Ethiopian TVET-System

IT SUPPORT SERVICE LEVEL II

Based on May 2011 Occupational Standards

October, 2019
Module Title: Caring for Network and Computer Hardware
TTLM Code: ICT ITS2TTLM 1019v1
This module includes the following Learning Guides

LG27: Identify computer hardware components

LG Code: EIS ITS2 M07 1019 LO1-LG27
LG28:-Hardware requirements with specified manufacturers
LG Code: EIS ITS2 M07 1019 LO2-LG28
LG29: Monitor threats to the network
LG Code: EISITS2M071019LO3-LG29
LG30: Establish maintenance practices
LG Code: EIS ITS2 M07 1019 LO4-LG30
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 Instruction Sheet LG27: Identify computer hardware components

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
Following content coverage and topics –
 Identifying external hardware components and peripherals
 Identifying internal hardware components.
 Reviewing ,recording and applying Requirements specifying by hardware manufacturers
 Determining and recording quality standard of hardware and peripherals
 Determining and establishing relationship of hardware and software components
 Determining, recording and applying Safe work practices
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –
 External hardware components and peripherals are identified based on business requirement
 Internal hardware components are identified as needed
 Requirements specified by hardware manufacturers are reviewed, recorded and applied
where appropriate.
 Quality standards of hardware components and associated peripherals are determined and
recorded
 Relationship of computer hardware and software is determined and established for proper
functioning of the system
 Safe work practices are determined, recorded and applied, taking into account legal and
manufacturer requirements
Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 5.
3. Read the information written in the information “Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3,Sheet 4,Sheet 5 and
Sheet 6” in page 1 ,4,9,19, 22,and 44 respectively.
4. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check t 2, Self-check 3 , Self-check 4, Self-check 5 and Self-
check 6” in page 2, 7, 16,20,42 and 46 respectively

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Information Sheet Identifying external hardware components and peripherals
1.1. Hardware
Computer hardware refers to the physical parts of a computer and related devices. Internal
hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM. External hardware devices
include monitors, keyboards, mice, printers, and scanners etc.

Basic Components
 Case or Tower - This is the plastic box that contains the computer. Housed in the case,
you will find the floppy drive, CD R OM drive, and the main components of the computer.
Some of these are the hard drive, motherboard and the processor chip (CPU). The case
keeps them neatly and safely together.
 Monitor or Screen - This is the TV-type screen on which you see the work you’re doing
on your computer.
 Mouse - The mouse allows you to move, select and click on objects.
 Keyboard - The keyboard is used to type in information and operate the computer.
 Speakers - Sometimes speakers are connected to the computer so that you can hear
music and sound.
 Microphone - A microphone can provide a way to talk through or to the computer.
 Printer - A device that makes a printed copy of your work on a sheet of paper.
 A scanner is a device that captures text or illustrations on paper and converts the
information into a form the computer can use. One of the most common kinds of scanners
is called a flatbed scanner. It has a glass surface on which you lay paper, magazines, or
other documents that you want to scan. Sometimes scanners can be manufactured so
that they are combined with a printer thus can also be used as a photocopier and fax
machine.

 Digital cameras store images digitally onto a storage device, either a memory card or a
floppy disk, rather than recording them on film. Once a picture has been taken, it can be
downloaded to a computer system, and then manipulated or printed.

 USB flash drive:-A small, portable device that plugs into a computer’s USB port and
operates as a portable hard drive. USB flash drives are considered to be an ideal method
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 to transport data, as they are small enough to be carried in a pocket and can plug into
any computer with a USB drive. Other names for flash drives are thumb drives, pen drives
or USB drives.

Self Check 1 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask
your teacher.
Match the most appropriate peripheral device to A column from B column.
Column A
______1.Mouse Column B
______2.Speakers A. The TV-type screen on which you see the
______3.Keyboard work you’re doing on your computer.
______4.Jostic B. Select and click on objects
______5.Monitor C. The plastic box that contains the computer
______6. Microphones D. Used to type in information and operate the
______7.Digital Camera computer.
______8.Printers E. Store images digitally onto a storage device
______9.scanner F. That used for hear music and sound.
______ 10. Case G. A device that captures text or illustrations on
paper and converts the information into a
form the computer can use.
H. A device that makes a printed copy of your
work on a sheet of paper.
I. can provide a way to talk through or to the
computer
J. Game port

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Note: Satisfactory rating - 5 points Unsatisfactory - below 5 points
You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet
Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

List of Reference Materials

1. BOOKS
2. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
3. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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Information Sheet – 2 Identifying internal hardware components
1.1. Introduction
The internal hardware parts of a computer are often referred to as components, while external
hardware devices are usually called peripherals. Together, they all fall under the category of
computer hardware. Software, on the other hand, consists of the programs and applications that
run on computers. Because software runs on computer hardware, software programs often have
system requirements that list the minimum hardware required for the software to run.

Note: Peripheral devices are the devices that are attached to the computer’s system unit

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Figure 1.1:-Hardware component
 Figure 1.2:- Internal component

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 COMPONENT F UNCTIONS
 CPU: The CPU is the brains of the computer. All information goes through the CPU to
be processed. The latest CPUs execute many millions of instructions per second.
 MEMORY: Memory is where the information is stored.
 RAM: Random Access Memory stores programs and data as it is used. The information
in RAM is lost when the power is turned off.
 ROM: Read Only Memory stores start up and basic operating information.
 DISKS: Disks are where large amounts of information are stored, even when the power
is off.
 Floppy Disks - Information can be written to and read from floppy disks. The advantage
of floppy disks is that they can be removed from the computer and the data taken to
another machine.
 Hard disks - Hard disks are not removable like floppy disks, but hold more information.
 CD ROMs - Compact Disk Read Only Memory. They are useful for storing large
amounts of data. A CD ROM holds about 650 MB of data and is removable.
 Input/Output Components : Allow a computer to communicate with the outside world.
Following are some examples of Input/ Output devic es.
 Keyboard is used to enter information from the user to the computer.
 Monitors are used to display information.
 Video controller is a board in the computer that controls the monitor. It translates the
data in the video memory into symbols on the monitor .
 Parallel/Serial ports allow the computer to send data to and receive data from printers,
modems, etc.
 Mouse and Joystick are used to input positional information to the computer.
 Network Interface Card – A NIC connects the computer to a network. Networks are a
high - speed method of transferring data from one computer to another.

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 Self Check 2 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications-
feel free to ask your teacher.

Match the most appropriate peripheral device to A column from B column.

Column A Column B

_____1.Memory A. The brains of the computer

_____2.CPU B. Connects the computer to a network

_____3.Video controller C. Are not removable like floppy disks, but hold
more information
_____3.DISKS
D. Where the information is stored
_____1Network Interface
E. A board in the computer that controls the
monitor

Note: Satisfactory rating – 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet
Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 List of Reference Materials

1. BOOKS
2. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
3. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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 Reviewing ,recording and applying Requirements
Information Sheet – 3 specifying by hardware manufacturers

3.1. Access point

Internet Access
• There are several ways to obtain Internet access.
• The type chosen often depends on the cost as well as what technologies are available
in the area you are located.
• XDSL Internet Access
• Cable Internet Access
• Satellite Internet Access
• Wireless Internet Access
• POTS(Plain Old Telephone Service) Internet Access

XDSL Internet Access

• DSL is an Internet access method that uses a standard phone line to provide high-speed
Internet access.
• DSL offers phone and data transmissions over a standard phone connection.
• High-speed Internet access;
• Less expensive than technologies such as ISDN
With DSL a different frequency can be used for digital and analog signals, which means
that you can talk to a friend on the phone while you're uploading data.

DSL’s staggering number of flavors

• Asymmetric DSL (ADSL) The word asymmetric describes different channels on the line:
One channel is responsible for analog traffic, the second channel is used to provide
upload access, and the third channel is used for downloads. With ADSL, downloads are
faster than uploads.

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 • Symmetric DSL (SDSL) - offers the same speeds for uploads and for downloads, making
it most suitable for web hosting, intranets, and ecommerce. It is not widely implemented
in the home/small business environment and cannot share a phone line.
• ISDN DSL (IDSL) - a symmetric type of DSL commonly used in environments where
SDSL and ADSL are unavailable. IDSL does not support analog phones.
• Rate Adaptive DSL (RADSL) - a variation on ADSL that can modify its transmission
speeds based on the signal quality. RADSL supports line sharing.
• Very High Bit Rate DSL (VHDSL) - VHDSL is an asymmetric version of DSL and can
share a telephone line.
• High Bit Rate DSL (HDSL) - HDSL is a symmetric technology that offers identical
transmission rates in both directions. HDSL does not allow line sharing with analog
phones.
• Why are there are so many DSL variations?
• Each flavor of DSL is aimed at a different user, business, or application.
• What is the major differences?
• DSL options can be a shared or dedicated link. ADSL for instance is a shared
DSL connection while SDSL is not (or dedicated link).
• A dedicated DSL line is not used for regular voice transmissions.

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 Figure 1.3:- DSL Internet Access

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 Cable Internet Access
• Cable Internet access is an always-on Internet access method available in areas that
have digital cable television.

• Cable Internet access is attractive to many small businesses and home office users
because it is both inexpensive and reliable.

• Connectivity is achieved by using a device called a cable modem; it has a coaxial

connection for connecting to the provider's outlet and an unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
connection for connection directly to a system or to a hub or switch.

• Most cable modems supply a 10Mbps Ethernet connection for the home LAN, although
the actual Internet connection ranges from 1.5Mbps to 3Mbps.

• One of the biggest disadvantages of cable access is the fact that you share the
available bandwidth with everyone else in your cable area.

• As a result, during peak times, performance of a cable link might be poorer than in low-
use periods.

Figure 1.4:- Cable Internet Access

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Feature Cable Internet DSL Internet

Bandwidth/ The theoretical maximum cable speed of DSL lists speeds from to 384Kbps
Speed 30Mbps downstream, aside, in practical use to 6.0Mbps depending on the type
the rate is somewhere between 300 and of DSL used and whom you ask.
700Kbps downstream and a 128 connection. DSL offers 128Kbps upstream
transfers.

Connection Cable Internet uses a shared connection. You DSL bandwidth is dedicated and
type share the connection with others in your area. not shared.
This can affect bandwidth performance during
peak usage times.

Distance With cable Internet distance is not a concern. DSL speeds degrade as the
factors Subscribers maintain the same speeds distance from the ISP increases.
regardless of the distance from the Internet The farther you are, the more
provider. overall speed deteriorates.

Security The shared nature of cable Internet make it an DSL is more secure because it
increased security risk. Security risks include offers a dedicated link to the ISP.
eavesdropping, tampering, service theft and The dedicated link helps protect
more. against attacks associated with a
shared connection.

Table 1.1. Cable Internet and DSL Internet

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Satellite Internet Access
• DSL and cable Internet access are not offered everywhere.
• Satellite Internet offers an always-on connection with theoretical speeds advertised
anywhere from 512Kbps upload speeds to 2048Kbps download speeds, considerably
faster than a 56K dial-up connection.
• One primary drawback to satellite Internet is the cost, and even with the high price tag, it is
not as fast as DSL or cable modem.
• As with other wireless technologies, atmospheric conditions can significantly affect the
performance of satellite Internet access.
• Greatest advantage is its portability.
Types of Satellite Internet
• Two different types of Internet satellite services are deployed: one-way and two-way
systems.
• A one-way satellite system requires a satellite card and a satellite dish installed at the end
user's site; this system works by sending outgoing requests on one link using a phone line,
with inbound traffic returning on the satellite link.
• A two-way satellite system, on the other hand, provides data paths for both upstream and
downstream data. Like a one-way system, a two-way system also uses a satellite card and
a satellite dish installed at the end user's site; bidirectional communication occurs directly
between the end user's node and the satellite.

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 Figure 1.5 Satellite Internet Access
:- Satellite Internet Access
Wireless Internet Access
Figure 3:- DSL Internet Access
• Nowadays
DSL it is becoming
Internet Access increasingly common to see people surfing the Web in many
different public places.
• This is made possible by subscribing to a wireless Internet service provider (WISP) or
connecting to a company's local wireless router.

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 • A WISP provides public wireless Internet access known as hotspots.
• A hotspot is created using one or many wireless access points near the hotspot location.
• Airports, hotels, and coffee shops will advertise that they offer Internet access for customers
or clients.

POTS(Plain Old Telephone Service) Internet Access

• The most popular means of connecting to the Internet or a remote network may still be the
good old telephone line and modem.
• Because the same line used for a household phone is used for dial-up access, it is referred
to as the POTS (Plain Old Telephone Service) method of access.
• Although many parts of the world are served by broadband providers, many people still
connect with a modem.
• Internet access through a phone system requires two things: a modem and a dial-up access
account through an ISP.
• A big consideration for dial-up Internet access is how many lines the ISP has. ISPs never
have the same number of lines as subscribers; instead, they work on a first-come, first-served
basis for dial-up clients.
• This means that on occasion, users get busy signals when they try to connect.

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 Written Test
Self Check 3

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.

Match the most appropriate peripheral device to A column from B column.

Column A Column B

_____1.XDSL Internet Access A. It is becoming increasingly common to see

_____2.Cable Internet Access people surfing the Web in many different
_____3.Satellite Internet Access public places.
_____4.Wireless Internet Access B. The most popular means of connecting to the
_____5.(Plain Old Telephone Service) Internet or a remote network may still be the
Internet Access good old telephone line and modem.
C. offers an always-on connection with
theoretical speeds advertised anywhere from
512Kbps upload speeds to 2048Kbps
download speeds, considerably faster than a
56K dial-up connection.
D. An always-on Internet access method
available in areas that have digital cable
television.
E. An Internet access method that uses a
standard phone line to provide high-speed
Internet access.

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Note: Satisfactory rating – 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points
You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet
Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 List of Reference Materials

1. BOOKS
2. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
3. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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 Determining and recording quality standard of hardware
Information Sheet – 4
and peripherals
4.1. System specifications
It is important to find out the specifications of the computer system you are planning to connect the
peripheral device to. Many newer types of peripheral devices require a specific amount of memory,
CPU speed, hard disk space, and may only be compatible with certain operating systems.

You also need to be aware of the peripheral’s system requirements. The manual for the peripheral
device as well as the manufacturer’s website will help you determine the minimum system
specifications.
Compatibility

Compatibility is the ability of a system or a product to work with other systems or products without
special effort on the part of the customer. One way products achieve interoperability is to comply with
industry interface standards. For example, a memory module is compatible with a motherboard
because the manufacturer of the memory module and the motherboard both work to the same industry
standard.

Technical specifications
Once the business requirements have been considered, the technical specifications of the hardware
device need to be evaluated. Areas for evaluation include the following:
 processing speed of the CPU
 storage capacity of the hard drive
 size of memory (RAM)
 software capabilities
 compatibility with existing systems
 upgradeability
The technical specifications to be considered will depend on the computer hardware device to be
purchased. For example, technical specifications to be considered for a printer include:
 interface – USB or network
 resolution – measured in dots per inch
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 printing speed – measured in pages per minute
 memory
 paper capacity

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 Self Check 4 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.

Match the most appropriate peripheral device to A column from B column.

Column A Column B

______1.Interface A. measured in pages per minute

______2. Resolution B. USB or network

______3. printing speed C. measured in dots per inch

______4. storage capacity D. CPU

______5.processing speed E. Hard drive

Note: Satisfactory rating – 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 List of Reference Materials

1. BOOKS
2. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
3. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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 Determining and establishing relationship of hardware
Information Sheet – 5
and software components
4.1. Introduction
When caring for computer equipment you will inevitably be faced with a computer, or peripheral, that is
not operating as it should. You will be looked upon to provide the answer to ‘What’s wrong with it?’. In
order for you to answer that question, you will need to know a basic diagnostic approach to fault finding.
In this section we will examine what a system usually does when nothing is wrong, list some of the
typical faults encountered and what to do about it, and what to do if you can’t fix it. If you are not able to
effect repairs then you should be able to give the user some indication on how long their system will be
down.
Firstly, let’s look at what normally happens, before looking at what can go wrong.
Booting up
The POST
When first turning the computer on, you will notice that there are certain lights flashing, beeping sounds
and text displayed on the screen. When power is applied to a computer system, the first thing that
happens is that the computer performs a Power On Self Test, commonly called a POST. After performing
this self-check, the system will try to load an operating system. Loading the operating system was
traditionally known as loading the bootstrap loader, or pulling the system up by the boot-straps. While
the terminology has been dropped, we still use the term ‘Booting Up’ to refer to starting the system.
The BIOS (Basic Input Output System) is responsible to perform the POST. The BIOS is a program that
is built-in to the motherboard and is responsible for the low level operations of the hardware, such as
placing data from a hard disk and writing it into RAM (Random Access Memory), or sending video output
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to the video card, or handling a mouse movement, or event like a click. Without the BIOS, nothing would
happen when you turn the power on.
After the initial POST, assuming that the BIOS is able to boot the system far enough to gain access to
the video subsystem, it will display information about the computer system as it boots. It will also use
the video system to communicate error messages. In fact, most non-critical boot problems are displayed
via video error messages, as opposed to audio beep codes.
Some errors in the POST may simply generate an error message on the screen and continue, while
others will halt the system until the error is dealt with. If the POST is passed successfully, then the
system is ready to load an operating system.

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Loading an operating system
To load an operating system, the BIOS will seek out a boot device in a set order. A boot devi ce is usually
a hard disk drive, but may be a floppy disk, CD-ROM drive, network interface card (NIC) or USB flash
disk etc. That is where the terms ‘Boot Disk’ and ‘Disk Operating System’ (DOS) are derived.
There are a number of hardware level settings that are stored on a special chip called a CMOS chip.
CMOS stands for Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor and is usually identified as one of the
chips, with a sticker with the BIOS maker’s name, on the motherboard. CMOS technology is just one
type used to make semiconductors (integrated circuits) such as processors, chipset chips, DRAM, etc.
CMOS has the advantage of requiring very little power, compared to some other semiconductor
technologies. This is why it was chosen for this use, so that the amount of power required from the
battery would be minimal, and the battery would be able to last a long time.
It is common for the terms BIOS and CMOS to be used interchangeably, even though it is not technically
correct. The BIOS is the program and the CMOS is the memory that stores the BIOS settings. When a
program is written to a chip it is known as firmware ie software put into hardware.
To gain access to the CMOS settings, you should see some sort of message on the screen that tells
you which key to press. For example ‘Press <Delete> to run Setup’. Most systems use the Delete key,
some use F1 or F10 and even Escape. If the screen does not show any message (there is sometimes
an option in CMOS to turn this off) then try each key in turn. If all else fails, then read the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Boot device options
You can change the boot device order from the standard:
 Floppy disk
 Hard disk drive 0 (master hard disk)
 CD-ROM.
For instance, if you had to install an operating system from new, like Microsoft Windows XP, you should
change the boot device order to make the CD-ROM the first boot device. This is because the operating
system is usually supplied on a bootable CD-ROM disk. In fact many other operating systems are
originally installed from CD-ROM disk.

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When the operating system loads, it too may generate error messages and either continue or halt. If the
error messages flash by too quickly, or the system hangs at a certain point, you can try a step-by-step
boot process by pressing F8 key just after the POST.
The system boot sequence
The following are the steps in a boot sequence. Of course this will vary by the manufacturer of your
hardware, BIOS, etc, and especially due to the peripherals you have connected. Here is what generally
happens when you turn on your system power:
1 The internal power supply turns on and initialises. The power supply takes some time until it can
generate reliable power for the rest of the computer, and having it turn on prematurely could
potentially lead to damage. Therefore, the chipset will generate a reset signal to the processor (the
same as if you held the reset button down for a while on your case) until it receives the Power Good
signal from the power supply.
2 When the reset button is released, the processor will be ready to start executing. When the
processor first starts up there is nothing at all in the memory to execute. Of course processor makers
know this will happen, so they pre-program the processor to always look at the same place in the
system BIOS ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program.
3 The BIOS performs the POST. If there are any fatal errors, the boot process stops.
4 The BIOS looks for the video card. In particular, it looks for the video card’s built in BIOS program
and runs it. The system BIOS executes the video card BIOS, which initialises the video card. Most
modern cards will display information on the screen about the video card. This is why on most
systems you usually see something on the screen about the video card before you see the
messages from the system BIOS itself.
5 The BIOS then looks for other devices’ ROMs to see if any of them have BIOSes. Normally, the
IDE/ATA hard disk BIOS will be found and executed. If any other device BIOSes are found, they are
executed as well.
6 The BIOS displays its start-up screen.
7 The BIOS does more tests on the system, including the memory count-up test which you see on the
screen. The BIOS will generally display a text error message on the screen if it encounters an error
at this point.

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8 The BIOS performs a ‘system inventory’ of sorts, doing more tests to determine what sort of
hardware is in the system. Modern BIOSes have many automatic settings and can dynamically set
hard drive parameters and access modes, and will determine these at roughly this time. Some will
display a message on the screen for each drive they detect and configure this way. The BIOS will
also now search for and label logical devices (COM and LPT ports).
9 The BIOS will detect and configure Plug and Play devices at this time and display a message on
the screen for each one it finds.
10 The BIOS will display a summary screen about your system’s configuration. Checking this screen
of information can be helpful in diagnosing setup problems, although it can be hard to see because
sometimes it flashes on the screen very quickly before scrolling off the top or behind an operating
systems splash screen. Try being quick to press the <Pause> key.
11 The BIOS begins the search for a device to boot from.
12 Having identified its target boot device, the BIOS looks for boot information to start the operating
system boot process. If it is searching a hard disk, it looks for a master boot record (MBR) at cylinder
0, head 0, sector 1 (the first sector on the disk); if it is searching a floppy disk, it looks at the same
address on the floppy disk for a volume boot sector.
13 If it finds what it is looking for, the BIOS starts the process of booting the operating system, using
the information in the boot sector. At this point, the code in the boot sector takes over from the BIOS.
If the first device that the system tries (floppy, hard disk, etc.) is not found, the BIOS will then try the
next device in the boot sequence, and continue until it finds a bootable device.
14 If no boot device at all can be found, the system will normally display an error message and then
freeze up the system. What the error message is depends entirely on the BIOS, and can be anything
from ‘No boot device available’ to ‘No ROM BASIC—System Halted’.
When diagnosing hardware problems you will need to keep in mind the steps above, particularly for
errors that halt the system from starting up.
Error messages
An error message can be produced by different parts of the system, depending on how far into the boot
process the system gets before it is produced. Most error messages are produced by the system BIOS,

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as it is responsible for most of the functions of starting the boot process. However, other error messages
are operating system specific.
Error messages that crop up while the system is operational can be generated by different sources,
including the system BIOS, the operating system, hardware driver routines, or application software. It is
usually possible to determine roughly what is causing the error, since application-specific messages
usually mention the application that is generating them. However, error messages that crash a specific
application can sometimes be caused by hardware or system problems, especially i f the problem occurs
in many different applications. This can make diagnosis very difficult.
Even sticking to hardware, there are many thousands of individual error messages; some are more
common than others because there are only a few different BIOS companies that are used by the
majority of systems in use. However, since the exact wording of an error message can be changed by
the manufacturer of each system or motherboard, there are a lot of variations.
In most cases, the messages are pretty similar to each other; you may see a slightly different wording
in your error message than the ones listed here, but if the messages meaning will be substantially the
same. For example, ‘Disk drive failure’ and ‘Diskette drive failure’ are virtually identical message s.
You may want to consult with your owner’s manual regarding some unusual messages, or to ensure
that your manufacturer means the same thing with their messages compared to others.
BIOS beep codes
There usually is a single quick beep sound when a system is turned on, and that often is an audible
acknowledgement of a good power supply ie the Power Good signal. However, when diagnosing fatal
errors in a system, knowledge of the beep codes, and their meaning, can be the key to quick repair or
replacement. Unfortunately not all manufacturers use the same set of codes to mean the same error,
so we will have a look at some of the most common.
AMI BIOS beep codes
The American Megatrends Inc. (AMI) BIOS is one of the most popular in the personal computing world
and is quite consistent in its use of beep codes, across its many different versions.

Beep Code Meaning

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1 beep There is a problem in the system memory or the motherboard.

2 beeps Memory parity error. The parity circuit is not working properly.

3 beeps Base 64K RAM failure

4 beeps System timer not operational. There is problem with the timer(s)
that control functions on the motherboard.

5 beeps The system CPU has failed.

6 beeps Keyboard controller failure.

7 beeps Virtual mode exception error.

8 beeps Video memory error. The BIOS cannot write to the frame buffer
memory on the video card.

9 beeps ROM checksum error. The BIOS ROM chip on the motherboard
is likely faulty.

10 beeps CMOS checksum error. Something on the motherboard is

causing an error when trying to interact with the CMOS.

Continuous A problem with the memory or video.

beeping

Table 1.2. AMI BIOS beep codes

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Phoenix BIOS beep codes
Phoenix uses sequences of beeps to indicate problems. The ‘-’ between each number below indicates
a pause between each beep sequence. For example, 1-2-3 indicates one beep, followed by a pause
and two beeps, followed by a pause and three beeps. Phoenix version before 4.x use 3-beep codes,
while Phoenix versions starting with 4.x use 4-beep codes. This list is by no means comprehensive.

4- Beep Code Meaning

1-1-1-3 Faulty CPU/motherboard.

1-1-2-1 Faulty CPU/motherboard.

1-1-2-3 Faulty motherboard or one of its components.

1-1-3-2
1-1-3-3
1-2-1-2

1-1-3-2 Failure in the first 64K of memory.

1-1-4-1 Level 2 cache error.

