School of Engineering and Architecture

Civil Engineering Department

General Civil Engineering

Soil
Classification
Module 1 Chapter 3 – Geotechnical Engineering – Soil Mechanics

Objective After this chapter, the student should be able to:

 To master the different methods available to classify soil.

Content This chapter focuses on

 Bureau of Soils
 Textural Classification by triangular chart
 United soil classification system
 AASHTO soil classifications

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

 ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145
Readings  B.M. Das, 2011. Principles of Geotechnical Engineering (7th
Edition) Stamford, Connecticut, USA : Cengage Learning

Page 1 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

CLASSIFICATION OF SOIL
Different soils with similar properties may be classified into groups and subgroups according
to their engineering behavior. Classification systems provide a common language to concisely
express the general characteristics of soils, which are infinitely varied, without detailed descriptions.
Most of the soil classification systems that have been developed for engineering purposes are based
on simple index properties such as particle-size distribution and plasticity. Although several
classification systems are now in use, none is totally definitive of any soil for all possible applications
because of the wide diversity of soil properties.

In general, there are two major categories into which the classification systems developed in
the past can be grouped.

1. The textural classification is based on the particle-size distribution of the percent of sand, silt,
and clay-size fractions present in a given soil e.g. the textural classification system developed
by the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
2. The other major category is based on the engineering behavior of soil and takes into
consideration the particle-size distribution and the plasticity (i.e., liquid limit and plasticity
index). Under this category, there are two major classification systems in extensive use now:
a. The AASHTO classification system, and
b. The Unified classification system.

BUREAU OF SOILS
TEXTURAL CLASSIFICAITON BY TRIANGULAR CHART
In a general sense, texture of soil refers to its surface appearance. Soil texture is influenced by
the size of the individual particles present in it. The table below divided soils into gravel, sand, silt,
and clay categories on the basis of particle size. In most cases, natural soils are mixtures of particles
from several size groups. In the textural classification system, the soils are named after their principal
components, such as sandy, clay, silty clay, and so forth.

CHAPTER 3 Page 2 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

A number of textural classification systems were developed in the past by different

organizations to serve their needs, and several of those are in use today. The figure below shows the
textural classification systems developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA). This
classification method is based on the particle-size limits as described under the USDA system in the
table from the preceding page, that is:

 Sand size: 2.0 to 0.05 mm in diameter

 Silt size: 0.05 to 0.002 mm in diameter
 Clay size: smaller than 0.002 mm in diameter

U.S. Department of Agriculture Textural Classification (USDA):

CHAPTER 3 Page 3 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

The use of this chart can best be demonstrated by an example. If the particle size distribution
of soil A shows 30% sand, 40% silt, and 30% clay-size particles, its textural classification can be
determined by proceeding in the manner indicated by the arrows in the figure. This soil falls into the
zone of clay loam. Note that this chart is based on only the fraction of soil that passes through the
No. 10 sieve. Hence, if the particle-size distribution of a soil is such that a certain percentage of the
soil particles is larger than 2 mm in diameter, a correction will be necessary. For example, if soil B has
a particle-size distribution of 20% gravel, 10% sand, 30% silt, and 40% clay, the modified textural
compositions are.

(𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒏𝒅/𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒕/𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚) 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝒐𝒇 𝑺𝒂𝒏𝒅/𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒕/𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝑺𝒊𝒛𝒆:
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍

𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑺𝒂𝒏𝒅: = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎

CHAPTER 3 Page 4 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

𝟑𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒕: = 𝟑𝟕. 𝟓%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎

𝟒𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚: = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟎%
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎

On the basis of the preceding modified percentages, the USDA textural classification of Soil B
as seen in the figure from the preceding page is clay. However, because of the large percentage of
gravel, it may be called gravelly clay.

Sample Problem 1
Classify the following soils according to the USDA textural classification system.

