing complexity is used to help direct the interests of the child and
hasten development. When a child is ready to learn new and more difficult tasks, the
teacher guides the child’s first endeavors in order to avoid wasted effort and the learning
180
B.Ed - 15101
of wrong habits; otherwise the child learns alone. It has been reported that the Montessori
Method of teaching has enabled children to learn to read and write much more quickly
and with greater facility than has otherwise been possible. The Montessori Method of
teaching concentrates on quality rather than quantity. The success of this school sparked
the opening of many more, and a worldwide interest in Montessori's methods of
education.
Aside from a new pedagogy, among the premier contributions to educational
thought by Montessori are:
 instruction of children in 3-year age groups, corresponding to sensitive periods of
development programme for early teens
 children as competent beings, encouraged to make maximal decisions
 Observation of the child in the prepared environment as the basis for ongoing
curriculum development.
 small, child-sized furniture and creation of a small, child-sized environment
(microcosm) in which each can be competent to produce overall a self-running
small children's world
 creation of a scale of sensitive periods of development, which provides a focus for
class work that is appropriate and uniquely stimulating and motivating to the child
(including sensitive periods for language development, sensorial experimentation
and refinement, and various levels of social interaction)
 The importance of the "absorbent mind," the limitless motivation of the young
child to achieve competence over his or her environment and to perfect his or her
skills and understandings as they occur within each sensitive period. The
phenomenon is characterized by the young child's capacity for repetition of
activities within sensitive period categories (Example: exhaustive babbling as
language practice leading to language competence).
 self-correcting "auto-didactic" materials (some based on work of Jean Marc
Gaspard Itard and Edouard Seguin)
181
B.Ed - 15101
Thus Dr. Maria Montessori’s innovative approach was that “Education should no
longer be mostly imparting of knowledge, but must take a new path, seeking the release
of human potentialities.” Following are the main principles of Montessori's educational
philosophy:
 Principle of development from within: Montessori believed that the source of
education of a child is within himself/herself. She observed, "If my educational act
is to be efficacious it will be only that which tends to help towards the complete
unfolding of child's individuality. The child has a body which grows and a soul
which develops". Education according to Montessori would be such as it helps in
the complete unfolding of child's individuality. Suitable environment should be
provided so that the child may grow and develop the potentialities that he has
within him.
 Principles of individual development: Montessori believed that every child is
peculiar to himself and he progresses at his own speed and rate and collective
methods of teaching crush his individuality. She treated each child as a separate
individual and recommends that he should be helped and guided, in a manner that
helps him in his proper growth and development. The teacher is concerned with
his/her mental as well as his/her physiological development.
 Principle of auto-education or self-education: Montessori was of the firm view
that self-education or auto-education is the only true education. She advocated that
the child should remain undisturbed by adult interference. Accordingly, she
devised the didactic apparatus (discussed in detail in Section 8.6) which attracts
the attention of the children, keeps them busy spontaneously, leads them to learn
the powers of movements, reading, writing and arithmetic, etc.
 Principle of sense training: Montessori was a firm believer that our senses are the
gateways of knowledge and therefore the acquisition of knowledge throughout life
depends on their training and development. She pointed out that the senses are
very active between the ages of 3 and 7 years and that a lot of learning takes place
182
B.Ed - 15101
during this period. She advocated that the sensory training is the key to intellectual
development of children.
 Principle of freedom and liberty: Montessori's belief was that there should be no
interference in the way of child's growth and development. She advocated the
spontaneous development of the child through full liberty. She did not believe in
putting restraints as she thought that these may 'mar or stifle the innate powers of
the child'. She said, "The school must permit the natural manifestations of the
child if he is to be studied in a scientific manner".
 Principle of no material rewards and punishments: Her view was that rewards and
punishments are incentives that lead to unnatural forced efforts and the
development that comes with their help will also be unnatural. She wrote that,
"The jockey offers a piece of sugar to his horse that he may respond to the signs
given by the reins, and yet neither of these runs so superbly as the free horse of the
plains".
 Principle of motor training or muscular training: Montessori attached great
significance to motor training also as a part of the early education of children.
 Principle of no fairy tales: According to Montessori, the fairy tales tend to confuse
children and therefore, she would like to banish them from the school curriculum.
 Principle of reverence for the child: To Madam Montessori, "The child was God".
Her school was the temple and duty of the temple was the essence of childhood.
She further writes, "Today there stands forth one urgent need: the reform of
methods in education and instruction, and he who struggles towards this end is
struggling for the regeneration of man". The method as suggested by Montessori
gives an important place to the child.
 Principle of individual teaching: Individualism was the keynote of Montessori's
philosophy of education.
Thus the key elements of the Montessori Method are self-education, individual
instruction, didactic materials, a specially prepared environment, and the trained
directress.
183
B.Ed - 15101
A Montessori school provides prepared environments for children at each

successive developmental plain where children are given freedom to work according to
their inner urges. The child's natural interest in learning is encouraged by giving
opportunities in spontaneous, purposeful activities with the guidance of a trained adult.
Within a framework of order eliminating the bane of competition, the children progress at
their own pace and rhythm, according to their individual capabilities. These environments
allow them to take responsibility of their own education. A sophisticated balance between
liberty and discipline is prevalent. "The work of education is divided between the teacher
and the environment" - Discovery of the Child.
1.6 Role and Functions of the Teacher
Now let us examine the Montessori’s ideas about the role and functions of
teacher:
Replacement of the word teacher by directress: She replaced the word 'teacher' by
the word 'directress' and she thought that the primary duty of the person in authority is to
direct and not to teach. She insisted that the directress should have an extensive
knowledge of psychology and laboratory technique.
Care for the soul of the child: Madam Montessori assigned a unique role for the
teacher whom she called a 'Directress'. She emphasized that since the soul of the child is
pure and very sensitive, it requires her utmost care. Her motto should be, "I must diminish
to let you grow".
Intimate knowledge of the child: The teacher should have an intimate knowledge
of the mind and character of each individual. He should keep the physiological records of
each child's development: his weight, height and other measurements.
Doctor-cum-scientist-cum-missionary: According to Montessori, the Directress
should be partly doctor, partly scientist and completely religious. Like a doctor she should
avoid scolding or suppressing the patient in order to avoid worse situations. Like a
scientist she should wait patiently for the results and should conduct experiments with her
material. Like a religious lady she should be there to serve the child.
184
B.Ed - 15101
Teacher as a gardener: She thought that a teacher should care for the child like a
gardener who cares for the plant so that the natural growth of the child is properly guided
and aided in the process of unfolding itself.
Provision of suitable environment: The directress should allow the child to grow
according to his own inner law. Her business is to provide for suitable environment. She
should provide children with appropriate opportunities to think for themselves.
Moral values: "Virtues and not words are the main qualifications of the
directress". She must banish anger which is a great sin and which prevents understanding
the child.
The teacher's role is to provide the right environment for the child and make sure
that the child can work at his own development in peace and freedom. The adult should
understand that it is the child who has to achieve his goals. The adult cannot do it for him.
Therefore, the adult should learn not think that I have to mould my child. I have to make
him a doctor, engineer etc. The role of building the child is that of nature and the child
himself/herself.
For ordinary schools, education is same as literacy, but Maria Montessori calls it
as “an aid to life", making the Montessori system, a highly successful learning concept
that has been acclaimed the world over.
1o.7 Children's House
The first school started by Montessori in 1907 was called a 'Children House'. It
provided all the requirements of a good 'Family House'. It was a house which provided an
environment in which each child may develop in the best possible manner. It had several
rooms and a garden which was looked after by the children themselves. An important
feature of the Children's House was that children did everything in the House. A
Children's House had many rooms: (I) Study room, (2) Common room, (3) Lunch room,
(4) Rest room, (5) Room for mental work, (6) Gymnasium, (7) Bathroom, and (8)
Laboratory.
185
B.Ed - 15101
The rooms were well-equipped according to the needs of the children and spirit of
the Montessori Method. The tables, chairs, etc. were specially made for children. They
facilitated movement from one place to another. Sofas of different shapes and long row
cup-boards were also provided. The children kept their didactic apparatus in the cup-
board and their things in a little drawer. The blackboards were fixed in the walls on which
the children drew or pasted pictures of different kinds, according to their own interests.
The students were provided with flowers, toys, pictures, indoor games, etc. The lunch
room contained low tables, chairs, spoons, knives, tumblers etc. In the drawing room, the
children were provided with their own little shelf, where they kept their soap and towel
for washing. There was a small garden also which was looked after by the children
themselves. Shelters were provided in the garden so that they could enjoy the open air,
play and work there, could take rest or sleep. They could have also their lunch there.
The Children's House also contained a pedometer and a weighing machine to keep
a record of the height and weight of the students. Didactic apparatus was used to provide
sensory training, motor training and for teaching language and arithmetic. Exercises
provided in Children House were of the following three types:
One: Exercises in practical life.
Two: Exercises for sense training.
Three: Exercises for teaching language and arithmetic.
Training/Exercises in Practical Life: Children in the 'Children's House' carried out
activities of everyday life. Therefore, Montessori called these exercises 'exercises in
practical life. All work in the 'Children's House' was entrusted to the little ones who
executed it with devotion and accuracy. The students were required to sweep their rooms,
dust and clean the furniture and arrange it as they liked. They learnt dressing and
undressing and washing themselves. They were expected to hang up their clothes tidily.
They laid their tables. The children took turns in various household duties and learnt by
imitation to overcome difficulties in the process. "Enthusiasm and delight, fellow feeling
and mutual aid are characteristics of the children learning the jobs". The students learn
how to wash their hands. They learn how to use wash-stands with small pitchers and
186
B.Ed - 15101
basins. They learn how to use their own soap and towels. They learnt how to comb their
hair, cut their nails and brush their teeth and other such things.
Motor education: The practical life exercises are considered to be very helpful for
motor education. Muscular education has to be imparted in connection with the
movements of walking, sitting and holding objects. The care of child's own body,
managing the household affairs, gardening and manual work and rhythmic movements
provide motor education. Children also learnt how to walk in straight lines and to balance
themselves properly.
Discipline in Children’s House: Discipline comes through an indirect route, by
providing activities which are of great interest to children. Every individual is expected to
learn how to control himself by his own efforts which are directed towards no external
aim but is meant to keep alive that inner flame on which our life depends. Montessori
writes, "In truth, the 'good' are those who move forward towards the goodness which has
been built up by their own efforts". Such a discipline can never be attained by way of
commands, by sermons, by any of the disciplinary methods traditionally known and
employed.
In this house, activities were organized for individuals rather than for groups,
children were allowed to choose how they wanted to use the materials and also allowed to
move freely throughout the classroom. Children were also placed in mixed-age groups for
practical life experiences, through games, manual work, gymnastics and assisting with
meals. Montessori schools almost disappeared in the United States because of criticism of
an overemphasis on academics but Montessori schools reappeared in the 1950s and
continued.
1o.8 Montessori Apparatus
Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes of activity: (1) practical,

(2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. She also believed that children have a
power to learn independently if provided a proper stimulating environment. She
introduced children to such practical activities as setting the table, serving a meal,
187
B.Ed - 15101
washing dishes, tying and buttoning clothing, and practicing basic social manners.
Repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and
subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching
materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials
identifiable by their sound or smell. Instructors provided the materials for the children and
demonstrated the lessons but allowed each child to independently learn the particular skill
or behavior.
Maria Montessori's fame is largely due to the apparatus to which her name has
been given and to the result it produces while bringing out the hidden learning powers of
the child. Younger children are intensely attracted to these materials and use them
spontaneously, independently, repeatedly and with deep concentration. These materials
were made with precision. They were also beautiful and enticing. The outstanding feature
of these Montessori Materials was that they had built-in "control-of-error" by which the
child was enabled to judge his/her performance objectively and independently and to truly
learn from one's mistakes.
A Montessori school is equipped with more than 100 different types of Montessori
Apparatus, classified into Sensorial Material, Language Material, Arithmetic Material,
and so on. Practical Life Exercises, through the use of Sensorial Material, instill care for
themselves, for others and the environment. Using this material, children learn to grade
and classify impressions. They do this by touching, seeing; smelling, tasting, listening and
exploring the physical properties of their environment, through these specially designed
materials.
Didactic Apparatus: The word 'didactic' means to convey instruction and information
(learning) as well as pleasure. In other words, didactic denotes learning with pleasure.
The didactic apparatus, therefore, implies that apparatus (concrete material) which is used
to educate the young children in such a way that learning becomes joyful.
The Didactic Apparatus is intended to translate Montessori's principles of
educational philosophy into action. It is based on the following principles:
 Principle of development of the child from within.
188
B.Ed - 15101
 Principle of individual differences among children.

 Principle of auto-education or self-education.
 Principle of sense training.
 Principle of motor training.
 Principle of freedom or liberty.
 Principle of learning by doing.
 Principle of self-discipline.
 Principle of individual teaching.
 Principle of excluding fairy tales.
1o.9 Teaching of Reading and Writing
About reading, Montessori says, "Reading is the interpretation of an idea from the
written signs and not merely looking at print. Until the child receives a transmission of
ideas from the written word, he does not read". Her material for reading consists of slips
of paper or cards on which words and phrases are written in bold scripts. The child is
given a card, containing the name of a familiar object. He tries to utter the sounds and
then repeats them faster and faster. When the child is able to pronounce the word
correctly, he is asked to place the card under the object, whose name is written on it.
Similarly sentences, describing actions or expressing commands are written on paper or
cards. .
The procedure of teaching of writing consists of three steps:
i. Recognition of the Forms of Letters: For this purpose letters of the alphabet
are cut in sand-paper and pasted on card-board. The children are asked to pass
their finger over these letters. In this way they gradually learn to manipulate a
pencil. The same exercise is then practiced with closed eyes.
ii. Learning of Phonetic Sounds: While the pupils are tracing out letters, the
teacher tells them their sounds, which they are asked to reproduce. This
prepares them for reading.
189
B.Ed - 15101
iii. Control of Pen: In the third step, the pupils are asked to place the metal frame
on a piece of paper and draw a line round it with a coloured chalk. The same is
repeated by placing the metal inset. In this way two figures are produced on
the paper. The intervening figure is then filled up with another piece of chalk.
While making upward and downward strokes, pupils are not allowed to move
their pencil or piece of chalk outside the outline. Thus they learn the necessary
control of pen.
1o.10 Merits and Demerits of Montessori’s Educational Thought

and Practices
Madam Montessori ushered in a new era in child education, especially for small
children between the ages of 3 to 6 years. Her gospel of love, respect and sympathy for
the child has been accepted all over the world. It is not without reason that a Montessori
school has become a household word. Probably there would be no village or city where
there is no such school. Attempts are made to manufacture low cost material which is
locally available. Madame Montessori wrote number of books. Some of the publications
of Madam Montessori were:
 The Discovery of the Child
 Education for a New Child
 To Educate the Human Potential
 The Secret of Childhood
 The Child Peace and Education
 Reconstruction in Education
 The Absorbent Mind
 What You Should Know About Your Child?
 Child Training
 The Montessori Method
190
B.Ed - 15101
To Madam Montessori, "The child was God". Her school was the temple and the
function of the temple was to provide a pure and virtuous environment. As per
Montessori "Knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient. The well educated person is a
well developed person who knows how to live a healthy life in every aspect of human
existence a well developed personality”. She wrote, "Today there stands forth one urgent
need. The reform of methods in education and instruction, and he who struggles towards
this end is struggling for the regeneration of man".
The chief merits of the Montessori method are:
 Scientific base of the method.
 Individual teaching.
 Freedom for children.
 Education through sense training.
 Unique method of reading and writing.
 Learning through living.
 Social values.
 Reverence for small children.
Limitations of Montessori s Educational Thought and Practice are:
 Mechanical and artificial nature of the didactic apparatus.
 More emphasis on biological aspects and less on psychological.
 Belief in transfer of training.
 Neglect of the training of imagination.
 Lack of suitably trained teachers.
 Expensive material.
 Very little scope for correlation and projects.
191
B.Ed - 15101
1o.11 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, you learnt that Maria Montessori (1870-1952) who was one of the
greatest pioneers of education of the children of the pre-school age. She was a doctor by
qualification and profession at the beginning of her career. Montessori worked as a
professor of Anthropology in the University of Rome from 1900 to 1917. She supervised
the ward of mentally deficient children and took a keen interest in their education also .In
the year 1939; the Theosophical Society of India extended an invitation asking Maria
Montessori to visit India. She accepted the invitation and reached India the very same
year. Annie Besant and Rukmini Arundale helped Madam Montessori to set up a teacher
training centre at Adyar, near Madras. Maria Montessori conducted sixteen batches of
courses called the “Indian Montessori Training Courses”. Gijubhai Badheka and Tarabai
Modak inspired by Madam Montessori, adapted her methods to suit Indian conditions.
You also learnt that she believed that each child is born with a unique potential to
be revealed, rather than as a "blank slate" waiting to be written upon. Dr. Maria
Montessori believed that a child has the inbuilt tendency to learn by himself. The child is
the constructor of the adult. Mother nature has endowed the child with necessary powers
to fulfill this task. The child achieves various levels of growth, within the time spans
fixed by nature. We have no control over them. All he needs is an encouraging
environment, which fulfills his developmental needs. As per Maria Montessori
“Education should no longer be mostly imparting of knowledge, but must take a new
path, seeking the release of human potentialities. She replaced the word 'teacher' by the
word 'directress' and she thought that the primary duty of the person in authority is to
direct and not to teach. She insisted that the directress should have an extensive
knowledge of psychology and laboratory technique. The teacher should have an intimate
knowledge of the mind and character of each individual.
The first school started by Montessori in 1907 was called a 'Children House'. It
provided all the requirements of a good 'Family House'. It was a house which provided an
192
B.Ed - 15101
environment in which each child may develop in the best possible manner. It had several
rooms and a garden which was looked after by the children themselves.
You also learnt that the Montessori’s curriculum emphasized three major classes
of activity: (1) practical, (2) sensory, and (3) formal skills and studies. As per Montessori,
the repetitive exercises developed sensory and muscular coordination. Formal skills and
subjects included reading, writing, and arithmetic. Montessori designed special teaching
materials to develop these skills, including laces, buttons, weights, and materials
identifiable by their sound or smell. Maria Montessori's fame is largely due to the
apparatus to which her name has been given and to the result it produces while bringing
out the hidden learning powers of the child.
The chief merits of the Montessori method are the scientific base of the method,
individual teaching, freedom for children, education through sense training, unique
method of reading and writing, learning through living, social values and reverence for
small children. The Montessori’s educational thought and practice has also certain
limitations such as the mechanical and artificial nature of the didactic apparatus. It lays
more emphasis on biological aspects and less on psychological. It believes in transfer of
training and neglects the training of imagination. It leaves very less scope for correlation
and project and also implies using expensive material.
1o.12 Check Your Progress
A) Self –Check Exercise.

