Romblon State University: Prepared By: Elena R. Rodeo RSU-Cajidiocan

Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University

Romblon, Philippines
Prepared by:
Elena R. Rodeo
RSU-Cajidiocan
Environmental Science 1
MODULE 3 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
Module Overview
Module 3 covers 3 lessons. Lesson 3.1 discusses terrestrial ecosystem, Lesson 3.2
enumerates and explains the different freshwater ecosystems and Lesson 3.3 describes
marine ecosystems.
Module Outcomes
1. Classified ecosystems according to their general similarities in structure.

2. Learnt that the combination of average precipitation and average temperature
determine the particular type of desert, grassland, or forest found in a given area.
3. Identified physical, chemical, and biotic factors in oceans, estuaries, rivers, streams,
lakes and aquifers that influence biodata, and the ecosystem functions and services.
4. Recognized biodiversity at the scale of terrestrial ecosystems, the main types and
several types.
5. Outlined the key aspects of aquatic environments.
6. Independently and in groups, plan and carry out field studies and laboratory
experiments as well as critically analyze and evaluate results.
LESSON 3.1 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the different types and the structure of ecosystem.

2. Identify the biotic and abiotic components for each type of ecosystem.
3. Express in own words the function/significance of a certain ecosystem.
Introduction
It is useful to classify ecosystems according to their general similarities

in structure. The three major types of terrestrial ecosystems biomes are: deserts,
grasslands, and forests. Each is composed of a distinct set of plants, animals,
temperature range, amount of precipitation and soil type. They exist under different
latitudinal and altitudinal locations.
Activity
Directions: Answer the following based on your previous lessons.

1. Differentiate biotic from abiotic components of ecosystem.
Biotic _________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Abiotic ________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. Give at least five examples for each component.

Biotic ___________________ ____ Abiotic _______________________
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ _______________________
_______________________ _______________________
Analysis
Directions: In your specific place, what major terrestrial ecosystem is/are present? Make
a table and list down all the biotic and abiotic components.
BIOTIC ABIOTIC
1. Forest
2. Grassland
3. Desert
Abstraction
Terrestrial ecosystem is different from aquatic ecosystem with lower water

availability. It comprises a community of organism and their environment that occurs on
the landmasses of continents and islands. There are variations in composition and
geographical variation in terrestrial communities. Terrestrial ecosystem occupy
(144,150,000 km)2 or 28% of earth’s surface. First terrestrial ecosystem appeared some
425 m years ago. Terrestrial ecosystem have been major site of adaptive radiation of
both plants and animals. Various biotic and abiotic elements on land can be looked upon
as different ecosystems based on difference in climate, natural vegetation and animal
life.
Grassland Ecosystem
Grassland ecosystem also known as prairies and savannas. It comprises Savana

Grassland and Temperate Grassland. Grassland occupy roughly 25% of the earth’s
surface. Grasslands occur in interior parts of the continents. As there is no leaching, soil
is fertile. Grasslands are normally situated between a forest and a desert. There is a
grassland on each continent with the exception of Antarctica.
Two Types:
1. Tropical grasslands are located in the Southern Hemisphere.
- experience warm weather all year long
2. Temperate grasslands are located in the Northern Hemisphere.
` - warm part of the year and very cold during the other part
Grasslands are perfect for cropping and pasturing because its soil runs deep and is
extremely fertile. Animals that you can expect to find in a grassland ecosystem are
zebras, lions, wolves, prairie dogs, and foxes.
Various components of grassland ecosystem areas under.
Biotic Components
Biotic components consists of producer, consumer, and decomposers.
Producer – They are mainly grasses of different species. Besides them few shrubs also
contribute to primary production.
Cosumers – Cows, buffaloes, deers, sheep, rabbit, insects etc.
Secondary Consumers - Carnivores like fox, jackal, snake, frog, bird etc.
Tertiary Consumer – Hawks (feeding on snakes)
Decomposers – the microbes like fungi, bacteria and actinomycetes.
Abiotic Components – Nutrients are present in soil and air. Thus elements like
C,H,O,N,P,S etc are supplied by Co2 H2O, nitrates ,phosphates etc.
Forest Ecosystem
Forest occupy nearly 30% of the land area of earth. They are of great importance for
maintaining the ecological balances.
The various components of forest ecosystems include the following:
Biotic Components
Producers- Trees that vary from one type of forest to another. In some forests there are
also shrubs and ground vegetation.
Consumers- Primary Consumer- Herbivores like ants, flies, leaf hoppers, bugs, spiders
etc. Larger herbivores like elephants, deer, Nilgai etc.
Secondary Consumers – Snakes, birds, lizards
Tertiary Consumer – Lion, tigers etc.
Decomposers – Fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes. They are more aggressive in tropical

forests.
Abiotic Components – Organic and inorganic substance present in the soil and
atmosphere, minerals, dead organic debris etc.
Taiga is the largest terrestrial ecosystems and extends across Europe, North
America and Asia. It is also known as coniferous forest or boreal forest. It has short, wet
summers and long, cold winters. It gets plenty of snow during the winter and plenty of
rainfall during the summer.
Desert Ecosystem
This includes the hot and cold deserts of the world and the cold lifeless Tundra.
Deserts occupy 17% of land in regions of annual rainless areas where the rain is less
than 25 cms. The animal life is highly modified to adapt to extreme conditions of desert.
The word tundra comes from the Finnish word tunturia which means treeless land.
There are two types of tundra- arctic tundra and alpine tundra. The arctic tundra is
located within the Arctic Circle while the alpine tundra is the area high in the mountains
above trees. The largest animal that lives in the tundra ecosystems is the polar bear.
Tundra is the coldest and driest of all the terrestrial ecosystems.
Biotic Components
Producers - Shrubs, bushes, grasses, and stunted trees, mosses and lichens in Tundra.
Consumers – Reptiles and insects, Nocturnal rodents, insects, camels
Decomposers – Very limited thermophilic fungi and bacteria.
Abiotic Components
Present in soil, atmosphere, minerals etc.
Desert cover about 20% of