1-1-4-3 I/O port error.

1-2-1-1 Power management error.

1-2-2-1 Keyboard controller failure.

1-2-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

1-2-3-1 System timer error.

1-2-3-3 DMA error.

1-2-4-1 IRQ controller error.

1-3-1-1 DRAM refresh error.

1-3-3-1 Extended memory error.

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4- Beep Code Meaning

2-3-1-1
2-3-3-3

1-3-3-3 Error in first 1MB of system memory.

1-3-4-1
1-3-4-3
2-2-4-1

1-4-1-3 CPU error.

1-4-2-4

2-1-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

2-1-3-1 Video system failure.

2-1-3-3

2-1-1-3 IRQ failure.

2-1-2-1
2-2-3-1

2-1-2-3 BIOS ROM error.

2-1-2-4 I/O port failure.

2-1-4-3 Video card failure.

2-2-1-1

2-3-4-1 Motherboard or video card failure.

2-3-4-3
2-3-4-1
2-3-4-3
2-4-1-1

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4- Beep Code Meaning

3-1-4-1 Floppy drive or hard drive failure.

3-2-1-1
3-2-1-2

3-3-1-1 Real Time Clock error.

Table 1.3 Phoenix BIOS beep codes

Award BIOS beep codes

Award BIOSes do not have many error beep codes, instead most errors are reported on the screen.
Typical hardware level errors
While the range of possibilities is enormous when it comes to errors and computing problems, there are
a few typical errors. For each of the errors, there may be a simple solution, or at least a way of
determining the actual cause of the problem. Let’s look at some of them:
System appears dead
Listen to the power supply and determine if the internal fan starts up. If the fan does not start up then
the cause of the problem could be:
 The system is not plugged into a power outlet, or the outlet has no power.
 The power supply unit is faulty.
 There is an internal short circuit and the fan does not start as a protective measure.
 The computer is dead!
No video
No video appears on the screen when the system is performing its POST. Often an audible beep is
heard if the BIOS detects the video error, but other likely causes are:
 Video card is faulty — swap it out with a known good card.
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  There is a fault in the motherboard.
 The video card is not inserted correctly.
 The monitor is turned off or has no power.
No boot device or unable to boot
The system could not find a bootable device; the most likely cause is the hard disk drive. The system
summary screen is the first place to check. If the hard disk is listed as a detected device, then the
problem may be a logical and not physical problem. Things to consider are:
 Missing boot files — they may have been deleted by the user.
 A virus has caused damage to the boot files or has corrupted the file system or Master Boot Record
(MBR).
 A common mistake is a floppy disk being left in the drive.
 Cables not connected to hard disk drive properly.

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Failure to read hard disk drive
This usually means that there is a serious problem with the drive which may be physical or logical. A
physical problem would mean the drive was unserviceable, whereas a logical problem may mean the
drive and its contents could be recovered by:
 Running a disk checking program like scandisk, fsck, Norton’s Disk Doctor or some other program
appropriate to the operating system.
 Reinstalling the operating system making sure the drive is formatted. If the option allows it, perform
a full format and not a quick format. A full format will make a thorough check of the drive for faulty
sectors.
 The cable may be faulty or not connected to the hard disk drive properly.
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive not reading disks
It is common for copied disks to be difficult to be read in standard CD/DVD-ROM drives. Often the drive
(CD/DVD Read Write drive, a.k.a. burner) that was used to copy the disk will be able to read the contents,
unless the disk is totally unserviceable. Other possibilities are:
 The copying process was never complete and the disk session not closed off. Check the setting
on the software in use.
 General poor quality disks or CD/DVD burner.
 Disk dirty or in need of cleaning.
 Faulty drive — when CD-ROM dives first came onto the market, the quality was poor and it seemed
as though they were a disposable item. These days the quality and reliability seems much
improved.
Floppy drive errors
Floppy disks are notable for their unreliability. This is one reason why it is important to have more than
one copy of a disk, or its contents. Things to consider:
 Try the disk in another drive or two, if it can be read then the problem is likely the floppy disk drive
(FDD) and not the disk.
 The cable to the drive has not been connected properly. Most cables to floppy disk drives can be
connected to two drives. To distinguish between the first (A) and second (B) drive there is a twist

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 in the wires of the cable. If there is only a single drive (most common) and the cable is not
connected at the end of the cable (past the twist) then a drive error message is typical.
 The floppy disk has not been formatted to this operating system.

Unable to print
Most current printers come with a high degree of intelligence built in and can detect errors like cable not
connected, printer offline, out of paper, out of toner/ink etc. Things to consider:
 Read the LCD display (if the printer has one) or check the status lights are displaying what they
should for normal operation.
 Check the print manager software of the operating system to see if the printer is being shown as
connected and on-line. If it is not on-line or shown as connected, then it may be a hardware
problem.
 Change the cable.
 Perform a self test on the printer using the LCD display or options on the printer panel. If it performs
the test properly then try the options available in the printer control of your operating system.
No network connectivity
The likely cause of networking problems can be many and varied. Without delving into the finer details
of networking, the easiest option to try is to change the network cable and check the status lights that
are on both the network interface card (NIC) and the hub/switch/router at the other end. If there is activity
then the likely cause is not hardware. You can also try switching off, or resetting, the hub/switch/router.
System hangs (locks up)
One of the most difficult to problems with personal computers occurs when it appears as though a
system is not responding to any user input (key press, mouse movement etc.). The likely causes are
many and varied but a few possibilities are:
 Faulty memory (RAM) — you could turn memory testing on in CMOS settings which may confirm
the problem, or perform a rigorous test using third-party diagnostic software.

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  Conflict with devices — you should check the systems properties information available on you
operating system platform, for any messages or indications of conflict.
 Device driver is faulty — try to isolate the problem occurrence to when a particular device is in use,
such as a scanner or printer. A driver update may be a solution.
Some poorly designed programs do not behave in a civilised fashion
In other words, programs may take control and not yield to other programs when they need processor
time. On some operating systems it is possible to view the activity of applications or processes. In
Microsoft Windows XP/2000 you can press the Ctrl + Alt + Delete keys and access the Task Manager.
From there you can attempt to kill any process that is consuming more that its fair share of processor
time.
The operating system has generally become unstable
The most reliable solution is to reinstall the operating system. Alternatively you may be able to restore
to a backup of the system, where performance levels were known to be good.

Typical faultfinding procedures

Flowcharts
Fault finding procedures can be presented in several ways. For instance you could produce sets of
flowcharts that consider various options based on Yes/No responses. This technique is useful for
training, or use of, first line helpdesk staff in responding to caller’s difficulties. The downside to using
flowcharts is that a different flowchart would be needed for every possible problem, which would be very
time-consuming to produce and not something that a field technician is likely to carry around.
Nevertheless they can be a useful tool.
Communicate
For more experience technical support staff, sometimes a few pointed questions, to the user of the
system, may be able to isolate the cause of a problem quickly. The approach when talking to the user
may be to establish a history. Establish a history means to find out what worked before, what changed,
and what works now. The solution might be simple – change it back.
Read and respond

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Make sure you read carefully any error messages. When programmers write programs they usually
assign some error code to each possible error that they may expect the program to encounter. If an
error message quotes a number, then write it down and check it with the manufacturer or developer. If
they know the specific error code then they will be in a position to offer specific and more reliable advice.
Try a workaround. For instance if you read an error message stating that there was ‘No boot device
found’, then provide a different boot device. This could be as simple as using another bootable floppy
disk, hard disk or even CD-ROM disk. If the system starts up, then you will be in a position to effect
repairs.
KISS principle
Keep It Simple Stupid (KISS), while sounding strange, is an approach that can be surprisingly effective.
Look for the simple things first. For instance:
 If a system does not power up as you expect then consider if there is in fact power connected and
turn on.
 If nothing appears on a monitor, then try a different monitor. Then you will know if the problem is
the monitor or within the system unit. Another possibility is that little fingers have turned the
brightness control down so that the screen simply appears black, when in fact nothing is wrong.
 If you suspect that a video card is faulty, then swap it with a known good card – if the fault continues
then you know that the card is not at fault. If another card is not available then, remove the card,
power the system and you should hear an appropriate audible error – no beeps and the
motherboard is the likely faulty component.
 If the mouse-pointer movement seems erratic, then turn the mouse over and clean the rollers, if it
still is not working properly then replace it with a new mouse. The cost of some devices is so low,
in comparison to the time wasted, that it is just not worth the bother.
Diagnostic tools
The most useful diagnostic tool that can be used is your brain. The tool should be used in conjunction
with the KISS principle. While that is suitable for some obvious problems, there are times when more
specific information is needed in order to take the appropriate corrective measures. To get good
information about a systems condition, good diagnostic tools are required.
A POST card

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Where a system does not boot, or appears to be dead, there are some specialist interface cards that
can be used to diagnose the problem. A set of LEDs (light emitting diodes) display a code that can be
referenced from the manual. Example of this type of card would be:
 Post-Probe by Micro2000 (www.micro2000.com).
 ISA/PCI PC Analyzer Diagnostic Card by Pro Tech Diagnostics (www.protechdiagnostics.com).
Diagnostic software
Where a computer is capable of starting to the boot level, you can use diagnostic software in an attempt
to isolate the cause of a problem. While there is software that runs on your existing operating system
(like Norton’s Utilities), the better software will have its own operating system.
When a program requests access to any hardware device, it should be accessing it through the
operating system and any drivers. The problem with this approach is that the operating system shields
the higher-level programs from the lower-level hardware functions. If a program were to access the
hardware directly, then it is highly likely that the operating system will not respond well and the system
could easily crash.
If diagnostic software is operated on its own specially designed operating system, then direct access
(via the BIOS) to the hardware will likely yield accurate and thorough details. Having unimpeded access
to the low-level functions of the hardware means the diagnostic software is able to run rigorous testing
and reporting. After all, it’s unlikely that rigorous memory testing could be performed while there are
several other programs currently running in memory.
Examples of good diagnostic software are:
 Micro-Scope Diagnostic Suite from Micro2000 (www.micro2000.com)
 PC Certify Lite from Pro Tech Diagnostics (www.protechdiagnostics.com)
Use built-in tools
All operating systems come with utilities that are used for general checking, repair and reporting of faults.
Each operating system is different but they do have some tools in common. Tools such as hard disk
scanning, such as Scandisk from Microsoft, fsck (file system check) on Unix clones like Linux, and
Apple’s Disk First Aid.
If your operating system supports it, then checking the device interrupts and input/output addresses can
locate problems associated with hardware conflicts, or apparent inoperative hardware. For instance you

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may have a sound card installed in a system but have difficulty in getting the device to produce any
sound, when you know the device is not faulty.
An example of a Device Manager can be seen using Microsoft Windows XP/2000. Right-click the My
Computer icon, select Properties, then click the Hardware tab, then click the Device Manager button. If
any items listed have some problem, a yellow symbol with an exclamation (!) is displayed.
Check for conflicting devices
When a device (a sound card, mouse, NIC etc.) requires attention from the processor (CPU), it
generates an Interrupt Request commonly known as an IRQ. It is the equivalent to a child putting their
hand in the air in a classroom, because the teacher’s attention is required for some reason.
There are a set number of interrupts that are available (traditionally just 0-15), for use in the typical
personal computer, so it is possible for two or more devices to generate an interrupt using the same IRQ
number. This is fine, provided only one device uses that request at any given time. But if a request, say
IRQ 7, is generated by two devices simultaneously, then the processor will not be able to disting uish
which device is in need of attention. Therefore a conflict occurs.
Each hardware device also has a base address (or IO address) where data is sent or retrieved (input or
output). It’s the equivalent of Post Office Boxes, all numbered and where each relates to only one
person’s mail. Two people can use the same PO Box, so if two devices share the same address then a
conflict occurs.
Fortunately, many of the hardware conflicts of the past are significantly reduced through the use of USB
connections. The USB (Universal Serial Bus) controls which device is generating an interrupt and the
address of each device.
Swap devices
In troubleshooting hardware problems with a personal computer, you will need to swap devices ie you
replace a suspect component with a known good component. While different devices may be fitted in
different ways, the basic steps remain the same. For example, while different types of RAM may be
inserted differently — same may have to be inserted at an angle, others pushed directly down — the
steps in removing the covers and replacing the component remain the same.
Here is a set of steps for the removal and replacement of the system unit covers:
Warnings

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If the case is on a retail or brand-name system that is under warranty, be very sure that opening the
case will not void your warranty. Some vendors have this policy, and you may see stickers on the case
that say that if they are removed or broken the warranty is void. Some have the policy without the
stickers.
Case and system manufacturers are quite creative, so not every imaginable case design is covered
here. If you read all of the different choices you are likely to find one that is close to what you have.
Be careful not to touch any of the internal components when removing the cover.
Cover removal procedure
Disconnect cables
Make sure the system itself is off. Detach all the cables from the back of the system case. Make a note
of what went where so that you will know how to reconnect them later on.
Remove monitor and other devices
If you have a desktop case, you of course need to move the monitor so that you can open the case.
Also remove any other devices from the top of the case.
Loosen and remove cover
The instructions for removing the cover depend on what sort of case you have. Fi nd the one that best
describes your system:
Conventional tower: This is the classic design that has been around for years and is still being sold.
Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the case, and remove them using a screwdriver. There
are usually four to six. Gently pull back on the U-shaped top cover about a half-inch.; you may have to
rock it slightly. Lift the cover up off the frame of the case. Be careful, as these covers are large and
unwieldy.
Conventional desktop: The conventional desktop case has been around since the original IBM PC in
1982, and is still sometimes seen in new systems. Locate the screws along the edge of the back of the
case, and remove them with a screwdriver. There are usually five but may be fewer. Gently push the
cover forward. Watch out for drive faceplates that may become caught on the cover as you try to slide
it forward. On some cases, the front cover slides all the way off the front of the case. On others it will
slide forward a couple of inches and stop, and then you lift it up off the case.

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Slimline Desktop: An odd design found on some proprietary systems, the low-profile case has the screws
that hold the cover on the front or rear of the case. Others may in fact be screwdriver-less, using finger
tight screws. Look at the front of the case near the bottom, or the centre top at the rear. Loosen the
screw(s), and slide the cover forward off the case. Watch out for drive faceplates that may become
caught on the cover as you slide it.
Store screws in safe place
If you forget this step you might regret it later on.
Remember to wear an anti-static wrist strap before touching any internal components.
Post change, re-assembly procedure
After changing any component, you should take the following basic reassembly procedure.
Power inspection
Verify the following key items related to the system power:
 If the system case has a dual voltage switch, make sure it is set to the correct voltage eg 230/240V.
 Make sure the power switch is off. You don’t want the system booting up as soon as you connect
the power cord.
 If you are working in an ATX system, double-check that you have connected the power switch to
the motherboard properly.
 Make sure all your drives have a power connector attached to them correctly.
 Make sure that the CPU fan and any additional case fans have their power connectors attached.
Cable inspection
 Check the cable connections to make sure they are correct.
 Check for loose connections or cables that are misaligned. Make sure the red edge of the cable is
lined up to pin 1 of each device
 Check the IDE cable(s) going to the hard disk drive and CD-ROM drive.
 Check the floppy cable going to the floppy disk drive.
 Check the cables that attach the I/O port connectors and PS/2 mouse port connector to the
motherboard. Most new motherboards have all these connections integrated on the motherboard,
so this is not an issue.

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  Make sure the cables running to the case switches and LEDs are correct. For instance, if the
speaker is not connected you will not be able to hear any audible error beeps, or power good
signal.
Motherboard inspection
Double-check these configuration and installation aspects relevant to the motherboard:
 Make sure the memory is inserted into the correct socket(s) and is fully seated.
 Make sure the processor is inserted correctly and is all the way into its socket.
 Ensure that the heat sink is secured properly to the processor.
 Make sure the video card is seated properly in its slot. Some motherboards, particularly proprietary
ones, will also have the video fully integrated on the motherboard, so this is not necessary.
Physical interference inspection
Check the following physical issues:
 Ensure that all the drives are properly secured in their bays.
 Make sure there are no loose wires in the case that may interfere with any moving objects like the
CPU fan. Some video cards can also have a fan attached and some cases can have more than
one fan.
Experience shows that it is quicker, and less frustrating, to test the operation of the system
before putting the covers back on.
Update drivers
A driver is a program that is designed to operate a particular device at its lowest hardware level. The
benefit of having device drivers is that any application need not know the finer details of how a device
works, simply know how to ask it to do whatever it does. For example, to print a graphic on a page, a
word processor need only provide the graphic to the driver and issue some command .
Drivers are usually supplied by the manufacturer of the device. While many drivers (for a wide range of
devices) are included with an operating system, they are originally provided by the manufacturer. As
problems are identified by manufacturers (possibly as a result of customer complaints), they will update
their drivers to fix the problem. It stands to reason then, that if you have device that is experiencing some
problem, that obtaining the updated driver from the manufacturer might rectify the problem. Further, it’s

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not necessary to wait for a known problem to manifest itself before you choose to update the driver –
it’s called a preventative measure.
Not all drivers are simply software added or updated on the operating system. Some devices (including
motherboards, modems etc.) can have their ROM BIOS updated through using Flash Memory
technology. The term flash memory is applied to special EEPROM (Electronically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory) hardware chips. By running a program provided be the
manufacturer the latest bug fixes or new protocols etc. can be applied.
However, there is a word of warning in flashing a BIOS. Some manufacturers take little care in checking
if the existing BIOS to be updated is of a suitable type and/or model, and possibly provide no option to
undo what is done. Flashing a BIOS is not for the faint-hearted as some errors could lead to the device
being totally unusable. So it is important to make sure you get the right update!

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 Warranties
After you have identified a faulty device, you will then have to make the decision to repair, or replace.
Realistically, most electronic components are rarely repaired. The cost of finding faulty transistors,
diodes, fuses, etc. is a specialist task and is high enough to make it cheaper and faster simply to replace
the component. This would be true for items such as video cards, network cards, floppy disk drives,
motherboards, etc.
However, there are some peripherals that are likely candidates for repair. For example, a CRT monitor
that displays a blurred or dull image can be easily adjusted, as there are brightness and focus
adjustments inside the cover. Refocusing a monitor is a 10 minute job for a suitably trained person.
Some printers may simply need a print-head or roller replaced, so once again there no need to discard
the device as unserviceable. These types of repairs should be carried out by qualified technicians and
usually at a specialist repair/service centre.
If a piece of hardware is to be repaired or replaced, then the question of warranty arises. If there is no
warranty exists (unlikely), or warranty has expired then perhaps the hardware can be considered as
having reached its useful life, and be replaced or upgraded with one that is covered by warranty. The
cost of repairs not performed under warranty can often easily justify taking this view.
Even if repairs are to be done under some warranty system then, you might want to consider some of
these factors:
Turnaround time
There will be a turn around time for the repairs from the time you make the call.
Costs
You may be required to pay extra costs such as freight to and from the repair centre.
Location
The equipment may have to be sent quite some distance to the nearest repair centre.
Loaners
If a repair will take days or weeks, determine if it is possible to provide an alternative device as a stopgap
measure. The last thing you want is significant downtime.

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Ideally you want an arrangement where you simply make a phone call, the support people come to your
premises and replace any faulty components. What you really need in a productive and busy
environment is a good Service Level Agreement.
Getting support to work for you
In business you often can’t afford to be unproductive. Imagine a retail outlet with a line of customers and
the ‘computer is down and won’t be working for two days’. How much would be lost through lost sales
and disgruntled customers? It could be very expensive indeed. When you view the situation from an
economical point of view, the seemingly expensive option of on-site 24/7 support services may not seem
quite so expensive.
In a less system-critical environment you would still become reliant on good support services, but your
needs may only extend from 9-5pm, five days a week. So choosing the support level you need is one
aim of a good Service Level Agreement.
A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is a contract between a service provider and the end-user which
stipulates and commits the provider to a required level of service. An SLA should contain:
 a specified level of service
 the support options
 the enforcement or penalty provisions for services not provided
 a guaranteed level of system performance in terms of downtime or uptime
 a specified level of customer support
 what software and/or hardware will be supported
 the fees and charges involved.
A poorly chosen SLA might find that you have on-site support in principle only. For instance, your
agreement might be for a technician to go on-site. But after making a call the technician arrives, and the
equipment is taken and sent away for repairs. The repairs or replacement might take weeks, with no
other equipment acting as a temporary workaround. You may be unproductive during that time; clearly
not a satisfactory situation.
Even with a well-chosen SLA you can still assist the support processes when you log a call by:
 Performing some initial troubleshooting on the equipment in an attempt to pinpoint the device at
fault. In the process you will likely also determine what the cause IS NOT.

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  Explaining clearly to the first-line support person (whether by phone or email), that you have
isolated the cause of the problem, and what the cause is (or is not).
 Trying a few options or suggestions provided to further narrow down or solve the problem.
 Making sure you get a Call, Job or Request Number or Reference. This number will be vital in
being able to track the progress of any work or equipment related to the fault.
 Being polite! Think about what it must be like being the person at the other end of the phone that
clients constantly complain too.
Escalating is the term applied to passing the problem onto the next level of support. If the fault cannot
be initially corrected, then it is passed to a more experienced and technically savvy person or team.
Once again if you have the request number, you will be able to track progress more quickly.

Self Check 5 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. List type of boot device option ?

2. Write solution Failure to read hard disk drive?

3. Write solution CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive not reading disks?

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Note: Satisfactory rating – 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points
You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

List of Reference Materials

1. BOOKS
2. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
3. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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 Determining, recording and applying Safe work
Information Sheet – 6
practices
6.1. SYSTEM RESOURCES (IRQ, DMA and I/O ADDRESSES)
System resources are what allocate and setup your hardware components helping preventing
hardware to work without causing issues with other hardware within your computer. System resources
are setup by one or more of the following:
 Interrupt Request (IRQ)
 Input/output (I/O)
 Direct memory access (DMA)
6.1. WHAT IS IRQ?
An IRQ or Interrupt request line allows a hardware device inside of the computer a direct line to
the Microprocessor and tells the Microprocessor to stop what it is doing and wait until it has
further instructions. Every PC computer has a maximum of 16 IRQs and is prioritized in the
computer according to the importance of the device.
6.2. WHAT IS DMA?
A DMA or Direct Memory Access is a pathway provided by the hardware to allow the
hardware direct access to the computer’s memory. This feature allows devices to bypass the
CPU and write their information directly to the main memory.
6.3. WHAT IS I/O?
An Input Output (I/O) represents the location in memory that is designated by use of various
devices to exchange information amongst themselves and the rest of the PC.
Warranties and support
Before acquiring hardware peripheral devices, it is vital to assess what kind of warranties, service and
support, prospective suppliers will provide.
Warranties

A warranty is an agreed upon term which covers a computer or computer component. Generally, most
computers have a 1 or 3 year warranty. This warranty may or may not cover the service, repair and
replacement of computer parts.
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An extended warranty is an available option provided by manufacturers or third-party companies that
provides additional support and/or repair of a computer or other hardware devices beyond its standard
warranty.

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Warranty
When computer hardware devices are purchased, the supplier provides a guarantee that if a fault
develops in the equipment within a certain time, they will repair or replace it free of charge.
Organizations need to consider the warranty conditions before purchasing to ensure their business
needs will be met. Common warranty conditions include:

 The length of the warranty – typically one or more years.

 The actions needed to have the repairs undertaken. Either the repairs will be done on-site or
the equipment will need to be returned to the supplier, known as return-to-base.
 How long the supplier has to make good any required repairs
 Any exclusions to the warranty, such as damage caused to hardware by accidental damage.
Many computer hardware suppliers offer extended warranties at additional cost. For example, the
extended warranty may extend the period of cover from one year to three years. The level of service
purchased by an organization will depend on how critical the device is to the IT system.
A Service Level Agreement (SLA) is an agreement which sets out the level of service and maintenance
to be provided.
Service and support
It is important to know what kind of support services are offered by the prospective supplier. There are
many questions to consider such as:
 If a device requires repairs does it have to be sent back to the supplier (called ‘Return to base’)
or will they provide on-site visits?

 What is the average response time if service is required?

 What kinds of maintenance and repair costs could be incurred during the duration of use of the
device?

 Will the device require regular servicing? If so, how many services will be necessary over a
one-year period?

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 Self Check 6 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
II. Fill the blank space.
1. _________line allows a hardware device inside of the computer a direct line to the
Microprocessor and tells the Microprocessor to stop what it is doing and wait until it has further
instructions.
2. _______is a pathway provided by the hardware to allow the hardware direct access to the
computer’s memory.
3. ________is an agreement which sets out the level of service and maintenance to be provided.
4. __________an agreed upon term which covers a computer or computer component.
5. _______represents the location in memory that is designated by use of various devices to
exchange information amongst themselves and the rest of the PC.

Note: Satisfactory rating – 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
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Rating: ____________
Answer Sheet

Instruction Sheet LG28:-Hardware requirements with specified manufacturers

This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
Following content coverage and topics –
 Determining and applying suitable environmental conditions
 Considering orientation and proper functioning of different computer platforms
 Determining and applying System protection devices
 Determining and applying requirements when moving hardware
 Determining and applying suitable storage principle
 Considering and applying business requirements
 Considering OHS standards and environmental concerns
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –

 Suitable environmental conditions are determined and applied for hardware and
peripherals

 General orientation and proper functioning of different computer platforms are

considered in locating computer

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  System protection devices are determined and applied to keep hardware form
damage.

 Requirements are determined and applied when moving hardware.

 Suitable storage principles are determined and applied for hardware and associated
peripherals and media.