1. Maria Montessori worked in which fields?
2. In which University did Maria Montessori work as a Professor of
Anthropology?
3. Why did Maria Montessori run away from Italy?
4. Which Indian Educational thinkers were closely associated with Maria
Montessori?
5. What was Maria Montessori’s Principle of auto education?
6. What are the key elements of the Montessori Method ?
193
B.Ed - 15101
7. Name the three types of exercises provided in Children House ?

8. What were the three major classes of activity emphasized by Maria Montessori’s
curriculum?
9. On which principles is the didactic apparatus prepared by Maria Montessori
based upon?
10. As per Maria Montessori “Knowledge is necessary, but not sufficient”-Justify
the statement with suitable explanation.
B) Questions for Critical Reflection

1. Discuss the Maria Montessori’s work in India
2. What were the factors that led to development of interest in Maria Montessori in
the field of education?
3. Why did Maria Montessori replace the word “teacher” by “directress”?
4. What was the name of first school started by Maria Montessori?
5. What were the unique features of the first school started by Maria Montessori?
6. Describe the role of teacher as per Maria Montessori.
7. What is the meaning of term Didactic Apparatus?
8. Describe the Montessori’s Apparatus?
9. What do you mean by the term: “Principle of excluding fairy tales”?
10. As per Montessori how should we teach reading and writing to children?
11. Discuss the merits and demerits of Montessori’ Educational Thoughts?
1o.13 Suggested Reading
1. Standing, E.M. (2007) Maria Montessori: Her Life and Work Punguim Books
USA.
2. Aggarwal, J.C. and Gupta, S. (2007). Early Childhood Care and Education (Ist
Ed.). Shipra Publications, New Delhi.
3. Pugh, G. (1996). Contemporary Issues in Early Years: Working Collaboratively for
Children (2nd Ed.) National Children’s Bureau, London.
194
B.Ed - 15101
4. Seefeldt, Carol (1990). Continuing Issues in Early Childhood Education, Merrill

Publishing Company, Columbus, Ohio.
5. NCERT (2005). Position Paper of the National Focus Group on Early Childhood
Education, NCERT, New Delhi.
195
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT III
LESSON NO: 11 EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY
Lesson Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Objectives
11.3 Meaning of Democracy
11.4 Principles of Democracy
11.5 Education and Democracy
11.6 Main Features of Democratic Education
11.7 Democracy and Aims of Education
11.8 Impact of Democracy on Various Aspects of Education
11.9 Let Us Sum Up
11.1 Introduction
Democracy originated more than 2,400 years ago in ancient Greece. The word
“democracy” means “rule by the people.” While this definition tells us that the citizens of
a democracy govern their nation, it omits essential parts of the idea of democracy as
practiced in countries around the world. The principal purposes for which the People
establish democratic government are the protection and promotion of their rights,
interests, and welfare. Democracy requires that each individual be free to participate in
196
B.Ed - 15101
the political community’s self-government. Thus political freedom lies at the heart of the
concept of democracy. The overall concept of modern democracy has three principal
parts: “democracy,” “constitutionalism,” and “liberalism.” Each must exist in a political
system for it to be a genuine democracy. Education is a universal human right. It also is a
means of achieving other human rights and it is an empowering social and economic tool.
Through the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the world's nations have agreed that
everyone has the right to education. Every society transmits its habits of mind, social
norms, culture, and ideals from one generation to the next. There is a direct connection
between education and democratic values: in democratic societies, educational content
and practice support habits of democratic governance. This educational transmission
process is vital in a democracy because effective democracies are dynamic, evolving
forms of government that demand independent thinking by the citizenry. The opportunity
for positive social and political change rests in citizens' hands. Governments should not
view the education system as a means to control information and to indoctrinate students.
Governments should value and devote resources to education just as they strive to
defend their citizens. Literacy enables people to stay informed through newspapers and
books. Informed citizens are in a better position to improve their democracy. Education
systems in democracies do not preclude study of other political doctrines or systems of
government. Democracies encourage students to develop reasonable arguments based on
careful research and a clear understanding of history.
11.2 Objectives

 State the meaning and principles of Democracy;
 Discuss the role of education in a Democratic state;
 State the main features of democratic education; and
 Discuss the Impact of Democracy on Various Aspects of Education.
197
B.Ed - 15101
11.3 Meaning of Democracy
Democracy has been derived from the two Greek words i.e. “demos” and “Krait”.
Demos’ means the ‘people’ and Krait’ means the ‘power’. So democracy means power of
people. Democracy is that form of government in which people posses the right to share
in the exercise of the sovereign power. It is the people’s government in which the person
selected by the people runs the affairs of the state. According to Lincoln, democracy is
the government of the people, for the people and by the people.
Democracy may be a word familiar to most, but it is a concept still misunderstood
and misused at a time when dictators, single-party regimes, and military coup leaders
alike assert popular support by claiming the mantle of democracy. Yet the power of the
democratic idea has prevailed through a long and turbulent history, and democratic
government, despite continuing challenges, continues to evolve and flourish throughout
the world. Democracy, which derives from the Greek word demos, or people, is defined,
basically, as government in which the supreme power is vested in the people. In some
forms, democracy can be exercised directly by the people; in large societies, it is by the
people through their elected agents. Or, in the memorable phrase of President Abraham
Lincoln, democracy is government of the people, by the people, and for the people.
Freedom and democracy are often used interchangeably, but the two are not synonymous.
Democracy is indeed a set of ideas and principles about freedom, but it also consists of
practices and procedures that have been moulded through a long, often tortuous history.
Democracy is the institutionalization of freedom. In the end, people living in a democratic
society must serve as the ultimate guardians of their own freedom and must forge their
own path toward the ideals set forth in the preamble to the United Nations Universal
Declaration of Human Rights: Recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom,
justice, and peace in the world.
Democracy is more than just a set of specific government institutions; it rests
upon a well - understood group of values, attitudes, and practices - all of which may take
198
B.Ed - 15101
different forms and expressions among cultures and societies around the world.
Democracies rest upon fundamental principles, not uniform practices. Democracy is a
government in which power and civic responsibility are exercised by all adult citizens,
directly, or through their freely elected representatives. Democracy rests upon the
principles of majority rule and individual rights. Democracies guard against all-powerful
central governments and decentralize government to regional and local levels,
understanding that all levels of government must be as accessible and responsive to the
people as possible. Democracies understand that one of their prime functions is to protect
such basic human rights as freedom of speech and religion; the right to equal protection
under law; and the opportunity to organize and participate fully in the political, economic,
and cultural life of society. Democracies conduct regular free and fair elections open to
citizens of voting age. Citizens in a democracy have not only rights, but also the
responsibility to participate in the political system that, in turn, protects their rights and
freedoms. Democratic societies are committed to the values of tolerance, cooperation, and
compromise. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, Intolerance is itself a form of violence
and an obstacle to the growth of a true democratic spirit.
11.4 Principles of Democracy
People from around the world have identified the basic principles, which must
exist in order to have a democratic government. These principles often become a part of
the constitution or bill of rights in a democratic society. Though no two democratic
countries are exactly alike, people in democracies support many of the same basic
principles and desire the same benefits from their government. The following are the
basic principles of democracy:
1. Citizen Participation: One of the most basic principles of a democracy is citizen
participation in government. Participation is the key role of citizens in democracy.
It is not only their right, but it is their duty. Citizen participation may take many
forms including standing for election, voting in elections, becoming informed,
debating issues, attending community or civic meetings, being members of private
199
B.Ed - 15101
voluntary organizations, paying taxes, and even protesting. Participation builds a

better democracy.
2. Equality: Democratic societies emphasize the principle that all people are equal.
Equality means that all individuals are valued equally, have equal opportunities,
and may not be discriminated against because of their race, religion, ethnic group,
gender or sexual orientation. In a democracy, individuals and groups still maintain
their right to have different cultures, personalities, languages and beliefs.
3. Political Tolerance: Democratic societies are politically tolerant. This means that
while the majority of the people rule in a democracy, the rights of the minority
must be protected. People who are not in power must be allowed to organize and
speak out. Minorities are sometimes referred to as the opposition because they
may have ideas which are different from the majority. Individual citizens must
also learn to be tolerant of each other. A democratic society is often composed of
people from different cultures, racial, religious and ethnic groups who have
viewpoints different from the majority of the population. A democratic society is
enriched by diversity. If the majority deny rights to and destroy their opposition,
then they also destroy democracy. One goal of democracy is to make the best
possible decision for the society. To achieve this, respect for all people and their
points of view is needed. Decisions are more likely to be accepted, even by those
who oppose them, if all citizens have been allowed to discuss debate and question
them.
4. Accountability: In a democracy, elected and appointed officials have to be
accountable to the people. They are responsible for their actions. Officials must
make decisions and perform their duties according to the will and wishes of the
people, not for themselves.
5. Transparency: For government to be accountable the people must be aware of
what is happening in the country. This is referred to as transparency in
government. A transparent government holds public meetings and allows citizens
200
B.Ed - 15101
to attend. In a democracy, the press and the people are able to get information
about what decisions are being made, by whom and why.
6. Regular, Free and Fair Elections: One way citizens of the country express their
will is by electing officials to represent them in government. Democracy insists
that these elected officials are chosen and peacefully removed from office in a free
and fair manner. Intimidation, corruption and threats to citizens during or before
an election are against the principles of democracy. In a democracy, elections are
held regularly every so many years. Participation in elections should not be based
on a citizen's wealth. For free and fair elections to occur, most adult citizens
should have the right to stand for government office. Additionally, obstacles
should not exist which make it difficult for people to vote.
7. Economic Freedom: People in a democracy must have some form of economic
freedom. This means that the government allows some private ownership of
property and businesses, and that the people are allowed to choose their own work
and labour unions. The role the government should play in the economy is open to
debate, but it is generally accepted that free markets should exist in a democracy
and the state should not totally control the economy. Some argue that the state
should play a stronger role in countries where great inequality of wealth exists due
to past discrimination or other unfair practices.
8. Control of the Abuse of Power: Democratic societies try to prevent any elected
official or group of people from misusing or abusing their power. One of the most
common abuses of power is corruption. Corruption occurs when government
officials use public funds for their own benefit or exercise power in an illegal
manner. Various methods have been used in different countries to protect against
these abuses. Frequently the government is structured to limit the powers of the
branches of government: to have independent courts and agencies with power to
act against any illegal action by an elected official or branch of government; to
allow for citizen participation and elections; and to check for police abuse of
power.
201
B.Ed - 15101
9. Bill of Rights: Many democratic countries also choose to have a bill of rights to
protect people against abuse of power. A bill of rights is a list of rights and
freedoms guaranteed to all people in the country. When a bill of rights becomes
part of a country's constitution, the courts have the power to enforce these rights.
A bill of rights limits the power of government and may also impose duties on
individuals and organizations.
10. Accepting the Results of Elections: In democratic elections, there are winners
and losers. Often the losers in an election believe so strongly that their party or
candidate is the best one that they refuse to accept the results of the election. This
is against democratic principles. The consequences of not accepting the result of
an election may be a government that is ineffective and cannot make decisions. It
may even result in violence which is also against democracy.
11. Human Rights: All democracies strive to respect and protect the human rights of
citizens. Human rights mean those values that reflect respect for human life and
human dignity. Democracy emphasizes the value of every human being. Examples
of human rights include freedom of expression, freedom of association, freedom
of assembly, the right to equality and the right to education.
12. Multi-Party System: In order to have a multi-party system, more than one
political party must participate in elections and play a role in government. A
multi-party system allows for opposition to the party, which wins the election.
This helps provide the government with different viewpoints on issues.
Additionally, a multiparty system provides voters with a choice of candidates,
parties and policies to vote for. Historically, when a country only has one party,
the result has been a dictatorship.
13. The Rule of Law: In a democracy no one is above the law, not even a king or an
elected President. This is called the rule of law. It means that everyone must obey
the law and be held accountable if they violate it. Democracy also insists that the
law be equally, fairly and consistently enforced. This is sometimes referred to as
"due process of law."
202
B.Ed - 15101
11.5 Education and Democracy
Education is a vital component of any society, but especially of a democracy. As

Thomas Jefferson wrote: If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of
civilization, it expects what never was and never shall be. There is a direct connection
between education and democratic values: in democratic societies, educational content
and practice support habits of democratic governance. This educational transmission
process is vital in a democracy because effective democracies are dynamic, evolving
forms of government that demand independent thinking by the citizenry. The opportunity
for positive social and political change rests in citizen’s hands. Governments should not
view the education system as a means to indoctrinate students, but devote resources to
education just as they strive to defend other basic needs of citizens. In contrast to
authoritarian societies that seek to inculcate an attitude of passive acceptance, the object
of democratic education is to produce citizens who are independent, questioning, yet
deeply familiar with the precepts and practices of democracy. Chester E. Finn Jr., a senior
fellow at the Hoover Institution on education policy, has said: People may be born with
an appetite for personal freedom, but they are not born with knowledge about the social
and political arrangements that make freedom possible over time for themselves and their
children. Such things must be acquired. They must be learned. Learning about democracy
begins in school; it continues throughout a life of civic involvement, and curiosity about
the many kinds of information accessible in a free society.
11.6 Main Features of Democratic Education
 Universal and compulsory education

 Free education
 Child centered education
 Community centered education
 Provision of adult education
 Students self govt.
203
B.Ed - 15101
 Cultural basis of education

 Education for leisure national integration and international understanding.
 Education for worthy citizenship.
11.7 Democracy and Aims of Education
1 Development of Democratic values: The success of Democracy does not depend up

on legislative buildings and massive structures of Parliament houses, but it rests up on the
quality of the citizens devoted to Democratic values. As such, the prime Aim of
Democratic Education is to promote in children a sense of devotion to Democratic values.
No book teaching can achieve this aim unless children are provided with opportunities to
practice Democratic norms and standards of behavior. In fact, a child learns to live
democratically by living democratically. Hence, the whole educational set up of a school
should reflect the values of democratic philosophy.
2. Development of worthy interests: Interest form character and enrich a child’s life. To
achieve this aim, children should be provided with various and varied opportunities to
participate in diverse activities and programmes in all field of human life. If large number
of worthy interests are developed in children, they will be happy, well-balanced and
efficient as citizens.
3. Development of vocational efficiency: For the success of a democratic set up,
economic contentment of citizens is a must .An indigent and poor person can be a victim
of all kinds of allurements, inducements and exploitation by the resourceful and the
powerful. Hence, the third aim of democratic education is to develop vocational
efficiency in children, so that they are able to become self –reliant and serve the nation as
much as possible.
4. Development of sound habits: The fourth aim of democratic education is to develop
sound habits in children. Habits are the sources of good or bad conduct. Hence, education
should develop good habits in children from the very beginning to make democracy a
successful venture.
204
B.Ed - 15101
5. Development of thinking power: The fifth aim of democratic education is to develop

thinking power of children. In fact, children of today are citizens of tomorrow when they
will be confronted with all types of problems in political, social and economic fields.
Education should develop in children the capacity to think clearly and take decisions
confidently.
6 Development of social outlook: This aim emphasizes upon the fact that children
should be imbued with the sense that they are the integral parts of society, the welfare of
which should be their ideal. Not only this, they should learn to live and die for the nation.
Education should develop this sense of service and sacrifice making them learns
sacredness of obligations and duties for the welfare of the nation to which they belong.
7 Development of harmonious personality: In the modern world of strife, stress and
strain, a balanced and harmonious personality can only seek and find adjustment with the
surroundings. Hence, education should develop character, dynamism and social outlook
for this purpose.
8 Development of leadership: Education should instill in children the leadership
qualities from the very beginning .They are the future citizens who will have to shoulder
the multifarious duties and responsibilities of their in all areas. Their character, strength
of will, insight, courage of convictions, clarity of thinking and decision-making will be
the foundations on which the national edifice will go up and up.
9 . Development of national and international feelings: For the success of democracy,
the ninth aim of education is to develop in children the sense of ardent nationalism and
devotion to international brotherhood. It may be noted that the two are not contradictory.
On the other hand, they are mutually complementary and supplementary. In fact a nation
cannot exist in isolation. All the nations of the world are mutually interdependent. Hence,
education should foster the sense of interdependence, international goodwill and fellow -
feeling. Then only, the concept of world peace and prosperity will be reality.
10. Training for Citizenship: Democratic education should impart to children training in
dynamic and healthy citizenship. For this , education should instill in children-
(1) Capacity to distinguish between propaganda and reality of the country
205
B.Ed - 15101
(2) Capacity to think and decide about issues

(3) Economic efficiency
(4) Consciousness of one’s rights and duties
(5) Capacity to shoulder responsibility
(6) Development of diverse interests
(7) Sense of service and sacrifice
(8) Good use of leisure hour
(9) Development of human qualities as love, sympathy, fellow feeling, co-operation,
sense of nationalism and internationalism
(10) Healthy and dynamic outlook about problems, good behavior and respect for moral
values.
11.7 Impact of Democracy on Various Aspects of Education
1 Democracy and curriculum: - To achieve the democratic curriculum. The

curriculum at all stages of education should be broad based. It should include all the
activities that the child has to do from morning to evening. It should not be rigid. It
should fulfill the needs of community.
2 Democracy and methods of teaching: - The methods of teaching should be in line
with the demands of democratic living. Those methods should be used which allow
the participation of all the students in class room teaching and learning. Montessori
method, project method, Dalton method, Discussion method which are based on
democratic trends.
3 Democracy and discipline: - Democracy believes in self discipline. So in our
schools we should inculcate in the students the spirit of self discipline. There is no
need of external control. It is based on love, sympathy and cooperation.
4 Democracy and school administration: - The school administration should be
flexible. Teacher should be given the share in the policy making of the school. They
should be given freedom in preparing curriculum and selecting the methods of
206
B.Ed - 15101
teaching. There should be caudal relations between the students and teachers and
administration in the school there should be cooperative atmosphere.
5 Democracy and teacher: - In the democratic system the teacher’s role is that of a
friend, guide, and supervisor. He is not to be a dictator. He should have a full
knowledge of the child. He should cooperate with the child and try to solve his
problems. The teacher should be a firm believer in democracy. He should have a
democratic attitude.
6 Democracy and aim of education: - The most important aim of education is the
development of democratic citizen ship to achieve it. We have to develop clear
thinking in the child. So that he is in a position to know what is true and what false
hood is, what is fact and what is propaganda and what is good and what is bad. He
must know art of living with the community. We have to develop a sense of
patriotism in them. We have to make him broad minded. Our education must train
persons who will be able to assume the responsibility of leadership in various walls
of life.
7 Socialism and Education: - Socialistic society is that pattern of society where the
principle means of production are under central or social ownership. There is equal
distribution of national wealth. India has opted for a socialistic state.
11.8 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, we have traced the historical development of the concept of

democracy. Then the various types of democracy and the characteristic features of
democracy have been dealt with. Principles like liberty, equality, fraternity, justice,
sharing responsibility, co-operation, dignity of the individual etc. and their implications in
education are discussed. Also, fundamentals of education for democracy have been
discussed. Qualitative and quantitative democratization of education has been elucidated
with special reference to the Indian context.
207
B.Ed - 15101
1. Discuss in detail the historical development of democracy?