the Earth. The Sahara Desert is
the largest desert in the desert
ecosystem. It covers over 300
million square miles. Many desert
animals tend to be nocturnal,
sleeping during the day and
coming out at night when the
temperatures are more tolerable.
There is hardly any standing water
in the desert, animals either store
water in their bodies or get their
water needs met by the foods they
eat.
Dust storms occur when the
wind picks up dust from the surface. These storms can be up to 1 mile high and travel
over a hundred miles. The desert ecosystem can be found on every continent except
Europe. Body fat retains heat, most animals have an adaptation that allows them to
store all their body fat in one area of their body. The camel stores all its body fat in its
hump.
The plants that are able to grow in the desert biome store water in their stem.
They normally grow spaced out so that their roots can extend and find water. Cacti
have many adaptions to survive in the desert. Their spines protect them from being
eaten by animals and their waxy outer covering keeps moisture from escaping.
Application
1. What is/are the function of terrestrial ecosystem? Discuss.

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. As a student especially a science major, how will you show to the people around you
that you have a great concern to terrestrial ecosystem?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Closure
Great job! You are with the lesson terrestrial ecosystem which comprises a community of
organism and their environment that occurs on the landmasses of continents and
islands. The next lesson will be discussing freshwater ecosystem.
LESSON 3.2 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss hydrological cycle and fresh water availability.
2. Identify the environmental factors that influence freshwater biodiversity.
3. Conduct a survey of freshwater ecosystems identifying the biotic and abiotic
components and its classes.
4. Cite the importance of freshwater ecosystem.
Introduction
Freshwater ecosystems are valued for many

reasons, as they provide vital ecosystem
services for humans (e.g., drinking water,
flood control, climate regulation, food
production) but such services are not the
primary focus of this module. Likewise,
specific conservation threats and strategies
are also not the focus of this module.
Instead, our goal is to help students develop a
framework for critical thinking about the
ecological structure, function, and distribution
of freshwater ecosystems.
Activity
Look a freshwater ecosystem near to your specific places. List down all the biotic and
abiotic components that you found there. For the biotic component, for example plants,
give its specific names (English/Tagalog/Local)
Analysis
Based on your study, identify the class of the different biotic component.
Biotic Components Class

1. Plants Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
a. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
b.
c.
2. Animals Vertebrates, Invertebrates, Amphibians,
a. Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
b.
c.
Abstraction
Hydrological Cycle
All freshwater ecosystems are regulated by the hydrological cycle, the continuous
process of water movement between states. This process can be viewed as steps of
water storage and transport (Figure 1). Evaporation and evapotranspiration (i.e., water
produced from vegetative respiration) move liquid water to atmospheric gas, then
precipitation moves atmospheric water into liquid form and into streams, rivers, and
lakes. Downstream flow then moves the liquid water into “storage” areas including
groundwater, lakes, or the ocean. The length of time water remains in a particular place
(i.e., retention time) varies based on several factors, including the size and shape of
lakes, the connectivity to the groundwater (or water table, defined as the underground
areas that are fully water-saturated), and the configuration of streams and rivers (e.g.,
flowing to oceans versus flowing to lakes). It is important to note that the hydrological
cycle is ultimately driven by solar energy: without solar-driven evaporation, freshwater
ecosystems as we know them would not exist.
Total Fresh Water
Depending on where one lives, freshwater ecosystems may seem endless (e.g.,
Boundary Waters and Voyagers National Park, North America or Lake Baikal, Russia) or
limited and remote (e.g., Atacama Desert, South America). A global accounting is
therefore necessary to comprehend the true abundance of fresh water. Of all the water
on Earth, approximately 3% is considered “fresh water” (i.e., salinity < 0.5 parts per
thousand) (Figure 2). Note that rivers and lakes are not visible on this pie chart
because they comprise such a small proportion of the Earth’s total water (Figure 3).
Fresh water Available for Habitat
Of the 3% of global water that is fresh water, only an extremely small proportion is
available as habitat for living organisms on the surface of the Earth (Figure 3). The
largest portions of the Earth’s fresh water are locked up as frozen water in the polar ice
caps and glaciers (approximately 70%) or buried underground as groundwater
(approximately 30%). Lakes and rivers comprise a tiny portion of the total fresh water
(approximately 0.3%). When compared to all water on Earth, rivers (including streams)
comprise only 0.0002% of the total volume. In total, available freshwater ecosystems
cover approximately 0.8% of the surface of the Earth. Interestingly, much of the Earth’s
aquatic biodiversity requires the freshwater flowing habitat found in these rare
ecosystems. It is therefore not surprising that flowing-water habitats contain some of the
most imperiled taxa on the planet (see Conservation section, below).
Classification of Habitats
In studies of the ecology of freshwater rivers, habitats are classified as upland and
lowland. Upland habitats are cold, clear, rocky, fast flowing rivers in mountainous areas;
lowland habitats are warm, slow flowing rivers found in relatively flat lowland areas, with
water that is frequently coloured by sediment and organic matter.
Classifying rivers and streams as upland or lowland is important in freshwater
ecology as the two types of river habitat are very different, and usually support very
different populations of fish and invertebrate species.
Upland
In freshwater ecology, upland rivers and