 Business requirements are considered and applied in respect of hardware location

 Functions of computer hardware and associated OHS standards and environmental

concerns are considered
Learning Instructions:
1. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
2. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
3. Read the information written in the information “Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3, Sheet 4 ,
Sheet 5, Sheet 6 and Sheet 7 ” in page 1,8 ,15, 18,27,31 and 36 respectively.
4. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3, Self-check 4 , Self-check 5,
Self-check 6 and Self-check 7” in page 5, 11, 17,26 30,35 and 40 respectively

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 Determining and applying suitable environmental
Information Sheet – 1 conditions

1.1. Environmental conditions

Just like the environmental conditions affect us as humans, computer equipment can also
be affected. In order install and maintain equipment to gain the maximum useful life, the
environmental conditions need to be considered — factors such as temperature extremes,
humidity, dust, electromagnetic interference (EMI), and so on. The following notes are a
discussion of these factors.

1.1.1. Temperature
One of the single most important factors in prolonging the life of your computer
hardware is the temperature of the components. Components that run hot, have a
much shorter life than those that stay cool most of the time. To keep components
cool you could use cooling equipment or ensure certain procedures or actions
(discussed later). A more general approach is to provide a room environment that is
appropriate for the hardware.

A rule of thumb for room temperature is that computers like the temperatures that
most people like. That is temperatures between 15 and 24 degrees Celsius. Having
computer equipment operating in a hot room that is over 25 degrees Celsius will make
general cooling equipment, such as fans, fairly ineffectual.

Some businesses have their air-conditioners on a timer that will shut off at night. In
this situation you might want to make sure that computer equipment is switched off
overnight, or that a special computer room is designated with independent controls.

Obviously most computer hardware can tolerate being at more extreme temperatures
when they are not running. If you are transporting equipment or storing it, the
temperature concerns are far less than if the equipment is actually in use. However,
if you have equipment that has been exposed to very low temperatures and is then
immediately turned on, you risk permanently damaging the equipment. It is essential

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 that very cold equipment be brought up to room temperature slowly before use. This
is called acclimation.

When receiving new equipment during very cold weather, it is worth considering that
the equipment has been sitting in very cold warehouses or trucks. You may be risking
permanent damage if you switch power up the equipment while still very cold. Of
particular concern are monitors, hard disks, motherboards, and chips of all kinds
(processor, memory, etc.) This covers most of the computer of course.

Thermal stress is a leading cause of premature failure of electronics components.

This is bad enough when the components are raised from 20 degrees to 60, but when
they are raised from 0 to 60 it is much worse.

Condensation can be even more destructive. Think about how moisture condensates
on a cold bottle, on a warm day, when you take it out of the fridge (usually around 5
degrees Celsius). It is quite possible for this to happen with electronic equipment as
well. This does not need to cause any problems, so long as you give the condensation
enough time to evaporate. If your hard disk platters have moisture on them when you
spin them up, you risk destroying the drive.

The colder the equipment is, the longer it needs to sit to ensure that it comes up to a
reasonable temperature before turning it on. In temperatures down 5 degrees, then
you might want to wait up to 12 hours. If the device has been allowed to go to below-
freezing temperatures, then wait 24 hours for the device to acclimate before plugging
in the power. A more humid environment will make condensation more of a problem.

1.1.2. Humidity
As with temperature, computers prefer moderate humidity as opposed to either
extreme. While computer equipment is not as sensitive to humidity as temperature,
they can still be affected by it.

Obviously, computers are best kept dry. That means keeping it away from places or
things that can get it wet. Consider the inappropriate positioning near a window if it is
frequently opened, and be wary of beverages placed near the computer that could
spill on it and short it out.

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 Using computer equipment in a humid area can be problematic, if the climate is
extremely humid. Using a computer in a tropical rainforest is an example of extreme
humidity. Humidity leads to corrosion and possible condensation risk, which can
damage equipment. It also makes cooling the computer more difficult.

Conversely, air that is too dry can cause problems in two different ways. First, it
increases the amount of static electricity that is in the room, increasing the chances
of a discharge. Second, it can cause faster wear on some components that dry out
over time. This includes some types of capacitors, as well as rubber rollers on laser
printers.

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 1.1.3. Dirty environments

Computers operate best when they are used in a clean environment, and when they
are cleaned regularly. Most offices and homes are clean enough that a computer
requires no special treatment other than regular cleaning as part of routine preventive
maintenance. Industrial environments however can be quite destructive on computer
equipment.

Computer systems that are going to be used in dirty environments should be

protected or cleaned often. Cleaning would also mean taking the covers off and
cleaning the inside. If you get the chance to see the inside of a system unit that has
been in an industrial environment, you will be amazed how much dirt accumulates.

One easy preventive measure is to use an air cleaner in the room where the computer
is located. There are also special cases and enclosures for computer hardware
designed for industrial environments to safeguard against damage due to dirt. The
typical office owner only has to remember to clean their equipment occasionally and
no problems will generally result

Now this might be stating the obvious, but cigarette smoke is bad. The simple fact is
that cigarette smoke, especially in high concentration, contaminates and damages
computer equipment. The smoke particles are very small and work their way into all
sorts of places that they do not belong. The most common problems relate to storage
devices. The very fine particles accumulate on read/write heads and the storage
media, such as floppy disks.

1.1.4. Electromagnetic interference (EMI)

Probably everyone at some stage has had a radio on when there is an approaching
thunderstorm. You would clearly hear the crackling and noise distortion coming from
the radio. That crackling is the result of electromagnetic interference, often referred
to as EMI.

All electronic devices give off electromagnetic emissions. This is radiation that is a
by-product of electrical or magnetic activity. Unfortunately, the emissions from one
device can interfere with other devices, causing potential problems. Just like the

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 crackling on the radio, interference can lead to data loss, picture quality degradation
on monitors, and other problems with your PC, television set or other devices.

EMI emissions are a two-way problem; emitted by the computer system, and EMI
received by the computer system. PCs generally do not cause very much interference
with other devices. As with many other electronic devices, they should be certified as
Class B compliant with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). This
certification shows that the PC conforms to standards that limit the amount of EMI
that a PC can produce. As metals absorb EMI, you have to keep the metal covers on
the computer.

PCs can be affected by electromagnetic interference from other devices, in two major
ways. One is direct effects through proximity with other devices; another is electrical
interference over the power lines.

Try this quick test:

1 Hold a mobile phone near next to an operating monitor

2 Send an SMS message to someone you know.

3 Watch the effects on picture quality.

While a more colourful test would be to place a strong magnet next to a monitor, it is
not recommended as sometimes the effects can be long-lasting. Degauss is the
process that demagnetises the metal components in the cathode ray tube (CRT),
eliminating image distortion that can result from magnetic charges acquired by the
components. Some new monitors degauss automatically whenever you turn on your
monitor.

Most PCs generally do not have many problems with EMI, but for those that do, there are
things that you can do to reduce EMI:

 Physical isolation: Devices that emit electromagnetic radiation should be kept a

reasonable distance from your computers, peripherals and media. This includes
television sets, radios, lights, kitchen appliances, and stereo speakers. Speakers
designed for use with PCs are generally shielded and are much less of a problem.

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  Use dedicated circuits: Some office buildings have separate power circuits that are
intended for use by computer equipment. Keeping your computer on a circuit that is
separate from the circuit running your refrigerator, arc welder, air conditioning unit etc.,
means that there will be much less interference passing to the computer from the other
devices. The added benefit is this will also improve the quality of the power being sent
to your machine in general.

 Power conditioning: The use of a line conditioner or uninterruptible power supply can
filter out interference caused by other devices that share a line with your computer.

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 Self Check 1 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. List Environmental conditions affect?

2. List things that you can do to reduce EMI?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Considering orientation and proper functioning of different
Information Sheet – 2 computer platforms

2.1. Determine any requirements as specified by the hardware manufacturer

If the manufacturer produces substances that may be deemed hazardous, then additional
obligations apply. There are documents known as Material Safety Data Sheets or MSDS. A
MSDS should be prepared by the manufacturer and include information on the
recommended use of a substance, its physical and chemical properties, relevant health
hazard information and information concerning the precautions to be followed in relation to
the safe use and handling of the substance.
In a more general context, with virtually all equipment produced, the manufacturer is
required to provide relevant safety information. This information is often provided as part of
the user instruction/manual for safe operation. The following is a typical set of Safety
Instructions for a combined Printer/Scanner/Copier.
Example: Safety instructions

Read all of the instructions on this section when setting up and using the product.

When choosing a place for the product

 Avoid places subject to rapid changes in temperature and humidity. Also, keep the
product away from direct sunlight strong light and heat sources.
 Avoid places subject to dust, shocks and vibrations
 Leave enough room around the product to allow for sufficient ventilation.
 Place the product near a wall outlet where the plug can be easily unplugged.
 Place the product on a flat, stable surface that extends beyond this product base in
all directions. If you place the product near the wall, leave more than 10cm between
the back of the product and the wall. The product will not operate properly if it is tilted
at an angle.
 When storing or transporting the product, do not tilt it, stand it on its side, or turn it
upside down; otherwise, ink my leak from the cartridge.

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  Leave more than 22cm between the base of the product and the edge of the surface
on which it is placed; otherwise, the product may fall if tipped forward possibly causing
injury.
When choosing a power source
 Use only the type of power source indicated on the label on the back of the product.
 Be sure your AC power cord meets the relevant local safety standards.
 Do not use a damaged or frayed power cord.
 If you use an extension cord with the product, make sure that the total ampere rating
of the devices plugged into the extension cord does not exceed the cord’s ampere
rating. Also, make sure that the total ampere rating of all devices plugged into the
wall outlet does not exceed the wall outlet’s ampere rating.
When handling ink cartridges
 Do not open the ink cartridge packages until just before you install them.
 Do not shake used ink cartridges; this can cause leakage.
 Keep ink cartridges out of the reach of children. Do not allow children to drink from or
otherwise handle the cartridges.
 Be careful when you handle used ink cartridges as there may be some ink remaining
around the ink supply port. If ink gets on your skin, wash the area thoroughly with
soap and water. If ink gets into your eyes, flush them immediately with water. If
discomfort or vision problems remain after a thorough flushing, see a doctor
immediately.
 Do not touch the circuitry that is located on the back of the cartridge.
 Do not remove or tear the label on the cartridge; this can cause leakage.
 Store each ink cartridge so that the bottom of its packaging faces down.
When using the product
 Do not put your hand inside the product or touch the ink cartridges during printing.
 Do not block or cover the openings on the product.
 Do not attempt to service the product yourself.
Unplug the product and refer servicing to qualified service personnel under the following
conditions:

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  The power cord or plug is damaged.
 Liquid has entered the product.
 The product has been dropped or the cover damaged.
 The product does not operate normally or exhibits a distinct change in performance.
Do not insert objects into the slots on the product.
Take care not to spill liquid on the product.
Leave the ink cartridges installed. Removing the cartridges can dehydrated the print head
and may prevent the product from printing.
If the product has a LCD panel
Use only a dry, soft cloth to clean the display. Do not use liquid or chemical cleansers.
If the display on the product is damaged, contact your dealer.
If the liquid crystal solution contained in the LCD panel leaks out and gets on your hands,
wash them thoroughly with soap and water, if the liquid crystal solution gets into you eyes,
flush them immediately with water, if discomfort or vision problems remain after a though
flushing, see a doctor immediately.
Before installing software we often need to know if a computer meets that software's
minimum hardware requirements, like the type of processor, the amount of physical
memory, the screen resolution or (not really a hardware issue pur sang) available
harddisk space.
I. Processor
The processor number is one of several factors, along with processor brand, specific system
configurations and system-level benchmarks, to be considered when choosing the right
processor for your computing needs.
A higher number within a processor class or family generally indicates more features, but it
may be more of one and less of another. Once you decide on a specific processor brand
and type, compare processor numbers to verify the processor includes the features you are
looking for.
Intel’s processor number system is used with the following brands:
For Example

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 Requirement Requirement
Type
CPU For one index server per TREX instance:
At least 2 CPUs
Recommended: 4 CPUs
With two index servers per TREX instance: At least 4
CPUs.
The supported processors are listed in the TREX
installation guide.

II. Physical Memory

Memory is the main component of a computer system. It stores instructions and data in
binary form that is used by the central processing unit.
For Example
Requirement Type Requirement
RAM At least 2 GB per CPU

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 III. Disk Space
Hard-disk requirements vary, depending on the size of software installation, temporary files
created and maintained while installing or running the software, and possible use of swap
space (if RAM is insufficient).
A minimum base installation requires at least 15MB of disk space but you should assume
that your actual disk space needs will be much larger.
For example, if you install many contributed modules and contributed themes, the actual
disk space for your installation could easily be (and likely will be) larger than 60 MB
(exclusive of database content, media, backups and other files which should be considered
too when planning for your site).
IV. Network Connections
Network Connections provides connectivity between your computer and the Internet, a
network, or another computer. With Network Connections, you can configure settings to
reach local or remote network resources or functions.

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 Self Check 2 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. List instruction when choosing a power source?

2. List instruction when handling ink cartridges?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Determining and applying System protection devices

Information Sheet – 3

3.1. Power conditioning

There are many issues with computers that are ultimately related to power problems.
Providing a good, reliable power source to your computer, and peripheral, is another
aspect of system care. We should take a look at how to avoid power problems, as well as
energy conservation and other issues related to the use of power.
Typical power problems

There are a number of terms related to power and problems, some of the most common
are:

 Blackouts: When power levels drop to virtually zero, or in other words there is NO
power.

 Brownouts: Also called sag. A brownout occurs when power levels drop below that
which is suppose to be delivered, for a sustained time. For example if you have a
230-240 volt power outlet, but the measurable level drops below 230 volts. Typically
experienced in switching on of heavy equipment.

 Surges: Is the opposite of a brownout. It is where voltage levels increase above that
which is specified at the outlet eg above 240 volts

 Spikes: A short sharp and very sudden increase of voltage, that also drops just as
quickly eg a 240 volt supply jumps to 1000 volts or more for a period of as little as 20
milliseconds (1/50th of a second). This is typical of a lightning strike.

Protection from power problems

When power problems strike, they can cause permanent damage. The damage could be
to your equipment or your data. The only effective way to deal with power problems is to
prevent them from happening in the first place. Here are some steps you can take to
greatly reduce the chances of power problems with your computer:
 Power Control:

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  There are different devices that enable us to control power. Their function varies
from device to device depending on what we use.

o UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply):

A UPS helps in black out situations when the power is gone totally and brown
outs, when voltage is low though there is power. UPS has batteries that provides
back up power. When the power is gone, the battery provides voltage to the PC so
that you can save your work. But it does not provide unlimited power. There are two
types of UPS:
o Standby UPS:

SPS has a battery that begins generating power as soon as the unit detects a sag
in the power supply. It takes only a split of seconds to come online. The
disadvantage is that till the UPS become online, your data might get lost.
o Online UPS: It provides electricity to the PC all the time. It uses electricity
from the AC outlet to simply recharge its batteries. When the power goes, the data
is not affected because the UPS is supplying power.

 Surge Suppressor: Surge suppressors help to absorb power surges so that your
computer does not feel their effects. They come as either separate modules or
incorporated in the UPS.

 Voltage Stabilizer: It is a transformer that delivers relatively constant output when

output voltage changes over time. The output voltage is regulated using transistor.

 Battery: Computer has a Chip that combines real time clock and non-volatile
memory. This chip is the CMOS chip(CMOS RAM). They are designed to consume
low power.

 Generators – where an organization requires the computer hardware to be

powered for an extended length of time, a generator may be installed in addition to
a UPS.

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 Self Check 3 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
II. Fill the blank space.
1._________when power levels drop to virtually zero, or in other words there is NO
power.

2._________ Is the opposite of a brownout. It is where voltage levels increase above that
which is specified at the outlet eg above 240 volts

3.__________A short sharp and very sudden increase of voltage, that also drops just as
quickly eg a 240 volt supply jumps to 1000 volts or more for a period of as little as 20
milliseconds.

4._________ help to absorb power surges so that your computer does not feel their
effects. They come as either separate modules or incorporated in the UPS.

5.__________ Computer has a Chip that combines real time clock and non-volatile
memory.

Note: Satisfactory rating – 3 points Unsatisfactory - below 3 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Determining and applying requirements when moving
Information Sheet – 4 hardware

4.1. Determining your needs

Before any venture into selecting any new equipment or services, it is important to have a
clear understanding of your needs. If you don’t fully understand your needs then it is not
possible to ensure those needs are correctly met. In other words, know exactly what you
want before you try to get it.

4.2. Undertake a requirements analysis

While we will not be examining all the finer details of performing a proper requirements
analysis, it is worthwhile covering some of the basics.
Firstly, it is vitally important to put your goals into clear and concise terms. This might be in
terms of a problem definition, or business plan for expansion, or upgrading your capabilities.
Your definition should not include any details of specific solutions as far as equipment,
suppliers etc.
You should also include a set of criteria such as time and cost limitations, types and levels
of support, etc. If you document all these requirements, when you finally make your decision
and implement it, you will be able to determine if it constitutes a successful project or not.

After considering your overall goals and criteria, you can then put into simple and
uncomplicated terms what would be a solution to the problem or requirement.

Evaluate your alternatives

Collect all the information you can about the types of equipment available, the suppliers of
that equipment, the training required to use the equipment or associated programs.

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 You need to have an open mind about the alternatives. Do not think that there is only one
right choice, as there are always viable options. For example, you may not need to purchase
all new equipment when a few upgrade options may be both acceptable and economical.
There is always more than one option!

Once you have a comprehensive list of what is available, compare that list with any
organisational guidelines and policies that are in place. Many large organisations and
government departments have set criteria for purchasing equipment. It’s necessary to
familiarise yourself with those guidelines before making any recommendations or
purchases. There may be organisation guidelines on the minimum standards required for
equipment. Those standards might relate to:
 international or industry standards
 supplier restrictions, approved suppliers or other requirements
 purchasing guidelines (there may be different guidelines depending on the amount of
money to be spent)
 minimum warrantees and/or guarantees
 support levels required
 how often equipment should be automatically reviewed or updated etc.

Making recommendations
After reviewing all the information above, you would then make recommendations, or make
the purchases.

The important point to note is that if you do not have clearly in mind the equipment and
services that you need, it is unlikely that you will make the best choices. In addition you may
make the best choices in equipment, etc but there may be organisational reasons why your
selection will not be approved.

Standards

Compulsory standards

In Australia, as in the rest of the world, there are many standards with which equipment
needs to comply. These standards may be from both International and Australian
government bodies or from industry groups.

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 Some of the most important standards organisations are:
International Organization for Standardizations (ISO)

ISO is the world’s largest developer of standards. An ISO Standard can be anything from a
four-page document to one several hundred pages long, and they will be increasingly
available in electronic form. It carries the ISO logo and the designation ‘International
Standard’. In most cases, it is published in A4 format — which is itself one of the ISO
standard paper sizes.

Australian Communication Authority (ACA)

The Australian Communications Authority (ACA) is responsible for regulating

telecommunications and radio communications, including promoting industry self-regulation
and managing the radio frequency spectrum. The ACA also has significant consumer
protection responsibilities.

Standards Australia
Standards Australia is an independent organisation, not directly associated with
government, although the Commonwealth Government and State governments are listed
among its members.
Australian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing Association (AEEMA)

Australian Electrical and Electronics Manufacturing Association (AEEMA) is the leading

industry body representing Australia’s information and communication technology (ICT),
electronics and electrical manufacturing industries. AEEMA members supply infrastructure,
products and manufacturing-related services to Australian and world markets.

Federal Communications Commission (FCC)

The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) is an independent United States

government agency. The FCC is charged with regulating interstate and international
communications by radio, television, wire, satellite and cable.

Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)

The Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE) promotes the engineering
process of creating, developing, integrating, sharing, and applying knowledge about electro
and information technologies and sciences.

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 There are many more bodies that determine standards in a wide range of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) related products and services. When selecting any
product, whether for domestic or commercial use, meeting the appropriate standards should
be the first thing that is checked. Often compliance with the standards is easily recognised
by the stickers and stamps on the products and its packaging.

standardization

One of the most beneficial features about the general design of computer systems is that
they are modular. While for many they seem like black boxes and the inner workings are a
mystery, they are in fact made of mostly standardised components that are connected in
standardised ways. This is called an open design and is generally considered to be
responsible for the success of the PC (Personal Computer) platform over the last two
decades.

Standardisation enables the relatively easy interoperability of different components within

the computing world. It is the single most important factor that provides the choices that
make the PC so flexible and accommodating. It is what makes it possible for the average
person to make his or her own custom machine or to repair one that uses standard
components. It’s not always perfect, but it beats the alternative: a closed design, where one
company or group of companies controls what hardware you can use in your system.

In order to get the real benefits of standardisation, however, one must make use of standard
components and designs. Unfortunately, some PC designs abandon the open nature of
standard PC designs by incorporating proprietary designs. These are systems where the
PC maker has decided to use components that are not standardised, or has implemented
standard components in a non-standard manner.

The designers of such systems usually have good intentions. They typically decide to make
use of proprietary designs because they feel they can deliver a better product to the
customer at a lower cost if they do this. Sometimes this is the case as some people like the
special features of certain proprietary designs.

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 The problem with proprietary designs is that they aren’t standard. By moving away from
standardisation, proprietary designs give up the advantages of standard components. Here
are some of the more important issues with such systems:

 Choice and flexibility: Proprietary designs are less flexible than standard ones. You
usually have fewer choices in components when you buy the system, because the
design will usually be based around specific choices made by the company’s
engineers.

 Expandability and upgradeability: Proprietary systems are more difficult to expand

or upgrade than standard ones. If they are not designed to use standard components
then you are limited in your expansion and upgrade options to whatever the
manufacturer allows. This means you have fewer options, and you will also usually
pay significantly more for any components you try to buy. If a new technology comes
along a year after you buy your machine, you have to hope that the manufacturer will
decide to support it.

 Service: PCs made from standardised components can be repaired by any

competent PC technician, with some research and assistance. Proprietary systems
must be worked on by those who have been specifically trained in how they are
constructed. Again, this reduces your options and usually increases your costs.

 Repair: With a proprietary system you must go back to the manufacturer for any
replacement parts for the system. These usually cost far more than standardised
replacements, if they are available at all.

 Comprehension: Proprietary systems are more difficult to understand than standard

ones, which matters if you want to really know what’s going on. Worse, in some cases
the proprietary nature of some subsystems is often not made available. As an
example, standard IDE/ATA hard disk channels, found in virtually all PCs, support
two devices (such as a second hard disk or CD/DVD drive). Some companies create
their systems so that their IDE/ATA hard disk channels only support one device, but
they don’t mention this in the product manual. This leads to much frustration when

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 someone tries, for example, to add a second hard disk to that system and it doesn’t
work. They will usually think it is a problem with the hard disk.

It’s not the case that a system is either ‘standardised’ or ‘proprietary’, there is much scope
for movement along those two points in design. Some PCs are made entirely of standardised
components, but proprietary machines may still use at least some standardised parts. It can
be a voyage of discovery to find out what is standard and what is not in such a machine.

The most proprietary designs are the all-in-one systems that include everything in one
physical case, which are sold like appliances. Be very careful of such designs, because if
anything goes wrong, everything is affected. If your PC has the logic components and the
monitor in the same case, what happens if the monitor fails, or you decide you want a bigger
one?

As for the more specialised notebook PCs, they all should be considered proprietary. This
is one of the reasons why you should only consider a notebook if the portability of these
units can be justified.

Quality

One of the most difficult tasks in the selection of computer components, or systems, is in
determining quality. What represents a quality product? Possibly one of the most important
things to about quality is that you need to define and determine it for yourself, and ignore
the claims made about it.

We could attribute certain aspects to a product that help determine its quality. Attributes
such as performance levels, typical failure rate during manufacture, durability, etc. What is
high-quality for you depends entirely on what is important to you. Here are a few different
aspects of quality to keep in mind. You have to decide which of these, if any, are important
to you. And for most people, there may well be other critical issues not mentioned:

Features: One aspect of quality may be the features of a product compared to competing
products. Most would consider a product that has significantly more capabilities than another
to be superior, all else being equal. Very often it is not equal. For example, it is quite common
for product X to have more features than product Y while sacrificing other quality aspects.

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 Form, fit and function: For many, quality is in part defined by the way the item looks, how
its parts fit together, and its overall feel. Does it look professionally made? Do the
components mesh together smoothly? Does it seem solid? This is the ‘kick the tires’ school
of quality, and it definitely has some validity. These are rather subjective notions, but no less
important for being a matter of personal judgment.

Design and build: While the capabilities of most computers are defined primarily by their
constituent components, the whole is still greater than just the sum of the parts. How the
unit is designed and the care with which it has been assembled can be very important. Some
manufacturers may add special enhancements to their products that some people consider
to improve the quality.

Reliability: Everyone who buys a product wants it to last a long time and work without
problems. Products that break frequently or wear out quickly are of lower quality than those
that last a long time and remain trouble-free. But once again it may not be that simple, as a
product with more features has more potential parts to fail. It’s easier to make a highly
reliable simple widget than a highly reliable complex one.

Service: The quality of a product is definitely affected by the quality of the company that
sells and supports it.

Quality, like many other key attributes of any product, is an exercise in trade offs. More
quality usually costs more money, whether you are talking about computers, clothes dryers,
cars or anything else. Quality is also a matter of the pride of the company making the
product, and that’s not strictly a matter of how much money you throw at a problem.
Example: purchasing a ‘quality’ motherboard
Let’s consider the example of purchasing a motherboard. The one factor in choosing a
motherboard that is probably over-emphasized by most suppliers and by many high-end
users is performance. Often the word performance is commonly interpreted as speed. But
that is deceptive, as performance should not only encompass speed but stability, reliability,
compatibility and other factors that are important to the individual user. A board that can run
every application thrown at it and never crash may be described as a great performer by
one user, but be called a poor performer by another who only wants to run a limited number
of programs extremely quickly.