2. Explain briefly the meaning and principles of democracy?
3. Give a detailed account of the various features of democratic education:
4. Discuss in detail the Impact of Democracy on Various Aspects of Education.

House.
208
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT III
LESSON NO: 12 EDUCATION AND SOCIALISM
Lesson Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Objectives
12.3 Meaning of Socialism
12.4 Greatest Socialist Leaders in Indian History
12.5 Main Features of Socialism
12.6 Indian Concept of Socialism
12.7 Socialism and Education
12.8 Socialism and Aims of Education
12.9 Socialism and Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
12.10 Role of Education in Achieving the Goals of Socialism
12.11 Let Us Sum Up
12.1 Introduction
The word socialism was first used during the early years of the 19th century but
many philosophers and reformers in the past expressed their resentment against
inequalities in society and proposed the concept of an egalitarian society. But no
209
B.Ed - 15101
pragmatic programs were put forwarded by them during this period. The French
revolution of 1789 with its promise of equality provided a new impetus to socialist ideas.
It was during the beginning of industrial revolution that the socialist ideas began to
emerge as distinct and powerful concept. It was during the early decade of the
19th century the powerful socialist ideas developed different parts of France. St. Simon,
Charles Furrier, Robert Owen, Louis Blanc and others proposed their ideas of socialism
and Marx and Engels put forwarded their theory of Socialism and communism during the
latter half of the 19th century of the systems were Utopian which were not supported by
powerful movement and strong theoretical background. But Marx and Engels attacked the
Utopian ideas through their works and uphold the course of scientific socialism. Through
the theory and class struggle and dialetic materialism, they believed that socialism is a
historic necessity. They not only provided the theoretical back ground for socialism and
communism but were actively involved in the formation of working class organization in
the different part of Europe. Socialism is a political economical theory of social
organization which advocates that the means of production, distribution and exchange
should be owned or regulated by the community as a whole. In some respects it differs
from communism. In fact the goal of the both is the same, i.e the establishment of
classless society, but there is a difference in them regarding the means of realizing the
goal. Communism wants to establish a socialistic society through force or revolution. It
does not accept the dialectism and materialism of communism. It believes in liberalism
and idealism.
Like communism, socialism is also against capitalism. But instead of snatching
the capital from the capitalists it wants to persuade them intelligently to give up the same
in democratic manner in favour of the general people. It stands for a mixed economy. It
wants that the means of production should be equitably distributed amongst all. It does
not want that a major portion of the national income should go in the hands of a few. It
wants that the state should control the big industries but at the same time private
enterprises, too, should be allowed to exist. In the same way it does not want to abolish
the rights of private property, but it wants to reorganize and delimit.
210
B.Ed - 15101
The socialism believes in the power of ballets in place of bullets. It strives to

win freedom for the workers through the majority vote in their favours. Socialism wants
to establish a welfare state in order that each one may get equal opportunity for
development. It stands for individual liberty. It does not want to impose any measure
which may be hindrance in the individual freedom. In this respect it believes in
democratic methods. It recognizes the importance of manual labour and wants to improve
the conditions of labourers both in rural and urban areas. It does not stand for the rules of
the working class, but wants the government elected through the popular votes.
12.2 Objectives

 State the meaning and principles of Socialism;
 State the role of greatest leaders regarding socialism in India;
 Discuss the role of education in achieving the goals of socialism;
 State the main features of socialist education; and
12.3 Meaning of Socialism
Socialism refers to a broad array of doctrines or political movements that envisage

a socio-economic system in which the ownership of industry and the distribution of
wealth are determined by the state or by agents of the state or the collective. In its most
general sense, socialism seeks the co-prosperity and common cause of all people, which
could be accomplished without force in religious and utopian communities. But, in
general practice, it refers to the use of state force to redistribute wealth. Socialism
developed as a political ideology in the nineteenth century as a reaction to industrial
injustice, labor exploitation, and unemployment in Europe. For Karl Marx, who helped
establish and define the modern theory of socialism, societal problems were rooted in an
economic system which relied on the private ownership of property, and led to wealth
remaining in the hands of a few and at the cost of the laborers who were the source of
wealth. Marx advocated a revolution of the working class which would lead to collective
211
B.Ed - 15101
ownership of the means of production (property and capital). This control, according to
Marx's successors, may be either direct, exercised through popular collectives such as
workers' councils, or it may be indirect, exercised on behalf of the people by the state.
Currently, there is a diverse array of ideas that have been referred to as "socialist,"
from forms of "market socialism," which advocate achieving economic justice through
taxation and redistribution through state welfare programs to the
hardcore communists who advocate total state control of all property and the economy, to
a unique Asian and unclear variant known as "socialism with Chinese characteristics."
"Socialism" has often been used as a slogan by unscrupulous leaders seeking

political power. They prey on the frustration and sense of injustice of low-paid or
unemployed people. Both the National Socialism in Germany under Hitler and the Soviet-
style developed by Lenin and his successors became totalitarian states that denied
personal freedom to citizens. These totalitarian political systems had no checks and
balances on power, which human civilization has learned is necessary to control the
human tendency to take more than what one produces.
12.4 Greatest Socialist Leaders in Indian History
India is a socialist republic according to the preamble of the Constitution of

India. Socialist ideas played an important part in the freedom movement of India.
The poorest and lowest classes had been servile to the landlords and kings long
before the British came and they were encouraged by socialist ideas to hope for a
better future. India has seen some great leaders who have been socialist in the truest
meaning of the word by putting the welfare of the common people before everything
else. Let’s take a look at 7 such leaders of the people.
1. Subhash Chandra Bose: The reason why Subhash Chandra Bose is on the
top of this list is because he was a truly selfless man who put his country and
the people of his country before everything else. He is the idol of every patriot
and his slogan of “You give me blood, I’ll give you freedom” struck at the
212
B.Ed - 15101
heart of countless Indians and spurred them to fight for their freedom.
Although he is mostly remembered for his armed struggle against the British
rule, he was also a deeply spiritual man who was inspired by the fresh
interpretation of the Vedic scriptures by Swami Vivekananda and was deeply
socialist in his political ideology.
2. B. R. Ambedkar: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is one of the biggest socialist
leaders of Indian history. He did more to uplift the poor and untouchables than
any other man in India. He was against the Hindu caste system and became a
Buddhist. He was the main architect of the Constitution of India and he tried
his best to bring about a social revolution and end social discrimination.
Today you can see his statues in almost all villages and he’s considered as a
messiah by the poor and low castes. Some Buddhists believe that he was a
Bodhisattva although he never claimed this himself.
3. Jawaharlal Nehru: Jawaharlal Nehru became the first Prime Minister of
India and was left with the difficult task of creating a united nation from the
mess left behind by the British. He encouraged socialist policies during his
terms at the office. Even before independence he brought socialist ideas to the
Indian National Congress and made sure that the preamble of the Constitution
of India called India a socialist state. He formed the planning commission of
India and led to many socialist reforms in the early years of this nation.
4. Lal Bahadur Shastri: Lal Bahadur Shastri was an ardent follower of Mahatma
Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. He was a socialist and came up with the slogan
of “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” during his term as the second Prime Minister of
India. He started the white revolution, encouraging an increase in production
of milk and also promoted the green revolution.
5. Jayaprakash Narayan: Jayaprakash Narayan was known as Lok
Nayak or The People’s Hero. He got introduced to socialism while studying in
America where he had to work several jobs to support his education and he
saw what the working class faced on a daily basis. He was convinced that
213
B.Ed - 15101
Socialist Marxism was the only way to alleviate the suffering of the masses.
He came into prominence for opposing Indira Gandhi’s almost dictatorial rule
and called for Sampoorna Kranti or Total Revolution.
6. Vinoba Bhave: Vinoba Bhave was a spiritual leader and a freedom fighter
who advocated non violence and socialist ideas of basic human rights. He is
best known for the Bhoodan Movement, which encouraged landlords to
willingly give away a percentage of their land to the poor farmers. It was a
voluntary land reform movement that upheld the highest socialist ideals. He
was one of the biggest proponents of socialism in India.
7. E.M.S Namboodiripad: Elamkulam Manakkal Sankaran Namboodiripad was
the first Chief Minister of Kerala, the first non INC Chief Minister in
India and the leader of the first democratically elected communist government
in India. He led to land and education reforms in Kerala and turned the
Communist Party of India (Marxist) into a major political force. His reforms
transformed Kerala and even today it continues to be the state with the highest
literacy rate in the country.
12.5 Main Features of Socialism
1. Socialism aims at establishing a classless society

2. Socialism aims at social justice, equality and the complete supremacy of the state
3. Socialism aims at abolishing the capitalist system
4. It aims at the active participation of the individual in the productive process of the
society
5. It has little faith in the religious ideas and faith
6. Socialism ignores spiritual values
214
B.Ed - 15101
12.6 Indian Concept of Socialism
Gandhiji, Jawaharlal Nehru, Jaiprakash Narayan, are the greatest supporters of

socialism. Gandhiji saw socialism as a way of life. He called it “sarvodaya samaj” in
which the greatest goal of all is the end. The main features of Indian Socialism are as
under:
1. It is based on equality between man and man
2. Economic system must be based on human outlook
3. Socialism does not sacrifice man for man
4. It believes in building a classless and castles society
5. It stresses equality, freedom and social justice
6. It believes in mixed economy, ie public ownership as well as private ownership
7. It aims at providing special facilities to the weaker section of society
8. It believes in free expression of values
9. It is based on democratic ideas
10. It believes in “non-violence” means to achieve its goals
11. It stresses in decentralization in administration and planning
12.7 Socialism and Education
Socialistic society is that pattern of society where the principle means of

production are under social central or social ownership. There is equal distribution of
national wealth. India has opted for a socialistic state. India has done money things to
fulfill the dreams of socialism. The following are some of the things:
1 We have mentioned the word “socialistic” in our constitution.
2 We have done away with the zamindari system.
3 We have nationalized major banks.
4 We have stopped giving special privileges to kings and princes.
215
B.Ed - 15101
5 We have deleted ‘right’ to property from the list of fundamental rights.

The following are the features of socialistic state: -
1 There is equality of opportunity.
2 There is atmosphere of peace and non-violence.
3 There is no unemployment.
The means of production are under the state control.
 Free education
 Child centered education
 Community centered education
 Provision of adult education
 Students self govt.
 Cultural basis of education
 Education for leisure national integration and international understanding.
 Education for worthy citizenship.
12.8 Socialism and Aims of Education
1. Development of democratic out look

2. Development of socialist values
3. Development of secular values
4. Providing equality of opportunity to all for their all round development
and welfare
5. Rapid expansion of educational facilities to all areas
6. Developing values like ‘dharma’, dignity of labour, non violence,
unselfishness and selfless service etc.
216
B.Ed - 15101
12.9 Socialism and Curriculum and Methods of Teaching
1. Topics like democracy, duties of citizens, equality, freedom, rights, secularism,

socialism, social reform movements, non-violence etc. should be taught
2. Group activities like debates, discussion, social service camps, social surveys,
shramadhan etc. to be organized
3. Inclusion of socially useful productive work as an essential component of the
social curriculum to be the key note of the curriculum
4. Emphasize should be laid on polytechnic education vocational and professional
courses
5. Introduction of information technology. Its effective use would enable students to
do well in the age of modernization
6. Emphasize should be given to group methods like teaching, seminars, projects etc.
7. Self discovery method should be encouraged.
8. Special facilities for girls
9. Transport facilities
10. Special stress on the education of the backward areas, hill areas, slum areas
etc
11. Running of government schools and local schools
12. Common and neighborhood school system at various places
12.10 Role of Education in Achieving the Goals of Socialism
1. Linking Education to Productivity:- Education should be linked to productivity.

Education should teach the individual how to increase productivity by making
uses of new technology. Basic knowledge about science should be given to all
children, work experiences should be introduced in all the schools so that children
understand the significance of manner labour.
217
B.Ed - 15101
2. Linking education to social and national integration: - Socialism cannot be

promoted in a country which is divided on a number of factors like caste religion,
regional language etc. These tendencies are present in India. Therefore education
has to fight those tendencies. For this purpose we should open common school
system as suggested by Kothari Commission. This type of school will create a
feeling of brotherhood among the children. NSS Programs should be introduced in
all educational institutions. There should be common curriculum in all the schools
throughout the country. These things will create social and national integration. It
will make education accessible to all.
3. Tuition free education: - Education should be made tuition free. No fees should
be charged from students.
4. Free textbooks and scholarships: - Those students who are poor should be given
free text books. They shall also be given scholarships so that they do not leave
education because of poverty.
5. Providing transport facilities: - Free transport facilities should be given to those
children who have to walk more than half a kilometer for the school.
6. Education for scheduled castes and scheduled tribes: - Scheduled caste and
scheduled tribe form a great position of over population. They have no motivation
to study special efforts should be made to enroll them in schools.
7. Free admission policy: - There should be free admission policy. Nobody should be
debarred from admission in a school.
12.11 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, an attempt has been made to highlight the meaning and principles
of socialism. Then the various characteristic features of socialism have been dealt with.
Also, fundamentals of education for socialism have been discussed. An attempt has also
been made to highlight the role of education in achieving the goals of socialism.
218
B.Ed - 15101

1. Discuss in detail the historical development of socialism in India?
2. Explain briefly the meaning and principles of socialism?
3. Discuss the role of education in achieving the goals of socialism in India:

House.
219
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT III
LESSON NO: 13 EDUCATION AND NATIONAL

INTEGRATION
Lesson Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Objectives
13.3 Meaning of National Integration
13.4 Definitions of National Integration and Its Relationship with

Education
13.5 Challenges/Weakening Factors of National Integration
13.6 Need and Importance of National Integration
13.7 Role of Education in Developing National Integration Values
13.8 Factors Promoting National Integration
13.9 Role of the Teachers in Promoting National Integration
13.10 Let Us Sum Up
220
B.Ed - 15101
13.1 Introduction
India is a vast country with much diversity. Its boundaries extend from the
Himalayas to the low depths of the Indian Ocean. It touches the countries like China,
Russia, Pakistan, Tibet and Burma. The people of this country have diverse customs and
traditions. They speak different languages which have their own beauty, style and
heritage. They believe in different religious faiths and ideas. The records of history prove
that India has never one language spoken throughout the country or one religion followed
by all. Never before, the entire territory of geographical India was ruled from one centre.
Thus, India presents a remarkable variety of people who differ from one another in every
respect. Jawaharlal Nehru observed that national integration would weld Indian people
into one and make India in to ‘one strong national unit, maintaining at the same time all
our wonderful diversity’.
13.2 Objectives