streams are the fast- flowing rivers and
streams that drain elevated or mountainous
country, often onto broad alluvial plains (where
they become lowland rivers). However, altitude
is not the sole determinant of whether a river is
upland or lowland. Arguably the most
important determinants are that of stream
power and course gradient. Rivers with a
course that drops in altitude rapidly will have
faster water flow and higher stream power or
"force of water". This in turn produces the
other characteristics of an upland river - an
incised course, a river bed dominated by
bedrock and coarse sediments, a riffle and
pool structure and cooler water temperatures. Upland Lake
Rivers with a course that drops in altitude very slowly will have slower water flow and
lower force. This in turn produces the other characteristics of a lowland river - a
meandering course lacking rapids, a river bed dominated by fine sediments and higher
water temperatures. Lowland rivers tend to carry more suspended sediment and organic
matter as well, but some lowland rivers have periods of high water clarity in seasonal low
flow periods.
The generally clear, cool, fast-flowing waters and bedrock and coarse sediment
beds of upland rivers encourage fish species with limited temperature tolerances, high
oxygen needs, strong swimming ability and specialized reproductive strategies to
prevent eggs or larvae being swept away. These characteristics also encourage
invertebrate species with limited temperature tolerances, high oxygen needs and
ecologies revolving around coarse sediments and interstices or "gaps" between those
coarse sediments.
Lowland
The generally more turbid, warm, slow-

flowing waters and fine sediment beds of
lowland rivers encourage fish species with
broad temperature tolerances and greater
tolerances to low oxygen levels, and life history
and breeding strategies adapted to these and
other traits of lowland rivers.
These characteristics also encourage
invertebrate species with broad temperature
tolerances and greater tolerances to low
oxygen levels and ecologies revolving around
fine sediments or alternative habitats such as
submerged woody debris ("snags") or
submergent macrophytes ("water weed").
Lowland River
There are four main constituents of the living environment that form the freshwater
ecosystem, they are as follows.
Elements and Compounds of the ecosystem that are absorbed by organisms that are
required as a food source or for respiration. Many of these compounds are required by
plants and passed along the food chain.
Plants which are autotrophic by nature, meaning that they synthesize food by
harnessing energy from inorganic compounds (plants do so by photosynthesis and the
sun); this is done via photosynthesis. These plants (and some bacteria) are the primary
producers, as they produce (and introduce) new energy into the ecosystem.
Consumers, which are the organisms that feed on other organisms as a source of food.
These may be primary consumers who feed from the plant material or secondary
consumers who feed on the primary consumers.
Decomposers attain their energy by breaking down dead organic material (detritus), and
during this reaction, release critical elements and compounds which in turn are required
by plants.
Biotic and Abiotic Factors – Freshwater Ecology
Abiotic factors are essentially non-living components that affect the living organisms of
the freshwater community.
When an ecosystem is barren and unoccupied, new organisms colonizing the

environment rely on favorable environmental conditions in the area to allow them to
successfully live and reproduce. These environmental factors are abiotic factors. When a
variety of species are present in such an ecosystem, the consequent actions of these
species can affect the lives of fellow species in the area; these factors are deemed biotic
factors.
The light from the sun is a major constituent of a freshwater ecosystem, providing
light for the primary producers, plants. There are many factors which can affect the
intensity and length of time that the ecosystem is exposed to sunlight;
Aspect - The angle of incidence at which light strikes the surface of the water. During
the day when the sun is high in the sky, more light can be absorbed into the water due to
the directness of the light. At sunset, light strikes the water surface more acutely, and
less water is absorbed. The aspect of the sun during times of the day will vary depending
on the time of the year.
Cloud Cover - The cloud cover of an area will inevitably affect intensity and length of
time that light strikes the water of a freshwater ecosystem. Species of plants rely on a
critical period of time where they receive light for photosynthesis.
Season - The 4 seasons in an ecosystem are very different, and this is because less
light and heat is available from the sun in Winter and vice versa for Summer, therefore
these varying conditions will affect which organisms are suited to them.
Location - The extreme latitudes receive 6 months of sunlight and 6 months of

darkness, while the equator receives roughly 12 hours of sunlight and darkness each
day. This sort of variance greatly affects what type of organisms would occupy
freshwater ecosystems due to these differences.
Altitude - For every one thousand metres above sea level, average temperature drops
by one degree Celsius. Altitude will also affect the aspect of which sunlight hits the
freshwater ecosystem, therefore playing a part on which organisms will occupy it.
Many abiotic factors can play a part in determining the end product, which
organisms live and succeed in the freshwater ecosystem. The sun provides light for
photosynthesis, but also provides heat giving a suitable temperature for organisms to
thrive in. The temperature of a freshwater environment can directly affect the
environment as a whole and the organisms that occupy it.
Enzymes operate best at an optimum temperature, and any deviation from this
temperature 'norm' will result in below optimum respiration in the organism. All aquatic
life are ectotherms, meaning their body temperature varies directly with its environments.
Temperature affects the density of substances, and changes in the density of water
means more or less resistance for animals who are travelling in the freshwater
environment.
Abiotic Factors - Water Conditions
Evidently, the light and heat from the sun play an important role in providing suitable
conditions. However, the water conditions also inevitably have an effect on life in the
ecosystem. A still body of water will inevitably be disturbed by various factors, which will
affect the distribution of organisms in the water. Wind is considered to be the prime
factor responsible for disturbing water, though changes in temperature can create
convection currents where temperature is evened out across the body of water via this
movement.
Naturally, a river will have water movement as water succumbs to gravity and moves
downstream. These are relatively constant factors that affect water movement though,
for example, human intervention can also cause water movement. The surface tension of
the water will also affect the organisms that occupy the area, depending on the cohesion
of water at the surface; it can affect the amount of oxygen that reaches organisms living
below the water surface.
These factors all affect the way of life for organisms occupying such a freshwater
ecosystem. On a more molecular level, the chemical compositions of the water, soil and
surrounding air also play a part in determining the face of the ecosystem.
The oxygen concentration of the water and the surrounding air will have great bearing on
which organisms can survive in a particular environment. Oxygen is required for aerobic
respiration in animals, and the concentration of oxygen in an area is determined by many
factors, including temperature and abundance of organisms for example.
Many chemical reactions and cellular processes rely on the availability of oxygen;
therefore, the concentration of oxygen in the ecosystem will inevitably alter the
ecosystem itself. The same applies to carbon dioxide concentration. CO2 is required for
photosynthesis, and can also affect the pH of the water for example.
The study of ecology in freshwater is usually divided into 2 categories, lentic (still)
and lotic (running) water. These two bodies of water also have a bearing on which
organisms are likely to occupy the area.
Still Water Animals
Through millions of years of evolution, animals living in an aquatic environment have