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 Most users look at the various benchmarks provided on the hardware-oriented websites
and choose one of those that get the higher marks. Unfortunately, these comparisons focus
strictly upon the speed of the motherboard, and completely ignore the other important issues
such as reliability, compatibility and stability. Basically any number of motherboards using
the same chipset will almost certainly be within a few percentage points of each other as far
as benchmarked speed is concerned, and not noticeable to most users. Actually, benchmark
results should probably be the last consideration when selecting a motherboard, not the first.
While some of the hardware-oriented websites also claim to test motherboards for stability
and reliability, this is very likely not the case. In order to test for either of these, the
motherboard would need to be exposed to many days, or even weeks, of stress testing
under various conditions. You can be certain that any reputable motherboard manufacturer
has probably already done this with their prototypes, so once again we can assume that
most motherboards from major manufacturers will be very close in this regard.

Hardware compatibility is the ability for various components from different manufacture rs
to seamlessly integrate, ie work together without problems. Hardware compatibility is an
area that is extremely difficult to test, even for the manufacturer. The main reason for this is
that the open architecture of the PC platform allows manufacturers to vary in how they
implement certain standard features, to best suit their own particular needs. Because of the
large number of manufacturers and components, testing every possible combination is
virtually impossible. Because of this, compatibility testing will typically consist of testing
those components that are determined to have a large market share. In this case, only time
in the field will truly determine how compatible the motherboard is with various components.
If you have the need to use a device that is not one of the most commonly used, you may
wish to find out if the manufacturer has tested it already. Most vendors and manufacturers
will not warranty compatibility problems unless they have specifically stated that the device
in question will work.

Hardware compatibility list (HCL)

One offering by Microsoft, that is of real assistance, is their Hardware compatibility list
(HCL). A HCL is provided with most of their operating systems. In an environment where

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 significant investment in equipment is to be made, it is a worthwhile resource to use in
product selection.
Just to complicate the issue of quality a little further, some hardware websites claim to
evaluate the quality of a motherboard by looking at the components used (SIMM/DIMM slots,
capacitors, etc). Using this definition, it is impossible to determine quality based upon a
single motherboard, and certainly impossible by merely looking at it. It is entirely possible to
design and construct a motherboard out of average quality components that has a higher
quality in the finished product than one that is poorly designed or constructed using high
quality materials.
Quality should be a measure of the overall percentage of equipment that meets or exceeds
their stated specification. It is no coincidence that industry quality awards are given to those
companies with the best process, not the ones that use the best materials.

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 Self Check 4 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Define International Organization for Standardizations (ISO)?

2. Define Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers (IEEE)?

3. What is Hardware compatibility?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Determining and applying suitable storage principle
Information Sheet – 5

5.1. Introduction
We need to have an awareness of possible consequences of in appropriate storage of
hardware, peripherals and Media. Based on the nature and characteristics of the
hardware we will determine how and where to store them. Points to consider when
storing hardware, peripherals and storage media including:
 Climatic effects
 OHS considerations
 OHS standards
 Ease of access.
 Workstation
 Ventilation
 electrical safety
 manual handling
 Security
 Stability
 Posture
5.2. Storing equipment
You will find that manufacturers will almost invariably require that equipment should be
stored in the same packaging in which it was delivered. While this is valid, in principle, often
it can be impractical. Empty packaging can consume significant storage space, which may
seem not justifiable on a cost basis. However, if you do not have on-site support then to
return equipment to the supplier, you will need enough to cover the basics. For example, if
you have five printers from one manufacturer, you may choose to keep the packaging of
one printer.

Just like locating equipment, when storing equipment you must consider the factors of
temperature, humidity, dust etc. Although if equipment is not in use then such factors as
temperature are less of an issue than if the equipment were in service ie in current use.

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 5.3. Manufacturer’s requirements

When handling computer equipment, it is advisable to follow the manufacturer’s guidelines

on handling and storage. The most obvious place to find that information would be the User
Guides/Manuals that accompany the product.

While some documentation can be difficult to find, in a cupboard full of manuals, it is also
common to have no documentation for the equipment in printed form. These days, many of
the manuals and manufacturer guidelines are in electronic form supplied on floppy disk or
CD-ROMs.

One of the best avenues, to locate the current information, would be the Internet. If in

5.4. Locating equipment

Sometimes when determining the most appropriate location, there are competing interests.
From a security viewpoint, it may not be advisable to locate important network servers within
easy access from the general public, or even unauthorised employees. But from an
accessibility viewpoint, it maybe convenient for service personnel to have easy and
unsecured access to all equipment. Still, there are the physical services (such as power,
phone, network communications etc.) where equipment could be placed in the most
convenient and cost-saving location close to outlets and connectors.
5.5. Security
When locating equipment you would need to determine the priorities and adjust or
compromise the competing interest accordingly. For example, if you have a network server
that contains sensitive accounting and/or payroll data, you would not want general staff
(meaning those that should not be handling account/payroll data) to be able to gain access.
You could of course restrict access by software such as username/passwords etc., but that
would not stop someone from physically taking the hard disk drive in order to steal or copy
it.

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 Where sensitive or critically important hardware is concerned, it would be advisable to
locate the equipment in a secure location, such as a lockable cupboard or room. Access
can then be more traditionally controlled by security key access.
5.6. Accessibility
Consider for a moment that you are a service technician where you go out on location to
various businesses. You are called to fix a problem with a server or other equipment, but
when you arrive you find the equipment is locked in a tiny cupboard, where the person with
the key is out. When you finally gain access you find it buried under a pile of boxes and
papers etc. Get the picture!

When locating equipment, take into account that from time to time someone will need to
physically access it.

Disposing of Used Equipment

• Various guidelines for disposing of equipment:

– Manufacturer documentation
– Local environmental regulators
• Danger posed by monitors and power supplies
– Residual charge in capacitors can cause shock
– Modern devices discharge if unplugged for 60 minutes
– Older devices may require discharge with a probe
• Destroy secondary storage devices with sensitive data

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 Self Check 5 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. List Points to consider when storing hardware, peripherals and storage media?

2. Define Disposing of Used Equipment?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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Information Sheet – 6 Considering and applying business requirements

6.1. Total cost of ownership

The initial purchase price of a computer hardware device is only part of the total cost of the
device, over the lifetime of the device. Additional costs will include:

 costs of hardware and software upgrades

 costs of consumables. For devices such as printers, the cost of replacement print
cartridges over the lifetime of the device can often be greater than the initial
purchase price.
 maintenance costs
 cost of technical support
 cost of training

6.2. Support

Technical support is provided by manufacturers for users after the purchase of a computer
hardware device. Access to this support is commonly limited to users who have registered
the purchase of the product. Forms of technical support include:

 telephone support
 email support (usually with a guaranteed response time)
 access to support on internet such as:
o frequently asked questions (FAQs)
o troubleshooting guide
o downloads of latest drivers and software updates

6.3. Compatibility

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 Compatibility is the ability of a system or a product to work with other systems or products
without special effort on the part of the customer. One way products achieve interoperability
is to comply with industry interface standards. For example, a memory module is compatible
with a motherboard because the manufacturer of the memory module and the motherboard
both work to the same industry standard.

6.4. Technical specifications

Once the business requirements have been considered, the technical specifications of the
hardware device need to be evaluated. Areas for evaluation include the following:

 processing speed of the CPU

 storage capacity of the hard drive
 size of memory (RAM)
 software capabilities
 compatibility with existing systems
 upgradeability

The technical specifications to be considered will depend on the computer hardware device
to be purchased. For example, technical specifications to be considered for a printer include:

 interface – USB or network

 resolution – measured in dots per inch
 printing speed – measured in pages per minute
 memory
 paper capacity

6.5. Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) Requirements and safe work
practices

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 In NSW, the OH&S legislation includes the Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 and
the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001. Work cover NSW has the
responsibility for administering this legislation.

Employers have a responsibility to provide a safe and healthy workplace for all employees.
It also requires all workers to be aware that they have a duty to follow safe work practices
to prevent injuries to themselves or other workers.

Organizations will develop procedures for safe working practices as a tool for implementing
their OH&S policies and training staff.
For further information click on the following link: Apply occupational health and safety
procedures

6.6. Manual handling

Computer hardware devices and consumables such as printer paper boxes can be very
heavy and care should be taken when manually handling these objects.

Manual handling is one of the most common causes of accidents in the workplace.
Workcover NSW <<link to http://www.smartmove.nsw.gov.au >>

defines manual handling as:

“any activity that involves lifting, lowering, carrying, pushing, pulling, holding or restraining.
It may also include stretching, bending, sustained and awkward postures, and repetitive
movements.”

Recommendations on practices to reduce the risk of manual handling injury at work include:

 hold the load close to your body

 store loads close to where they will be used
 store heavy loads near waist height
 use mechanical aids such a trolley when lifting heavy loads
 don’t lift heavy loads when sitting down

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 To find the weight of a device refer to the device specifications in the user manual. Always
check the manufacturer’s recommendations before handling.

6.7. Safe electrical work practices

Computer hardware should be located close to a suitable electrical outlet. The use of long
extension cords is a trip hazard. If no power outlet is available, a new fixed power outlet may
need to be installed. Any fixed electrical installation is required by law to be installed by a
licensed electrician.

Cables should be kept away from the floor, and a person’s workspace. Cables on the floor
are easily damaged by trolleys and chair castors.

Use switched power boards and not double adapters or piggy backed plugs.
Routinely inspect cables for any damage. Damaged cables should be disconnected and
removed.

Testing and tagging refers to the practice of testing electrical equipment (which is designed
for connection by a flexible cord), by an appropriate person. If the equipment is compliant a
tag is attached which is marked with the name of the person or company who performed the
test, and the test date or retest date.

Any component such as a computer power supply which has a mains (240 volt) power
connection can only be opened and repaired by a qualified technician. CRT monitors can
have very high electrical potential levels even after they have been switched off and must
only be opened by a qualified technician.

Electrical circuits for fixed wiring are protected from overload by a circuit breaker. The circuit
breaker will trip if the circuit is overloaded. If this happens, it is an indication that the number
of electrical appliances on that circuit should be reduced.

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 Self Check 6 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Write additional costs ownership?

2. Write technical support include?

3. List the technical specifications of the hardware device need to be

evaluated?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Considering OHS standards and environmental concerns
Information Sheet – 7

7.1. Introduction
Regardless of the industry in which you work, there are legal requirements that insist
on establishing a safe work environment. There exists an Occupational Health and
Safety Act in all states of Australia. It describes the general requirements necessary
to ensure a safe and healthy workplace. It is also designed to reduce the number of
injuries in the workplace by imposing responsibilities on employers, employees and
others.
Manufacturers of equipment will also provide health and safety information related to
their products. It is advisable to review some of the typical requirements that a
manufacturer may put forward.

In order to effectively promote a safe work environment, it is prudent that safe work
practices be adopted. We will also take a look at how to determine safe work
practices.

7.2. An overview of the Occupational Health and Safety Act and Regulation

The fundamental purpose of Health and Safety legislation is to:

 secure and promote the health, safety and welfare of people at work
 protect people at a place of work against risks to health and safety arising out of
any activities of people at work
 promote a safe and healthy environment for people at work that protects them from
injury and illness and that is adapted to their physiological and psychological needs
 provide for consultation and cooperation between employers and workers in
achieving the above
 ensure that risks to health and safety at a place of work are identified, assessed
and eliminated or controlled

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  develop and promote community awareness of occupational health and safety
issues
 provide a legislative framework that allows for progressively higher standards of
occupational health and safety to take account of changes in technology and work
practices
 protect people (whether or not at a place of work) against risks to health and safety
arising from the use of machinery that affects public safety.
In New South Wales, the Occupational Health and Safety Regulation 2001 is intended to
support the earlier Occupational Health and Safety Act 2000 in achieving reductions in the
incidence of workplace injuries and disease. It replaced all the regulations made under the
Occupational Health and Safety Act back in 1983 and others. Much of the legislation being
replaced was outdated and overly restrictive.
This current set of regulations adopts a performance-based approach to occupational health
and safety while still maintaining specific controls in highly hazardous areas. The best
practice approach requires that regulatory proposals:
 have clear objectives and focus only on fixing identified problems
 regulate the ends and not the means
 minimise the number of government agencies involved
 promote certainty through clearly stated criteria for the assessment of applications
for approvals, permits, licences, etc and publicly indicated timeframes for the
assessment process
 are simple for users to understand
 are easy to enforce
 have a high voluntary compliance rate
 are subject to regular review
 do not restrict competition
 maximise benefits and minimise costs
 Use commercial incentives rather than command and control rules, for example by:
 information provision

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  encouraging quality assurance backed up by a statute only where
necessary
 providing accessible legal remedies so that consumers, rather than
government, can act to enforce their rights without prohibitive costs

 shifting risk management from government to the private insurance

market.
7.3. Determine safe working practices
Training
All staff members undertaking tasks that may be hazardous should be given, or have,
the appropriate experience and/or qualifications. Organisations should have
recruitment procedures that should ensure that persons chosen to undertake tasks
have the necessary competencies. All employees should receive training where
appropriate to ensure they possess the required skills and experience to carry out
their tasks safely.
Training should include the knowledge of the Safe Work Procedures (SWP). Safe
Work Procedures are written guidelines for all work activities that have been identified
as posing some form of risk. It may include:
 Lifting and carrying
 Handling hazardous substances
 Working in confined spaces
 Use of particular equipment, eg drill, measuring device, cutting tool or even
a computer.

If a serious accident or injury occurs, and the matter is taken to court, it would be wise if the
employer were able to prove that the appropriate training had taken place. So upon
completion of training (or an evaluation of competencies) the employee should sign a form
acknowledging that they are aware of the particular safe working procedure. This can also
form a safeguard for the employee, ensuring that management are fulfilling their
responsibilities.

Risk assessment

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 One of the easiest ways to achieve safe working practices is to be prepared in
advance. Being prepared means to: gain knowledge of the things that can go wrong
and how to correct them. In other words there must be some form of risk assessment
undertaken. The simplest and most practical form of implementing safe practices is
to create checklists which cover the areas that need particular attention. By using a
checklist you will avoid oversight and possible legal ramifications in the event of
serious injury to a person, or damage to expensive equipment.
The more questions, and the more specific the question, the more likely that all risks
will be identified. If a risk is not identified, then it stands to reason that preventative
measures will not be taken to minimise injury. Carefully consider and compare the
two checklists below for detail, clarity and ease of use.

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Manual handling checklist

Yes No Comment

All manual hazards in the workplace have been

documented.

Control measures have been implemented to

eliminate the risks associated with manual
handling or steps taken to minimise risks.

Adequate information, instruction, training and

supervision are provided to ensure that risks
from manual handling are minimised.

Control measures have focussed on job or task

redesign, so that work may be carried out
without the risk or to reduce the risk of manual
handling.

Mechanical or other manual handling aids

(trolleys, ramps etc) have been provided where
these can reduce the risk of manual handling.

A system is in place to:

 monitor & review control measures

 encourage employees to report activities

that could present the risk of injury.

A system is in place to ensure that all accidents,

incidents and near misses, injuries and ill health
involving manual handling are reported,
investigated and recorded, and appropriate
corrective measures are implemented.

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 Self Check 7 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask
your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Write the fundamental purpose of Health and Safety legislation?

2. Write Safe Work Procedures are written guidelines for all work activities that have
been identified as posing some form of risk?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Instruction Sheet LG29: Monitor threats to the network
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
Following content coverage and topics –
 Using third-party software to evaluate and report on system security
 Identifying security threats
 Ensuring carry-out spot checks and other security strategies
 Investigating and implementing inbuilt or additional encryption facilities
 Preparing and presenting an audit report and recommendation
 Obtaining approval for recommended changes
This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –

 Use third-party software or utilities to evaluate and report on system security

 Review logs and audit reports to identify security threats

 Carry-out spot checks and other security strategies to ensure that procedures are being
followed

 Investigate and implement inbuilt or additional encryption facilities

 Prepare and present an audit report and recommendations to appropriate person

 Obtain approval for recommended changes to be made

Learning Instructions:
5. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
6. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 4.
7. Read the information written in the information “Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3, Sheet 4, Sheet 5
and Sheet 6” in page 1, 4, 10,14, 20,and 23 respectively.

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8. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check t 2, Self-check 3 , Self-check 4, Self-check 5 and Self-
check 6” in page 3, 9, 13, 19,22,and 25 respectively

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 Using third-party software to evaluate and report
Information Sheet – 1 on system security

1.1. Introduction
Computer network : is a system in which computers are connected to share information and resources. The
connection can be done as peer-to-peer or client/server or LAN or WAN.
The term network monitoring describes the use of a system that constantly monitors a computer network for
slow or failing components and that notifies the network administrator (via email, pager or other alarms) in
case of outages. It is a subset of the functions involved in network management.

Network security consists of the requirements and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent
and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and network-
accessible resources.
1.2. Network threats
Network threats are intentional activities to cause damage, misusing resources, or other aggressive action
on network system.
Some of Network threats
 Unauthorized accessing
 Misusing of resources
 Modification of network resources
 Denial of services

There are different ways to monitor threats to the network. Some of them are: -
 By using software Utilities
 By using security mechanism
 By Using encryption facilities
1.3. Identifying security threats
Explain why security is important

Computer and network security help to keep data and equipment functioning and provide access only to
appropriate people. Everyone in an organization should give high priority to security because everyone
can be affected by a lapse in security.

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 Theft, loss, network intrusion, and physical damage are some of the ways a network or computer can be
harmed. Damage or loss of equipment can mean a loss of productivity. Repairing and replacing
equipment can cost the company time and money. Unauthorized use of a network can expose confidentia l
information and reduce network resources.

1.4. Describe security threats

To successfully protect computers and the network, a technician must understand both types
of threats to computer security:

 Physical – Events or attacks that steal, damage, or destroy equipment, such

as servers, switches, and wiring
 Data – Events or attacks that remove, corrupt, deny access, allow access, or
steal information

Threats to security can come from the inside or outside of an organization, and the level of
potential damage can vary greatly:

 Internal – Employees have access to data, equipment, and the network

o Malicious threats are when an employee intends to cause damage.
o Accidental threats are when the user damages data or equipment
unintentionally.
 External – Users outside of an organization that do not have authorized access
to the network or resources
o Unstructured – Attackers use available resources, such as passwords
or scripts, to gain access and run programs designed to vandalize
o Structured – Attackers use code to access operating systems and
software

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Physical loss or damage to equipment can be expensive, and data loss can be detrimental to
your business and reputation. Threats against data are constantly changing as attackers find
new ways to gain entry and commit their crimes.

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 Self Check 1 Choose Test

Name:____________________
Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel
free to ask your teacher.
I. choose the best answer from the following question
______1. ________is a system in which computers are connected to share information and
resources
A/Network threat B/Network Security C/Computer Network D/Protocol
________2.Which one is not Network threats are intentional activities to cause damage,
misusing
resources, or other aggressive action on network system.
A/Unauthorized accessing B/ Misusing of resources C/Denial of
services D/All

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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Information Sheet – 2 Identifying security threats

2.1. Introduction
Computer Security: The prevention and protection of (computer) assets from unauthorized
access, use, alteration, degradation, destruction, and other threats.
Network security involves the authorization of access to data in a network which is
controlled by the network administrator and the organization policies. Users choose or an
ID and password or authenticating information that allows them access to information and
program within their authority. Network security covers a variety of computer networks, both
public and private, that are used in everyday jobs conducting transactions and
communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals Networks can be
private, such as within a company, and others which might be open to public access.
Network security is involved in organizations, enterprises, and other types of institutions. It
does as its title explains: It secures the network, as well as protecting and overseeing
operations being done.
Privacy: The right of the individual to be protected against interruption into his personal life
or affairs, or those of his family, by direct physical means or by publication of information.
Security/Privacy Threat: Any person, act, or object that poses a danger to computer
security/privacy.
2.2. Computer Security and Privacy/Vulnerabilities
 Physical vulnerabilities (Eg. Buildings)
 Natural vulnerabilities (Eg. Earthquake)
 Hardware and Software vulnerabilities (Eg. Failures)
 Media vulnerabilities (Eg. Disks can be stolen)
 Communication vulnerabilities (Eg. Wires can be tapped)
 Human vulnerabilities (Eg. Insiders)
With an increasing amount of people getting connected to networks, the security threats that
cause massive harm are increasing also.

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 Network security is a major part of a network that needs to be maintained because
information is being passed between computers etc and is very vulnerable to attack
Over the past five years people that manage network security have seen a massive increase
of hackers and criminals creating malicious threats that have been pumped into networks
across the world.

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 Computer and Network threats

2.2.1. Viruses and Worms:

 A Virus is a “program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without
your knowledge and runs against your wishes.
 Viruses can cause a huge amount of damage to computers.
 An example of a virus would be if you opened an email and a malicious piece of
code was downloaded onto your computer causing your computer to freeze.
 In relation to a network, if a virus is downloaded then all the computers in the
network would be affected because the virus would make copies of itself and spread
itself across networks.
 A worm is similar to a virus but a worm can run itself whereas a virus needs a host
program to run.
Solution: Install a security suite, such as Kasper sky Total Protection that protects
the computer against threats such as viruses and worms.
2.2.2. Trojan Horses:
 A Trojan horse is “a program in which malicious or harmful code is contained inside
it appears that harmless programming or data in such a way that it can get control
and do its chosen form of damage, such as corrupted the file allocation table on
your hard disk.
 In a network if a Trojan horse is installed on a computer and tampers with the file
allocation table it could cause a massive amount of damage to all computers of that
network.
 Solution: Security suites, such as Norton Internet Security, will prevent you from
downloading Trojan Horses.
2.2.3. SPAM:
 SPAM is “flooding the Internet with many copies of the same message, in an attempt
to force the message on people who would not otherwise choose to receive it.
 SPAM may not be the biggest risk to a network because even though it may get
maddening and plentiful it still doesn’t destroy any physical elements of the network.

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  Solution: SPAM filters are an effective way to stop SPAM, these filters come with
most of the e-mail providers on line. Also you can buy a variety of SPAM filters that
work effectively.

2.2.4. Phishing:
 Phishing is “an e-mail fraud method in which the performer sends out
legitimate-looking emails in an attempt to gather personal and financial
information from recipients.
 phishing is one of the worst security threats over a network because a lot of
people that use computers linked up to a network are unpaid and would be
very vulnerable to giving out information that could cause situations such as
theft of money or identity theft.
 Solution: Similar to SPAM use Phishing filters to filter out this unwanted mail
and to prevent threat.
2.2.5. Packet Sniffers:
 A packet sniffer is a device or program that allows listen on traffic traveling
between networked computers. The packet sniffer will capture data that is
addressed to other machines, saving it for later analysis.
 In a network a packet sniffer can filter out personal information and this can
lead to areas such as identity theft so this is a major security threat to a
network.
 Solution: “When strong encryption is used, all packets are unreadable to any
but the destination address, making packet sniffers useless. So one solution
is to obtain strong encryption.
2.2.6. Maliciously Coded Websites:
 Some websites across the net contain code that is malicious.
 Malicious code is “Programming code that is capable of causing harm to
availability, integrity of code or data, or confidentiality in a computer system.
 Solution: Using a security suite, such as AVG, can detect infected sites and
try to prevent the user from entering the site.
2.2.7. Password Attacks:

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  Password attacks are attacks by hackers that are able to determine
passwords or find passwords to different protected electronic areas.
 Many systems on a network are password protected and hence it would be
easy for a hacker to hack into the systems and steal data.
 This may be the easiest way to obtain private information because you are
able to get software online that obtains the password for you.
 Solution: At present there is no software that prevents password attacks.

2.2.8. Hardware Loss and Residual Data Fragments:

 Hardware loss and residual data fragments are a growing worry for
companies, governments etc.
 An example this is if a number of laptops get stolen from a bank that have
client details on them, this would enable the thief’s to get personal
information from clients and maybe steal the clients identities.
 This is a growing concern and as of present the only solution is to keep data
and hardware under strict surveillance.
2.2.9. Shared Computers:
 Shared computers are always a threat.
 Shared computers involve sharing a computer with one or more people.
 The following are a series of tips to follow when sharing computers: “Do not
check the “Remember my ID on this computer” box
 Never leave a computer unattended while signed-in … Always sign out
completely …Clear the browsers cache … Keep an eye out for “shoulder
surfers” … Avoid confidential transactions … Be wary of spy ware … Never
save passwords … Change your password often.
2.2.10. Zombie Computers and Botnets:
 A zombie computer or “drone” is a computer that has been secretly
compromised by hacking tools which allow a third party to control the
computer and its resources remotely.
 A hacker could hack into a computer and control the computer and obtain
data.

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  Solution: Antivirus software can help prevent zombie computers.
Solution: Network Intrusion Prevention (NIP) systems can help prevent
botnets
2.3. Explain web security

Web security is important because so many people visit the World Wide Web every day. Some
of the features that make the web useful and entertaining can also make it harmful to a computer.

Tools that are used to make web pages more powerful and versatile are: -

 ActiveX – Technology created by Microsoft to control interactivity on web

pages. If ActiveX is on a page, an applet or small program has to be downloaded
to gain access to the full functionality.
 Java – Programming language that allows applets to run within a web browser.
Examples of applets include a calculator or a counter.
 JavaScript – Programming language developed to interact with HTML source
code to allow interactive websites. Examples include a rotating banner or a
popup window.