 State the meaning and principles of Socialism;
 State the role of greatest leaders regarding socialism in India;
 Discuss the role of education in achieving the goals of socialism;
 State the main features of socialist education; and
13.3 Meaning of National Integration
Before we begin a discussion on national integration, it will be better to

understand its meaning. This term has two words: nation and integration. What do we
mean by the term nation? A nation is a country with a unified socio-economic and
political structure. It denotes a body of people who have a feeling of oneness, built on the
basis of common history, society, culture and values. This feeling of oneness binds the
people together in to a nation. In general terms it is this feeling which is known as
221
B.Ed - 15101
national integration. National integration is the awareness of a common identity amongst

the citizens of a country. It means that though the individuals belong to different
communities, castes, religions, cultures and regions and speak different languages, all of
them recognize the fact that they are one. This kind of integration is very important in the
building of a strong and prosperous nation. The meaning of national integration touches
almost all points of national life. It synthesizes the sentiments and values of different
castes, linguistic, regional and religious communities emotionally into a compact whole.
It checks narrow tendencies which are a great hindrance to national unity and national
progress. National integration is the unity of heart and mind. In short, it is (i) a feeling of
brotherhood in the minds of the citizens of a country. (ii) a feeling of cohesion. (iii) a
feeling of harmony. (iv) a feeling of loyalty to the country. (v) a feeling of patriotism. (vi)
a feeling of oneness. (vii) a feeling of solidarity. (viii) a feeling of tolerance, especially
tolerance of others’ beliefs, etc. (ix) a feeling of unity of the country and (x) ‘We feeling’
and not ‘I feeling’.
As we all know, India is a nation having great diversities. The people who inhabit
this nation belong to different races, communities and castes. They reside in different
geographical regions and speak different languages. They believe in and practice different
religions and have varied life styles. But with all these diversities, they all are Indians and
they feel like that. They may have many religious identities such as Hindus, Muslims,
Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, or Zoroastrians. They may also be identified as
Punjabis, Tamils, Malayalis, Bengalis, Manipuri, and so on, or South or North or North-
East Indians. But their national identity is supreme.
National integration is essential for any nation with socio-cultural, religious,
linguistic and geographical diversities. And for a country like ours, it is still more
necessary. As we know, India is a very large country. We have the second largest
population in the world. A unique feature of our country is that all the major religions of
the world are practiced here such as Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, Sikhism,
Jainism, and Zoroastrianism. There are more than one thousand languages that people of
India speak. There are also great varieties in costume, food habits, and social customs.
222
B.Ed - 15101
Geographically, our land is diverse and there are amazing differences in climate. Despite
all these differences India is one political entity. We have to co-exist with each other
peacefully, respect the culture and religion of our fellow Indians. This is possible only
when national integration is realized in true sense of the term. National integration is
necessary also for the security and development of the nation.
13.4 Definitions of National Integration and Its Relationship with

Education
 According to Dorothy Thomoson, ‘National Integration’ ‘is a feeling that binds

the citizens of a country’. For Perston, National integration is ‘the job to inculcate
knowledge of our county, pride in it, and respect for the best in our national
environment, aspiration and traditions and a wish to improve our country’.
 According to Dr. Radhakrishnan ‘National integration cannot be built by brick and
mortar: it cannot be carved by chisel and hammer. It has to grow silently in the
minds and hearts of men. The only process is the process of education’.
 According to Kothari Commission (1964 – 66) ‘National integration is crucial to
the creation of a strong united country which is an essential precondition for all
progresses”. Kothari commission explained that national integration is a blend of
sentiments resulting in love for the country.
 In the words of Dorothy Simpson, “National integration means “creating a mental
outlook which will promote and inspire every person to place loyalty to the
country above group loyalties and the welfare of the country above narrow
sectarian interests.”
 According to Dr. Radhakrishnan, “National integration can’t be built by bricks
and mortar, it can’t be built by chisel and hammer, it has to grow silently in the
minds and hearts of men. The only process is the process of education”.
223
B.Ed - 15101
13.5 Challenges/Weakening Factors of National Integration
There is no denying the fact that unity is a necessary condition for nationhood.
India’s is a plural society suffering from feudal and colonial past. Besides geographical
variation, there are several factors which weaken national integration. They are as
follows.
1. Regionalism: Indians are more attached to their regions or states than to country
as a whole. They think in term of Punjab, Bengal or Tamil Nadu, etc. In this way
regionalism weakens national integration.
2. Linguism: There are many languages spoken in India. This is another factor
weakening national integration.
3. Religious differences: There are people of different religions living in India like
Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christian etc. having their own specific characteristics.
This is another factor hindering national integration.
4. Casteism: There are not only religious and linguistic differences. But within
religion, there are many castes which do not see eye to eye with each other. It is
another danger to national unity.
5. Cultural differences: There are cultural differences also which hamper unity and
they need to be curtailed.
6. Social distinctions: There are many distinctions of cast and creed in our society.
Untouchability is still prevalent which is a stumbling block in national integration
7. Economic disparities: There are vast economic disparities in business, trade,
agriculture, industry, etc. There is a wide gap between the rich and the poor which
is getting wider and wider year after year. Hence, in view of the above mentioned
differences existing in the society, there is a great need to develop and strengthen
national integration values.
224
B.Ed - 15101
13.6 Need and Importance of National Integration

According to Indira Gandhi (1984) ‘The need for national integration does not
arise merely from a moral purpose certainly. The moral purpose is evolving today.
National integration is the very condition of our national survival: it is a practical
necessity if we are to go forward without development plans and to progress in unity and
strength. I am convinced that the forces of integration are strong, but they do need to be
united and to be given some guidance’.
‘The essential function of education is to develop different physical, mental,
emotional, social, national and spiritual aspects of the personality of the pupils by laying
stress on the development of healthy habits, traits, right - attitudes, values, skills and
national integration among the pupils’. – Dr. Rawat Actually, National integration is a
blend of sentiment resulting love for the country. For this emotional integration is basic
necessity. National integration is a feeling that binds the people of country together. It
means bringing about social, economical and cultural differences prevailing among
people within a tolerable range. It is a cementing force that binds the citizens in a unity.
This means, the development of mental climate that would help react in terms of oneness.
National integration values have been emphasized at every stage of national development.
National value has to be developed both inside and outside of educational institutions.
Students should learn to love the nation, and this will pave the way to national integration
and promoting national peace.
13.7 Role of Education in Developing National Integration Values

‘The educational system of a country is like a bank on which the nation draws a
cheque whenever it requires. It goes bankrupt, as ours in nearly gone today, it is a
national disaster. If the system is overhauled and lubricated, the next generation is assured
of good leaders and what is an equally essential good follower’. – V. Rama Murthy
The aim of education is to build human character and to make young generation
so that they might assist in achieving the democratic values. Such education will unite all
people together. Education for national integration implies that education inspires a sense
225
B.Ed - 15101
of love and devotion towards one’s country, in the hearts of young boys and girls since
India is a country of different communities, religions, languages and cultural traditions.
There is wide-spread-selfishness which puts the unity of the country at stake. It is against
this background that the value of education for national integration becomes all the more
important.
Education is therefore, a great force and effect means of national integration.
Teachers are the ‘Nation – builders’ and educational institutions at the fountain – heads of
all that goes to make the foundations of a nation strong. The destiny of India is now being
shaped in her classrooms. It is here that individual minds are being trained for individual
harmony and national unity. The words of Dr. Radhakrihsnan explained the role of
education in national integration as ‘If India is to remain free, united and democratic
education we must educate people for unity and not localism, for democracy and not
dictatorship’.
The Emotional Integration Committee (1961) highlighted the role of education as
‘Education can play a vital role in strengthening emotional integration. It is felt that
education should not only aim at imparting knowledge but also should develop all aspect
of a student’s personalities. It should broaden the outlook; foster a feeling of oneness and
nationalism and a spirit of sacrifice and tolerance so that narrow group interests are
submerged in the larger interests of the country’.
The Education Commission (1964-1966) observed, ‘Education system must make
its contribution to the development of habits, attitudes and qualities of character, which
will enable the citizens to bear worthily the responsibilities of democratic citizenship and
to counteract all those absorbent tendencies which hinder the emergence of a broad
national and secular outlook’.
Suggestions of Commissions and Committees for National Integration
In order to achieve national integration the government of India, appointed so
many commissions and committees. The suggestions given by a few such committees
follow.
226
B.Ed - 15101
Mudialiar Commission (1952 – 53)

There is no more dangerous maxim in the world of today than any country right or
wrong. ‘The wide world is now so intimately interconnected that no nation, can or dare
live alone and the development of a sense of world citizenship has become just as
important as that of national citizenship’. The commission suggested following factors
concerning modern society to serve as indicators of feeling disintegration which is serious
for the existence or survival of mankind.
(i) Lack of political leadership in the country.
(ii) Lack of patriotism or taking patriotism in the narrow sense.
(iii) Casteism as a factor for development hatred.
(iv) Regionalism and language as a factor in the development of negative feelings.
(v) Geographical factors, regional, cultural and social variations are the barriers of
integration and
(vi) Ignorance about factors that affect national development today.
Emotional Integration Committee (1961)
The Emotional Integration Committee (1961) constituted by the Ministry of
Education, Government of India, under the chairmanship of Dr. Sampurnanand, made the
following suggestions for strengthening emotional and national integration.
i. Reorganization of curriculum.
ii. Highlighting the achievements of different leaders belonging to all sections.
iii. A core curriculum including the freedom movement.
iv. Co-curricular activities.
v. Teaching of social studies.
vi. Text books.
vii. Inclusion of minority language into the script.
viii. Uniform for school children.
ix. Singing of national anthem.
x. Reverence for the national flag.
xi. Celebration of national days.
227
B.Ed - 15101
xii. Special talks on the unity of the country.

xiii. Removal of domicile restrictions in admission policy.
xiv. Recognition of institutions that work for national unity.
xv. Common school system to remove class distinctions.
xvi. Community development programmes.
xvii. Taking pledge by the students at least twice in a year.
xviii. School improvement programmes.
xix. School projects which improve pupils’ general knowledge of the country.
xx. School curriculum related educational tour.
Recommendations of the Education Commission (1964 – 1966)
The following are the recommendations of the Education Commission (1964- 66):
 Provision of quality education: A reasonable quality of good education should
be made available to all irrespective of any consideration.
 Common school system: A common school system should be established.
 No public schools: Public schools should not be permitted as they breed
inequality.
 Three language formula: Three language formula should be followed.
 Regional language as medium of instruction: The use of regional languages as
media of education from the lowest to the highest stage was a matter of ‘profound
importance for national integration’.
Recommendations of the National Policy on Education (1986)
The following are the recommendations of the National Policy on Education
(1986)
 Equality of Opportunity in Education: Equality of opportunity in education is
very helpful in promoting national integration. The national policy of education
1986 has observed, ‘The new policy will lay special emphasis on the removal of
disparities and to equalize educational opportunity by attending to the specific
needs of those who have been denied equality so far’.
228
B.Ed - 15101
 Linking past, present and future: Education should link the past with existing
realities of the present national identity and the emerging future goals and
aspirations of the society.
 Integration of rural and urban areas: For achieving meaningful national
integration, education should establish proper linkage of the urban elite and the
rural people. This task can be performed through providing equal opportunities for
education. Programmes of formal and non-formal education through various types
of institutions should be organized extensively in the rural areas.
 Involvement of students: There is a need for closer involvement of these students
and the community in educational programmes for developing a ‘sense of
belonging’ and creating necessary enthusiasm for national development.
National Policy on Education (1992) on National Integration
 Common core curriculum: The National Policy on Education (NPE) provides
for a common core curriculum including the history of Indian freedom movement,
the constitutional obligations and other content essential to national identity.
These contents are expected to cut across subject areas and designed to promote
values such as India’s common cultural heritage egalitarianism, democracy and
secularism, equality of the genders, protection of the environment, removal of
social barriers etc.
 Uniform educational structure: A uniform educational structure should be
established all over the country.
 Equality of opportunity: Equal educational opportunities should be provided to
all.
 Educational opportunities in all parts: All parts of the country should be
provided with suitable educational opportunities.
 Social and national service: Social and national service should be made an
integral part of education as its absence is also responsible for increasing the gulf
between the educated and the uneducated classes.
229
B.Ed - 15101
13.8 Factors Promoting National Integration
Although the above stated challenges do exist, there are certain important factors
that provide sound base for national integration. These are:
A. Constitutional Provisions: As we have seen, the Indian Constitution has made
provisions for promoting and ensuring national integration. It has accepted socialism,
secularism, democracy, liberty, equality, justice and fraternity as the goals of Indian
political system. Citizens have been empowered with fundamental rights and their
fundamental duties have also been prescribed. The Directive Principles of State Policy
directs the State to promote equitable economic development, eliminate social
discrimination, and promotion of international peace and security. And above all, the
provisions related to various institutions and processes have been geared towards national
integration.
B. Governmental Initiatives: The governments have also been making efforts to
promote national integration. A National Integration Council has been set up to consider
issues related to national integration and recommend suitable measures to be taken. A
Single Planning Commission prepares plans for economic development of the entire
country and one Election Commission conducts elections.
C. National Festivals and Symbols: National festivals also act as an important unifying
force. Independence Day, Republic Day, and Gandhi Jayanti are festivals that are
celebrated by all Indians and in all parts of the country, regardless of language, religion or
culture. We also observe the National Integration Day on 19 November every year and
take a pledge. This day is also known as “Qaumi Ekta Divas”. Moreover, our National
Symbols like the National Flag, the National Anthem, and the National Emblem also help
to remind us that we all have one identity. For this reason we stress on the importance of
showing proper respect to these symbols. These act as strong unifying forces both in
times of celebration and adversity. They remind us of our common nationality.
230
B.Ed - 15101
D. All India Services and Other Factors: Moreover, the All Indian Services (IAS, IFS,
IPS and others), unified judicial system, postal and communications networks, including
radio and television, and the internet promote the unity and integrity of the Indian nation.
You may be aware that the members of the All India Services are recruited centrally, but
they work in States. Many of them, after having long experiences at the state level come
to work in the Central government and be a part of policy decision-making for the entire
country. Postal and communication network definitely binds the nation. You also may
have listened to radio broadcasting national events or watched those events on television.
Is it not true that people of all parts of the country do so?
13.9 Role of the Teachers in Promoting National Integration
Teachers can play an important role in developing values of national integration

among the students. Following are the important measures which can prove very helpful
in this regard.
i. Teachers should set ideal examples of national integration through their
behaviour, ways of thinking and doing things.
ii. Teachers should present historical facts in an impartial and objective manner.
iii. They should not discriminate students on the basis of caste, colour, language,
region and religion.
iv. They should lay balanced stress on the achievements of great leaders belonging to
different communities, regions, etc.
v. In geography and Indian economics, the importance of interdependence of
different regions and states should be highlighted.
vi. All possible efforts should be made to inculcate an attitude of rational thinking in
the students.
vii. Community dinner, campus get to get , educational excursions and tours may be
organized so that students get opportunities to appreciate the concept of unity and
diversity.
231
B.Ed - 15101
viii. Deeds of patriotism of great persons belonging to all communities should be

suitably explained.
13.10 Let Us Sum Up
National integration is essential for any nation with socio-cultural, religious,

linguistic and geographical diversities. _ A nation is a country with a unified socio-
economic and political structure. It denotes a body of people who have a feeling of
oneness, built on the basis of common history, society, culture and values. This feeling of
oneness binds the people together in to a nation. India is a nation having great diversities.
The people who inhabit this nation belong to different races, communities and castes.
They reside in different geographical regions and speak different languages. They believe
in and practice different religions and have varied life styles. But with all these
diversities, they all are Indians and they feel like that. National integration is the
awareness of a common identity amongst the citizens of a country. It means that though
the individuals belong to different communities, castes, religions, cultures and regions
and speak different languages, all of them recognize the fact that they are one. This kind
of integration is very important in the building of a strong and prosperous nation. It was
during nationhood emerged and the need for national integration was realized.
1. Explain briefly the meaning and importance of national and emotional

integration?
2. Give a detailed account about the challenges of national integration?
3. Discuss in detail the role of education in fostering national and emotional
integration in the country?
232
B.Ed - 15101

House.
233
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT III
LESSON NO: 14 EDUCATION AND SECULARISM
Lesson Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Objectives
14.3 Meaning of Secularism
14.4 Secularism in Indian Constitution
14.5 Secularism and Education
14.6 Let Us Sum Up
14.1 Introduction
Communalism has been one of the most disturbing problems across the globe
including India. It has continued to be a threat to national integration. It is true that
traditionally, the Indian society has been non-communal. Since centuries it has been
absorbing and assimilating many religions and cultures. But it was during the British rule
that communalism was used as a tool to divide Indians. The colonial rulers created
situations to convince Indians that primarily they were members of different religious
communities and they must think and act differently. The Constitution makers had sensed
the negative potential of communalism. That is why, the Constitution declares India to be
a secular State. Although the original Constitution had many provisions to promote
secularism, the continued reappearance of communalism demanded reassertion.
Consequentially, it was made one of the basic pillars of Indian democracy and the word
234
B.Ed - 15101
‘secular’ was inserted into the Preamble of the Constitution by the Forty-Second
Amendment in1976.
14.2 Objectives

 Explain the meaning of Secularism;
 State the significance of secularism in India; and
 Discuss the place of secularism in Indian Constitution;
14.3 Meaning of Secularism
What does secularism mean? You may come across with some people who will
say, “I am secular, because I do not believe in any religion”. You may also find some
politicians who say that what is reflected in the Constitution is not true but pseudo-
secularism”. Pseudo-secularism means false secularism. However, it is necessary to
understand that secularism does not mean being irreligious or anti-religious. The term
pseudo-secularism is used only for political purposes. In fact, secularism implies equality
of all religions and religious tolerance. It may be appreciated in two contexts: state
context and individual context. In the state context, it means that India does not have an
official state religion. The government must not favour or discriminate against any
religion. It must treat all religions with equal respect. All citizens, irrespective of their
religious beliefs are equal in the eyes of law. No religious instruction is imparted in
government or government-aided schools. But the general information about all
established world religions may be imparted, without giving any importance to any one
religion or the others. In the individual context, it means sarva dharma samabhava, equal
respect for all religions. Every person has the right to preach, practice and propagate any
religion they choose. Every citizen must treat all religions with the same respect as he/she
has for his/her religion. No religion permits individuals to ignore or hate others.
235
B.Ed - 15101
Despite the constitutional provisions and safeguards it is unfortunate that all

Indians are yet to be truly secular. We have to experience communal riots at regular
intervals. Even a very insignificant reason leads to communal tension and violence. But
secularism is essential not simply for maintaining communal harmony and peace, but for
the very existence of our nation. If you look around yourself, you may find that your
friends, classmates, neighbours or nearby residents believe and practice religions that are
different from your religion. They belong to various castes. How can you interact with
them and be a good friend, classmate or neighbour, if you do not respect their religion and
they do not do the same. We all know that India has a plural society. It is therefore
essential that all the people develop respect towards one another and practice peaceful co-
existence.
14.4 Secularism and Indian Constitution
As we have seen above, various provisions of the Constitution ensure India to be a

secular State. The Indian constitution through its Preamble and particularly through its
chapters on Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles has created a secular state based
on the principle of equality and non-discrimination. Along with the principles of social
and economic democracy, secularism has been held to be one of the ‘Basic Structures’ of
Indian Constitution. It has been reflected in the Constitution primarily as a value in the
sense that it extends support to our plural society. Secularism aims at promoting cohesion
among different communities living in India.
14.5 Education and Secularism
Despite the constitutional provisions and safeguards it is unfortunate that all

Indians are yet to be truly secular. We have to experience communal riots at regular
intervals. Even a very insignificant reason leads to communal tension and violence. But
secularism is essential not simply for maintaining communal harmony and peace, but for
the very existence of our nation. If you look around yourself, you may find that your
236
B.Ed - 15101
friends, classmates, neighbours or nearby residents believe and practice religions that are
different from your religion. They belong to various castes. How can you interact with
them and be a good friend, classmate or neighbour, if you do not respect their religion and
they do not do the same. We all know that India has a plural society. It is therefore
essential that all the people develop respect towards one another and practice peaceful co-
existence.
14.11 Let Us Sum Up
The word secularism is derived from the Latin word’ Saeculum’ means ’this
present age ’.Secularism came to be known as social and ethical system. It primarily
emphasize on natural and cultural improvements of human beings. Secularism can be
defined as, ‘’a system of doctrines and practices that rejects any form of religious faith
and worship’’. In this lesson an attempt has been made to explain the concept and
significance of secularism. An attempt has also been made to highlight the scope of
secularism within the ambit of Indian constitution.
1. What do you mean by secularism?