diversified to occupy the ecological niches available in the ecosystem. When studying
the habitats of these particular organisms, three main areas of the freshwater
environment can be distinctly classified.
The Profundal Region - An area of still water that receives no sunlight therefore lacks
autotrophic creatures. The animals in this zone rely on organic material as a means of
food, which is sourced from the more energy rich areas above the profundal region.
The Pelagic Region - The pelagic region can be found below the surface water, and is
defined by the light that is available to it. The pelagic region does not include areas near
the shore or sea bed.
The Benthic Region - The benthic region incorporates all the freshwater environment in
contact with land, barring the shallow shore areas. The benthic region is capable of
hosting a large volume of organisms, as nutrient and mineral rich sediments are
available as a food source while part of the benthic region can occupy the euphotic zone,
the area of water where light is available. This will allow an ecological niche for
autotrophic organisms which in turn can be a food source for herbivores.
Another distinctive niche for the animal community is that above (epineuston) and
below (hyponeuston) the water surface. Epineustic animals receive food from the
surrounding hydrosere vegetation, where small animals fall into the water from
vegetation and are preyed upon by these epineustic animals.
Below these surface dwelling animals are a collective of animals called the nekton,
which live in the pelagic and profundal regions, though rise to the pelagic regions to feed
upon these epineustic animals. Fish are included in this nekton community, which play a
vital cog in these freshwater communities. Some of these fish are only temporary
members of the community, as they move between fresh and salt water. Anadromous
fish spawn in freshwater, but live much of their lives in salt water. Catadromous fish are
the opposite of this, and spend much of their lives in the freshwater community. Each
way, the fish present in the environment at any time form the link between the upper and
lower layers of the freshwater community.
Freshwater Plants & Nutrients
On top of the need for plants to maintain a suitable water concentration in plant cells,
they also require various nutrients which are found in the nutrient rich soil and the
surrounding waters. In addition to the carbon, hydrogen and oxygen required for
photosynthesis, plants require a range of macro-elements, notably magnesium (Mg),
nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and potassium (K). Some of these elements, notably the
gases, are readily available in the atmosphere, while carbon dioxide is produced from
decomposing organic matter. Other elements are readily available in the soil, with
nutrients becoming available from decomposing matter adding to the fertility of the
surrounding soil. Oxygen becomes available from the photosynthetic activities of plants,
which provide the link between oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations in the area.
Lotic Communities
Running water freshwater communities are also known as lotic communities (lotic
meaning running water). Lotic communities are formed by water being introduced to the
freshwater body from a variety of sources;
Rainfall - A percentage of water in the running water community will be present as a

result of rainfall directly entering it.
Ground Surface Water - Deriving from previous rainfall, water will enter the running
water community.
Underground Water - Water absorbed into the soil can also enter.
Water Table - Deep underground there is a 'water table' which can also provide water
for the running water community.
One of the main differences between lotic and lentic communities is the fact that the
water is moving at a particular velocity in lotic communities. This can have great bearing
on what organisms occupy the ecosystem and what particular ecological niche they can
exist in.
Running water can bring many factors into play affecting the lives of the organisms
in this particular environment:
- Movement of minerals and stones caused by the velocity and volume of the water
means the water bed is constantly changing. The faster and higher volume of water
present will result in a direct increase in amount and size of particles shifted
downstream.
- Standing waves are used by salmon at the bottom of waterfalls to spurn them
upstream. At the same time, they cause small air pockets caused by oxygen replacing
the splashing water, which results in a small micro-habitat becoming available suited to
particular organisms
-Erosion is caused by the running water breaking down the river bank and beds, causing
the geography of the river to change over a long period of time. This means that
hydroseres previously occupying the river bank may find themselves distanced from the
running water for example, and over time this would mean the overall ecosystem would
change over time.
The following is some of the physical and chemical factors that provide the framework of
a running water community in which organisms in their favored ecological niches occupy.
Temperature - The difference between running water and still water temperature is that
running water communities' temperature varies more rapidly but over a smaller range. In
summer, water from the source of the river is usually colder than the water found at the
delta because it has not been exposed to the warm air heated by the sun. The reverse
occurs in winter where water is warmer until exposed to the colder air.
Light - On the whole, less light penetrates a running water body due to ripples in the
water, debris blocking out sunlight to lower layers as well as overhanging shrubs that
perhaps are taking advantage of a tributary water source. These are all examples of how
the intensity of light reaching the lotic community can be affected, and in turn, directly
affects the rate of photosynthesis done by plants in the community.
Chemical Composition - Many factors can alter the chemical composition of the
freshwater environment, including precipitation, the percolation of water via vegetation
and sea spray to name a few. All in all, various elements and compounds are required by
organisms in their daily activities and fluctuations or even an absence of such elements
and compounds results in a direct effect on the lives of such organisms.
Organic Matter - Organic matter previous external to the running water environment can
also play a part in altering the ecosystem.
Pollution in Freshwater Ecosystems
As with all ecosystems, the