Attackers may use any of these tools to install a program on a computer. To prevent
against these attacks, most browsers have settings that force the computer user to
authorize the downloading or use of ActiveX, Java, or JavaScript.
2.4. Define adware, spyware, and grayware

Adware is a software program that displays advertising on your computer. Adware is usually
distributed with downloaded software. Most often, adware is displayed in a popup window.
Adware popup windows are sometimes difficult to control and will open new windows faster
than users can close them.

Grayware or malware is a file or program other then a virus that is potentially harmful. Many
grayware attacks are phishing attacks that try to persuade the reader to unknowingly provide
attackers with access to personal information. As you fill out an online form, the data is sent to
the attacker. Grayware can be removed using spyware and adware removal tools.

Spyware, a type of grayware, is similar to adware. It is distributed without any user

intervention or knowledge. Once installed, the spyware monitors activity on the
computer. The spyware then sends this information to the organization responsible for
launching the spyware.
2.5. Explain Denial of Service

Denial of service (DoS) is a form of attack that prevents users from accessing normal services,
such as e-mail and a web server, because the system is busy responding to abnormally large

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 amounts of requests. DoS works by sending enough requests for a system resource that the
requested service is overloaded and ceases to operate.

Common DoS attacks include the following:

 Ping of death – A series of repeated, larger than normal pings that crash the
receiving computer
 E-mail bomb – A large quantity of bulk e-mail that overwhelms the e-mail server
preventing users from accessing it

Distributed DoS (DDoS) is another form of attack that uses many infected computers,
called zombies, to launch an attack. With DDoS, the intent is to obstruct or overwhelm
access to the targeted server. Zombie computers located at different geographical
locations make it difficult to trace the origin of the attack.

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 Self Check 2 Choose Test

Name:____________________
Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel
free to ask your teacher.
I. choose the best answer from the following question
______1. ________ the prevention and protection of (computer) assets from unauthorized
access,
use, alteration, degradation, destruction, and other threats.
A/Network Security B/Computer Security C/Network threat D/Protocol
________2._____ is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without
your knowledge and runs against your wishes.
A/Packet Sniffers B/Phishing C/SPAM D/Viruses
________3._____ an e-mail fraud method in which the performer sends out legitimate-
looking
emails in an attempt to gather personal and financial information from
recipients.
A/Packet Sniffers B/Phishing C/SPAM D/Viruses
________4._____ is a device or program that allows listen on traffic traveling between
networked computers.
A/Viruses B/Packet Sniffers C/Phishing D/SPAM
________5._____ is flooding the Internet with many copies of the same message, in an
attempt
to force the message on people who would not otherwise choose to receive it.
A/Viruses B/Packet Sniffers C/SPAM D/Phishing

Note: Satisfactory rating – 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Score = ___________
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 Answer Sheet

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 Ensuring carry-out spot checks and other security
Information Sheet – 3 strategies

3.1. Physical monitoring threats

Use the following Physical threats controlling :-
 Fence
 Guards
 Gate locks
 Lock devices(network device and computers)
 Authentication (Password): Password prevention is also very vital. One of the best
mechanisms is to ascertain that crasher can’t even gain access to the coded password.
 Organizational policies

Physical security: Physical Security

Your organization should be aware how physically secure every aspect of its network is
because if an intruder gets physical access, they can get your data. Be sure the organization
properly secures locations and consider the following:
 Servers - Contain your data and information about how to access that data.
 Workstations - Man contain some sensitive data and can be used to attack
other computers.
 Routers, switches, bridges, hubs and any other network equipment may be
used as an access point to your network.
 Network wiring and media and where they pass through may be used to
access your network or place a wireless access point to your network.
 External media which may be used between organizational sites or to other
sites the organization does business with.
 Locations of staff that may have information that a hostile party can use.
 Some employees may take data home or may take laptops home or use
laptops on the internet from home then bring them to work. Any information on
these laptops should be considered to be at risk and these laptops should be
secure according to proper policy when connected externally on the network.

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 3.2. Threats to Security
 Internal threats - employees of the organization.
 Deliberate data damage - "just for fun" or with more shady intent, some people might
delight in corrupting data or deleting it completely.
 Industrial intelligence - the process of a person retrieving data from a server for a
purpose.
 Physical equipment theft - If an important piece of equipment is stolen (for example,
the server or a backup tape), the intruder will have access to your data.
 A firewall is a system or group of systems that controls the flow of traffic between two
networks. The most common use of a firewall is to protect a private network from a
public network such as the Internet.
3.3. Protect your password.

Never share your password with anyone, not even a relative or colleague. If another person has your
password, they can, for all computer purposes, be you. This extends far beyond simply reading your
email.

It's very important to use different passwords for different systems. This limits the damage a malic io us
person can do should a password fall into the wrong hands.

Following are some measures that you can take in order to minimize the risks associated with
malicious human threats:
 Data Storage in Safe Locations: Keep your data in safe and secure locations that have limited
access to others.
 Virus and Spyware Protection: You must open an e-mail attachment or install any software
from a Web site with caution. The most reliable way is to install antivirus and anti -spyware
software from a reputable vendor.
 Human Errors: Many times, damage to a computer is due to unintentional human error. For
example, you may accidentally delete an important file, causing the computer to malfunction.
 Hardware Damage: Computer components, being delicate, run the risk of getting damaged
due to carelessness..
 Protecting hardware from accidental and environmental damages: You can take various
measures to avoid any unintentional damage to your computer. Keep the computer in an area

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 that is dust-free, free from vibration, and out of the way of possible impact, should be well -
ventilated to prevent any damage due to heat.
 Backing up Data: Regularly back up important computer data. Creating multiple copies of data
provides protection against loss of data due to accidental erasure or destruction of data.
Identify security procedures

A security plan should be used to determine what will be done in a critical situation. Security
plan policies should be constantly updated to reflect the latest threats to a network. A security
plan with clear security procedures is the basis for a technician to follow. Security plans
should be reviewed on a yearly basis.

There are different security strategies

 Privacy
 Authentication
 Authorization and integrity

Privacy is the ability of an individual or group to seclude themselves or information about

themselves and thereby reveal themselves selectively. The boundaries and content of what is
considered private differ among cultures and individuals, but share basic common themes.

Authentication is the act of confirming the truth of an attribute of a datum or entity.

Authorization is the process of giving someone permission to do or have something.

In multi-user computer systems, a system administrator defines for the system which
users are allowed access to the system and what privileges of use (such as access
to which file directories, hours of access, amount of allocated storage space, and so
forth).

Integrity is a concept of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, princip les,

expectations, and outcomes. In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or
accuracy of one's actions.

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 Self Check 3 Write Test

Name:____________________
Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel
free to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Write method Physical threats controlling ?

2. Write some measures that you can take in order to minimize the risks associated with
malicious human threats?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Investigating and implementing inbuilt or additional
Information Sheet – 4 encryption facilities

4.1. Data Encryption

Encrypting data uses codes and ciphers. Traffic between resources and computers on the
network can be protected from attackers monitoring or recording transactions by
implementing encryption. It may not be possible to decipher captured data in time to make
any use of it.

Virtual Private Network (VPN) uses encryption to protect data. A VPN connection allows
a remote user to safely access resources as if their computer is physically attached to the local
network.

4.2. Port Protection

Every communication using TCP/IP is associated with a port number. HTTPS, for instance,
uses port 443 by default. A firewall is a way of protecting a computer from intrusion
through the ports. The user can control the type of data sent to a computer by selecting
which ports will be open and which will be secured. Data being transported on a network is
called traffic.
4.3. Data Backups
Data backup procedures should be included in a security plan. Data can be lost or damaged
in circumstances such as theft, equipment failure, or a disaster such as a fire or flood.
Backing up data is one of the most effective ways of protecting against data loss. Here are
some considerations for data backups:

 Frequency of backups – Backups can take a long time. Sometimes it is easier to

make a full backup monthly or weekly, and then do frequent partial backups of any
data that has changed since the last full backup. However, spreading the backups
over many recordings increases the amount of time needed to restore the data.

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  Storage of backups – Backups should be transported to an approved offsite storage
location for extra security. The current backup media is transported to the offsite
location on a daily, weekly, or monthly rotation as required by the local organization.
 Security of backups – Backups can be protected with passwords. These passwords
would have to be entered before the data on the backup media could be restored.

4.4. Implementing encryption Facilities

One of the most effective ways to eliminate data loss or theft is to encrypt the data as it travels
across the network. However, not all data protection solutions are created equal. While most
solutions offer standard AES 256-bit encryption, there are other attributes that must be
considered:

Some of encryption facilities are: -

 Public Key Infrastructure (PKI) is a set of hardware, software, people,
policies, and procedures needed to create, manage, distribute, use, store, and
revoke digital certificates.[1] In cryptography, a PKI is an arrangement that
binds public keys with respective user identities by means of a certificate
authority (CA). The user identity must be unique within each CA domain. The
binding is established through the registration and issuance process, which,
depending on the level of assurance the binding has, may be carried out by
software at a CA, or under human supervision. The PKI role that assures this
binding is called the Registration Authority (RA). The RA ensures that the
public key is bound to the individual to which it is assigned in a way that
ensures non-repudiation.
 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) is a popular program used to encrypt and decrypt
e-mail over the Internet. It can also be used to send an encrypted digita l
signature that lets the receiver verify the sender's identity and know that the
message was not changed en route. Available both as freeware and in a low-

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 cost commercial version, PGP is the most widely used privacy-ensuring
program by individuals and is also used by many corporations.
4.5. Symmetric and Asymmetric ciphers
 In a symmetric cipher, both parties must use the same key for encryption and decryption.
This means that the encryption key must be shared between the two parties before any
messages can be decrypted. Symmetric systems are also known as shared secret systems or
private key systems.Symmetric ciphers are significantly faster than asymmetric ciphers, but
the requirements for key exchange make them difficult to use.
 In an asymmetric cipher, the encryption key and the decryption keys are separate. In an
asymmetric system, each person has two keys. One key, the public key, is shared publicly.
The second key, the private key, should never be shared with anyone.
When you send a message using asymmetric cryptography, you encrypt the
message using the recipients’ public key. The recipient then decrypts the message
using his private key. That is why the system is called asymmetric.

Fig 3.1 Encryption Data

Because asymmetric ciphers tend to be significantly more computationally intensive,

they are usually used in combination with symmetric ciphers to implement effect
public key cryptography. The asymmetric cipher is used to encrypt a session key and
the encrypted session key is then used to encrypt the actual message.

Symmetric ciphers are the oldest and most used cryptographic ciphers. In a
symmetric cipher, the key that deciphers the cipher text is the same as (or can be

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 easily derived from) the key enciphers the clear text. This key is often referred to as
the secret key. The most widely used symmetric ciphers are DES and AES.

Unlike a symmetric cipher, an asymmetric cipher uses two keys: one key that is kept
secret and known to only one person (the private key) and another key that is public
and available to everyone (the public key). The two keys are mathematically
interrelated, but it's impossible to derive one key from the other. Well-known
asymmetric ciphers are the Diffie-Hellman algorithm, RSA, and DSA.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using an asymmetric cipher instead
of a symmetric cipher?
 An important advantage of asymmetric ciphers over symmetric ciphers is that
no secret channel is necessary for the exchange of the public key. The
receiver needs only to be assured of the authenticity of the public key.
Symmetric ciphers require a secret channel to send the secret key—generated
at one side of the communication channel—to the other side.
 Asymmetric ciphers also create lesser key-management problems than
symmetric ciphers. Only 2n keys are needed for n entities to communicate
securely with one another. In a system based on symmetric ciphers, you would
need n(n ? 1)/2 secret keys. In a 5000-employee organization, for example,
the companywide deployment of a symmetric crypto-based security solution
would require more than 12 million keys. The deployment of an asymmetric
solution would require only 10,000 keys.
 A disadvantage of asymmetric ciphers over symmetric ciphers is that they tend
to be about "1000 times slower." By that, I mean that it can take about 1000
times more CPU time to process an asymmetric encryption or decryption than
a symmetric encryption or decryption.
 Another disadvantage is that symmetric ciphers can be cracked through a
"brute-force" attack, in which all possible keys are attempted until the right key
is found.
Because of these characteristics, asymmetric ciphers are typically used for data
authentication (through digital signatures), for the distribution of a symmetric bulk

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 encryption key (aka a digital envelope), for non-repudiation services, and for key
agreement. Symmetric ciphers are used for bulk encryption.

4.6. Sniffers monitor network data. A sniffer can be a self-contained software program or a
hardware device with the appropriate software or firmware programming. Sniffers usually act
as network probes or "snoops." They examine network traffic, making a copy of the data
without redirecting or altering it. Some sniffers work only with TCP/IP packets, but the more
sophisticated tools can work with many other protocols and at lower levels including Ethernet
frames.

4.7. Secure Shell (SSH) is a network protocol for secure data communication, remote shell
services or command execution and other secure network services between two networked
computers that it connects via a secure channel over an insecure network: a server and a client
(running SSH server and SSH client programs, respectively).[1] The protocol specificatio n
distinguishes two major versions that are referred to as SSH-1 and SSH-2.
4.8. Deslogin is a remote login program which may be used safely across insecure networks. With
deslogin, you may log into a secure remote host from a secure local host without worry about
your login password or session information being made visible across the network. Deslogin
is a simple stand-alone client and server, which may be used on machines which don't
have more sophisticated security packages such as SPX or Kerberos. No centralized key
distribution package is required. Unlike unix Login programs, authentication relies upon
arbitrarily long pass phrases rather than eight-character user passwords.
4.9. PKZIP is an archiving tool originally written by Phil Katz and marketed by his company
PKWARE, Inc. The common "PK" prefix used in both PKZIP and PKWARE stands for "Phil
Katz".
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) a protocol for encrypting information over the Internet
4.10. A digital signature or digital signature scheme is a mathematical scheme for demonstrating
the authenticity of a digital message or document. A valid digital signature gives a recipient
reason to believe that the message was created by a known sender, and that it was not altered
in transit. Digital signatures are commonly used for software distribution, financ ia l
transactions, and in other cases where it is important to detect forgery or tampering.

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 Self Check 4 Write Test

Name:____________________
Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel
free to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Define Data Encryption?

2. Write types Data Backups?

3. Define Secure Shell (SSH)?

4. What the difference between Symmetric and Asymmetric ciphers?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Preparing and presenting an audit report and
Information Sheet – 5 recommendation

5.1. Introduction to Multiple layer of security

There are multiple layers of security in a network, including physical, wireless, and data. Each
layer is subject to security attacks. The technician needs to understand how to imple me nt
security procedures to protect equipment and data.

Fig 3.2 Multiple Layer

Explain what is required in a basic local security policy

Though local security policies may vary between organizations, there are questions all organizatio ns
should ask:

 What assets require protection?

 What are the possible threats?
 What to do in the event of a security breach?

A security policy should describe how a company addresses security issues:

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  Define a process for handling network security incidents
 Define a process to audit existing network security
 Define a general security framework for implementing network security
 Define behaviors that are allowed
 Define behaviors that are prohibited
 Describe what to log and how to store the logs: Event Viewer, system log files, or
security log files
 Define network access to resources through account permissions
 Define authentication technologies to access data: usernames, passwords,
biometrics, smart cards

Explain the tasks required to protect physical equipment

Physical security is as important as data security. When a computer is taken, the data is also
stolen.

There are several methods of physically protecting computer equipment,

 Control access to facilities

 Use cable locks with equipment
 Keep telecommunication rooms locked
 Fit equipment with security screws
 Use security cages around equipment
 Label and install sensors, such as Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags,
on equipment

For access to facilities, there are several means of protection:

 Card keys that store user data, including level of access

 Berg connecters for connecting to a floppy drive
 Biometric sensors that identify physical characteristics of the user, such as
fingerprints or retinas
 Posted security guard

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  Sensors, such as RFID tags, to monitor equipment

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 Self Check 5 Write Test

Name:____________________
Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel
free to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Define security policy should describe a company addresses security issues?

2. Write methods of physically protecting computer equipment?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Obtaining approval for recommended changes
Information Sheet – 6

6.1. Describe ways to protect data

The value of physical equipment is often far less than the value of the data it contains. The
loss of sensitive data to a company's competitors or to criminals may be costly. Such losses
may result in a lack of confidence in the company and the dismissal of computer technic ia ns
in charge of computer security. To protect data, there are several methods of security
protection that can be implemented.

6.2. Password Protection

Password protection can prevent unauthorized access to content. Attackers are
able to gain access to unprotected computer data. All computers should be
password protected. Two levels of password protection are recommended:

 BIOS – Prevents BIOS settings from being changed without the appropriate
password
 Login – Prevents unauthorized access to the network

Network logins provide a means of logging activity on the network and either preventing or allowing
access to resources. This makes it possible to determine what resources are being accessed. Usually,
the system administrator defines a naming convention for the usernames when creating network
logins. A common example of a username is the first initial of the person's first name and then the
entire last name. You should keep the username naming convention simple so that people do not have
a hard time remembering it.

When assigning passwords, the level of password control should match the level of protection
required. A good security policy should be strictly enforced and include, but not be limited to, the
following rules:

 Passwords should expire after a specific period of time.

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  Passwords should contain a mixture of letters and numbers so that they cannot easily
be broken.
 Password standards should prevent users from writing down passwords and leaving
them unprotected from public view.
 Rules about password expiration and lockout should be defined. Lockout rules apply
when an unsuccessful attempt has been made to access the system or when a
specific change has been detected in the system configuration.

To simplify the process of administrating security, it is common to assign users to groups, and then
to assign groups to resources. This allows the access capability of users on a network to be changed
easily by assigning or removing the user from various groups. This is useful when setting up
temporary accounts for visiting workers or consultants, giving you the ability to limit access to
resources.

6.3. Explain social engineering

A social engineer is a person who is able to gain access to equipment or a network by tricking people
into providing the necessary access information. Often, the social engineer gains the confidence of
an employee and convinces the employee to divulge username and password information.

Here are some basic precautions to help protect against social engineering:

 Never give out your password

 Always ask for the ID of unknown persons
 Restrict access of unexpected visitors
 Escort all visitors
 Never post your password in your work area
 Lock your computer when you leave your desk
 Do not let anyone follow you through a door that requires an access card

6.4. Explain TCP/IP attacks

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 TCP/IP is the protocol suite that is used to control all of the communications on the Internet.
Unfortunately, TCP/IP can also make a network vulnerable to attackers.

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 Self Check 6 Write Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free
to ask your teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. List two levels of password protection are recommended?
2. Write some basic precautions to help protect against social engineering?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Instruction Sheet LG30: Establish maintenance practices
This learning guide is developed to provide you the necessary information regarding the
Following content coverage and topics –

 Determining maintenance requirements specified by the equipment manufacturer.

 Producing maintenance schedules

 Performing diagnostic function

 Configuring software security settings

 Determining unserviceable components

 Using the operating system and third-party diagnostic tools

This guide will also assist you to attain the learning outcome stated in the cover page.
Specifically, upon completion of this Learning Guide, you will be able to –

 Maintenance requirements specified by the equipment manufacturer are determined.

 Maintenance schedules including removal of dust and grease build -up are produced

 Diagnostic functions including replacing suspect components with other serviceable

components and reloading of associated software are performed

 Software security settings to prevent destructive software from infecting the computer are
configured

 Unserviceable components are determined whether replaceable through warranty, replacement

or upgrade

 Diagnostic functions are performed using the operating system and third-party diagnostic tools
Learning Instructions:
10. Read the specific objectives of this Learning Guide.
11. Follow the instructions described below 3 to 6.
12. Read the information written in the information “Sheet 1, Sheet 2, Sheet 3
13. , Sheet 4 , Sheet 5 and Sheet 6” in page 1,4,12, 18, 22 and 57 respectively.

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14. Accomplish the “Self-check 1, Self-check 2, Self-check 3 Self-check 4, Self-check 5 and Self-check
6” , in page , 3,11,17,21,56,and 64 respectively

Determining maintenance requirements specified by

Information Sheet – 1
the equipment manufacturer.
1.1 Maintenance requirement
Maintenance requirement is the materials or tools that are important to maintain specific equipment.
Maintenance requirement may include but not limited to: -
 Caution
 Attention

Attention is more than just noticing incoming stimuli. It involves a number of processes including
filtering out perceptions, balancing multiple perceptions and attaching emotional significance to these
perceptions.

There are two major forms of attention: passive and active. Passive attention refers to the involuntary
process directed by external events that stand out from their environment, such as a bright flash, a
strong odor, or a sudden loud noise. We might say that because passive attention is involuntary, it is
easy. Active attention is voluntary and is guided by alertness, concentration, interest and needs such
as curiosity and hunger.

Personal computers (PCs), also called microcomputers, are the most popular type of computer in use
today. The PC is a small-sized, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. Today,
the world of PCs is basically divided between IBM-compatible and Macintosh-compatible machines,
named after the two computer manufacturers. Computers may be called ‘desktop’ computers, which
stay on the desk, or ‘laptop’ computers, which are lightweight and portable. Organisations and
individuals use PCs for a wide range of tasks, including word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, preparation and delivery of presentations, organisation of spreadsheets and database

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management. Entry-level PCs are much more powerful than a few years ago, and today there is little
distinction between PCs and workstations.

Switches
 On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub. Despite their similar appearance, switches are
far more efficient than hubs and are far more desirable for today's network environments.
 As with a hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair cable. Multiple switches
are often interconnected to create larger networks.

Fig:-4.1. Switch

 Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data only to the port
on which the destination system is connected.
 It looks at the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to determine
the correct port. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC. By
forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed, the switch decreases the
amount of traffic on each network link dramatically.

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 Fig:-4.2. Media Access Control(MAC)

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 Self Check 1 Write Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
3. Define Maintenance requirement ?

4. Define Personal computer?

5. Define Switch?

Note: Satisfactory rating – 2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet – 2 Producing maintenance schedules

2.1. Maintenance Schedule

Maintenance Schedule is a plan or procedures that are used to maintain equipment and it must be
programmed with time of intervals. Maintenance schedules including removal of dust, grease build-up
and etc.
Maintenance scheduling can be planed or prepared as:-
 Onsite response
 Remote diagnostic

Onsite response is one of maintenance schedule that display the plan or procedures from the
internet.
Remote diagnostics refers to the ability to evaluate the current status of electronic equipment from a
remote location. The process involves the establishment of some type of wired or wireless
communication between the two points in order for the remote analysis to take place.
Remote diagnostics is the act of diagnosing a given symptom, issue or problem from a distance

2.2. MAINTENANCE PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Effective planning and scheduling contribute significantly to the following:

• Reduced maintenance cost.

• Improved utilization of the maintenance workforce by reducing delays and interruptions.

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 • Improved quality of maintenance work by adopting the best methods and procedures and
assigning the most qualified workers for the job.

2.2.1. Planning and Scheduling Objectives

• Minimizing the idle time of maintenance workers.

• Maximizing the efficient use of work time, material, and equipment.

• Maintaining the operating equipment at a responsive level to the need of production in terms of
delivery schedule and quality.

2.2.2. Classification of Maintenance Work According to Planning and Scheduling Purposes

• Routine maintenance: are maintenance operations of a periodic nature. They are planned
and scheduled and in advance. They are covered by blanket orders.
• Emergency or breakdown maintenance: interrupt maintenance schedules in order to be
performed. They are planned and scheduled as they happened.
• Design modifications: are planned and scheduled and they depend on eliminating the
cause of repeated breakdowns.
• Scheduled overhaul and shutdowns of the plant: planned and scheduled in advanced.
• Overhaul, general repairs, and replacement: planned and scheduled in advanced.
• Preventive maintenance: planned and scheduled in advanced.
• An essential part of planning and scheduling is to forecast future work and to balance the
workload between these categories.
• The maintenance management system should aim to have over 90% of the maintenance
work planned and scheduled.
2.2.3. Planning
Planning is the process by which the elements required to perform a task are determined in
advance of the job start.

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• It comprises all the functions related to the preparation of:
• The work order
• Bill of material
• Purchase requisition
• Necessary drawings
• Labor planning sheet including standard times
• All data needed prior to scheduling and releasing the work order.
• Good planning is a prerequisite for sound scheduling.

2.2.3.1. Planning Procedures

• Determine the job content.
• Develop work plan. This entails the sequence of the activities in the job and establishing
the best methods and procedures to accomplish the job.
• Establish crew size for the job.
• Plan and order parts and material.
• Check if special tools and equipment are needed and obtain them.
• Assign workers with appropriate skills.
• Review safety procedures.
• Set priorities for all maintenance work.
• Assign cost accounts.
• Complete the work order.
• Review the backlog and develop plans for controlling it.
• Predict the maintenance load using effective forecasting technique.
2.2.3.2. Basic Levels of Planning Process (Depend on The Planning Horizon)
 Long-rang planning: it covers a period of 3 to 5 years and sets plans for future activities
and long-range improvement.
 Medium-range planning: it covers a period of 1 month to 1 year.
 Short-rang planning: it covers a period of 1 day to 1 week. It focuses on the
determination of all the elements required to perform maintenance tasks in advance.
 Long and Medium-Range Planning

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 Needs to utilize the following:
 Sound forecasting techniques to estimate the maintenance load.
 Reliable job standards times to estimate staffing requirements.
 Aggregate planning tools such as linear programming to determine resource
requirements.
 Long-Range Planning
o sets plans for future activities and long-range improvement.
 Medium-Range Planning
• Specify how the maintenance workers will operate.
• Provide details of major overhauls, construction jobs, preventive maintenance plans,
and plant shutdowns.
• Balances the need for staffing over the period covered.
• Estimates required spare parts and material acquisition.
 Short-Range Planning
It focuses on the determination of all the elements required to perform maintenance tasks
in advance.
2.2.4. Scheduling
• Is the process by which jobs are matched with resources and sequenced to be executed at a
certain points in time.
• Scheduling deals with the specific time and phasing of planned jobs together with the orders to
perform the work, monitoring the work, controlling it, and reporting on job progress.