2. What are the provisions in the Constitution that are focused on secularism?
3. What is the role of a citizen in strengthening India as a secular state?

237
B.Ed - 15101

House.
238
BED = 15101
UNIT IV
LESSON NO 15: EDUCATION AND CULTURE
Lesson Structure
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Objectives
15.3 Meaning and Concept of Culture
15.4 Characteristics of Culture
15.5 Dimensions of Culture
15.6 Relationship Between Culture and Education
15.7 Let Us Sum Up
15.9 Suggested Readings and References
15.1 Introduction
We encounter and make use of the word culture several times a day and in very
different contexts. Most social scientists today view culture as consisting primarily of
the symbolic, ideational, and intangible aspects of human societies. The spirit of a
culture is not its artifacts, tools, or other tangible cultural elements but how the
members of the group interpret, use, and perceive them. It is the values, symbols,
interpretations, and perspectives that differentiate one people from another in
modernized societies; it is more than material objects and other tangible aspects of
human societies. Humans within a particular cultural context, usually interpret the
meaning of symbols, artifacts, and behaviors in the same or in similar ways." In this
239
BED =15101
lesson, we shall discuss in detail about the meaning and concept of culture with special
reference to relationship between education and culture.
15.2 Objectives
Dear students, after going through this lesson, you should be able to:
 Discuss the meaning, and concept of culture ;
 Explain the dimensions of culture; and
 Describe the relationship between education and culture.
15.3 Meaning and Concept of Culture
A term used by social scientists is also widely used in popular speech. It apparently
arose first in the old France of the middle ages to indicate a religious cult or religious
worship or ceremony. In the 18th century, the word was used alone to mean formation
of the spirit. 18th century philosophers and historians borrowed this term from the
French literature but “Kultur” as it was written in old had for the society both social and
historical dimensions. It was in English however, that culture took the modern meaning
‘total way of life’. The technical use of this term in Anthropology was introduced by
E.B. Tylor in 1871. Culture has been derived from the Latin word cultura, meaning "to
cultivate". It is a term that has many different meanings but generally it is used for the
total way of life of a particular society. Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn compiled
a list of 164 definitions of "culture" in Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and
Definitions. They revealed that the word "culture" is most commonly used in three
basic senses which are as:
a) Excellence of taste in the fine arts and humanities, also known as high
culture.
240
BED = 15101
b) An integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends

upon the capacity for symbolic thought and social learning.
c) The set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices that characterizes an
institution, organization or group.
When the concept first emerged in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century Europe, it

connoted a process of cultivation or improvement, as in agriculture or horticulture. In
the nineteenth century, it came to refer first to the betterment or refinement of the
individual, especially through education, and then to the fulfillment of national
aspirations or ideals. In the mid-nineteenth century, some scientists used the term
"culture" to refer to a universal human capacity. For the German non-positivist
sociologist Georg Simmel, culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the
agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history".
In the twentieth century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to
anthropology, encompassing all human phenomena that are not purely results of human
genetics. Specifically, the term "culture" in American anthropology had two meanings:
(1) the evolved human capacity to classify and represent experiences with symbols, and
to act imaginatively and creatively; and (2) the distinct ways that people living in
different parts of the world classified and represented their experiences, and acted
creatively. Following World War II, the term became important, albeit with different
meanings, in other disciplines such as cultural studies, organizational psychology and
management studies
15.4 Culture: How Different Thinkers View It?
1. C. C. North. According to North “culture consists in the instruments constituted

by man to assist him in satisfying his wants.”
241
BED =15101
2. Tylor. “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of
society.”
3. Ottaway. “The culture is the total way of life”
4. Mazumdar. “Culture is the sum total of human achievements – material as well as
non-material.”
5. B. Malinowski. According to him culture is “cumulative creation of man.” He
also regards culture as, “the handiwork of man and the medium through which he
achieves his ends.”
6. Graham Wallas. He says it is “an accumulation of thoughts, values and objects; it
is the social heritage acquired by us from preceding generations through learning,
as distinguished from the biological heritage which is passed on to us automatically
through the genes.”
7. Damen, L: Culture: learned and shared human patterns or models for living; day-
to-day living patterns these patterns and models pervade all aspects of human social
interaction. Culture is mankind's primary adaptive mechanism"
8. Hofstede, G. (1984): Culture is the collective programming of the mind which
distinguishes the members of one category of people from another."
9. Kluckhohn, C., & Kelly, W.H. (1945): By culture we mean all those historically
created designs for living, explicit and implicit, rational, irrational, and non-
rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for the behavior of men."
10. Linton, R. (1945). "A culture is a configuration of learned behaviors and results
of behavior whose component elements are shared and transmitted by the members
of a particular society"
Briefly speaking, culture is a unique possession of man and is design of living of a
particular society. It is one of the distinguishing traits of human society. Culture is the
unique quality of man which separates him from other creations. It is a very broad term
that includes in itself all our walks of life, our modes of behaviour, our philosophies
242
BED = 15101
and ethics, our morals and manners, out customs and traditions, our religions, political,
economic and other types of activities.
15.5 Characteristics of Culture
Following are some important characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is Universal: Across the globe, every society is having it own unique
culture.
2. Learned Quality. Culture is learned quality. It is not innate. It is socially acquired.
Traits learned through socialization, habits and thoughts are parts of culture.
3. Transmissive Quality. Culture is transmitted from person to person and generation
to generation. The individual is moulded according to his family and society of
which he is a member. The new generation gains by the experiences of the older
generation through the communicability of culture. Transmissive feature is unique
quality of culture.
4. Social Quality. Man cannot create or generate culture while existing apart from the
group. Culture is inclusive of the expectations of the members of groups. Each
member is dependent on the other and each expects from another. By this
expectation is the society bound by culture.
5. Idealistic Quality. Culture is idealistic. It stands for ideal norms of human
behaviour. It is embodiment of refinement. Society accepts these ideals, norms and
patterns.
6. Gratifying Quality.
a) Culture meets and satisfies the social and ethical needs of man. Social habits
form a part and parcel of culture. Habits can be formed of those activities
only which tend to gratify some needs. Without gratifying these needs
culture cannot exist.
243
BED =15101
b) Culture meets the recurring demands of mankind. The demand of

reproduction, of nursing an infant to maturity and finally of disposal of the
deed, all are met by culture from generation to generation.
7. Adaptive Quality. Each culture tries to adopt the qualities outside its own
environment. The contact of two or more cultures takes place and this interaction
tends the adaptive quality to the culture
8. Integrative Quality. Culture has the quality of becoming integrated. Various parts
of culture are integrated with each other and any new element, which is introduced,
is also integrated. Those cultures which are more open to external influence are
comparatively more heterogeneous but nevertheless some degree of integration is
inevitable in all cultures.
9. Manifestation Quality. Culture is the manifestation of man’s mind in varying
moods of nature and environment and in the changing course of history. Culture of
civilized societies has its own momentum of progress. Members of such a society
cannot remain aloof from the diving currents of culture.
10. Dynamic Quality. Culture has a dynamic quality. It is changing. It is in constant
flux. No nation has had constant cultural tradition. Every generation adds
something new and modifies something of old.
11. Culture is Continuous and Cumulative: The process of culture is continuous and
is commutative one. Culture is an umbrella term so it includes the achievements of
the past and the present as well of the future. Culture makes provision for the future
achievements of mankind. Culture may be conceived as a brook flowing down
through the centuries from one generation to another. According to Linton, “Culture
is a social heritage of man”.
12. Culture is Consistent and Integrated: Culture possesses an order and system. It
has the quality of becoming integrated e.g. the value system of a society is closely
connected with its other aspects such as morality, religion, customs, traditions,
beliefs and the like.
244
BED = 15101
Briefly speaking culture possesses a number of characteristics. George Peter has

mentioned the following characteristics of culture:
1. Culture is the result of learning. Man is not born with it but is born into it. This
is termed as the learned quality of culture.
2. Culture is transmitted from person to person. Each family imparts culture to its
members. It does so, as a result of the transmitting quality of culture.
3. Each society has its specific culture and depending on the variations in society,
different cultures are evolved. The social quality of culture is hence evident.
4. Ideas and ideals are the basis for any culture. The quality of idealism is acquired
by one generation from another. Ideals are to be followed by each member.
5. Every individual has to gratify several needs for obtaining satisfaction and
culture being one of them has this gratifying quality.
6. Culture has adaptive and interpretive quality. When two or more cultures come
together, each culture shows the characteristics of adaptability resulting in
cultural integration.
15.6 Dimensions of Culture
There are three major dimensions of culture. They are described below:
1. The Cognitive Dimension. The cognitive dimension of culture includes thinking,
imagining, remembering and recognition. The most important aspect of the
cognitive dimension is beliefs or ideas about what is thought to be true. Beliefs
are the convictions. They are important because people account them as being
true. Beliefs guide their activities. Beliefs may or may not be true. There are
number of beliefs which do not stand to reason.
2. The Material Dimension. The material dimension of culture consists of concrete
and tangible objects which include all those man made physical objects such as a
tools, implements, furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges. It
245
BED =15101
includes such physical substances which are changed and used by the man on this
globe. It also includes technical and material equipment like a printing press, a
locomotive, a telephone, TV, a machine gun etc. etc. The examples of material
dimension are automobiles, airplanes, buildings, chairs, highways etc. Kangdi (fire
pot) is an example of material culture of Kashmiri Society.
3. The Normative Dimension. The normative dimension of culture consists of ideas
about what is normal behaviour. It tells us what is expected of us as members of a
group. The most important aspects of the normative dimension are norms,
sanctions and values.
a. Norms. Norms are standards of group behaviour. Norms are so ingrained that
they guide the daily activities without our awareness. For example, brothers
and sisters should not have sexual relations; a child should respect his parents
etc. Sumner says that there are three basic types of norms: folkways, mores
and laws these three types of norms vary in their importance within a society.
i. Folkways. Folkways literally mean the ways of the folk. Rules that
cover customary ways of thinking, feeling and behaving are called
folkways. They have not much moral significance. So violation of
folkways is not considered bad from moral point of view.
ii. Mores. Mores are norms of great moral significance. The violation of
mores evokes strong social disapproval and their fulfillment brings
significant social approval. Prohibiting illegitimate children is mores.
Some mores are more vital to society than others.
iii. Laws. Laws are the third types of norms. Laws are norms that are
formally defined and enforced consciously.
b. Sanctions. Sanctions are rewards and punishments used to encourage socially
acceptable behaviour. Formal sanctions may be given only by officially
designated persons such as judges, college professors etc. For example,
awarding death penalty by a judge is formal sanction. Informal sanctions can
246
BED = 15101
be applied by most members of a group. For example, looking harshly at

someone who is cheating on a test. Sanctions may be positive or negative.
The severity of the sanction varies from one society to another. For instance, a
person convicted of theft may be sentenced only to a few months jail, but a
person convicted of theft in Saudi Arabia is to tolerate the amputation of
hands. The severity of sanction may vary from time to time
c. Values. Values are the guiding principles of life. Values are the assumptions
of what is right and important for the society. Values have a tremendous
influence on our daily life, because norms are based on them. For instance, a
society that values democracy will have norms ensuring personal freedom; a
society that values hard work will have norms against laziness. In America,
for example, the influence of the value of freedom goes beyond political life.
It affects such diverse areas as relationship in the family, functioning of
organization, religious affiliation etc.
d. Signs: These include signals as well as symbols. A signal represents the
existence - past, present or future - of a thing, event or conditions e.g., a
student who appears second time in the examination signalizes that the former
has either dropped from appearing in examination or has been declared to have
failed. Similarly, wet streets are a signal that it has rained. Symbols and
signals are slightly different from each other. It is believed that culture
depends for its existence on people’s ability to create and use symbols. A
symbol is explained as anything that meaningfully represents something else.
All words and numbers are symbols. Traffic rules are more regulated by
symbols and signals.
Briefly speaking, culture is very dynamic term and its dimensions include all those
components which we humans use and enjoy in this world. It needs to mention here
that the normative and cognitive dimension is also termed as non-material dimension of
the culture.
247
BED =15101
15.7 Education and Culture - Relationship
It is gospel truth that there is a close relationship between culture and education. The
culture plays an important role in the man’s life. According to Brameld, "It is from the
stuff of culture that education is directly created and that gives to education not only its
own tools and materials but its reason for existing at all". Culture has a bearing on
education. It is crystal clear that the social living is affected by education and education
itself is governed by social life. The relationship between education and culture can be
understood by following ways:
1. Functions of education towards culture.
2. Functions of culture towards education.
Functions of Education towards Culture
1. Conservation of Culture. One of the important functions of education is the
preservation of cultural heritage. If education is not agency of social conservation
there would not have been any cultural heritage at all. The school must inculcate
in pupils the traditional standards and values, which account for cultural evolution.
The conservative function of education has been emphasized by Percy Nunn. The
special function of a nation’s school, according to him, is to consolidate its
spiritual strength, to maintain its historic continuity, to secure its past
achievements and to guarantee its future. In Radhakrishnan’s Report also the
conservation function of education is emphasized. Pt. Nehru held, “Education
must help in preserving the vital elements of our heritage.” The core of Indian
cultural heritage, according to him, is “love of beauty & truth, spirit and tolerance,
capacity to absorb other cultures and work new synthesis.”
2. Continuity of Culture. Another function of education is to maintain the
continuity of culture by handling down customs, traditions, experiences and values
248
BED = 15101
of the society from one generation to another. This continuity is essential

condition for survival of the nation. Through various educational activities culture
remains alive.
3. Transmission of Culture. Education is the saviour of cultural traditions,
experiences, values and norms. It helps in transmission of cultural patterns. In the
words of Ottaway, “One of the tasks of education is to hand over the cultural
values and behaviour patterns of the society to his young and potential members.”
Without transmission of culture, there can be no growth and progress of man.
4. New Cultural Patterns. Education is not only concerned with the transmission of
culture but it also creates new cultural patterns. It brings changes in the existing
culture. Education brings innovation and creativity in culture.
5. Promotion of culture. Education helps in the modification and promotion of
culture. As D. J. O Cannon remarked, “If each generation had to learn for itself
what has been learned by its predecessors, no sort of intellectual or social
development would be possible and the present state of society would be little
different from the society of the old stone age.” Thus, education reorganizes and
reconstructs human experiences for the promotion of culture and civilization.
6. Removing Cultural Lags: Education removes the cultural lags from the culture. It
acts as a solvent for culture.
7. Adjustment to Cultural Patterns. Education equips the individual to adjust
himself in the changing cultural patterns.
Thus education is required to perform the functions of transmission and enrichment,
acceptance and reformation, change and reconstruction of culture.
Functions of Culture Towards Education.