existence and operations of
human society inevitably have an
effect on the way of life in a
freshwater community.
Particularly in Western society,
where a huge amount of
resources are harnessed from
the land to fund our lifestyle,
there is a resulting effect on the
ecosystems of our planet.
Fish mortality from water pollution
- Hot water is used in many industries to cool machinery. This water is removed via
a discharge pipe into the river. This increase in temperature can affect the level of
oxygen freely available to organisms, which, in turn affects respiration and essentially
their way of life. Due to this temperature change, life in the ecosystem is affected.
- Removal of foliage next to a freshwater ecosystem allows more running water to
enter its capacity. In light of this, periods of heavy rainfall can result in the water levels
fluctuating wildly, which in turn can also affect the temperature of the water quite
considerably not to mention all the new chemical agents that would enter the stream
from this extra water.
- Recreational use of water bodies such as canoeing also has their effect. Litter from
these people can sit on the surface of water and block out sunlight required by the
primary producers for photosynthesis. If these primary producers way of life is affected in
such a way that their population level decreases, there is a knock on effect to all those
organisms who rely on these primary producers for survival.
- At a molecular level, chemicals discharged into the water, notably from industry or
pesticides from farmland can affect the freshwater environment considerably. Higher
concentrations of particular chemicals (perhaps toxic) mean a lower concentration of
essential chemicals required by the organisms of the ecosystem. If this is the case, these
organisms cannot perform respiration and function at an optimum level, thus reducing
overall biomass in the ecosystem.
Application
1. What is/are the function of freshwater ecosystem? Discuss.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
2. As a student especially a science major, how will you show to the people around you
that you have a great concern to freshwater ecosystem?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Closure
Congratulations for finishing lesson 2.2! This lesson really help you develop a framework
for critical thinking about the ecological structure, function, and distribution of freshwater
ecosystems. The last lesson for this module will be teaching you about marine
ecosystems.
LESSON 3.3 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss the different aspects are to be studied under marine ecosystems.

2. Conduct a survey of marine ecosystems identifying the biotic and abiotic
components and its classes.
3. Cite the importance of marine ecosystem.
Introduction
Life on earth is supported by the surrounding ecological conditions and the natural
resources. Continents and oceans are the two major divisions, comprising of all the life
and also the ecosystems throughout the world. About 75 % of the earth’ surface is
covered with oceanic waters which has a very rich wealth of marine life. The ocean is a
major source of food, energy, and mineral resources. Oceans also control the global
climate. If we say that land is dominated by plant biomass, then we have to say that
animal biomass dominates the oceanic waters. Water-based living environments are
called as aquatic ecosystems.
Activity
Have a visit to a marine ecosystem near to your specific places. List down all the biotic
and abiotic components that you found there. For the biotic component, for example
animals, give its specific names (English/Tagalog/Local)
Analysis
Based on your study, identify the class of the different biotic component.
Biotic Components Class
1. Plants Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
a. Gymnosperms, Angiosperms
b.
c.
2. Animals Vertebrates, Invertebrates, Amphibians,

a. Reptiles, Birds, Mammals
b.
c.
Abstraction
The habitats of the open seas and adjacent coastal zones are classified under
marine ecosystems. In addition to these, marine ecosystems also include the salt
marshes and wetlands located along the shores and river mouths. Within the coastal
zone, several unique habitats like estuaries, tidal inlets, and foreshore ecosystems are
also included. Such zones including estuaries contain the habitat of both freshwater and
salt water.
The following aspects are to be studied under marine ecosystems:

1. Characteristics of Marine Ecosystems
2. Oceans
3. Estuaries
4. On-shore ecosystems.
5. Coral reefs.
1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
Marine ecosystem is characterized by the many biotic and abiotic components.

Biotic components are: Organisms and their species, Predators, Parasites,
Competitors and Mates.
The Abiotic Components (Physical and Chemical) are: Temperature, Concentration of

Nutrients Sunlight, Turbulence, Salinity and density.
The following are the properties affecting the life in the seas and oceans:
1. Quality of sea water
2. Skeleton shape and size of organisms
3. Buoyancy
4. Gravity
5. Temperature of water
6. Density of water
7. Light penetration in water
8. Availability of Nutrients
9. Water turbulence and
10. Hydrostatic pressure.
Marine environments have altogether different kinds of Physical conditions for life to
survive. Majority of marine plants are floating species and microscopic. Many marine
animals are invertebrates. They do not have massive skeletons.
For floating and swimming, marine life require little energy. Water which is a fundamental
constituent of all living organisms, is available in plenty within these marine
environments. Temperature is yet another parameter which do not vary as drastically as
seen on land or in the air. However, there are certain properties which are less favorable
for life in the seas and oceans. Plant growth in the sea is limited by light.
It is a fact that 50% of the total solar radiation which penetrates into the sea surface,
gets disappeared rapidly within a few meters of depth. Much of the marine environment
is in perpetual darkness. Under such circumstances, many of the marine life depends
on the availability of essential nutrients only.
It is also to be noted that the zone just below the sea surface, experiences the maximum
environmental fluctuation. This is the zone where there is more air-water interactions,
much variations in temperature, salinity and turbulence of water. Winds plays a major
role on the surface of the sea. All environmental parameters show predominant vertical
gradients.
2. OCEANS
The World Oceans are the huge volumes of sea water belonging to the hydrosphere.
Oceans cover more than 70 per cent of the earth's surface. About 97 per cent of all the
water available on the earth are in the oceans.
Oceans contain both valuable and much needed natural resources. They are the
sources of food, energy, and minerals.
Oceans also serve as waterways for ships to transport people and carry cargo between
continents. The primary role of oceans and seas lie in maintaining the global climate by
regulating the air temperature and by supplying the moisture for rainfall. Without oceans,
life would not have originated in our planet.
When compared to land based terrestrial ecosystems, the marine ecosystems have
certain unique features. They are:
1. the oceanic environment is very wide, covering 75% of the earth’s surface.
2. The oceanic systems are very deep in which life extends to all depths.
3. The water masses of sea and oceans are continuous.
4. The water is in continuous movement in both vertical and horizontal dimensions.
5. The water is salty with an average salt content of 35 g/litre
6. The concentration of dissolved nutrients is low. Creatures living on land need to deal
with gravity, dehydration, great temperature variations, and many other factors which are
normally not encountered in oceans.
The Divisions of Marine environment included in the study of open sea are:
a) pelagic environment,
b) epipelagic environment,
c) mesopelagic zone,
d) bathypelagic zone,
e) abyssopelagic zone, and
f) benthic environment- sea bottom.
The distribution of marine life includes the study of planktons, Phytoplanktons,