• Successful planning needs a feedback from scheduling.

Reliable Schedule Must Take Into Consideration
• A job priority ranking reflecting the criticality of the job.
• The availability of all materials needed for the work order in the plant.
• The production master schedule.
• Realistic estimates and what is likely to happen.
• Flexibility in the schedule.
Elements of Sound Scheduling

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 Requirements for effective scheduling:
• Written work orders that are derived from a well-conceived planning process. (Work to be
done, methods to be followed, crafts needed, spare parts needed, and priority).
• Time standards.
• Information about craft availability for each shift.
• Stocks of spare parts and information on restocking.
• Information on the availability of special equipment and tools necessary for maintenance work.
• Access to the plant production schedule and knowledge about when the facilities will be
available for service without interrupting production schedule.
• Well-define priorities for maintenance work.
• Information about jobs already scheduled that are behind the schedule (backlog).
Maintenance Schedule Can be Prepared at Three Levels (Depend on The Time Horizon)
 Long-range (master) schedule
 Weekly schedule
 Daily schedule

Long-Range (master) Schedule

• Covering a period of 3 months to 1 year.

• Based on existing maintenance work orders (blanket work order, backlog, PM, anticipated
EM).
• Balancing long-term demand for maintenance work with available resources.
• Spare parts and material could be identified and ordered in advance.
• Subject to revision and updating to reflect changes in the plans and maintenance work.
Weekly Schedule

• Covering 1 week.

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 • Generated from the master schedule.
• Takes into account current operations schedules and economic considerations.
• Allow 10% to 15% of the workforce to be available for emergency work.
• The schedule prepared for the current week and the following one in order to consider the
available backlog.
• The work orders scheduled in this week are sequenced based in priority.
• CPM and integer programming techniques can be used to generate a schedule.
Daily Schedule

• Covering 1 day.
• Generated from weekly schedule.
• Prepared the day before.
• Interrupted to perform EM.
• Priorities are used to schedule the jobs.
Scheduling Procedures (Steps)

• Sort backlog work orders by crafts.

• Arrange orders by priority.
• Compile a list of completed and carry over jobs.
• Consider job duration, location, travel distance, and the possibility of combining jobs in the
same area.
• Schedule multi-craft jobs to start at the beginning of every shift.
• Issue a daily schedule (not for shutdown maintenance).
• Authorize a supervisor to make work assignments (dispatching).

Maintenance Job Priority System

• Priorities are established to ensure that the most critical work is scheduled first.
• It is developed under coordination with operations staff.

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 • It should be dynamic.
• It must be updated periodically to reflect changes in operation and maintenance strategies.
• It typically includes three to ten levels of priority.
Priorities of Maintenance Work

Table 4.1. Priorities of Maintenance Work

Scheduling Techniques
The objective of the scheduling techniques is to construct a time chart showing:
• The start and finish for each job.
• The interdependencies among jobs.
• The critical jobs that require special attention and effective monitoring.
Such techniques are:
• Modified Gantt chart
• CPM
• PERT
• Integer and stochastic programming.
Example

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 4.1:- Gantt Chart

Self Check 2 Write Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

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Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. If statement is correct say True if statement is incorrect Say False
1. Maintenance Schedule is a plan or procedures that are used to maintain equipment and it must
be programmed with time of intervals.
2. Planning is the process by which the elements required to perform a task are determined in
advance of the job start.
3. Medium-rang planning: it covers a period of 3 to 5 years and sets plans for future activities and
long-range improvement.

Note: Satisfactory rating –2 points Unsatisfactory - below 2 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet – 3 Performing diagnostic function

3.1. Diagnostic functions

It includes but not limited
 Replacing suspected components
 Upgrade components
 Reloading software’s
3.1. Replacing suspected components
Computer hardware or components that can be replaced are: -
 Motherboards
 CMOS battery
 Central processing Unit (CPU)
 Drives (floppy, hard disk, CD-ROM)
 Interface cards
 Fax, modem cards
 RAM
3.2. Upgrade components
Computer hardware or components that can be upgrade are: -
 Central processing Unit (CPU)
 RAM

How to Replace a Motherboard

Replacing a motherboard takes a moderate understanding of how the components in your computer
are assembled. Before replacing the motherboard, back up all your information to ensure it won't get
lost, and go to your motherboard's manufacturer to download any updated drivers that may need to be
installed after you install the new motherboard. This will help ensure that changing your motherboard
is a success.
Instructions

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 1. Unplug all power sources to your computer, and remove the casing from your computer. Set
aside all screws and small pieces in a bowl so nothing will get lost.
2. Remove all the connectors to the motherboard. This may be your video card, data cables from
the hard drives and adapters. Label each one before removing so you can remember exactly
where they will attach on your new motherboard.
3. Take out the old motherboard carefully by removing the screws and sliding it out. There is
generally little clearance on the sides of the motherboard, so use caution when removing it so
nothing gets broken.
4. Compare the new and old motherboards to ensure they're the same. If the new motherboard
has cut-outs for integrated sound or game ports, punch out the holes so the wires can fit through
them. Do this carefully with a Phillips-head screwdriver or pliers.
5. Place the new motherboard in the case. Double-check to make sure it lines up properly in the
computer case before connecting it. Use the seven screws that are included to install the
motherboard.
6. Attach the adapters, drives and power connectors to the new motherboard. Locate where you
labeled everything before, and install them in the exact same places.
7. Put the computer case back on and turn the power supply back on. If the computer doesn't start
up properly, remove the case and double-check to ensure that all the adapters, drives and power
supply cords are in the correct position and are tightened securely.

Tips & Warnings

 Avoid creating static electricity charges while you're installing the new motherboard by
wearing a static-free wristband or grounding yourself often by touching the metal case.

How to Replace a CPU

A computer's central processing unit, or CPU, can be thought of as the computer's brain, which carries
out the majority of the calculations and processes needed to make the computer run. As computers
age, processors may run more slowly due to power surges, overheating and other stress-induced
damage. Replacing a used CPU with a new one can often increase performance, but it is usually more
common to install a CPU upgrade rather than a straight replacement.

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Instructions

Things you’ll need

 Screwdriver(s)
 Replacement CPU
 Thermal grease or other thermal interface material

1. Turn off the computer and unplug all plugs.

2. Open the computer's case and set it on its side.
3. Take off the CPU fan and heat sink. The CPU fan and heat sink will be easy to locate: look for
a large fan on top of a fin-like network of metal attached to the motherboard. Depending on your
heat sink, you may either have to unscrew it, or undo some plastic clipping mechanisms holding
it in place. Sometimes removing the fan first can make removing the heat sink easier. You will
likely have to unplug the fan from the motherboard.
4. Undo the securing lever on the processor mount to release the old CPU. The CPU will be held
in by a mounting system that is closed when a small lever is pressed down. Left the lever up and
release the CPU.
5. Remove the old CPU.

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 6. Put the new CPU in place, hold it down with a finger, and close the lever to lock it in. Do not
exert much force on the CPU; you don't have to press hard, but you may have to wiggle it around
a little bit to get it to line up properly before closing the lever.
7. Apply thermal grease liberally to the CPU. The CPU needs a thermal interface material between
it and the heat sink to transfer heat effectively.
8. Reinstall the heat sink and fan, making sure the thermal grease is touching both the CPU and
the heat sink. Plug the fan back into the motherboard.
9. Close the computer case.

Tips & Warnings

 If you are planning on installing replacement CPU that is different than the original CPU,
make sure your motherboard can use it first.

 The interior of a computer is susceptible to electric shock. Guard against carrying a

dangerous charge. Touch the metal case of the computer at least every couple of minutes
to make sure you don't shock the computer's components

How to Upgrade a Processor

Upgrading the processor in a computer can be one of the easiest ways to give new life to an older,
slower machine. While the upgrade itself will take little time or effort, there is significant work that must
be done beforehand to ensure that the upgrade is completed successfully.

Instructions

1. Research the computer that is to receive the new processor. There are many different
processors on the market, and they are not all compatible with a particular machine. Visit the
website of the computer manufacturer. If the computer was assembled from after-market
components, check the website of the company that manufactured the motherboard, or main
circuit board, of the computer. Find out the processor brand, the processor family, the processor

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 and bus speeds that the machine supports, the type of processor socket on the board and the
processor cores or revisions that are compatible with the machine.
2. Shop for a compatible processor from either a local retailer or an online store. The processor
must meet all the requirements that your research uncovered, otherwise it will likely be
incompatible with the machine. As soon as the processor is received, check it against your
original order.
3. Install the processor. Disconnect the computer cables and unplug the machine. Move it to a
good work area. Open the side of the machine to obtain access to the interior. Before going any
further, discharge any static electricity from your body by using a grounding wrist strap or by
touching the bare metal of the computer case.
4. Find the processor. It will be one of the largest objects on the motherboard, near the center, and
it will be covered by a large heat sink and fan. On each side of the heat sink, there should be a
clip or some other fastener securing it to the processor socket. Gently unhook the clips, taking
extreme care not to damage the processor socket, and then disconnect the power lead that runs
from the fan to the motherboard. The heat sink then can be pulled away from the processor. It
may take some force to separate the heat sink from the processor, depending on the type of
thermal transfer compound used.
5. Examine the processor. On one side of the processor socket, there will be a metal or plastic arm
that is used to secure the processor in the socket. Slide the end of this arm out from the retaining
clip, and lift the arm until it is perpendicular to the motherboard. The old processor can then be
gently pulled out.
6. Look at the processor socket. There should be one corner that has a small, 45-degree notch, or
another distinguishing mark, cut into it. The processor should have a similar mark. Rotate the
processor until the mark is in the same corner as the mark on the socket. Once the processor is
orientated correctly, line up the pins and slide the processor into the socket. This should require
no force at all. If force is used, the processor pins may be bent and the processor permanently
damaged. With the processor seated in the socket, the retaining arm may be lowered and clipped
into position.
7. Install the heat sink and fan assembly with a thin layer of thermal compound or a thermal pad
between it and the processor. This step transfers heat away from the processor to the heat sink,

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 preventing the processor from overheating. With the heat sink in place, plug the power lead from
the fan back into the motherboard.
8. Close the computer. Reconnect the components and test the new upgrade. When everything is
done, the computer should be noticeably faster, and it will be able to handle more robust
applications and games than it could previously.

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 Self Check 3 Write Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly

1. Write instruction Replace a Motherboard?

2. Write instruction Replace a CPU?

Note: Satisfactory rating –1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet – 4 Configuring software security settings

4.1. Firewall
In computing, a firewall is software or firmware that enforces a set of rules about what data packets will
be allowed to enter or leave a network. Firewalls are incorporated into a wide variety of networked
devices to filter traffic and lower the risk that malicious packets traveling over the public internet can
impact the security of a private network. Firewalls may also be purchased as stand-alone software
applications.

The term firewall is a metaphor that compares a type of physical barrier that's put in place to limit the
damage a fire can cause, with a virtual barrier that's put in place to limit damage from an external or
internal cyberattack. When located at the perimeter of a network, firewalls provide low-level network
protection, as well as important logging and auditing functions.

While the two main types of firewalls are host-based and network-based, there are many different types
that can be found in different places and controlling different activities. A host-based firewall is installed
on individual servers and monitors incoming and outgoing signals. A network-based firewall can be
built into the cloud's infrastructure, or it can be a virtual firewall service.

Types of firewalls

Other types of firewalls include packet-filteringfirewalls, stateful inspection firewalls, proxy firewalls and
next-generation firewalls (NGFW).

 A packet-filtering firewall examines packets in isolation and does not know the packet's context.

 A stateful inspection firewall examines network traffic to determine whether one packet is related to
another packet.

 A proxy firewall inspects packets at the application layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model.

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An NGFW uses a multilayered approach to integrate enterprise firewall capabilities with an intrusion
prevention system (IPS) and application control.

When organizations began moving from mainframe computers and dumb clients to the client-server
model, the ability to control access to the server became a priority. Before the first firewalls emerged
based on work done in the late 1980s, the only real form of network security was enforced through
access control lists (ACL) residing on routers. ACLs specified which Internet Protocol (IP) addresses
were granted or denied access to the network.

The exponential growth of the internet and the resulting increase in connectivity of networks, however,
meant that filtering network traffic by IP address alone was no longer enough. Static packet-filtering
firewalls, which examine packet headers and use rules to make decisions about what traffic to let
through, arguably became the most important part of every network security initiative by the end of the
last century.

How packet-filtering firewalls work

When a packet passes through a packet-filtering firewall, its source and destination
address, protocol and destination port number are checked. The packet is dropped -- it's not forwarded
to its destination -- if it does not comply with the firewall's rule set. For example, if a firewall is configured
with a rule to block Telnet access, then the firewall will drop packets destined for Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) port number 23, the port where a Telnetserver application would be listening.
There are mechanisms that are used to configure security. Some of them are: -
 Install firewall
 Install antivirus
 Install anti-malware
 Install anti-spyware
4.1. How to Install Windows XP Firewall

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Instruction
 To get started first click start and open the control panels network connection icon. Click
network and Internet Connections. Click the windows firewall icon which should be clearly
visible.
 This brings up the windows firewall dialog box. Click the "On" button. This button will
stop all intruders from gaining access to your computer. Now click the exceptions tab on top.
Put a check mark
next to anything there that you wish to use. For example checking file and print share will allow
other computers to gain access to your computer and share files and the printer.
 Once you've checked off what you wish to allow click OK and the firewall is set!
 Windows firewall inadequate? Some computer users like a second line of defense while
on the Internet. Click on over to Cnets downloads.com to check out their top free personal
computer firewalls. Popular firewalls include Zone Alarm and PC Tools Firewalls. Both are free
to download.

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 Self Check 4 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. Define Firwall?

2. Write mechanisms that are used to configure security?

Note: Satisfactory rating –1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Information Sheet – 5 Determining unserviceable components

5.1. Troubleshooting Power Sources and Power Protection Devices

This section lists some typical problems related to the system power. This includes external power
problems, power protection devices (surge suppressors, UPSes, etc.) and also the internal power
supply.
A couple of general caveats that you should consider whenever you believe you are looking at a power-
related problem:
 I strongly recommend the use of a power protection device, especially if you live in an area with
bad power or a lot of electrical storms.
 If this is a new system, read this section describing common problems in newly assembled PCs.
 Read these care instructions related to power.
Please choose the problem description best describing the problem you are having.
The power supply appears to not be functioning
 Explanation: The PC's internal power supply appears not to work at all. The system will not tur n
on and the power supply itself appears to be dead.
 Diagnosis: There is a possibility that the internal power supply has failed; this does happen,
especially on older or cheaper PCs. The power supply can be damaged due to electrical storms,
overheating or other causes.
Recommendation:
 If you have not done so already, you should first verify that it really is the internal power supply
causing the PC not to have power, as opposed to an external electrical cause. Follow this part
of the boot process troubleshooting walkthrough to verify the cause of the lack of power.

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  If you have an ATX system, double-check the connections from the case power switch to the
motherboard. On an ATX system the power switch does not physically turn on the power supply,
it just sends a signal to the motherboard to turn on the PC.
 Check very carefully for something inside the PC that may have accidentally short-circuited the
power supply. One way this can happen is by incorrectly attaching a power connector to a
storage drive. Another possibility is incorrect motherboard installation, or something else loose
inside the case. If the power supply has been short-circuited, it will detect this immediately and
"play dead"; when you resolve the short, the supply should come back up.
 Replace the power supply. On most machines this is not that difficult of a task, and the power
supplies themselves are reasonably standardized. However, make sure you get the right form
factor when ordering a replacement.
 Take the PC in for repair.

I've noticed that the lights flicker occasionally in my office and sometimes when they do, the
PC will hang or reboot
 Explanation: The PC is exhibiting instability or strange behavior at the same time that other
symptoms of power fluctuation are apparent.
 Diagnosis: Low quality input power to the PC is causing it to behave erratically. Flickering lights
means either power grid problems (brownouts, electrical storms), poor wiring in the building, or
draw from large electricity-using devices, especially air conditioners.

Recommendation:

 If you are not using any sort of power protection device, get one and see if it fixes the problem.
Even a $20 surge protector is better than nothing since it will provide some line filtering. If
possible, try using a UPS and see if that solves the problem--it probably will.
 Try the PC in a different location and see if the problem resolves. This will clearly implicate the
power coming from the wall.
 If you are in a home with central air conditioning, see if you can tie the light flickering to when
the unit comes on. If so, you may want to see if the PC works better on a different circuit. You

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 may want to consult a qualified electrician if the air conditioner is causing this much draw, or
simply get a UPS.
 Look here for more ideas on system instability.

I need to run my PC on a different voltage, but there is no switch to change the line voltage

 Explanation: The PC is currently set to 110 volt input, but needs to be able to run at 220 volts
(or vice-versa) and there is no voltage switch on the back of the power supply.
 Diagnosis: Sometimes there actually is a voltage switch, but it is hidden, either intentionally or
unintentionally, under labels or covers on the back of the PC. Otherwise, you will need to use a
voltage converter.

Recommendation:

 Check carefully on the back of the power supply for a switch, looking under any labels there (on
a new PC, do not remove any labels that warn you about voiding your warranty).
 Use a voltage conversion device. These are sold in electronics shops; Radio Shack is a good
place to start. Make sure you ask for something that will work with a PC.
 Replace the power supply with a unit that has selectable voltage. This is a bit of a pain but will
certainly solve the problem.

There's a squealing or whining sound coming from the power supply when I turn it on

 Explanation: The PC is making a squealing or whining sound, coming from the back of the
power supply unit. The sound may be louder when the PC is first started up, and then diminish,
or it may get worse as the PC is left on for a period of time.
 Diagnosis: Usually, the cause of this problem is the fan on the back of the power supply. It will
tend to accumulate dirt over time, and cheaper ones will fail readily. If the fan is making noise
now, it will probably fail soon. This usually takes years, but with cheaper power supplies that can
be a surprisingly small number of years. Rarely, the problem can be with the internals of the
power supply itself.

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Recommendation:
 Look and listen closely at the back of the PC to see if the fan is what is causing the problem. If
it appears that the fan is making the noise, troubleshoot it here.
 If you hear a high-pitched whistling sound, this could be coming from components within the
power supply. This will require you to either replace the power supply or take the system in for
service.
My UPS is supposed to provide {N} minutes of backup power, but mine cuts out after much less
time than that

 Explanation: You purchased a UPS that claimed that it would provide a certain amount of time
running on the batteries when the power went down, but the batteries last much less time than
what the advertisements claim.
 Diagnosis: The advertisements often exaggerate. Unfortunately, just like everything in the
industry, claims that have numbers in them tend to be based on best-case ideal world conditions
that don't always hold up in the real world. In addition, claims of battery life are based on a
particular configuration. Every PC is different and has a different power demand.

Recommendation:

 Take all numeric advertising claims with a grain of salt.

 Follow the manufacturer's instructions for maximizing battery life. This may include routine
maintenance for the device.
 Consult the manufacturer's technical support line for feedback on whether the battery life you
are experiencing is normal. It is possible that your device may be defective. If battery life was at
one point higher and now has decreased, this could be a defect as well.
 Consider removing devices from your PC that you don't need

My UPS doesn't provide proper backup power when the line power goes out

 Explanation: A UPS is being used on the PC, but when the power goes out the UPS doesn't
keep the PC running.

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  Diagnosis: There is either something wrong internally with the device, or it has been connected
or configured incorrectly.
Recommendation:

 If the unit is making any noises or has LEDs flashing in strange configurations, consult the
manufacturer's technical support.
 The unit may be overloaded. If a 400 kVA unit will support your system for 5 minutes on battery
backup, this does not mean that a 200 kVA unit will necessarily support it for 2.5 minutes. Once
a unit gets too much load on it, it may not work at all when the power goes out. You will need a
more powerful unit in this case.
 Check the unit physically to make sure that everything is connected properly, there are no tripped
circuit breakers, etc.
 Try plugging the PC into a different socket in the device and see if that solves the problem. If it
does, the device has a failure with that particular socket and it needs to be repaired or replaced.
 The batteries could be damaged, defective, or discharged. Follow the manufacturer's
instructions for ensuring that the batteries are fully charged and see if the problem works
properly.
 Consult with the manufacturer of the device for technical support.

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Windows automatically turns off the PC when I tell it to shut down, and I don't want it to (or vice -
versa)

 Explanation: When you select "Shut down the computer" from the Windows "Shut Down" menu,
the PC is completely powered down automatically instead of your being given the chance to do
this manually, or, the opposite, you want this to happen and it isn't happening.
 Diagnosis: This is a power management feature that is built into Windows. In order to make use
of it, you must have an ATX form factor motherboard, because ATX boards support the ability
to have the PC turned off under software control. You must also have a board that supports
advanced power management (APM) features. If the feature is not working then one of these
conditions has been violated; if you want it to stop then you must disable the power management
feature.
Recommendation:
 If the system automatically powers down when you shut down Windows and you don't want this
to happen, the easiest way to stop it is to disable all power management features in the system
BIOS.
 If you want automatic power-down to occur, make sure that you have an ATX system and that
power management is not totally disabled in the system BIOS. You can tell the system BIOS to
not activate its power-saving "standby" or "suspend" modes, if you wish; just don't totally disable
all power management functions.
If you have power management enabled and an ATX system and power-off still does not work, try
runnin an "Add new hardware" session in Windows (from the Control Panel) and have Windows search
for new devices. It should find and enable the power management feature.
The power doesn’t come on
1. No power from the wall socket: Use a live power outlet. In rare cases, the power cable may
be defective and may require replacement. Check the power cable on another working PC. Plug
in a lamp or any other electric device to see if you have a live outlet.
2. Incorrect voltage setting on the PSU: Select the proper voltage setting (220-240V) on the
back of the PSU. WARNING: If you have switched on the PC with the voltage set to 110-120V

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 and with a mains supply of 240V you may have blown your PSU beyond repair at worst or blown
a fuse at best. Be careful!

3. The front panel power switch’s connector to the motherboard is not fixed correctly or has
come off or is defective: Check the motherboard manual and fix the lead (wires) from the front
panel switch to the motherboard correctly. If there is still no power, try a different lead.
4. The front panel power switch is defective: Replace the switch. In case you do not want to get
a replacement, one option is to use the reset button. The only problem with this is that to cut the
A PSU with all its connectors power to the system in case of system hangs etc., you will have to
switch off the power from the mains wall outlet rather than from the front panel.
5. The power supply connections to the motherboard are not correct: Check the power
connections from the PSU to the motherboard. Refer to the motherboard manual and identify
the correct connection points.
6. Not identified; non-PSU related problem: After attempting all the above, if the system still
doesn’t power up, it is time to look elsewhere. Disconnect all the drives and see if it is powering
up. (Note: Pull out the power cord when removing or disconnecting something.) If the system is
powering up, then start reconnecting the drives one by one to identify which is defective drive. If
the system is not powering with all drives disconnected, remove the other adaptors one at a time
and checking to see if it is powering up. Leave the video adaptor for the last. If you are able to
isolate the problem to one of the adaptor cards, verify that the slot and the adaptor cards are
compatible. Then try plugging it into a different slot and see if the system powers
If the system is still not powering up, then you either have a defective PSU or a defective motherboard.
If there is a burnt smell, then most probably either one of them has been fried. Look for burn marks on
the motherboard. Sometimes the PSU and motherboard may be incompatible. If the motherboard looks
fine, replace the PSU, since it’s cheaper! Check the relevant sections of this guide for troubleshooting
hints for the other components.
The PC powers on after the second or third try
The mostly likely problem is that the power_ok (or power_good) signal is sent before the power supply
has stabilised. Get a better quality PSU. In modern PCs, the power switch is a logic device that tells
the PSU to supply full power to the motherboard. The power_ok signal tells the motherboard that the

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power supply is available and stable. If the signal is sent too soon the motherboard does not recognize
it and stays off to protect itself. This can happen in lower quality PSUs. Booting more than once is not
recommended, and you will be better off getting a better PSU.

The PC powers on but nothing happens after that (no beep)

1. This may be due to the addition of new hardware that is overtaxing the power supply. Remove
the last hardware component installed and check again.
2. A defective hard disk or one that is not plugged in correctly: Check the power cable to the hard
disk. Sometimes it may not be fully plugged in. Check the hard disk on another system.
The PC powers on, beeps and stops. No Power On Self Test (POST) messages.
This may be a motherboard problem and not related to the PSU. Check the motherboard section of this
guide.
The PC powers on and runs POST but there is no display
This may be a display card problem and not related to the PSU. Check the display section of this guide.
There is a squealing/whistling/whining noise when the PC starts
This could indicate either a problem with the fan, which has accumulated dirt over time, or one of the
internal components of the PSU. Switch on the PC and listen carefully to confirm that it’s the PSU fan
and not the CPU fan or the hard disk. Usually, the noise will stop once the fan picks up speed, and you
can ignore it temporarily. It’s a good idea, however, to clean out the dirt around the PSU fan using a
PC vacuum. This will increase the working life of the PSU fan as well as the PSU itself. If the fan stops
working, the PSU will generate heat and cause more trouble. So a little prevention will save you a lot
of headaches later. If the sound is not from the fan but from within the PSU itself, then you may be able
to service it. A PSU has no ‘user-serviceable’ parts, and it’s best left to a competent technician, although
in most cases of component failure, you will have to replace the PSU.
The PC freezes or reboots suddenly
1. This could indicate a failing PSU that is not supplying power correctly to the motherboard. You
may be able to get the PSU serviced but in most cases you will be better off getting a new power
supply.
2. This could be due to overheating of the PSU or CPU: If the PSU is overheating, the metal cabinet
may be hot to touch or you might get a shock. Shut off immediately. Check if the PSU fan is

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 working, clean or replace the fan if not working or spinning very slowly. If it’s a faulty PSU you
may be able to service it. If the PSU seems normal it might be due to an overheating CPU.