Education has always been a major influence of the cultural trends of various societies.
For instance during the Great World Wars, during the Cold War and the era after the
cold war all witnesses different aspects of social and economical cultures that are
influenced by the political culture. All these cultural trends play a very important role
249
BED =15101
in educating children of the American society. At the same time these cultural trends
have played significant and influential roles in the education sector of children..
However the main functions of culture towards education are as under:
1. Helpful in Refining Personality. Culture helps the individual in refining physical,

intellectual, aesthetic and moral aspects of personality by drinking deep into the
accumulated best experiences of the race. Thus culture beautifies human
personality and adds grace to human life.
2. Helpful in Socializing the Individual. Culture helps in socializing the person. It
is due to this reason that the quality and direction of socialization differs from one
society to another.
3. Helpful in Making Social Adjustments. Knowledge of culture helps the
individual in making social adjustments and solving various problems.
4. Helpful in Understanding and Improving Society. Culture helps the person to
understand human society as a whole, to estimate wisely the ends that communities
should pursue, and to see the present in its relation to the past and future.
5. Helps in Framing Educational Policies: Culture helps us in framing educational
policies by designing the curriculum and other aspects of education as per the
requirements of society.
15.8 Let Us Sum Up
According to Velkley , the term "culture," which originally meant the cultivation of the
soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meanings in the writings of the
eighteenth-century German thinkers, who on various levels developing Rousseau's
criticism of modern liberalism and Enlightenment. Thus a contrast between "culture"
and "civilization" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.
Two primary meanings of culture emerge from this period: culture as the folk-spirit
having a unique identity, and culture as cultivation of inwardness or free individuality.
250
BED = 15101
The first meaning is predominant in our current use of the term "culture," although the
second still plays a large role in what we think culture should achieve, namely the full
"expression" of the unique of "authentic" self. Culture is often called as blue print of
people’s way of life. Culture is both material and non-material. In this unit, we also
discussed the there exists a close relationship between education and culture. Education
is an instrument of culture. If culture emphasizes the elements of aesthetic and moral
perfection, it is evident that education is a significant technique for the realization of
this perfection. It is an integral part of culture. The social dimensions of culture can be
learnt through a process of education. The attitudes of mutual consideration and social
regard are cultivated in the institutions for educational work. Thus, education is a vital
ingredient in the process of socialization of the individual which is a tremendously
important aspect of culture. Educational development is considered to be the pillar of
any developed society. Where the education level of any society is also related to the
skills and potential to work hard for the development of that specific society. Therefore,
education plays a very constructive role in cultural development of the society;
similarly culture also plays a vital role for education.

 Define culture? Discuss the characteristics of culture?
 Explain the relationship between education and culture?
 Describe the importance of material components of your culture?

 Giddens, Anthony (1994) Sociology, Second Edition Cambridge : Polity Press
 Swift, D.F (1969) The Sociology of Education London: Routledge and Kegan
Paul
 Matto, M.I (2011) Foundations of Education New Delhi: Dilpreet Publications
 Rawat H K (2007) Sociology: Basic Concepts New Delhi : Rawat Publications
251
B.Ed - 15101
UNIT IV
LESSON NO 16: EDUCATION AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Lesson Structure
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Objectives
16.3 Social Change and Related Concepts
16.4 Nature of Social Change
16.4 Characteristics of Social Change
16.5 Scope of Social Change
16.6 Factors and Mechanisms of Social Change
16.7 Theories of Social Change
16.8 Education and Social Change
16.9 Social Change and Lags in Indian Educational System
16.10 Constraints on Social Change in India
16.11 Let Us Sum Up
16.1 Introduction
Change is the law of nature. Everything changes with the passage of time. Every day
is a new day; every movement is a new instant in time. That is why a Greek
philosopher Heraclitus has rightly said that “a person cannot step into the same river
twice”. What it conveys is that on the second occasion, the river will be different, since
252
B.Ed - 15101
much water would have flown along it and the person has changed in subtle ways too.
Thus, change is the law of nature. Therefore, human society is no exception. There is
no object in this world which is quite static and unchanging. Same is true for societies.
What they are today, were not the same 100 years before. For instance, Indian society
is not the same today what it was before independence. It has changed much in every
field within just a space of about half a century.
No society can remain permanently static. Any change in the surrounding

circumstances changes the character of the society. Even, the most stable society
undergoes changes; some elements are added or replaced and others become modified
or are lost. Contact with other cultures, invention or discovery brings new elements into
the culture of a society. Change simply means alterations in the underlying structure of
an object or situation over a period of time. In the present era, education is considered
as a backbone for social changes. In this lesson, we shall discuss the meaning, concept,
theories and constraints on social change with special reference to impact of education
on social change.
16.2 Objectives
After going through this lesson you shall be able to;

 Define the term Social Change.
 Discuss the concepts related to social change.
 Discuss nature and scope of social change.
 Comment upon factors leading to social change.
 Discuss role of education in bringing about social change.
 List and discuss constraints to social change in Indian society.
253
B.Ed - 15101
16.3 Social Change and Related Concepts
Social change is a very broad term. It is sometimes confused with concepts such as
progress and development and growth. Let us try to understand what is social change
and how it is similar to or different from other concepts related with it. Social change
is the modification in patterns of social structure, social institutions and social behavior
over time. It is the structural transformation of political, social and economic systems
and institutions to create a more equitable and dynamic society. No society could
successfully resist change in history, but the rate, nature, and direction of change varies
from one society to another. Any change that alters basically the established forms of
social relationships, thus transforming in some measure is the social change. It is a
change that reflects in all aspects of social life, i.e., family, neighborhood, play group,
work group (industry or hospital etc.), religion, economic and political spheres, leisure
activities etc. According to Kingsley Davis (1949), “By social change is meant only
such alterations that occur in social organization, that is, structure and function of
society.” Likewise, M.E. Jones (1962) states: “Social change is a term used to describe
variations in, or modifications of, any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social
interaction or social organization.” Similarly, Horton and Hunt (1968) defined it as
“changes in the social structure and social relationships of the society”.
Sociologists are now concerned with all types of changes that occur in society all
the time. Their direct concern is also with changes in social relationships. It is these
changes which alone we shall regard as social change. Thus, any modification that
occurs in the web of social relationships, which alters the long established pattern of
social structure and social institutions, may be conceptualized as social change. For
sociologist, alterations in the properties of social structure (or social systems) through
time constitute the focus of the subject of social change or social dynamics.
254
B.Ed - 15101
Social Change: How Different Thinkers View It:

Some important opinions of various thinkers regarding social change are given as:
1. M. E. Jones opined that “social change is a term used to describe variations in,
or modifications of any aspect of social processes, social patterns, social
interactions or social organizations.”
2. Kingsley Davis, believed that “by social change we mean only such
alterations as occur in social organizations that is, in the structure and
functions of society.”
3. Maclver and Page, opined that “ social change refers to a process responsive
to many types of changes in the man made conditions of life; to changes in the
attitudes and beliefs of men and to the changes that go beyond the human
control to the biological and the physical nature of things.”
4. Gillin and Gillin, opined about social change as, “variations from the accepted
modes of life, whether due to alterations in geographical conditions, in
cultural equipment, composition of the population or ideologies and whether
brought about the diffusion or invention within the group.”
5. B. Kupaswami opined that “when we speak of social change we simply assert
that there is some change in social behaviour and in the social structure.”
6. Henry Johnson believed that social change includes five kinds of changes
under social change: (a) change in social values, (b) institutional changes, (c)
change in distribution of possessions and rewards, (d) change in personal
ends, and (e) change in abilities or attitudes of people;
7. Ginsberg, “by social change, we understand change in social structure e.g.,
the size of the society, the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its
organization.”
255
B.Ed - 15101
8. Mathur has defined social change as, "a change which refers to the
modifications in the organizations and behaviour of the group as expressed in
its laws, customs, modes and beliefs."
From the above definitions, we may conclude social change is a general term which
refers to change in the nature, the social institutions, the social behavior or the
social relations of a society, community of people, or other social structures; any
event or action that affects a group of individuals that have shared values or
characteristics; acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a normative
way. Social change is domain of sociology and social work, but also involves
political science, economics, history, anthropology, and many other social sciences.
Among many forms of creating social change are direct action, protesting,
advocacy, community organizing, community practice, revolution, and political
activism. The term is used in the study of history, economies and politics, and
includes topics such as the success or failure of different political systems,
globalization, democratization, development and economic growth. The term can
encompass concepts as broad as revolution and paradigm shift, to narrow changes
such as a particular social cause within small town government. The concept of
social change implies observation and measurement of some characteristics of this
group of individuals. While the term is usually applied to changes that are
beneficial to society, it may result in negative side-effects or consequences that
undermine or eliminate existing ways of life that are considered positive. Social
change overall, however, has resulted in beneficial advances in human society,
indicating that humankind is progressing toward a society that will allow all people
to live in peace and prosperity. The other allied terms of social change are as under:
A. Social Development: The term social development refers to qualitative changes
in the structure and functioning of society that help society to better realize its aims
and objectives. Development can be broadly defined in a manner applicable to all
societies at all historical periods as an upward ascending movement featuring
256
B.Ed - 15101
greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity,

comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment, and accomplishment. Development
is a process of social change, not merely a set of policies and programs instituted
for some specific results. This process has been going on since the dawn of history.
During the last five centuries it has picked up in speed and intensity and since the
middle of the twentieth century there has been a marked surge in acceleration.
B. Social Progress: The term ‘social change’ is often confused with ‘social progress.’
In common parlance, both are used interchangeably. When society changes, it is
assumed to be getting better. This notion is not correct. Change may lead to better side
or it may lead to such a situation to which we call decay. The term ‘change’ itself is
wholly neutral. It does not indicate good or bad. It only implies difference through
time in the object or situation under study. It does not indicate any direction (upward
or downward) in which the change takes place. On the other hand, the term ‘progress’
indicates the direction of change and generally it is goal directed and change in a
desirable direction. The context of desirability may vary from society to society.
‘Desirable’ may be defined differently by different people and desirable for one may be
undesirable for another. ‘Progress’ is not a scientific concept but a value judgment –
change in an approved direction. “By progress, we imply not merely direction but
direction towards some final goal” (Maclver and Page, 1959). It is an evaluative tern
while ‘change’ is a neutrally descriptive term. When we speak of social change, we
simply mean that there is some alteration or modifications in social behaviour, social
structure and social institutions. Since progress is an evaluative term, it is burdened
with value judgment. This is why; most sociologists have abandoned the use of this
term and prefer to use the neutrally descriptive term ‘social change”.
C. Social and Cultural Change: Commonly speaking, there is a great confusion about
social and cultural change. Some early writers have made distinction between social
change and cultural change, while others have considered these two terms as one and
257
B.Ed - 15101
the same thing. Such writers have used these two terms synonymously. For the author
like Gillin and Gillin (1954) and Dawson and Gettys (1948), there is no difference
between social and cultural change. According to Dawson and Gettys, “cultural change
is social change, since all culture is social in its origin, meaning and usage”. Similarly,
Gillin and Gillin wrote: “social changes as variation form the accepted modes of life,
whether due to alterations in geographic conditions, in cultural equipment, composition
of population, or ideologies.” For these writers, social change is a part of cultural
change. Cultural change is broader than social change which envelops social change
also in its fold.
Cultural change indicates changes in the accepted mode of life, habit patterns, and the
life-style. These changes may include such things as the invention of the automobile,
TV, changing concepts of property and morality, new forms of music, art, or dance or
the trends of sex equality. Briefly speaking, it may be said that social change refers
specifically to alter-actions in social relationships among people in groups, whereas
cultural change refers to change in material and non-material cultural elements both.
Social change refers to the changes in the social structure (status and role of persons),
social institutions and overall social relationships that help in the making up a society.
It involves modifications in the ways in which people make a living, rear a family,
educate their children, govern them, and worship the deity.
To conclude, it may be said that social change and cultural change are
interlinked. It is very difficult to draw a line of demarcation between the two. At
certain places both concept overlap. The trend toward sex equality involves a changing
set of cultural norms concerning male-female roles, and some changing relationships as
well. Nearly all important changes involve both social and cultural aspects. As such,
the two terms are often used interchangeably. The difference between social and
cultural change is largely theoretical. Most sociologists use them interchangeably or
combine the two under the head ‘social change’.
258
B.Ed - 15101
16.4 Nature of Social Change:
Social change is not a uniquely modern phenomenon. Some kinds and degrees of
change are universal in human experience. No society is static whether it is primitive
or modern. Social change may be partial or total, though mostly it is partial. A change
resulting from enacting a law prohibiting untouchability might be called a partial
change in society. Total change hardly happens. We always find partial change in
caste system, family or marriage systems. Societies do change, it is inevitable but
structure hardly ever changes. Changes are not necessarily good or bad.
The speed of change may differ from society to society. This speed may be so
slow that it may appear that the society is static but it is not so. The so-called modern
contemporary society is changing rapidly and constantly. These changes are neither
temporally nor spatially isolated, that is; changes occur in sequential chains rather than
as ‘temporary’ crises. Change takes place in chain-reaction sequence, i.e., change in
one part of society brings changes in other parts also. But, the rate or speed and
direction of change are not always uniform in all aspects of society. Some aspects
change faster than the other. Material aspect of society (civilization) changes faster than
the non-material aspects (ideology, thinking pattern or social relationships). Causes and
effects of change may also differ from society to society.
The direction or patterns of social change may be linear, circular or fluctuating
up and down. It is such a complex phenomenon that no prediction or measurement
about its speed, direction and causes can be made in accurate and precise terms as we
see in natural sciences. As an astronomer can predict the orderly relations among
planets in a solar system, sociologist can not precisely predict about human relations.
The proportion of contemporary change (planned or unplanned – latent consequences
of deliberated innovations such as information technology) is much higher than in
former times. The range of material technology and social strategies is expanding
rapidly and its net effect is additive or cumulative.
259
B.Ed - 15101
Contemporary change is probably everywhere and its consequences may also be

everywhere. Besides, increasing the expectations of life, it has brought many social
problems in its train to humanity. In the modern world social change has taken on
some special qualities and magnitudes. The modes of life and social institutions
characteristic of the modern world are radically different from those of even the recent
past. During a period of only two or three centuries human social life has been
wrenched away from the types of social order in which people lived for thousands of
years. For more than any generation before us, we face an uncertain future. But
though we are largely immune from the natural disasters such as flood, famine and
diseases like plague in the technologically developed countries today, we have to deal
now with the social forces we ourselves have created. These forces bring social change
into our lives in a continuous way. Etzioni & Etzioni believed that
Social change . . . may originate in any institutional area, bringing about
changes in other areas, which in turn make for further adaptations in the initial
sphere of change. Technological, economic, political, religious, ideological,
demographic, and stratification factors are all viewed as potentially
independent variables which influence each other as well as the course of
society.
16.5 Characteristics of Social Change

Some important characteristics of social change are enumerated as under:
1. Social Change is Continuous Process: Human society is going through
endless changes and no one can deny these changes with a passage of time. Society is
under a continuous change right from the period man has stepped in on this planet.
Therefore, social change is continuous in nature.
2. Social Change is a Community Change: Social change does not mean the
change in the life patterns of an individual but it is a change which takes place in the
260
B.Ed - 15101
life of the entire community. Therefore, this change is social because entire community
is influenced.
3. Social Change is Environmental: This change takes place within a
geographical or physical and cultural context. These changes have an impact on human
behaviour and in turn man changes them.
4. Social Change is Subject to Interaction of Number of Factors: It is believed
that a particular factor like changes in technology, economic development or climatic
conditions causes social change. It has also been observed that some times a single
factor may trigger a change but it is always associated with other factors, which make
the triggering possible. These factors are physical, biological, cultural, technological
etc.
5. Social Change is both Positive and Negative: Social Change can be positive
or negative for the society or individual.
6. Social change involves tempo and direction of change: Involvement of a
particular direction is assumed in social change and this direction is most necessarily
inevitable. The direction is sometimes determined ideally. Change towards such a
destination is more appropriately regarded as progress. The tempo or the rate of change
is also not governed by any universal laws. It varies from time to time and place to
place.
7. Social Changes are Modifications or Replacement: Social changes may be
broadly categorized as modifications or replacements e.g., the pattern of our breakfast
food has changed. Though we eat the same basic materials we took earlier - wheat,
eggs, corn but their form stands changed. Change also takes place in the form of
replacement. A new material or non-material form supplements old one e.g. horses
have been replaced by automobiles. Similarly, old ideas have been replaced by new
modified ideas.
8. Social Change is Always in a Constant Flux. Social change is always in a
constant flux.
261
B.Ed - 15101
9. Change in Social Goals, Objectives and Values: The social change may be in
social goals, objectives and values. The changes may be in social values that directly
affect the content of social roles and social interaction. For example, the adoption of
equality as a value may ultimately lead to compulsory and free primary education, to
expansion of primary educational facilities to all children up to the age of fourteen and
to providing financial and other aid to backward classes for enabling them to avail of
the expanded educational facilities.
16.6 Scope of Social Change
Change in Wider Social Environment
The change may be in the total social environment surrounding the society. It may be
due to some internal forces or external forces arising in other societies. Social
phenomena occurring in neighboring or distant societies have very widespread impact
now. English, for example, is now became a global language for dissemination of
knowledge and consequently India feels the necessity to emphasize the need for
retaining and strengthening the knowledge of English in order to continue to be
benefited by new knowledge developing all over the world.
Change in Social Goals, Objectives and Values
The social change may be in social goals, objectives and values. The changes may be in
social values that directly affect the content of social roles and social interaction. For
example, the adoption of equality as a value may ultimately lead to compulsory and
free primary education, to expansion of primary educational facilities to all children
upto the age of fourteen and to providing financial and other aids to backward classes
for enabling them to avail of the expanded educational facilities.
262
B.Ed - 15101
Institutional Social Changes
The social change may be ‘institutional’ which includes change in more definite
structures such as form of organization, roles and role content. The adoption of
democracy and adult franchise in India has made training in responsible and responsive
citizenship absolutely necessary for the electorate. This ultimately gave rise to new
changes in the society.
Changes in Knowledge and Technology
The changes may be in the existing knowledge and technology. Space exploration,
industrialization, agricultural and domestic technology, development of transportation,
and mass media of communication, new understanding of the human organism,
individual and social behaviour are some of the scientific and technological areas in
which knowledge has expanded a great deal and will still continue to expand. Thus, the
development of knowledge and technology may bring changes in syllabus, teaching and
evaluating methods and role of teacher.
Change in Size and Composition of Population
The change may be in the size and composition of population. The explosion of
population with differential rates of increase in different regions, communities, socio-
economic groups and age groups may necessitate many changes in the educational
system. Students with different levels of intelligence and educational aspirations,
belonging to different socio-economic classes, different castes and religious groups
have begun to come in the same type of educational institution and are huddled in same
classroom. All these changes also necessitate change in the educational system. Thus,
different types of social changes occurring in society make the existing educational
system dysfunctional to a certain extent and in course of time pressurize to bring
changes in it.
263
B.Ed - 15101
16.7 Factors and Mechanisms of Social Change
To understand how social change takes place, it is necessary to investigate its relation
to the three great orders – the biophysical, the cultural and the technological. Since the
eighteenth century social theorists have tried to investigate the causes and sources of
social change. They have distinguished many factors and mechanisms, which produce
change. All their theories regarding factors of change can be grouped into two broad
categories:
 those explaining change in terms of endogamous factors or processes; and
 those emphasizing exogenous factors.
No ‘single factor’ theory can explain social change. In fact, social change is
multifactor. Ideas, new inventions, wars, the rise and fall of power groups, influential
individuals (great men) and of course, globalization and other factors all contribute to
social change. The factors in social change are predominately social and cultural, not
biological or geographical. Some people have attributed the rise and fall of great
civilizations to changes in the biological (racial) characteristics of nations. But most
scientists have rejected this contention. It may be said that biological or geographical
conditions play essential part in the life of human being but these factors have lost their
importance in the light of the modern advancement made in science. The development
of science has made their effect less strong and deepening.
a) The Physical Environment