Zooplanktons, Nektons and the Benthos.
The Temperature fluctuation is minimum in oceanic waters. Arctic waters are colder.
Tropical waters are warmer. The variation is seasonal and diurnal. Ocean animals
show a varied response to the temperatures.
There are two kinds of animals:

1. Stenothermal animals – the ones which live within 20°C
2. Eurythermal animals – the animals which can withstand the wide range of temperature
variations.
The cold water forms also show an increase their in sizes. The surface temperature of
the oceanic waters vary from about -2 °C near the North and South poles to about 30 °C
near the equator. In the polar regions, the surface sea water freezes. The western
tropical Pacific has the warmest surface water. Ocean currents affect the surface
temperature. Ocean temperature also varies with depth. In general, the temperature falls
as the depth increases. Light is very essential for the marine life. For photosynthesis,
heating, radiations and vision are related to this factor. It determines the plant and animal
life and depends on the angle of incidence. Perpendicular rays go deeper into the
oceans.
Based on the intensity of light the water body of marine ecosystems can be differentiated
into three zones. They are:
1. Euphotic zone -extends up to 100 m depth, illuminated zone production zone, rich
with phytoplankton, primary consumers and secondary consumers.
2. Disphotic zone - lies between 100 and 200 m depth, weakly lighted, secondary
consumers live with a few primary consumers, Rare plant life.
Aphotic zone - above 200m depth, No light, no producers, no photosynthesis, secondary
consumers, feed on other animals also.
3. Euphotic Zone -is the uppermost layer of the world's oceans.
3. ESTUARIES
Estuaries are the coastal areas where the saline waters of the ocean meet with the fresh
water of the rivers. Estuarine habitats are usually very productive because of the
accumulation of nutrients from a large catchment of a river. Estuaries offer good fishing
grounds as the water column is shallow and easily approachable. These are the
breeding habitat for a variety of Shrimp and Prawn species, oysters and fishes.
They also provide sheltered harbours for ships and their traffic. Estuarine waters are
used for cooling of water in power generation plants. An estuary is a semi-enclosed
coastal body of water that has a free connection with the open sea at one side and a
river on the other side. The circulation of water in any estuary depends on the amount of
freshwater outflow, the strength of the tidal current and the amount of vertical mixing.
Estuarine waters are therefore salty or brackish in quality. Structurally, they are deep
funnel shaped mouths. They are complex ecosystem comprising of three zones as,
polyhaline zone (low salt), mesohaline zone (medium salt) and oligohaline zone
(fully saline).
The marine side is called as lower estuary. It has a free connection to the sea with
salinities exactly equal to that of the oceanic waters. It is called as Polyhaline zone. The
total dissolved salts of this zone may range from 30 to 35 ppt.
The middle estuary which is subject to mixing of salt and freshwater is called as the
mesohaline zone. The salinities of this zone may be around 15 ppt in the waters.
The upper or fluvial estuary which is characterized by the flow of freshwater is known as
oligohaline zone. The level of salinity in such zone may be around 0 to 5 ppt.
Ecologically, an estuary is an area of dynamic biogeochemical activity.
Estuaries are critical for the survival of many species of birds, mammals, fish and other
wildlife. Rivers and streams drain into the estuaries. They bring-in enormous amounts of
nutrients from uplands. Plants use these nutrients, along with the sun's radiant energy,
carbon dioxide and water to manufacture food. As long as the nutrient-rich freshwater
flows towards the estuaries, the estuaries will remain productive. Estuaries may be small
or large depending upon their dimension, size, shape and the quantity of river staying
inside and flowing inside.
The sediments carried by the streams are also dropped into the quiet water mass of
estuaries. Continuous sedimentation may shorten the dimension of estuaries especially
in the upper reaches. Estuary is also considered as a Maritime Nursery. It is a place
where young fishes and a few other organisms are protected from predators and
competitors which may not be able to enter into the low salinity waters.
The Biota of Estuaries are classified as:

a) Producers
b) Zooplanktons
c) Benthic invertebrates
d) Fishes
e) Birds and wildlife
1. the Producers include
Phytoplankton - diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae.