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 5.1. Common Motherboard and BIOS Problems
There is an apparent failure of the motherboard or a system device on the motherboard
 Explanation: There is suspicion of a possible failure related to the motherboard. This can be a
result of a specific message strongly implicating the motherboard in some sort of erratic system
behaviour. It may also be the case that the motherboard probably isn't the problem, but that we
want to rule it out as a possible cause. Since the motherboard is where all the other components
meet and connect, a bad motherboard can affect virtually any other part of the PC. For this
reason the motherboard must often be checked to ensure it is working properly, even if it is
unlikely to be the cause of whatever is happening.
 Diagnosis: Outright motherboard failure is fairly rare in a new system, and extremely rare in a
system that is already up and running. Usually, the problem is that the motherboard has been
misconfigured or there is a failure with one or more of the components that connect to it. Getting
a system in the mail that has a loose component or disconnected cable is very common. In fact,
though, there are surprisingly large possible causes for what may appear to be a motherboard
failure.
Recommendation: Follow the suggestions below to diagnose the possible failure of the motherboard.
You will find a lot of possible causes listed below, since there are so many problems that can make it
look like the motherboard is at fault. This part of the Troubleshooting Expert is referenced by a large
number of other sections. For this reason, you may want to skip some of the steps below if you have
already tried them elsewhere. Also, try to avoid the very difficult diagnostic steps--especially replacing
the motherboard--until you have exhausted the other possibilities both here and elsewhere on the site:
 First of all, if you have just recently installed this motherboard, or performed upgrades or
additions to the PC of any sort, read this section, which contains items to check that may cause
problems after working on the system unit.
 If the PC isn't booting at all, make sure you have at least the minimums in the machine required
to make it work: processor, a full bank of memory, video card, and a drive. Make sure that all of
these are inserted correctly into the motherboard, especially the memory. Partially inserted
memory modules can cause all sorts of bizarre behavior.

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 Remove all optional devices from the motherboard, including expansion cards, external
peripherals, etc. and see if the problem can be resolved.
 Double-check all the motherboard jumper settings, carefully. Make sure they are all correct. In
particular, check the processor type, bus speed, clock multiplier and voltage jumpers. Also make
sure the CMOS clear and flash BIOS jumpers are in their normal, default operati ng positions.
 Reset all BIOS settings to default, conservative values to make sure an overly aggressive BIOS
setting isn't causing the problem. Set all cache, memory and hard disk timing as slow as possible.
Turn off BIOS shadowing and see if the problem goes away.
 Double-check all connections to the motherboard.
 Check the inside of the case to see if any components seem to be overheating.
 Inspect the motherboard physically. Check to make sure the board itself isn't cracked; if it is look
here. Make sure there are no broken pins or components on the board; if there are, you will have
problems with whatever component of the PC uses that connection. Check for any socketed
components that may be loose in their sockets, and push them gently but firmly back into the
socket if this has happened.
 Make sure the keyboard is inserted correctly into the motherboard.
 A failed cache module or using the wrong type can cause motherboard problems. If you suspect
it, troubleshoot the secondary cache.
 An overheated processor can cause system problems. Try troubleshooting the processor.
 Troubleshoot the system memory. Memory problems are often mistaken for motherboard faults,
especially on systems that don't have the protection of using memory error detection.
 Try troubleshooting the video card or replacing it with another one, preferably a simple straight
VGA card that is known to work from being in another system that functioned properly.
 If the power supply is older, or this is a cheap case, or you have added many new drives to a
system with a weaker power supply (especially one that is less than 200W) then you may have
a power supply problem. You may want to try replacing it.
 You may have a BIOS bug or other problem. Check your manufacturer's technical support
resources for any known problems with your motherboard. Check on USEnet as well.

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  Contact the technical support department of your system or motherboard manufacturer for
additional troubleshooting information. If this is a new motherboard, you may want to consider
returning it for an exchange if you have exhausted all other troubleshooting avenues.
 Some newer viruses, when activated, overwrite part of the BIOS code in systems that employ a
flash BIOS. If the BIOS is corrupted, the system won't boot. See here for ideas on recovering
from this.
 Try swapping the motherboard with another one and see if the problem resolves itself. If it does
then the original motherboard is probably faulty, but it could just have been misconfigured or
installed incorrectly.

2. There appears to be a failure related to the keyboard controller

Explanation: An error message or keyboard failure is implicating a possible failure of the keyboard
controller chip on the motherboard.

Diagnosis: The keyboard controller chip can indeed develop a problem, although this is unusual. Using
the wrong kind of keyboard, or a defective or incorrectly connected keyboard can also cause an
apparent problem with the controller.

Recommendation:

 Troubleshoot the keyboard itself first.

 Find the keyboard controller chip on the motherboard, and examine it. See if it looks damaged
in any way. If it is, then it needs to be replaced (either that or the whole motherboard). You may
be able to get a new controller chip, but you will have to contact your motherboard's technical
support department.
 If the controller chip is socketed, check to see if it is fully in the socket. Gently but firmly push
down on the chip. You may hear a "crackling" sound when you do this, which is fairly normal.
This may resolve the problem.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

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3.I have lost my BIOS password so I cannot start the system and/or get into the BIOS setup
program

Explanation: You entered a password into the BIOS setup program to control access to the system,
and then forgot the password. If this a setup password, you will be unable to enter the BIOS setup
program. If this is a startup or boot password, you will be unable to boot the system at all.

Diagnosis: For most people, using the BIOS passwords isn't a great idea, and this is the main reason
why. If you do use a password, you should always record it in writing somewhere in case you need it
later on. It can be hard to get around this sort of a problem, precisely because if there were an easy
way to get around the password, it would have no value. In most cases you will have to clear the CMOS
memory to erase the password.

Recommendation:

 If you haven't already, and if you can live without the machine for a day or so, wait and try to
remember the password. This is the best solution, if you can remember it. :^)
 If your system has an AMI BIOS, try the default password, which is either "AMI" or "ami". This
will not usually work, but is worth a try.
 If you cannot get into the BIOS program, your only remaining option is to try to clear the CMOS
memory that holds BIOS settings. Included in this memory is the password, so this will let you
get back into the PC. See here for instructions on erasing the CMOS memory.
 If it is a setup password that you are trying to get around, then you can at least boot the PC. It
is possible in some systems that performing a flash BIOS upgrade will clear the CMOS memory
and eliminate the password. I would not recommend trying this without getting confirmation from
your motherboard vendor first, as doing flash BIOS upgrades in strange situations can
theoretically be dangerous.

4. I need to clear the CMOS memory (due to a corrupted BIOS, lost password or other problem)
but do not know how to do this

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Explanation: You need to clear the CMOS memory but aren't sure how to do this. It is sometimes
necessary to clear the CMOS due to a lost BIOS password, corruption of the CMOS memory, or
because you set the BIOS settings to values incompatible with your hardware and now you cannot boot
the PC far enough to get into the settings and reset them (this rarely happens, fortunately).

Diagnosis: How easily you can clear the memory depends on the design of your motherboard. In some
cases it can be easy to do but in other cases very difficult.

Warning: Erasing the CMOS memory will cause you to lose all settings in the BIOS. Make sure that
you only do this if it is absolutely necessary. Basically, you should only do this if you can't get into the
BIOS setup program due to hardware problems or a lost password.

Recommendation:

 Turn off the PC. Hold down the {Insert} key and then turn the PC on and wait for it to boot. On
some PCs, this will clear and reset the CMOS memory for you. (On most PCs it will not work, so
don't be discouraged.)
 Try the same thing with the {Delete} key. Again, it usually won't work.
 Look in your motherboard or system documentation for any evidence of a CMOS clear jumper.
This is a jumper on the motherboard that can be used to clear the CMOS memory; many newer
motherboards have them. Follow the instructions for its use as described in the documentation;
usually this means opening the PC, changing the jumper to a special setting, and then booting
the PC. The CMOS memory will be cleared. Then you power the PC down and put the jumper
back to its previous position. If it doesn't work properly when you try it, look here.
 If you do not have a CMOS clear jumper, your next option is to try disconnecting the CMOS
battery. This is easy to do if the battery on the motherboard is removable or user-replaceable. If
you see on the motherboard what looks like a flat round wristwatch or calculator battery in a
holder, that's it. Some older motherboards use batteries that sit off the motherboard and connect
with a wire. If the battery can be disconnected, then disconnect or remove it. Wait for about two

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 hours (you may need to vary the amount of time; if two hours isn't enough, try leaving it overnight)
and then plug it back in, and the CMOS should be cleared and reset.
 On some systems, the CMOS battery is integrated within the BIOS chip. You may have success
with removing the chip for a few minutes and then replacing it. Just be very careful to take anti -
static precautions.
 Your motherboard may have a battery that is soldered to the motherboard. You may not see a
battery on the motherboard at all; if this is the case then your motherboard probably uses a
battery that is integrated into the real-time clock chip (or else, you weren't looking closely enough
:^) ). Unfortunately, on a motherboard without a removable battery and with no CMOS clear
jumper, clearing the CMOS memory is difficult to do. At this point you should contact your
manufacturer for technical support.

Warning: Some people will recommend shorting the leads of the battery to clear the CMOS memory.
I do not recommend this procedure, because shorting things on the motherboard is just generally a
dangerous thing to do. Even removing the CMOS chip has the potential for problems. It really is best
to contact the manufacturer of the motherboard or PC you are using in this situation.

5. My system has a CMOS clear jumper but when I use it, it doesn't seem to do anything

Explanation: You are following the directions to use the CMOS clear jumper on your motherboard, but
the CMOS memory is not being cleared.

Diagnosis: The usual cause of this problem is neglecting to unplug the PC before attempting the
procedure, or accidentally changing the wrong jumper. Some motherboards, particularly those using
the ATX form factors, are supplying voltage to the motherboard even when it is off, and this is used as
a "backup" for the CMOS memory when the battery is not working. (You're not supposed to be working
inside the box with the power plugged in anyway, remember?)

Recommendation:

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  Unplug the PC, if it is plugged in.
 Make sure you are actually using the CMOS clear jumper and not a different one by mistake.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

6. The CMOS battery is dead or dying

Explanation: The system is exhibiting behavior that implies that the CMOS battery is dead. This can
include lost CMOS settings, the real-time clock losing time, or of course dead battery warnings at boot
time.

Diagnosis: On an older PC, it is normal for the CMOS battery to fail at some point in time. They usually
last for many years, with over five years being the norm, at least on older machines. Nobody knows for
sure how newer machines will fare. On a new motherboard, this sort of message is a sign of a defect,
although you shouldn't worry about it if it appears only the very first time the board is powered up. The
solution is replacing the battery, and this can be an either easy or impossible task, depending on how
much thought the motherboard manufacturer put into the design.

Recommendation:

 If this is a new motherboard and you are getting an error saying that the CMOS memory was
cleared, or that the battery is dead, try rebooting the machine and seeing if the message goes
away. If it does, then the problem is probably resolved as long as it does not return.
 If this is a new installation and you are getting the error continuously, I would double-check any
jumpers associated with the battery. Some motherboards have a jumper to select between using
an internal and external battery. Also, check out these common problems with new installations .
 Replace the CMOS battery. Note that on some motherboards it is not possible to replace the
battery because it is integrated into the motherboard or a component such as the real-time clock.
This is a bad design by engineers who lack vision, but is unfortunately all too common these
days.
 If the battery cannot be replaced, or replacing it does not solve the problem, troubleshoot the
motherboard.

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1. The CMOS battery is failing intermittently, indicating that it is losing power, or losing settings
once in a while

Explanation: The CMOS battery is working sometimes, but is occasionally failing, causing loss of BIOS
settings or error messages.

Diagnosis: This situation can be very annoying, and in some PCs can last for a very long time. It
usually means that the CMOS battery voltage is getting low and that it needs to be replaced, especially
if the problem is occurring with increasing frequency. It can also result from a bad connection to the
motherboard.

Recommendation:

 Double-check the battery connection to the motherboard. If the battery is removable, remove
and reinsert it.
 Replace the CMOS battery, if this is possible with your motherboard.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

2. The system clock is losing time or not keeping time accurately

Explanation: The system clock is not accurate; it loses a number of minutes each day, or stops
incrementing the time when the system is turned off.

Diagnosis: The most common cause of this problem is the CMOS battery, which also backs up the
date and time so it isn't lost when the machine is turned off. A weak CMOS battery can lead to problems
with the real-time clock even if the battery isn't weak enough to cause the loss of BIOS settings. Some
motherboards apparently disable the clock as a power-saving measure when the battery voltage gets
low. Of course, sometimes the problem with the clock is simply that it is inaccurate. As motherboards
get cheaper and cheaper in both price and construction, the quality of some of these components gets
very questionable.

Recommendation:

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  Troubleshoot the battery to make sure that it is not causing the problem.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard to ensure that some other strange situation is not causing the
problem.
 If the battery is not at fault, and you cannot find any problem with the motherboard, your
remaining solutions are to replace the motherboard or to use software methods to compensate
for the clock. There are utilities that will resynchronize the system clock with Internet time
servers, and others that allow you to program them to adjust the system clock forward or
backward a number of minutes each day, to keep the clock roughly accurate.

3.The BIOS settings in the CMOS memory have become corrupted or damaged

Explanation: The data stored in CMOS memory that controls the BIOS settings has become corrupted.
This is usually seen in a warning or error message when the PC is booted, since the CMOS has a
checksum value that is used to allow the BIOS to detect when the settings have become corrupted.

Diagnosis: The most common cause of this problem is the CMOS battery, which can cause erratic
behavior if it is poorly connected or weak. It is also possible for other hardware or software problems
to corrupt the CMOS memory, but this is unusual.

Recommendation: If you have created a backup copy of your CMOS settings then use them to restore
the settings to the correct values. To find the problem itself:

 Troubleshoot the battery to make sure that it is not causing the problem.
 Make sure that you scan the system for viruses. Viruses can corrupt the CMOS memory
(although they cannot reside in it).
 Troubleshoot the motherboard. Motherboard problems can sometimes (rarely) result in CMOS
corruption.
 Troubleshoot your power supply. A failing supply can lead to problems with the whole system,
and especially motherboard components.

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4. can't figure out how to get into the BIOS setup program

Explanation: You need to get into the BIOS setup program to change some parameters, but don't
know what key or keys must be pressed.

Diagnosis: On most modern systems, the key or key combination to press to enter the BIOS program
is displayed on the screen when the system boots up, at the time when the BIOS is ready to enter
Setup. Older systems often didn't specify the key(s) on the screen at boot time. Very old systems don't
have a built-in setup program and one must be run from the floppy disk. Note that if your PC says to try
a specific key combination and you try it, and it doesn't work, this could be due to a keyboard problem
as well. Look for a keyboard error to come up on the screen.

Recommendation: Assuming that your PC is from about 1985 or later, it should have an integrated
setup program (original XT computers used switches on the motherboard instead of a setup program.)
Try the following key combinations, which I have listed approximately in order of popularity in today's
system (there may be others as well):

 {Delete} (modern Award and AMI BIOSes)

 {F2} (modern Phoenix BIOSes)
 {Ctrl}+{Alt}+{Esc}
 {Ctrl}+{Esc}
 {Alt}+{Esc}
 {Ctrl}+{Alt}+{S}
 {Insert}
 {F1}
 Consult your system manufacturer for the key combination.

5. I changed my BIOS settings but when I rebooted, they reappeared with the old values!

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Explanation: You went into the BIOS setup program to make changes to the settings, and then
rebooted the PC, but the changes were reversed to the old values when you rebooted the machine.

Diagnosis: You probably forgot to save the changes to the BIOS settings, or you selected the "Exit
without saving" option instead of the "Save and exit" option in the setup program (which are,
unfortunately, usually located right next to each other on the BIOS setup menu).

Recommendation:

 Make the changes again, and be sure to save them using the correct option in the setup program.
 If the changes again do not stick, you might have a problem with your CMOS battery.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

6. I am having problems trying to flash my BIOS

Explanation: "Flashing" the BIOS refers to upgrading the BIOS program through software. This can
allow you to quickly and easily increase the capabilities of your system, but if performed incorrectly

Diagnosis: It is extremely important to follow the manufacturer's instructions in detail when performing
a flash BIOS upgrade. These upgrades are highly vendor-specific.

Recommendation:

 Read the instructions for performing the flash BIOS carefully. Some motherboards require a
special jumper to be set on the motherboard in order to perform a flash BIOS upgrade. If this
jumper is not set, the flash will not work.
 Perform the upgrade on a clean-booted system, from DOS (not any form of Windows) and with
no drivers or special programs of any sort loaded.
 Do not be afraid to consult with the motherboard manufacturer's technical support.
 If you improperly flash the BIOS, if the flashing is interrupted (by a power failure) or if you flash
the wrong BIOS image, you may corrupt the BIOS chip to the point where the system will no
longer boot.

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1. I flashed my BIOS, and now the system is dead!

Explanation: The system BIOS is the key piece of software responsible for booting your PC. Incorrect ly
flashing it will often cause the PC to fail to boot.

Diagnosis: The cause is usually flashing the wrong BIOS image file into the BIOS chip. This happens
more often than you'd think, since most flash programs are not intelligent and will allow you to program
the wrong BIOS code into the chip. The BIOS corruption can also result from an error or interruption
during any BIOS flashing procedure. Finally, some new viruses can corrupt the system BIOS.

Recommendation:

 Some newer PCs come with a boot block feature that enables them to recover from a corrupted
BIOS situation. If the BIOS code is whacked, a tiny built-in program will look on the floppy drive
for the appropriate files to reload the BIOS. You should contact the manufacturer for instructions.
 You can usually purchase a replacement BIOS chip from the motherboard (not BIOS)
manufacturer. Physically replacing the chip with another that has the right code will solve the
problem.
 for other ideas on how to recover from this situation. Warning: Some of the procedures
described on Wim's page are not for the faint of heart, especially hot-swapping BIOS chips,
which has the (low, but non-zero) potential to cause injury or damage.

2. My hard disk spins down after a period of inactivity even though I disabled p ower
management in the BIOS

Explanation: You have turned off power management, but the hard disk still spins down after a period
of inactivity.

Diagnosis: Sometimes the power management isn't really turned off; it's possible that more than one
BIOS setting needs to be changed and they weren't all changed. There could be a BIOS bug as well.

Recommendation:

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  Go into the BIOS setup and double-check that power management really is turned off at a global
level.
 If you are running Windows 95 OEM SR2, look in the Control Panel for an applet called "Power".
Go into it, and uncheck the box that controls spinning down the hard disk.
 If the problem persists, it is possible that your BIOS has a bug. Contact your motherboard
manufacturer for more information. There was definitely a bug in some Award BIOSes in late
1996 (a motherboard of mine had one). This sort of problem can normally be fixed with a flash
BIOS upgrade, if available.
 There could be a problem related to the hard disk, such as a loose cable, or a defect with the
hard disk itself; double-check the hard disk connection.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

3. I can't seem to enable ROM shadowing, or the system isn't working with ROM shadowing
enabled

Explanation: You are trying to enable ROM shadowing in the system BIOS but the system is refusing
to boot or behaving unstably when shadowing is turned on.

Diagnosis: Shadowing of the system BIOS works properly in almost every system. Shadowing of the
video card usually works. Shadowing of adapter ROMs only works sometimes, depending on the
system and on the peripheral. Turning on shadowing may reveal a general problem with the hardware,
but usually if shadowing is the only thing causing the problem, the device you are trying to shadow
simply isn't designed to work with it. For example, many adapters use both ROM and RAM in their
address spaces, and shadowing will cause these to stop functioning altogether.

Recommendation:

 If the device you are trying to shadow is an expansion card, then the card may not allow
shadowing. Consult your system documentation. If the device (as well as the system overall)
works with shadowing disabled, it is generally better to just not worry about it, as the performance
improvement is slight in this case anyway.

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  If the video card will not allow shadowing, this may be a limitation of the video card, though this
is uncommon. You may want to diagnose the video card.
 A failure to shadow the system BIOS ROM can mean a motherboard problem. Troubleshoot it.
 Any type of problem with shadowing can implicate a memory problem. You may want to
troubleshoot the system memory.

4. The motherboard appears to be cracked

Explanation: The motherboard appears to have a crack in the board itself.

Diagnosis: Eek. This is not good. It's very rare for this to happen, actually. This most likely would have
been caused by abuse, especially by being too forceful when inserting components. It may be caused
by pressing too hard when inserting expansion cards, especially into a poorly-mounted motherboard.
If the motherboard is new, it may have been a manufacturing defect. As for the board itself, if it is
working OK, don't worry about the crack. Otherwise, it will need to be replaced; there is no practical
way to repair damage of this sort.

Recommendation:

 If the board is new, and you suspect it may have been shipped with the crack, return it for
exchange.
 Examine the motherboard to determine if it is mounted into the case correctly. Consider adding
additional plastic supports to brace the motherboard if it is flexing when pressure is applied to it.
 Be careful when inserting expansion cards and components into the motherboard.
 If the motherboard is not working, troubleshoot it to eliminate all other possible causes of the
problem. If the motherboard is still causing problems, you should replace it and see if the problem
goes away. If it does, the motherboard with the damage should be discarded.

5. There is a component or pin broken on the motherboard

Explanation: A component is broken on the motherboard, or a pin that makes up one of the connectors
or headers on the motherboard is broken.

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Diagnosis: Depending on what the part is that is broken, this may or may not be a big problem. The
only causes of broken components on a motherboard are manufacturing defect, abuse, or accidental
damage. If the board itself is working OK, you may not need to do anything, but you may have difficulty
upgrading or expanding the motherboard later on.

Recommendation:

 If the board is new, and you suspect it may have been shipped with the damage, return it for
exchange.
 If the motherboard is working OK, and if the component or pin damaged is a part of the system
not currently being used, for example a second processor socket, or a SIMM socket not in use,
or a second serial port you are not using, ignore the damage. Get a new motherboard when you
are ready to upgrade the machine.
 If the motherboard (or the system as a whole) is not working, troubleshoot it to eliminate all other
possible causes of the problem. If the motherboard is still causing problems, you should replace
it and see if the problem goes away. If it does, the motherboard with the damage should be
discarded.

6. One of the pins on the motherboard is bent

Explanation: One of the pins that makes up one of the connectors or headers on the motherboard is
bent.

Diagnosis: This is usually a manufacturing defect, or is caused by rough handling or abuse of the
motherboard. The pins are malleable and it is usually possible to correct the problem.

Recommendation: With the power to the motherboard disconnected, examine the bent pin carefully.
Using a pair of needle-nose pliers, grasp the end of the pin firmly. Slowly, slowly, bend the pin back
into the correct position.

1. I cannot get the ZIF socket to loosen so I can remove the processor that is in it

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Explanation: The ZIF socket holding the processor seems to be "stuck" and cannot be loosened.

Diagnosis: This occurs quite frequently, especially with older motherboards. These boards have had
the same processor sitting in them often for years and they can become rather "comfortable" in their
present position. It is usually possible to extricate the processor, but you must be careful not to break
the socket, or you can basically toss the motherboard (and maybe the CPU as well.)

Recommendation:

 First, realize that many sockets require you to pull the ZIF socket lever out slightly from the
socket before trying to lift it up.
 Make sure nothing is physically obstructing the lever.
 The problem is usually that the lever gets stuck and won't push all the way up to loosen the
processor. Try applying gentle but firm pressure. Try rocking the lever back and forth, gradually
increasing the pressure against the resistance in the socket. Eventually the lever should move
and the socket should pop open. Do not try to "push as hard as you can".
 If you cannot get the socket open, you will need to have the motherboard serviced.

2. There is a suspected failure of the secondary (level 2) cache, or the system locks up or
crashes after adding cache to the system

Explanation: The secondary cache is suspected of failing. This may or may not have occurred after
adding more cache to the system.

Diagnosis: Outright failure of the cache is unusual, especially on an existing system. The most
common problem when adding cache to a system is using the wrong kind of cache, or adding it and
not setting jumpers that the motherboard requires. You may also have accidentally jarred something
else inside the PC.

Recommendation:

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  Try disabling the secondary cache in the BIOS setup. If the problem goes away, then the problem
is most likely the cache or the motherboard.
 If you added more cache, make sure that you used the right sort of cache for your motherboard.
Cache "COASt" modules may all look similar, but they are not universal. Consult your
manufacturer.
 Ensure that the cache is inserted correctly into the board and is all the way into the socket or
slot.
 Check the motherboard manual for any jumpers that you may be required to set or change when
adding cache. Check in the BIOS setup for a BIOS setting that you may need to change (though
this would be unusual).
 If you added cache, or recently worked inside the machine on something else, check out this
section that describes possible causes of problems after working inside the PC, some of which
may be unrelated to what you were doing.
 If the system is acting unstable, diagnose this here. It is possible that the problem is unrelated
to the cache, even if it showed up after adding more cache to the system.
 After the PC has been on for a few minutes, touch the chips on the cache module. If they are
very hot, this is a signal that the cache module itself may be bad. If you can't keep your finger
on the chip for more than a couple of seconds without pain, the chips are hot! If you replace the
module and the chips on the new module get hot also, the motherboard is implicated.
 Try to replace the cache module with another one. If the problem goes away, then the module
was bad. Otherwise, you should treat this as a motherboard problem.