The physical environment of a place changes very slowly. Hence its effect may not be
significant. Certain geographic changes sometimes produce great social change.
Climate, storms, social erosion, earthquakes, floods, droughts etc., definitely affect
social life and induce social change. Human life is closely bound up with the
geographical conditions of the earth. Human history is full of examples that flourishing
civilizations fell prey to natural calamities. The distribution of population over various
264
B.Ed - 15101
regions, the variations in the population densities, the agricultural production, flora and
fauna, the joys and hardships – all indicate a change when a change in the physical
environment occurs. What to talk of rise and fall of civilizations, even our day-to-day
life – our clothes, eating material and habits, shelter design etc., all are influenced by
the geographical conditions. Generally, changes in physical environment force
migration of people in large numbers and this brings major changes in social life and
cultural values also. Migration itself encourages change, for it brings a group into a
new environment, subject to its new social contacts, and confronts it with new
problems.
Though physical environment it an important factor which deeply affects social life,
still it cannot be regarded as the only factor responsible for the growth of human
society. Men adapt themselves to their environment but they have the capacity to
transform their physical environment according to their needs and requirements.
Bennett and Tumin (1949) aptly remarked: “It is perhaps as reasonable, if not more so
to insist that man modifies his physical environment rather than the environment
modifies man.”
b) Ideas: Creative ideas are ambassadors of social change. Ideas are important
in social change. Marx argued that social conditions shape people’s ideologies, not the
other way round. But Weber gave prominence to ideas. Durkheim stated that social
conditions give rise to ideas but ideas once expressed develop a life of their own and
they act on society and create change.
c) Technology
Technology is a major source of social change. The more advanced a society’s
technology, the more rapid social change tends to be. In this regard, Ogburn has
expressed his views, "Technology strongly changes society by changing our
environments to which we in turn adapt. This change is usually in the material
environment and the adjustment we make to the changes often modifies customs and
social institutions. In this way, the incessant increase in new machines and methods,
265
B.Ed - 15101
due to new discoveries, has had a very great influence upon social relationships. The
form of society is undergoing change as a result of the development and invention of
electric, steam and petrol driven machines for production, the means of transport and
communication and various mechanical appliances in everyday life. Even institutions
like family and marriage have not remained immune to the effect of these
developments. The explicit effects of technological advancement are labour
organization, division of labour, specialization, high speed of life, increase in
production, etc. In the modern-age technological factors are among the predominant
causes of social changes.
d) Population Demographic (Biological) Factor

The size of a population has a strong influence on social organization. Broadly
speaking demography is concerned with the size and structure of human population.
The social structure of a society is closely related with the changes in the size,
composition and distribution of population. The size of the population is based mainly
upon three factors – birth rate, death rate and migration (immigration and emigration).
The composition of population depends upon variables like age, sex, marital status,
literacy etc. Changes in demographic structure, which may be caused by changes in
mortality rates, will produce changes in the ratio of breadwinners to dependents. Such
a change can have consequences for the structure of family, kinship, political and other
institutions. The size of population affects each of us quite personally. Whether we are
born into a growing or a shrinking population has a bearing on our educations, the age
at which we marry, our ability to get a job, the taxes we pay and many other factors.
Population analysis shows that there is a relationship between population changes and
economic, social and cultural variables like poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, family
structure, forms of marriage, work etc. Population growth is the most important factor
in poverty. Poverty is related with health and the size of the family also. Nations with
266
B.Ed - 15101
large population (e.g., China and India) are more poverty-stricken than the counties
which have not much population.
e) Economic Factor: This is considered as one of the contributors of social change.
This factor takes three things into cognizance. (i) Primary (ii) Secondary (iii) Tertiary.
Primary includes agriculture and extraction of natural resources, such as mining,
fishing, forestry and other resource generating works. Secondary covers manufacturing
the conversion of raw resources into finished products and tertiary consists of services.
Economic factors are important for social change to occur. For example, low per capita
income of a citizen of a country affects consumption pattern, savings, investment, and
above all production.
According to Karl Marx and some other similar thinkers, "social change is
essentially determined by these economic changes. Marx further expressed that
material or economic conditions of life changes the structure of society. The changes in
economic conditions out rightly influence the societal works. In general way, one can
readily discern difference in the pattern of social changes that exist in the agricultural
stage, the hunting stage and ultimately the modern stage. It is believed that when any
society changes over from the hunting stage to the agricultural stage many social
changes take place. Today, we witness that economic factor has contributed much in
shaping the living pattern of people. Man has come out from a mud house to concrete
house, and from cart to aero-planes. Starvation, hunger and other related evils have
been conquered by man because of a good production. Man has raised his standard of
living due to the economic strength. In short, economic factor is one of the forces of
social change.
g). Political Factor: Political factors like political system of a country, foreign
policy, etc. affects social change. For example, democratic political system in India is
causing social change in line with parliamentary system of democracy. In America,
social change is in progress in line with presidential system of democracy. In China,
communism is bringing change in Chinese society according to philosophy of
267
B.Ed - 15101
communism. Political philosophies and actions also affect foreign relations, foreign aid
which have their own implications on social, economic and psychological factors.
Political decisions in different countries are different on environmental issues,
population regulation, drug abuse, literacy, education, economic decisions, industry etc.
Hence, social change in a society depends much upon political factors. According to
Marx social changes take place as a result of political revolution. In India Britishers
were forced to leave the land when national leaders like Matama Gandhi, Sardar Patel,
S. C. Bose Bal Ganga Tilk joined the struggle and achieved freedom. The bondage of
slavery got ended. Power was transferred to people, thus the struggle worked as a force
in bringing the social change.
h). Cultural Factor: The main source of social change is the cultural factor.
Cultural factors consist of values, beliefs, ideals and ideologies, morals and manners. It
is said that changes in the culture are accompanied by social changes. In this regard,
Max Weber has proved this hypothesis by a comparative study of religious and
economic institutions. Actually, no one can deny that changes and variations in culture
inevitably influence social relationships. Culture gives speed and direction to social
change and determines the limits beyond which social changes cannot occur. This,
however, does not warrant the conclusion that there is no distinction between social and
cultural change. Actually, the field of social change is limited in comparison with the
field of cultural change.
In addition to the above mentioned factors, another factor of social change is the
appearance of new opinions and thoughts. For example, changes in the attitudes
towards dowry, caste system, women’s education, etc., have resulted in widespread
social variations and modifications. In fact, a majority of the social revolutions take
place as a result of the evolution of new ways of thinking. Similarly, war is also a cause
of social change because it influences the population, economic situation and ratio of
males to females, etc. In the same way, social changes are introduced by the advent of
great thinkers as Tagore, Gandhi, Dewey and Karl Marx, etc.
268
B.Ed - 15101
16.8 Theories of Social Change
A number of general theories of social change have been proposed by sociologists,

historians, and anthropologists. The theories can be grouped into four main categories:
evolutionary, cyclical, functional and conflict theories. Brief description of each
perspective is given below:
Evolutionary Perspective
The assumption is that societies gradually change from simple beginnings into more
complex forms. In the 19th century, Auguste Comte believed that human societies
evolve along a three step evolutionary process. These stages are the theological,
metaphysical, and scientific/positivistic. In the theological state, society members'
places were determined by God or their religion. In the metaphysical, the state and
other large organizations assume control over man's everyday affairs. In the final stage,
science and reason reign supreme. The evolutionary theories of social change are
generally based on the assumption that human societies and individuals too gradually
and continuously change from complex to simple forms and structures. Early
sociologists, especially Auguste Comte believed that all human societies have evolved
in a unilateral way. They held the view that social change primarily meant progress
towards something better. They considered this process in the evolutionary frameworks
as positive, beneficial and necessary. They further believed that social change will
ultimately take the human society to the higher level of civilization.
The evolutionary view of social change was influenced mainly by Charles

Darwin's theory of 'Organic Evolution', The evolutionists argued that human societies
must have evolved from primitive-simple model to modern-complex model as has
happened in the Western world. Herbert Spencer, a classical sociologist, adopted this
view in its extreme form. He made it clear that the human society as an organism has
269
B.Ed - 15101
been gradually progressing towards a better state and shifted from military society to
industrial society. He also upheld that the Western races, classes and societies had
evolved because they were betted adapted to face the conditions of life. However,
some evolutionary theorists disagreed with the view that West is at the apex of
development. Karl Marx claimed that progress could sometimes mask a growth in
people's alienation. As societies develop, argued, people can lose control over what
they have produced through their own activities. The result is a highly developed
society which, continues to divided rather than unite its members and which increases
the distance between while people do and the fruits of what they do. In this
background; Marx presented an alternative evolutionary view which included a cycle
view as well. He believes that society would evolve to a point at which all people
would live together peace based on equality of ownership in the means of production.
Emile Durkhiem also claimed that the increased specialization and individualism of
modern life would result in growth, but not necessarily growth for the better. He
foresaw an increasing breakdown in organic solidarity as societies became more
complex more individualized and more fragmented, with their member more cut off
from one another. The member of such a society would be characterized by increasing
isolation as common moral values were abandoned and social contracts deteriorated.
Such a development would not lead to a better life but to the ultimate abandonment of
all that is good in Western culture. Thus, Durkheim's theory is an example of theories
of linear development that result from negative than positive change. Similarly Rogers
Service developed a theory of cultural evolution in which societies develop from
kinship-centric systems into law-based systems. Service's theory posits that material
inequality only arises with the development of these law-based systems whereas under
the kinship societies, the only conflict was for power among different families.
B) Stage Theories: Stage theory advocates that social change takes place through
various stages. Following are the two theories which pertain to the stage perspective.
270
B.Ed - 15101
Lewis H. Morgan:
Morgan, like Edward Burnett Tylor, believed that civilization goes through three stages
on the path towards 'civilized society.' Morgan's stages were "hunter-gatherer,"
"agriculture and metalwork," and a third stage contingent on the development of the
written word.
Lewin’s Model of Change
This model states that change involves a move from one static state via a progressional
shift, to another static state. The model, also known as Unfreeze-Change-Refreeze,
comprises a three-stage process of 1) unfreezing, 2) changing and 3) re-freezing.
Phase Action
Unfreeze Create Initial motivation to change by convincing

people that current state is undesirable
Change Identity new behavior and norms. Communicate.
Adopt new attitudes and Culture
Refreeze Reinforce new behavior through reward systems,
communications, structures etc.
Lewin’s Model of Change
Stage 1: Unfreeze
This stage involves creating the right conditions for change to occur. By resisting
change, people often attach a sense of identity to their environment. In this state,
alternatives, even beneficial ones, will initially cause discomfort. The challenge is to
move people from this 'frozen' state to a 'change ready' or 'unfrozen' state.
Stage 2: Transition
The transitional 'journey' is central to Lewin's model and at the psychological level it is
typically a period of confusion. People are aware that the old ways are being
271
B.Ed - 15101
challenged, but there is no clear understanding of the new ways which will replace
them. As roles change, a reduced state of efficiency is created, where goals are
significantly lowered. Good leadership is important, and coaching, counseling or
psychological support may be needed. The end goal of this stage is to get people to the
'unfrozen' state and keep them there.
Stage 3: Refreeze
The end goal of the model is to achieve a 'refreeze', re-establishing a new place of
stability and elevate comfort levels by reconnecting people back into their safe, familiar
environment. Refreezing takes people from a period of low productivity in the
transitional state to a stable and productive state.
C) Cyclical Theories
This group of scholars focused on the fact civilizations had risen and fallen.
Civilizations are compared to organism which has a life. It has birth, maturity, old age
and death. All creativity takes place in the early stage of the cycle. The civilization
matures as it loses its original inspiration and declines. Arnold Toynbee (1946)
explained the change in societies in terms of challenges and responses. Sorokin (1937)
came out with the thought each societies cyclically swing between ‘sensate’ culture
which emphasizes materialistic things and ‘ideational’ culture which emphasizes those
things that can be perceived by mind only – things like faith and ultimate truth. Cyclical
changes take place in response to the changes in preferences of people of society
between ‘sensate’ and ideational’ cultures.
Oswald Spangler and Arnold Toynbee are the two famous advocates of the
cyclical interpretation of social change. Spangler began with a unit of social change
which he called culture. A culture is a group of people united by a unique spirit of life
which enlivens their art, religion, philosophy politics, sports, technologies and
economies- all the elements that form a society. Culture undergoes change in imitation
of the seasons of the year and of the nature, during its spring, a culture is agriculture,
rural and feudal; such a culture is mirrored in its heroes and the myths that describe
272
B.Ed - 15101
them. During its summer, a culture begins to establish towns that, as yet, are not
separate from their rural roots. At this stage, the culture is led by an aristocracy which
controls the society. Autumn brings the fruition of the seeds planted during the spring
and nurtured during the summer. The culture's particular spirit is expressed in its
growing cities, increased commerce and centralized monarchies; religion is challenged
by philosophy and science. At the same time, autumn brings the beginning of a
disintegration that is concluded during the winter. Winter is marked by imperialism,
political tyranny, constant warfare, and the appearance of large cities, workers without
geographic roots, esoteric art and rule by the wealthy. The culture has lost its spirit and
has hardened into a bureaucracy that supports the wealthy; the workers have lost their
spirit and purpose for living.
Arnold Toynbee criticized Spangler for not being scientific and proposed a
civilization within which he discerned certain rhythms. He believed that a civilization
grows when it respond creatively to the challenges of its minorities and declines when
the leadership cannot respond. Neither growth nor disintegration is determined. A
phase of experienced disintegration is frequently succeeded by a phase of power and
control-but not for long, because usually, when leadership does creatively respond to
the challenges, a short time later a deeper' relapse usually occurs. One knows when a
civilization is declining because creativity lessens and standardization increase.
Similarly, Spencer believed human society inevitably progressed because it responded
to an ever-changing environment around it. The goal of this progress is happiness and
prosperity. Spencer's theory was based on a central tenet of human freedom, as he
argued that social evolution could not be something forced on people.
1 6.9 Education and Social Change
The role of education as an agent or instrument of social change and social