Macroalgae - red algae, green algae, brown algae.
Microalgae - benthic diatoms.
2. Zooplankton - grazing herbivores & carnivores. They include Copepods, larval fish,
fish eggs, chaetognaths.
Larval invertebrates - oysters, clams, corals, etc. jellyfish (small & large)
ctenophores - very abundant in plankton of estuaries.
The benthic invertebrates include: clams, oysters, mussels, snails (mollusks)

polychaete worms, amphipods, decapods - crabs, shrimp, lobsters
The Fishes include the migratory fish which enter via the inlet are anadromous fish,
striped bass and salmon, spotted seatrout, and red drum. Juvenile fishes predominate in
estuaries – at nursery level. Estuaries are important feeding areas for many migrating
birds. The estuarine shores show plovers, skimmers, gulls, oyster catchers, terns,
pelicans, ducks, and ospreys. Reptiles include sea turtles, which consume fish, inverts,
and seagrasses. Mammals include otters, raccoons, nutria, dolphins and sometimes
whales.
4. ON-SHORE ECOSYSTEMS
Marine Ecosystems are distributed as on-sore and off-shore ecosystems. The on-shore
ecosystems are very typical ecosystems subjected to the everlasting action of waves
and tidal influences.
The life of on-shore ecosystems are always under the dynamic impact of various factors
including human interventions. They are called as Foreshores. Foreshores are the lands
bordering the seas and oceans. The geomorphology of foreshores may vary from place
to place and based on the slope of continental margins. Foreshores are at the forefronts
of the continents, facing the action of waves and tides directly. They are the zones of
land-sea interactions.
The abiotic factors controlling the fauna and flora of foreshores are:
1. Geomorphic factors- Width, length, Slope, thickness and Geology of the coastline.
2. Hydrographic factors- Water and its salinity.
3. Light
4. Temperature, Air, Wind and humidity.
5. Tides, Waves and mean sea level.
The notable fore-shore ecosystems are:

a) Sandy foreshore,
b) Shingle foreshores,
c) Lagoons,
d) Muddy foreshores
e) alt-marshes and
f) Rocky foreshores.
Foreshores are aesthetically pleasing environments.

The following are the characteristic features of the shore life:
1. Littoral forms shelter under rock pools, boulders and crevices.
2. Shore animals have a flattened shape for hiding in narrow spaces.
3. Organisms, subjected to the dehydration problems (due to their exposure to air) have
protective covers (thick cuticle).
4. Surface-dwelling animals have strong shells with orifices.
5. Shore animals lose waters by excretion. They excrete ammonia as their chief
nitrogenous waste product. This is toxic and has to be eliminated by dilution.
6. Shore dwelling animals perform aquatic respiration, in the littoral fringe and aerial
respiration on exposure to air.
7. Benthic organisms start their life as floating or swimming forms. Shore creatures have
the risk of losing pelagic eggs and larvae stages due to drifting currents. Some eliminate
the pelagic stage and emerge to an adult form.
8. Physiological and behavioral adaptations are properly done by these organisms, even
to withstand the twelve- hour tidal cycles.
9. A zonation exists in the population of plants and animals.
A beach is the land bordering the sea and is defined as an accumulation of sediment laid
by the waves and tides. It usually consists of sand or gravel. An active beach, the area of
loose sediment subject to transport by wind, waves, and currents, is divided into three
regions: the backshore, the foreshore, and the offshore.
A beach is characterized by a coastal upland, which can be a dune, a cliff, a soil

embankment, a fossil berm, or an engineering structure such as a seawall or a
revetment. The geomorphic features of the beach include berms, scarps, and offshore
sand bars. Beaches are dynamic ecosystems.
Beach sediments may contain shells of recent to subrecent life fossils, skeletal remains
from coral reefs, sand / silt transported by waves and materials from the river input.
A sand beach will never be static but always be a dynamic ecosystem. The major factor
is wave action. Large algae or rooted vegetation cannot thrive on shores due to the lack
of stable solid surface.
Lagoons are shallow bodies of brackish or salt (sea) water partially separated from the
neighboring sea by barriers of sand or shingle. The sea water can flow only through
narrow openings left by the barriers. They become the coastal ponds or lakes, if they are
completely detached from the sea.
Muddy foreshores are the coastal mud-lands or mudflats, containing mostly mud
organisms. They are the feeding grounds for many wading birds, wildfowl. Mud is
characterized by its fine texture, deposited under turbulence of sea water. Mud has an
adhesive quality.
Salt-marshes are the zones lying near to shores periodically flooded by saltwater. They
are also called as tidal marshes, in which the water level fluctuates tidally or non-tidally.
Due to the recurring failure of monsoon, salt marshes extend further land wards. The soil
includes heavy to sandy clay, silty sand or silty peat. Life in these areas are subjected to
tidal changes and salinity variations. The herbivores feed on standing marsh plants and
transform energy seasonally.
5. CORAL REEFS
Coral reefs are major geological structures built by biological activity. Corals can be
seen along some of the beaches, looking as a piece of rock-like material. The corals are
the skeletons of many tiny sea animals living side by side. Each one of these animals is
known as a coral "polyp". A coral polyp is a soft, almost transparent animal which builds
its own skeleton outside its body. Since it has no backbone, it is an invertebrate. Corals
which produce a hard skeleton are called stony corals. They have special cells on the
outskirts of their bodies which produce a limestone substance. This makes them hard,
like a rock. The polyps sit in the cup like portions of the skeletons. Corals belong to a
large group of invertebrates which includes jelly fish, sea anemones and hydroids.
The types of corals are:
A. STONY CORALS:
1. Stony corals
2. Finger corals
3. Fungus coral
4. Brain coral
5. Tube coral
6. Rose coral
7. Staghorn coral
8. Lettuce-leaf coral
B. SOFT CORALS:
1. Sea fan
2. Bushy soft coral
3. Sea feather
4. Black coral.
The live hard corals can be divided into four major forms:
a. Branching
b. massive
c. Tabulate / flat
d. Others.
The coral growth needs a clean and warm waters. The best temperature for coral growth
is 18°C. In general, reefs form where the following set of conditions are met:
Warm water, not cooling below 18°C during the year.
Wave-swept, high energy coast.
Hard substrate.
Normal marine salinity water.
Absence of abundant clastic detritus.
Shallow water (0 - 30 meters depth - photic zone)
The ecosystem characteristics are varied from that of the others.