3. I added more secondary cache to the system but I didn't see any improvement in performance

Explanation:You were told that adding more secondary (level 2) cache to the system would improve
performance, but don't see it. The system seems the same as it did before.

Diagnosis: The truth is that especially if you already have 256 KB of cache, adding another 256 KB
does not significantly impact on performance. The reason is that the original cache is already probably
catching over 90% of memory requests, so there just isn't that much room for improvement. A 5%

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improvement in overall performance is typical for a desktop user, and increases in speed of less than
10% are hard for most people to notice. Of course, this all assumes that your upgrade was performed
correctly, and actually "took".

Recommendation:

 Make sure that the extra cache was recognized and is being used. When the system boots up,
check to see how much cache it is reporting, and make sure it is the right amount.
 Double-check in your system manual to see if adding more cache requires any jumpers to be
changed on the motherboard. Some do require this. Check in the BIOS setup for a BIOS setting
that you may need to change (though this would be unusual).
 Run some benchmark programs and compare their results to before the upgrade. Some sort of
improvement, even if minor, should be apparent.

4. I put in a Pentium MMX OverDrive processor, and it works, but when I boot the system it
disables the cache

Explanation: When booting the motherboard with a Pentium with MMX OverDrive processor, the
secondary cache is disabled or not functioning.

Diagnosis: This is often caused by a BIOS that is unable to recognize the OverDrive processor
properly.

Recommendation:

 Ensure that the processor has been inserted correctly into the socket; see this section for more
troubleshooting of processors.
 Contact your motherboard manufacturer about a BIOS upgrade.

5. I have a motherboard that uses an Intel Triton II 430HX motherboard, which is supposed to
support caching over 64 MB of RAM, but my PC still slows down with more than 64 MB

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Explanation: The system uses the Intel Triton II 430HX chipset in its motherboard, which is designed
to allow caching of over 64 MB of memory. However, the system exhibits a slowdown when using more
than 64 MB of RAM, similar to how a board that only caches a maximum of 64 MB would slow down in
this situation.

Diagnosis: Unfortunately, once again, "el cheapo motherboard syndrome" is probably to blame. While
the 430HX chipset supports caching up to 512 MB of RAM, it only does this if an optional second tag
RAM chip is added to the motherboard, or if a larger single RAM chip is used in the first place. Some
vendors do not add this chip, in order to save a buck or two. It is sometimes possible to correct this
situation.

Note: How much actual cache you have doesn't affect directly how much memory you can cache. Even
if you have 512 KB of cache, this doesn't mean you can cache more RAM than if you only had 256 KB.
See here for more on this little-known limitation.

Recommendation:

 Check the motherboard and manual to figure out whether your board has the 11-bit tag RAM
that is required for 512 MB of cached RAM. If it doesn't then continue here for possible solutions.
 If you do have the tag RAM, then there is either a problem with the components, or something
is misconfigured. Troubleshoot the system memory and troubleshoot the cache to make sure
that there isn't some sort of problem that is responsible for the slowdown.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

6. My Triton II 430HX motherboard doesn't have enough tag RAM to support caching over 64
MB of RAM; is there anything that can be done to solve this?

Explanation: The motherboard requires a second tag RAM chip to allow caching of over 64 MB of
RAM with the Intel 430HX chipset, and the motherboard doesn't have it.

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Diagnosis: In some cases the tag RAM can be increased, but in others it cannot. It depends entirely
on the design of the motherboard.

Recommendation: Consult your motherboard documentation or technical support options to see what
your choices are. Your PC will probably fall into one of these categories:

 Some motherboards don't have the second tag RAM chip needed to cache over 64 MB of RAM,
but they have a socket where the second chip can be added. If you have the socket, consult
your manufacturer for the exact specifications of the chip required. Then purchase and install it,
making sure to follow the manufacturer's instructions, and you should be all set. You may need
to change a jumper on the motherboard. Cost is probably only a few dollars.
 Some motherboards accept a COASt module to expand the size of the cache that contains an
extra tag RAM chip on it as well. If your motherboard is like this, then adding an extra 256 KB of
cache to the motherboard will also add the extra tag RAM and will let you cache over 64 MB.
This situation is what sometimes makes people think that it is the adding of extra cache that
enables more memory to be cached. In fact, it is the extra tag RAM chip on the module, not the
cache chips themselves.

Note: Not all cache modules have tag RAM on them, and not all cache modules work with all
motherboards. Make sure you find out exactly what you are buying, and if it will work with your board.

 If you don't have a socket and you can't add tag RAM via a cache module, you are basically out
of luck. You will have to either accept slower performance when going over 64 MB of RAM, use
less memory, or replace your motherboard. If the motherboard was just bought you may be able
to return it for exchange or refund.

1.Updating ESCD...

Explanation: ESCD stands for "extended system configuration data", and is where resource
information is stored on a system that uses Plug and Play. This message is displayed when the system

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detects a change in the hardware configuration and therefore updates the Plug and Play information
that it has stored. In some systems it may appear every time the PC is booted, however, even if the
hardware configuration has not changed.

Diagnosis: Depending on the circumstances, this message may indicate an error or a normal operating
condition.

Recommendation:

 If the system displays "Updating ESCD... Success" after adding or removing hardware on the
next boot-up only, then this is normal for many BIOSes, and no action is required.
 If the system displays the message every time the PC boots, then there may be a conflict
between the BIOS and the operating system. The ESCD information is managed by both the
BIOS and by Windows 95 (or other Plug and Play operating system) to allow for Plug and Play
resource allocation. However, some BIOSes record hardware configuration information in a way
that is different from how Windows 95 does it. When this happens, each time Windows 95 is
started it will change the ESCD area back to the way it expects it to be. When you reboot your
system, the BIOS will see this change made by Windows 95 and change the data back to the
way it likes it. This back-and-forth will continue to happen each time the system is booted. It
doesn't generally cause any problems other than displaying the "Updating ESCD" message
every time the system is started up. You can contact your system or motherboard manufacturer
about a possible BIOS upgrade to correct this situation. Other than it being annoying to some to
see this message every time the PC boots, the system should continue to work without any
problems.
 If the system displays "Updating ESCD..." and then hangs up the boot process, either with or
without displaying "Success", then there is a problem with updating the extended system
configuration data. This is probably a problem with an expansion card, especially if you just
added one to the machine. It could also be a problem with the motherboard. You should
troubleshoot this as an expansion card problem, and if this fails, troubleshoot the motherboard.

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2. I have a PCI expansion card or video card that is supposed to support bus mastering, but I
can't get bus mastering to work

Explanation: PCI bus mastering is supposed to be supported by a video or expansion card, but is not
working properly. (Note that problems with IDE hard disk bus mastering is discussed in this section, not
here.)

Diagnosis: Bus mastering problems are generally hard to diagnose, and often depend a great deal on
the specific card. General problems with bus mastering can be related to the motherboard or BIOS
settings.

Recommendation:

 Consult the documentation for the peripheral card carefully. Usually the answer to the problem
will be there somewhere.
 Search your motherboard documentation for any hints as to whether all of your PCI slots support
bus mastering, or only some of them. Some early and/or cheaper motherboards only supported
bus mastering in some of their PCI slots, but not all of them.
 Double-check all BIOS settings that are in the PCI / PnP settings group. Make sure that you are
not disabling bus mastering, or assigning resources incorrectly to only ISA legacy cards.
 You may have a resource conflict associated with the card..
 Troubleshoot the expansion card.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

3. I have a suspected system failure related generally to expansion cards in the system

Explanation: A problem condition with the system overall is arising that implies a possible problem
related to one or more of the expansion cards in the system. (This means a problem with the system
caused by expansion cards, not a problem with a specific card in a system that otherwise works; look
here for that.) This typically means an error message or a failure of the system to boot.

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Diagnosis: The wide availability of many different types of expansion cards means that the chances
of a conflict between two of them, or between them and the system, are significant. Resource conflicts
are the most likely problem.

Recommendation:

 Make sure all the cards are securely inserted into the system. Very long cards, especially those
that use the VESA local bus, can sometimes come partially loose, causing strange results.
 Make sure that there are no physical problems with the motherboard or internal connections.
 Disable all shadowing of expansion adapter ROMs and see if that fixes the problem.
 Remove all unnecessary expansion cards (basically, everything but the video card) and see if
the problem goes away. If it does, the problem is probably one of the expansion cards you
removed. If not, your problem lies elsewhere. Try to isolate the problem by inserting one
expansion card at a time back into the system and seeing which one triggers the problem.
 Since the most likely cause of the problem is a resource conflict, look here for ideas on resolving
the conflict.
 Troubleshoot the motherboard.

4. I have a specific expansion card that appears to be problematic

Explanation: A problem is suspected with a particular expansion card. (This means a problem with the
card itself, not a problem with the overall system caused by one or more expansion cards; look here
for that.) This is typically manifested through an error message, such as a ROM checksum error or I/O
parity error.

Diagnosis: Most of the problems with specific expansion cards depend entirely on the nature of the
card. I can only provide some general pointers here.

Recommendation:

 Make sure all the cards are securely inserted into the system. Very long cards, especially those
that use the VESA local bus, can sometimes come partially loose, causing strange results.

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  Make sure that there are no physical problems with the motherboard or internal connections.
 Make sure that the connections, jumpers and any software drivers associated with this card are
correct.
 If this card has its own BIOS ROM, make sure that the shadowing of that segment of ROM
address space is not enabled, as this can cause problems. (Shadowing will work with many
cards, but won't work with some of them.)
 Remove any other expansion cards in the system and see if that affects the problem. If it does,
then either the other card was causing the difficulty, or there is some sort of a resource conflict.
 Check for resource conflicts in general.
 Try the card in a different slot and see if it works. This is especially true of PCI cards, which will
try to use different IRQ lines depending on which slot they are placed into. By changing the slot
you may as a side-effect eliminate a resource conflict that was actually causing the problem.
 If the card is a video card, troubleshoot it here.

5. I think I have a resource conflict in my system; what can I do about this?

Explanation: It is suspected that the system may have a resource conflict. This means that two
different devices are both trying to use a system resource like an interrupt request line, DMA channel
or I/O address. The two devices will conflict and cause either one or both to malfunction. A list of typical
symptoms of resource conflicts can be found here.

Diagnosis: Resource conflicts are one of the most common problems with PCs, especially with those
who upgrade or add equipment to their PCs. Since the ancient architecture of the PC has resulted in a
great variety of internal devices and expansion cards having to share a limited amount of resources,
devices will often "step on each others' toes". The problem is almost always misconfiguration; in rare
cases you will not be able to use two devices in the same system if they cannot find a way to cooperate
by configuring themselves to use available resources.

Recommendation:

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 Read this section of the Reference Guide, which contains much more information on resource
conflicts.
 Do not try to "share" resources. Some people will say that this is possible to do, and technically
it is, but it is a headache that is not worth dealing with in my opinion. Windows 95 is particularly
unforgiving about trying to share resources.
 If you suspect a conflict with a specific device, and you are running Windows 95, go into the
Device Manager. Click on the device with the problem (which may show with a yellow
exclamation-mark-in-a-circle next to it) and select "Properties". Click on the "Resources" tab and
the system will often tell you what the conflict is.
 Sometimes, folks think they have a resource conflict because the Windows 95 Device Manager
shows a PCI device on the same IRQ as another device called "IRQ Holder for PCI Steering".
This is in fact not a resource conflict; IRQ steering is a feature of Windows 95 that is designed
to help avoid resource conflicts. If you think you have a resource conflict you may indeed have
one, but this isn't it.
 Use a diagnostic tool such as Norton Diagnostics. There is a test in this package that looks for
the IRQ usage of various devices and will sometimes highlight conflicts (though it is not perfect
by any means).
 Catalog the resource usage of all of the devices in your PC. This is the best way to determine
what resources are being used by what. You may find the device resource summary sheet I
have included here to be helpful with this. If you find any devices that are trying to use the same
resources, try to change the configuration of one of them.
 Check resource-related BIOS settings to ensure that they are correct.
 Watch out for PCI devices using IRQs. The PCI bus uses its own interrupt scheme but PCI
devices also "map" to regular IRQs when needed. Many PCI video cards, for example, use an
IRQ, typically 9, 10, 11 or 12. Make sure that this does not cause any conflicts with other devices.
 If you are using IRQ9 for any device, make sure you are not using IRQ2 on any other device.
They are the same interrupt line.
 If you are trying to use the COM1 port and the COM3 port at the same time, or the COM2 port
and the COM4 at the same time, you will run into a conflict if you leave these ports at their default
IRQ settings. Each of these two pairs uses the same IRQ number. To use COM1 with COM3,

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 or COM2 with COM4, you must change the IRQ number that one of the pair is using so that it
does not conflict with the other.
 If you add a modem to your system, and you have a built in COM2 port (which most do) you will
see a conflict unless you change the modem's settings, because most of them default to use
COM2. If you just change the modem from COM2 to COM4, then the problem above will result
unless you also change the IRQ of the modem to another number.
 If you are using a sound card and a second parallel port, you will probably have a conflict,
because both devices try to use IRQ5 by default. One or the other must be changed. (Also watch
out for the first parallel port accidentally being set to IRQ5).
 If you are using a secondary IDE controller, then IRQ number 15 is normally used by that
controller and cannot be used by other devices.
 DMA conflicts are commonly caused when enabling ECP parallel ports. They use a DMA
channel while other modes of operation of the parallel port do not.
 If you are using a network card, beware of I/O address conflicts. Many network cards use a full
32 bytes of I/O address space, and can conflict with other devices. They also sometimes try to
use IRQs that are commonly used by other system devices such as video cards or hard disk
controllers.

6. My system is reporting that it has a "static resource conflict"

Explanation: On rare occasions, some motherboards may produce an error at boot time saying that
they have detected a "static resource conflict". This is a result of the Plug and Play feature of the BIOS
and is saying that more than one device is trying to use the same Plug and Play system resource.
Usually this will not occur because the BIOS will adjust resource allocations to prevent a conflict.

Diagnosis: The most usual cause of this problem is certain cards that designate their resource usage
in a strange way. Without getting into too many details, some peripherals such as the Pro Audio
Spectrum will allocate an I/O address in two different ways. It is the same resource, but the BIOS
becomes confused and thinks that there is a conflict. In other cases, the BIOS thinks there is another
kind of conflict when there isn't. The BIOS usually needs to be reset to avoid this situation recurring.

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Recommendation:

 Attempt to discern, if possible, whether or not you really have a resource conflict. If you do, then
resolve this situation.
 Try to reboot the system to see if this makes the problem go away.
 Remove all expansion cards from the system and reboot the PC. This may make the problem
go away so you can boot the machine. Then re-insert the cards and see if the message goes
away.
 If you cannot get the message to clear, you will have to clear the CMOS memory.

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 Self Check 5 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Write the answer briefly
1. The PC's internal power supply appears not to work at all. The system will not turn on and the
power supply itself appears to be dead. Write Diagnosis?

2. "Flashing" the BIOS refers to upgrading the BIOS program through software. This can allow you
to quickly and easily increase the capabilities of your system, but if performed incorrectly . Write
Diagnosis?

Note: Satisfactory rating –1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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 Using the operating system and third-party
Information Sheet – 6
diagnostic tools
6.1. Using diagnostic tools
Each computer system has built into it a range of tools to help the user determine its ‘status’. By ‘status’
we mean that they help determine if the system is working correctly or not. If a system is not working
correctly, diagnostic tools can provide information vital to solving the problem. The most common types
of computer problems will be found during these processes:

 booting the computer

 loading the operating system

 manually checking the system.

Diagnostic tools are available at each of these stages and are outlined in the following sections. These
tools provide the foundation of any troubleshooting that involves the malfunctioning of a computer.

IMPORTANT: You will be directed to use a number of diagnostic and configuration tools to gather
information about your system. Changing any of the settings using these tools may cause your
computer to malfunction. If you are in any doubt about the use of a particular tool, contact your
supervising teacher.

You may also be required to make system changes to solve problems identified by the diagnostics.
Again, the types of changes required, if incorrectly applied, may cause your computer to malfunction.
If you are in doubt about how to proceed with system modifications, consult your supervisor.

Booting the computer

Booting a computer system involves turning the machine on, checking that power LEDs come on and
that the screen reflects the expected activity of the system start up procedure. In a PC system, part of
this procedure is the Power On Self Test or POST diagnostic tool. The POST diagnostic tool is built in
to the system and starts automatically when the system is turned on.

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Any failure related to a major component, such as motherboard, video, keyboard or drive failures, will
be detected during the POST phase of a computer system. The total failure of a major hardware
component is easily detected. Less crucial devices that fail will normally be detected by the operating
system as it loads and are dealt with in the next section.

Most hardware systems such as computers and printers have a POST tool to check that their major
components are working properly.

Power On Self Test (POST) diagnostic tool

During the PC computer system’s loading phase, each of the main components are tested. The failure
of any one of these systems would impair the computer’s ability to operate. Such critical devices include
the graphics card, motherboard resources, drives and Input/Output (I/O) interfaces such as keyboard
and graphics (video cards).

Figure 1: Power On Self Test (POST) diagnostic tool

On a PC based system, this provides feedback on the screen about the type of video card detected,
the type and speed of the processor detected, the type and number of drives detected, as well as the
amount of Random Access Memory (RAM) detected. It checks the presence of peripheral devices such
as keyboard and mouse devices. It also internally tests the correct performance of many motherboard
components.

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Any failures at this level may result in an error message on the screen, or may be heard as a series of
coded ‘beeps’. The beep codes are often unique to a motherboard model and should be interpreted by
information found on the motherboard manufacturer’s website.

The POST screen will only briefly appear at the start of the booting process. The CPU’s type and speed
will be listed here with other device information. On many systems, pressing the Pause key during this
process will freeze the screen, and the space bar key releases it. If you cannot pause the screen,
check with your supervisor or teacher as it may take several restarts to view the information fully. If you
must reset the computer, be careful to do so by pressing the reset button before the operating system
begins to load, as this will prevent it from recording failed loading attempts.

To view the systems detected configuration more fully, examine the system Setup or CMOS tool. Some
references may prefer to use the term BIOS in place of the term CMOS. They refer to the same tool.
To enter this tool, users are normally required to press a key or key combination such as the DEL
(Delete) key or Shift + F10 during the POST sequence. Because these settings effect the operation of
the PC, many companies password protect this tool so unauthorised users cannot access this area.

The Setup or CMOS tool for your PC holds the configuration of your computer. It lists how much memory
the system has, how many drives are detected and which drive it should load the operating system
from. It will also have configuration options for a range of other items such as power management and
I/O interfaces, just to name a few.

The motherboard manual that came with the PC holds information about the CMOS tool and its use.

At this level, the tool is simply used to determine that the system has detected its elementary
components such as RAM, HDDs, FDD, etc. The CMOS settings should reflect the known configuration
of the PC. Normally the IDE drives should be set to ‘AUTO’ which stands for Automatic Detection. Any
errors such as RAM or drives not being recognised by the system should be recorded and reported to
a supervising technical support person.

The default or factory settings can normally be restored by choosing the relevant menu option. When
you exit the CMOS, exit without saving your changes, unless you have deliberately changed a
setting. This prevents accidental changes from occurring.

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For a MacIntosh system, when you boot the PC will either show a happy face and load, or show a sad
face and refuse to load.

Fixing faults detected here, on either a PC or Mac system, may require the case to be opened and can
effect the warranty of the computer. It must be authorised by your manager who will refer it to an
appropriate technical person.

Loading the operating system

Once the POST sequence has been completed, the system then looks for a boot device as the CMOS
configuration dictates. From here the computer begins to load the series of services or programs that
together form what is called the operating system (OS). Normally the operating system’s name and
version (or service pack number) will be displayed during this process.

Log files and OS booting tools

Common failures at this point may relate to the failure of minor hardware devices or incorrect
configuration of devices that are physically OK. Any services or devices that fail to load are usually
noted in a log file by the operating system. This file can then be examined at a later time to help
determine what went wrong. Most Windows and Unix systems create log files during the loading
process. These log files provide details that will alert you to errors. Many of the system log entries are
fully explained in the operating system’s documentation or the support section of their Internet site.

Exercise

The following screen is from the system log of a Windows XP system.

Figure 2: System Log of a Windows XP system

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Examine entries in the log to determine which (if any) represent possible errors in the booting process.
Each entry has an Event ID number that can be searched for in the Microsoft Knowledge Base. Search
the Knowledge Base at http://support.microsoft.com for Event ID 1007 and determine the nature of the
event warning.

If the system failure is so bad that the operating system fails before it loading process is complete, most
systems provide tools that allow the computer to boot in restricted or ‘Safe’ modes, or alternatively
provide emergency recovery disks. Using these options, the system then boots with a reduced set of
services, allowing you to examine boot logs or device management tools to help detect problems.

Entries in the system log may require further research to explain their full meaning. Most operating
system companies provide documentation on their website to assist in the interpretation of log file
messages. For Windows 2000/XP, Microsoft’s Knowledge Base website has many articles about
different Event Viewer messages.

Manually checking the system

Device management tools

Most operating systems now work with the concept of ‘Plug and Play’ devices. This simply means that
when a new device is installed, the system will automatically detect it and install the most appropriate
software drivers for it.

A driver is a small piece of software written for a specific device. To make life simpler, many standard
drivers are built into operating systems so they automatically work when installed. However, special
features of that particular device model may only be available if the manufacturer’s device driver is
installed.

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All current PC and Mac operating systems provide you with tools to look at the devices installed on
your computer. In this context, a ‘tool’ is a small program that is designed to perform a limited,
specialised role — such as providing information about a hardware device.

In a graphical user interface (GUI), which Windows, MacIntosh and most Unix-based operating systems
have, the tool may be represented by an icon. It may also form the properties of an object represented
on the desktop, such as ‘My Computer’.

In a text-based system, which Unix and Windows based systems also have, the tool may be in the form
of a specific command related to a specific device.

Examples of tools are shown in the following screen shot.

Figure 3: Configuration tools

Device Management tools provide you with information and configuration options for devices attached
to your system. They should provide you with a list of devices attached to your system and information
about their status.

In a PC system these tools should also list the resources that devices use, such as an Interrupt (IRQ),
Input/Output (I/O) memory range and Direct Memory Access (DMA) channel, etc. In a Mac system, the
resource allocation for devices is automatic. Device Management tools may provide information about
the software driver that was installed to manage the device.

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In some operating systems, many different tools may be required to find this information. In other
operating systems, this information may all be available from one tool.

Management of hard disk drives

Hard disk drives are a vital part of any computer system. They retain data saved as files and can have
a directory or folder system to organise files into a logical system. The constant writing, modifying and
deleting files may cause errors from time to time. These errors often relate to file processes, such as
saving a file that has been interrupted before it could be completed. This interruption could be caused
by a power outage, application crash or shutting down a system incorrectly.

Checking the file system

Each operating system provides you with standard tools to check the integrity of the file system. While
different operating systems may support a range of different file systems, the basics remain the same.
There is some master record of what files are on a drive and where those files can be found. This is
called the File Allocation Table (FAT). The FAT holds the list of files contained on the drive and the
address of the first block where that file is stored. It is effectively a ‘table of contents’ to the disk drive.

Checking the integrity of the file system involves matching the FAT against the drive’s contents. Should
this become damaged, or incorrect, the results for your data could be devastating.

Checking the drive

Your operating system may also provide you with an option, or separate tool, to check the actual
integrity of the drive. By this we are referring to a process where the actual data blocks on the drive are
checked to ensure that they store data correctly. Originally this is also done when you format the drive,
which is why it can take so long to format large hard disk drives.

Defragging the drive

It is also possible that your drive becomes ‘messy’ which is known as fragmentation.

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Imagine your drive as a book, where information (or data) saved as files is written on the first available
page (or block). When saving is complete, the file name and the page it starts on are entered into the
‘Contents’ page (or File allocation Table) of the book. The next file saved will take the next available
page and so on.

However, when we wish to add more data to the first file we may require more than one page to hold
the additional information. It can’t be stored on the next page as it is already used by another file. So
the next available blank page is used and we must link the first page of the file to the page number that
is the second page of the file.

Having a file spread over a series of ‘non-contiguous’ blocks slows the reading and writing processes.
The term ‘non-contiguous blocks’ simply means a series of blocks which are not stored next to one
another. This is called fragmentation.

The process of de-fragmentation refers to a tool which tries to rearrange files into contiguous blocks
to improve the performance of the file system. It can be dangerous as any interruption to this process
may result in data loss and corruption. Always ensure that a backup exists for a drive before running a
tool to de-fragment your disk.

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 Self Check 6 Written Test

Name:____________________ Date:_________________

Instruction: Answer all the questions listed below, if you have some clarifications- feel free to ask your
teacher.
I. Fill the blank
1. ________ involves turning the machine on, checking that power LEDs come on and that the
screen reflects the expected activity of the system start up procedure.
2. ________ is built in to the system and starts automatically when the system is turned on.

Note: Satisfactory rating –1 points Unsatisfactory - below 1 points

You can ask you teacher for the copy of the correct answers.
Answer Sheet Score = ___________
Rating: ____________

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Reference
1. https://training.gov.au/Training/Details/ICTSAS506
2. web1.keira-h.schools.nsw.edu.au/faculties/IT

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