development is widely acknowledged today. Social change may take place naturally as
well as when humans need change. When the existing social system or network of
273
B.Ed - 15101
social institutions fails to meet the existing human needs and when new materials
suggest better ways of meeting human needs. According to Maclver, social change
takes place as a response to many types of changes that take place in the social and
nonsocial environment. Education can initiate social changes by bringing about a
change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a change in the pattern of
social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.
Earlier educational institutions and teachers used to show a specific way of life
to the students and education was more a means of social control than an instrument of
social change. Modern educational institutions do not place much emphasis upon
transmitting a way of life to the students. The traditional education was meant for an
unchanging static society not marked by any change. But today education aims at
imparting knowledge. Earlier, education was much associated with religion but now it
has become secular today. It is an independent institution now. Education has been
chiefly instrumental in preparing the way for the development of science and
technology. Education has brought about phenomenal changes in every aspect of men’s
life. Francis J. Brown remarks that education is a process which brings about changes
in the behavior of society. It is a process which enables every individual to effectively
participate in the activities of society and to make positive contribution to the progress
of society. One of the most powerful means of propagating and sustaining new
developments in is the system of education available in a society. Education is the
means for organized transmission of society’s collective knowledge to each next
generation by the previous generation. It equips each new generation to face the
opportunities and challenges of the future with the knowledge gathered from the past. It
shows the young generation the opportunities that lie ahead for them and thereby raises
their aspiration to achieve more. The information imparted by education raises youth’s
level of expectations as well as their aspirations for higher income. It also equips them
with the mental capacity to devise ways and means to improve productivity and
enhance living standards. More than a century ago, Emile Durkheim rejected the idea
274
B.Ed - 15101
that education could be the force to transform society and resolve social ills. Instead,
Durkheim concluded that education “can be reformed only if society itself is
reformed.” He argued that education “is only the image and reflection of society. It
imitates and reproduces the latter…it does not create it” (Durkheim, 1897/1951: 372-
373).
Education plays an important role in the process of social change. It is a very
potential instrument, a powerful medium of bringing about changes in the society. It is
through education that society creates a new order with respect to the changing
situations viz-a-viz. knowledge, new ideas and other means of social progress. It
promotes democratic values, human resources, dignity of labour, global outlook and
above all mutual understanding. It is the tool which tries to ensure equality of
opportunity. Besides, it inculcates the spirit of national unity. Education is considered
as an agent of social change and there is no denying in the fact that it is influenced by
social change. Both are interdependent on each other. The relationship between
education and social change is studied in three ways as quoted by Mattoo in his book
Foundations of Education. :
1. Education as an instrument of social change.
2. Education as an effect of social change.
3. Education as a condition of social change.
1. Education as an Instrument of Social Change: Education is regarded as an
instrument of social change. It believes that education can engage itself in much
positive action and can perform the function of a starter of social change. It can
inculcate in the younger generation what ever social changes it considers proper and
can rebuild society through a programme of social reform. As mentioned earlier,
education can initiate social change by bringing about a change in the outlook and
attitudes of men. It brings changes in the pattern of social relationships, social
interactions and other similar points of view. Education is considered as the expression
of authority of some social forces and in return these forces influence our policies to a
275
B.Ed - 15101
greater extent. In other attempt we witness advancement in various fields like science
and technology, industries and other productive sectors. People have been alleviated
from low economic status by various schemes of societal uplifting. This has extremely
changed the structure of the society. Education works like a tool in bringing these
developments and today we see that age-old beliefs have under gone tremendous
changes.
2. Education as an Effect of Social Change: Education is considered as an effect
of social change. These changes first come and consequently society needs to recast
education as a social institution. This may cause numerous adjustments and adaptations
within a single educational organization, within major segments of the educational
system and within the educational system as a whole. In India e.g. after independence,
we have introduced major changes in polity, economy and in religious, social and
technological fields. We have adopted new values and goals such as democracy,
freedom of individual, secularism, equality, social justice, industrial development,
socialistic pattern of society, evaluation of the status of individual on the basis of
individual abilities and so on. In short, education works in such a way that it brings
about phenomenal changes in every aspect of man's life. Education is both retrospective
and prospective. It is both conservative and progressive. Education transmits the culture
of one generation to another. The rising generation has not only to be conveyed the
activities and experiences of the past generation and asked to carry on those activities
but it has also to be asked to make necessary changes in these activities and experiences
to meet the new situations which it will meet. An integration of the old must take place
with the new ones. It must be remembered that the communities live in the present, on
the past and for the future. This means that activities and experiences in the present
have to be built on then past and the present will guide the activities of the future. Thus,
education is continuous, re-organization and integration of activities and experiences.
Education is a constructive agency for improving our society. Brown has rightly stated,
"Education brings changes in behaviour, and if its main functions are to remain mere
276
B.Ed - 15101
transmission or enrichment of culture, it will fall short of its role in a dynamic society.
Education must also provide situations at all age levels but within the maturity and
ability of the individual to stimulate a creativeness of mind, which can explore new
horizons and bring the vision of the future into a living reality."
3. Education as a Condition of Social Change: In this aspect education reflects
society and educational change follows social change. Education conditions the
developmental aspects of the society. Here the function of education is to train the
intellect and transmit what is permanently worthwhile in the cultural heritage. It regards
it only as an institution of learning. Education as a condition has further been explained
when we think of changes in new ideas, new economic goals, new reasoning and
diffusion of cultures. Education becomes a foundation for these changes. If we do not
educate tribal’s and down trodden communities and the weaker sections of the society,
they will remain as such. No modernity is possible unless people are conditioned
through education. This condition comes through various progressive policies of
national character e.g. universal literacy, equalization whether political, social or any
other. Education helps us in women’s empowerment and consequently, women demand
for rights. This means that it is education that changes the behaviour pattern of all the
sections of society. This finally breeds social change.
The relationship between education and social change is summarized in the
following lines:
1. Education prepares the individual for social change. It brings a change in the
need-dispositions and also creates frustrations with the status quo.
2. Education initiates the social changes and gives them a direction and
purpose.
3. Education creates the social reformers and leaders who consciously make all
efforts to bring about social change.
277
B.Ed - 15101
Social Functions of Education for Social Change

According to H. C. Dent, a national system of education has two functions to
perform: a traditional preservation function and a growth facilitating function. He
further advocates that a time of social flux both these functions become
overwhelmingly important. Some scholars are of the view that education has to perform
the following three functions:
1. Conservation of traditional heritage.
2. Adjustment and growth of the present society.
3. Creation of a suitable base for new order and new ideas which should
become an instrument of social change in the future.
For performing the above mentioned social functions, education has to establish
the following linkages:
1. Education should link the past with existing realities of the present nation
identity and the emerging future goals and aspirations of the society.
2. For achieving meaningful national integration, education should establish
proper linkage of the urban elite and the rural people. This task can be
performed through providing equal opportunities for education. Programmes
of formal and non-formal education through various types of institutions
should be organized extensively in the rural areas.
3. There is a need for closer involvement of the students and the community in
educational programmes for developing a 'sense of belongingness and
creating necessary enthusiasm for social change.
4. Science and spirituality should be linked together.
5. Formal education should be linked to the world of work and the world of
culture to serve the need of the social change.
278
B.Ed - 15101
Functions of Education in Bringing Social Change

In the words of Dr. Radhakrishnan, "Education is an agent for social change.
What in simpler societies was done by the family, the religious, social and political
institutions has to be done by educational institutions today." Education has various
functions to perform and these are detailed as:
1. Assistance in adopting social change: Whenever some social change occurs, it
is easily adopted by some people while others find it very difficult to adjust themselves
to this change. It is the function of education to assist people in adopting good and
better change.
2. Overcoming resistance to change: Certain factors create resistance in the way
of accepting social change. Education helps in overcoming resistance. The importance
of social change is convincingly explained to the people through the process of
education. Education helps people in removing blind faith to timed owl nature and
accepting of something new.
3. Analysis in change: Education invests the individual with the capacity to use
his intellectual potential, to distinguished between good and bad and to establish certain
ideals. Education determines the values which act as a criterion for the analysis of
social change. Through this analysis as a criticism, undesirable social changes are
prevented and desirable social changes are encouraged. In every society, this is
achieved only through the efforts of rational and educated people.
4. Emergence of new changes: Education initiates, guides and controls
movements for social reform. The flood of social reform movements that was
witnessed at the turn of the century was due to modern means of education. Education
help in agitating public opinion towards the abolition of many social evils such as child
marriage, objection to widow remarriage, unequal rights to women, the custom of
women committing sati etc. Education helps in recognizing the importance of such
changes. It was through education alone that public opinion could be turned in favour
of these changes. Reform movements such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj, the
279
B.Ed - 15101
Rama Krishna Mission and the Christian Missions used education as an instrument to
bring about social change.
5. Leadership in social change: Education must be able to create appropriate
leadership at every level, if social changes conducive to democracy are to be
introduced. Efficient leaders can be produced only through education. Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Swami Dayanand Saraswati, Swami Vivekananda, Mahatama Gandhi,
Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah (Sheeri Kashmir) highly
educated and enlightened Indians made all efforts at conscious level to bring about the
social changes.
6. Advances in the sphere of knowledge: New researches and inventions all
depend upon education; because only the educated individuals can search for new
things in every field. Such people can help in the progress of material as well as non-
material culture. Fresh researches in accumulating a good amount of knowledge
provide the right basis for criticism. Thus education contributes to social change by
bringing changes in knowledge.
7. National integration and economic prosperity: Education can prove very
useful in bringing about national integration, economic property and democratization. It
is education which leads people to develop a sense of national unity.
16.10 SOCIAL CHANGE AND LAGS IN INDIAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
In response to social change, educational system must also change. The change
may be in consonance with the social change and meet the new goals and demands of
various social groups adequately. Otherwise a lag is created between the goals and
demands of the society and the goals and demands of the educational system. A number
of such lags have occurred in the Indian educational system after independence and in
many ways perform a dysfunctional role in Indian society. This has been accepted by
the Kothari Commission very clearly. It reported:
280
B.Ed - 15101
“As is well known, the existing system of education is largely unrelated to life
and there is a wide gulf between its content and purposes and the concerns of
national development.
Instead of promoting social and national integration and making an active effort
to promote national consciousness, several features of the educational system
promote divisive tendencies; caste loyalties are encouraged in a number of
private educational institutions; the rich and poor are segregated, the former
attending the better type of private schools which charge fees while the latter
are forced, out of circumstances, to attend free government or local authority
schools of poor quality.”
Let us examine some of these lags in detail:
Lag in good and adequate school buildings.
Efforts to implement the constitutional directive regarding free and compulsory

education have brought children of lower classes in education. The enrolment of
children in rural areas has increased a great deal. However, most of the villages lack
good and adequate school buildings and even adequate number of classrooms and
teachers.
Lag in school timing.
The British introduced a year round operation with a summer vacation to suit their
needs. As the schools and colleges in those days were largely confined to big cities and
towns, no difficulties had arisen as regards attendance of students. Now, when the
school has spread to rural areas, this cannot work as village children are needed for
assistance in work during the agricultural season and consequently they remain absent
for many days in school.
281
B.Ed - 15101
Lag in curriculum
Today, the primary and secondary student population has become heterogeneous in
terms of aspirations, abilities, socio-economic status and rural-urban upbringing. The
needs and abilities of these different groups are different and sometimes the margins
are very wide. Yet, in India, we go on with only one curricular programme with hardly
any variation in the teaching and evaluating methods.
Lag in educational continuity and teacher training
The explosion of knowledge makes it difficult for one person to know everything in his
subject. This necessitates refresher courses for teachers and technical employees at all
levels. The concept of continuing education also becomes relevant.
Lag in evolving a common communication medium
The need to teach children in their mother-tongue at all levels has been recognized, but
the efforts to realize these objectives are partial and halting. In India, we have the
strange phenomenon of students studying through regional medium upto graduation
and then required to learn through English medium at the post-graduate level. And even
when the number of students who have learnt through the regional medium swells,
English still remains the medium of instruction in a significantly large number of
higher educational institutions. Besides, the medium of transaction of political,
administrative, legal and economic processes in the country still continues to be
English.
Briefly speaking, the relationship between education and social change is summarized
in the following lines:
282
B.Ed - 15101
1. Education prepares the individual for social change. It brings a change in the
need-dispositions and also creates frustrations with the status quo.
2. Education initiates the social changes and gives them a direction and purpose.
3. Education creates the social reformers and leaders who consciously make all
efforts to bring about social change.
4. Social change creates the awareness among people bout importance of
education.
5. Social change promotes literacy and educational progrmmes.
16.11 Constraints on Social Change in India
India is a country of diversities in terms of caste, class, language, ethnicity,

religion, region etc. All these diversities make India a multi-cultural colourful country
as each culture has its own festivals to celebrate, each region has freedom of promotion
of its own language, each caste has its profession, occupation to be followed if so
wished and ritual, rites to be performed according to varied religions. No other country
of the world has such cultural variety. Every citizen of India participates in the progress
of country irrespective of caste s/he is born into or religion s/he follows. Every Indian
loves India. History is evident to this fact that whenever India faced any problem which
threatened India’s security as a nation; people of India have fought together with such
anti-forces. But sometimes the diversities mentioned above become bone of contention
when people give too much importance to their caste, class, religion, language and
cease to be broadminded enough to think about social welfare on the whole.
Superstitions ingrained in the caste system sometimes do not let people change their
mindsets and they continue to be what they are. These cause bottlenecks in the way of
making changes in the society as society is made up of people so it is people who have
to change actually.
Indian society is religious a society. But people understand only narrow
meaning of religion which is only following of rituals and rites. Such religious beliefs
283
B.Ed - 15101
as that a son can only perform the last rites of parents has given rise to low sex ration in
many states of India and female foeticides and infanticides are on the rise despite of
rise in access to education.
Historically some castes were considered superior to others. Even after
independence and constitutional provisions to bring them at par with each other, social
stigma continues to label lower castes as lower castes which is again a constraint to
social change. We see lot of honour killings in the name of caste which shows that
people have not changed since centuries. The leaders which we elect to bring about
change in the society in a positive way themselves seek caste, religion and region based
vote-banks. So we can well imagine how difficult it is to bring about social change in
the Indian society. Social reformers in the past had to make lot of sacrifices to bring
about positive changes in the Indian society.
The major constraints of social change in India are as:
1. Caste: It is also one of the obstacles in India in the process of social change.
2. Ethnicity: It is also one of the obstacles in India in the process of social change.
3. Class: It is also one of the obstacles in India in the process of social change.
4. Religion: Religion also acts as a obstacle in bringing many positive social
changes in India like family planning,
5. Region: In India there are number of regions with different cultures s result it
becomes some times very difficult to bring some desired social changes.
6. Illiteracy: it also acts as a constraint for various changes.
16.12 Let Us Sum Up
In this lesson, we have studied about change and social change. Scope and nature of
social change has also been discussed. Factors and mechanism of social change has also
been dealt with. Some theories of social change have been given so that to understand
the history and process of social change. We have also tried to make you understand
how education can help bring about social change. Social change cannot be brought
284
B.Ed - 15101
about easily in a society such as Indian society because there are many constraints to
social change in it. Such constraints include caste, class, religion, language and various
regions etc. which do not let the society change as people do not change their mindsets
easily as compared to their life-styles brought about by science and technology.
Q. No 1. Give suggestions on what should be done to minimize the constraints to social

change in the Indian society?
Q. No 2. What major social changes have been witnessed in India before and after
Independence? Discuss with examples?
Q. No 3. Differentiate between the terms social change, development and progress
 Rawat H. K. (2007). Sociology: Basic Concepts New Delhi: Rawat

Publications
 Robertson, Ian (1977), Sociology, Worth Publishers, Inc., New York.
 Matto, M.I (2011). Foundations of Education New Delhi: Dilpreet Publications
 A Very Detailed Web Resource on Change Theories : The Global Social
Change Research Project http://gsociology.icaap.org/
 Garry Jacobs and N. Asokan, "Towards a Comprehensive Theory of
Social Development" in Human Choice. (World Academy of Art & Science,
1999), 152.
 Harlan Cleveland and Garry Jacobs, ” The Genetic Code for Social
Development.” in: Human Choice. (World Academy of Art & Science, 1999), 7
 Barbara Somervill. Nicolaus Copernicus: Father of Modern Astronomy.
(Compass Point Books, 2005, ISBN 0756510589)
285
B.Ed - 15101
 Cleveland, Harlan and Jacobs, Garry,”The Genetic Code for Social

Development” in: Human Choice. World Academy of Art & Science, 1999, 7.
 Haferkamp, Hans, and Neil J. Smelser, eds. Social Change and Modernity.
Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1992. Retrieved December 17,
2007.
 Jacobs, Garry, et al. Kamadhenu: The Prosperity Movement. India: Southern
Publications, 1988.
 Noble, Trevor. Social Theory and Social Change. Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
ISBN 978-0312233297
 Somervill, Barbara. Nicolaus Copernicus: Father of Modern Astronomy.
Compass Point Books, 2005. ISBN 0756510589
 Vago, Steven. Social Change, Fifth Edition. Prentice Hall, 2003. ISBN 978-
0131115569
 Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Seabury.

 Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Robertson, Ian (1977), Sociology, Worth Publishers, Inc., New York.
 The Global Social Change Research Project
http://gsociology.icaap.org/
286

Programme: University of Kashmir

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Programme: University of Kashmir

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Programme: University of Kashmir

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

B. Ed.

Directorate of Distance Education

Showkat Rashid Wani

Programme Coordinator and Format Editing

Course Co-ordination Team

Prof. Neelofar Khan

Prof. (Dr.) Neelofar Khan

Year of Publication: 2016

© Directorate of Distance Education

Unit I Education and Philosophy

i) Nature & Meaning of Education

Unit II Major Educational Philosophies and

Unit III Education & the Social Frame of Reference

Unit IV Culture & Social Change

Wish u a happy reading!

Lesson No Theme Page No

1. Nature, Meaning And Scope of Education 1-32

2. Meaning and Scope of Philosophy 33-46

3. Relationship of Education and Philosophy 47-56

7. Mahatma Gandhi: Basic Education 110-125

8. Swami Vivekananda: Man Making 126-154

9. Froebel: The Play Way Method 155-172

10. Montessori-The Didactic Apparatus 173-195

11. Education and Democracy 196-208

12. Education and Socialism 209-219

13. Education and National Integration 220-223

15. Education and Culture 239-251

16. Education and Social Change 252-286

LESSON NO: 01 NATURE, MEANING AND SCOPE OF

1.2 Meaning of Education

1.3 Banking and Problem Posing Concept of Education

1.4 Education as a Fundamental Right

1.5 Four Pillars of Education as Recommended by Delor’s Report

1.6 Nature and Modes of Education

1.7 Morphology of Indian Educational System

1.8 Scope of Education

1.9 Let us Sum Up

1.10 Check your Progress

1.11 Suggested Readings

After going this lesson, you should be able to:

1.2 Meaning of Education

Education is a perennial process originating from the origin of humankind. When

Education: How Thinkers View it?

4. According to Gandhiji, “Education is drawing out of the best in child - body,

1.3 Banking and Problem Posing Concept of Education

Banking Concept of Education

Paulo Freire, a Brazilian thinker was highly critical of prevailing educational

Teacher-Taught Relationship under Banking Education

Problem Posing Concept of Education

As against banking concept of education which considers consciousness as ‘an

being, as consciousness is directed towards the world. Problem-posing education as

Banking and Problem-Posing Education - A Comparison

The fundamental difference between the banking and problem-posing educational

Banking Concept of Education Problem-Posing Education

Dichotomizes man-world relations. No dichotomous relations.

Dichotomizes teacher – student relations Resolves the dichotomy.

1.4 Education as a Fundamental Right

The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory

Citation Official Act