1. Corals reefs are made up of much more than corals and their skeletal remains. The
other organisms living in reefs, deposit calcium carbonate (limestone) materials.
2. Reefs provide the home, (food and shelter) for a wider variety of plants and animals.
The spaces, sinks and cracks in the hard coral mass, make suitable shelter and feeding
grounds for the marine worms, urchins, sponges, sea fans, mollusks, crabs, shrimps,
sea anemones and fish.
3. The energy which cycles through the reef, keeps all plants and animals alive: The
energy comes from the sun. The reef environment supports the planktons. Plants are
abundant: in reefs. They provide the basic food for the entire ecosystems.
There are many reef animals which eat the plants and are eaten by other animals. They
are small, like crustaceans and worms. There are many larger animals like sponges.
There are zooplanktons living at the base. Coral reefs can be classified based on their
Morphology, evolution, size, depth of surrounding water, and relationship to nearby land.
Morphology is the major criteria considered.
The major types of coral reefs are as follows:

1. Shore Reefs - or - Fringing Reefs
2. Barrier Reefs
3. Atolls - as
a. Deep sea atolls
b. Shelf atolls.
The minor reefs which could be seen are:

1. Table reefs
2. The Faro
3. Micro atolls.
4. Knolls
5. Patch reefs and many more.
Importance of Corals:
1. Coral seas are typical ecosystems, most of them are shallow marine and a few are
deep marine
2. Coral ecosystems encompass a good platform for varieties of natural resources
3. Coral seas are good spots for ecotourism
4. Coral life are unique and exhibit a natural museum of wonderful marine life, which
include typical and beautiful plants and animals
5. Corals are also used as ornamental stones when they are naturally detached from the
basement
6. Coral ecosystems are good zones for improving marine habitat.
7. Study of coral ecosystems provide enormous data for biosphere- geosphere
interaction modeling
8. Corals are storehouses of organic calcium carbonate. These are good compounds for
pharmaceutical industries
9. Coral lagoons in some parts of the globe are considered to be good fishing zones. Eg.
The atolls of the Republic of Maldives are good examples.
10. It takes several decades to grow a few corals. The existing corals are to be protected
and the species are to be saved.
Ecology deals with organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems and the

biosphere. Marine ecology deals with the study of the environment and life in marine
waters. It involves the study of marine organisms and their habitat. Their global
distribution are studied in different branches of geography.
Application
Directions: Answer the following:

1. What activities do you enjoy or would you enjoy in an aquatic\marine setting? How
could you enjoy this activity without having a great impact on the ecosystem?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2. Think about an aquatic/marine ecosystem near you. How do humans utilize this area?
What values do you think are associated with these uses?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Closure
Well done! You did a great job in this module. You are now knowledgeable about the
different ecosystems found not only in our local places but also in other countries.
Always remember that an ecosystem consists of all living and non-living things in a
specific natural setting.
References
• Gascon, Cecilia N. et.al. Fundamentals of Environmental Science. Copyright 2004.

pages 31-53.
• https://canvas.instructure.com> Introduction to Environmental Science- PDF
• https;//warbirds.dk> environmental science pdf CHED
• https://www.ipcc.ch> Chapter 3 Natural Terrestrial Ecosystem pdf
• https://www.amnh.org> Freshwater Ecosystems and Biodiversity pdf
• https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu> Lesson 1 Aquatic and Marine Ecosystem Connections pdf

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MODULE 3 MAJOR TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

1. Classified ecosystems according to their general similarities in structure.

LESSON 3.1 TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS

1. Discuss the different types and the structure of ecosystem.

It is useful to classify ecosystems according to their general similarities

Directions: Answer the following based on your previous lessons.

2. Give at least five examples for each component.

Terrestrial ecosystem is different from aquatic ecosystem with lower water

Grassland ecosystem also known as prairies and savannas. It comprises Savana

Decomposers – Fungi, bacteria, actinomycetes. They are more aggressive in tropical

Desert cover about 20% of

1. What is/are the function of terrestrial ecosystem? Discuss.

LESSON 3.2 FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS

Freshwater ecosystems are valued for many

Biotic Components Class

Total Fresh Water

Fresh water Available for Habitat

In freshwater ecology, upland rivers and

The generally more turbid, warm, slow-

Biotic and Abiotic Factors – Freshwater Ecology

When an ecosystem is barren and unoccupied, new organisms colonizing the

Location - The extreme latitudes receive 6 months of sunlight and 6 months of

Abiotic Factors - Water Conditions

Still Water Animals

Through millions of years of evolution, animals living in an aquatic environment have

Freshwater Plants & Nutrients

Rainfall - A percentage of water in the running water community will be present as a

Pollution in Freshwater Ecosystems

As with all ecosystems, the

Fish mortality from water pollution

LESSON 3.3 MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

1. Discuss the different aspects are to be studied under marine ecosystems.

2. Animals Vertebrates, Invertebrates, Amphibians,

The following aspects are to be studied under marine ecosystems:

1. CHARACTERISTICS OF MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

Marine ecosystem is characterized by the many biotic and abiotic components.

The Abiotic Components (Physical and Chemical) are: Temperature, Concentration of

The distribution of marine life includes the study of planktons, Phytoplanktons,

There are two kinds of animals:

The Biota of Estuaries are classified as:

1. the Producers include

Phytoplankton - diatoms, dinoflagellates, green algae.

The benthic invertebrates include: clams, oysters, mussels, snails (mollusks)

The notable fore-shore ecosystems are:

Foreshores are aesthetically pleasing environments.

A beach is characterized by a coastal upland, which can be a dune, a cliff, a soil

The types of corals are:

The ecosystem characteristics are varied from that of the others.

The major types of coral reefs are as follows:

The minor reefs which could be seen are:

Ecology deals with organisms, populations, communities, ecosystems and the

Directions: Answer the following:

• Gascon, Cecilia N. et.al. Fundamentals of Environmental Science. Copyright 2004.

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