Particle-size Soil
distribution (%) A B C D
Gravel 12 18 0 12
Sand 25 31 15 22
Silt 32 30 30 26
Clay 31 21 55 40

Solution:
Step 1. Calculate the modified percentages of sand, gravel, and silt as follows:

% 𝒔𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑺𝒂𝒏𝒅:
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 %𝒄𝒍𝒂𝒚 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑪𝒍𝒂𝒚:
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍
%𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝒐𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒆𝒅 % 𝑺𝒊𝒍𝒕:
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − %𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍

Thus, the following table results:

Particle-size Soil
distribution (%) A B C D
Sand 28.4 37.8 15 25
Silt 36.4 36.6 30 29.5
Clay 35.2 25.6 55 45.5

CHAPTER 3 Page 5 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Step 2. With the modified composition calculated, determine the zone into which each soil falls
using the figure for the USDA. The result are as follows:

Classification of Soil
A B C D
Gravelly Clay Loam Gravelly Loam Clay Gravelly Clay
Note: The word “gravelly” was added to the classification of soils A, B, and D because of the
large percentage of gravel present in each.

UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The original form of this system was proposed by Casagrande in 1942 for use in the airfield
construction works undertaken by the Army Corps of Engineers during World War II. In cooperation
with the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, this system was revised in 1952. At present, it is used widely by
engineers (ASTM Test Designation D-2487). The Unified Soil Classification System is presented in the
table below.

This system classifies soils into two broad categories:

1. Coarse-grained soils that are gravelly and sandy in nature with less than 50% passing
through the No. 200 sieve. The group symbols start with a prefix of G or S.G stands
for gravel or gravelly soil, and S for sand or sandy soil.
2. Fine-grained soils are with 50% or more passing through the No. 200 sieve. The
group symbols start with prefixes of M, which stands for inorganic silt, C for inorganic
clay, or O for organic silts and clays. The symbol Pt is used for peat, muck, and other
highly organic soils.

Plasticity Chart:

Other symbols used for the classification

are.
W— well graded
P — poorly graded
L — low plasticity (liquid limit less than
50)
H — high plasticity (liquid limit more
than 50)

CHAPTER 3 Page 6 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Unified Soil Classification System (Based on Material Passing 76.2mm Sieve):

For proper classification according to this system, some or all of the following information
must be known:

1.) Percent of gravel—that is, the fraction passing the 76.2-mm sieve and retained on the
No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening).
2.) Percent of sand—that is, the fraction passing the No. 4 sieve (4.75-mm opening) and
retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm opening).
3.) Percent of silt and clay—that is, the fraction finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075-mm
opening).
4.) Uniformity coefficient (Cu) and the coefficient of gradation (Cc).
5.) Liquid limit and plasticity index of the portion of soil passing the No. 40 sieve.

The group symbols for coarse-grained gravelly soils are GW, GP, GM, GC, GCGM, GW-GM,
GW-GC, GP-GM, and GP-GC. Similarly, the group symbols for fine-grained soils are CL, ML, OL, CH,
MH, OH, CL-ML, and Pt.

More recently, ASTM designation D-2487 created an elaborate system to assign group
names to soils. These names are summarized in the figures in the succeeding pages. In using these
figures, one needs to remember that, in a given soil,

CHAPTER 3 Page 7 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Fine fraction = percent passing No. 200 sieve

Coarse fraction = percent retained on No. 200 sieve
Gravel fraction = percent retained on No. 4 sieve
Sand fraction = (percent retained on No. 200 sieve) - (percent retained on No. 4 sieve)

Flowchart group names for gravelly and sandy soil:

CHAPTER 3 Page 8 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Flowchart group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils (part1):

CHAPTER 3 Page 9 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Flowchart group names for inorganic silty and clayey soils (part 2):

CHAPTER 3 Page 10 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Sample Problem 2
The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:
Percent passing through the No. 10 sieve = 100
Percent passing through the No. 40 sieve = 80
Percent passing through the No. 200 sieve = 58

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 30 and 10,
respectively. Classify the soil by the Unified classification system.

Solution:

Refer to the table for Unified Soil Classification System (Based on Material Passing 76.2mm Sieve):

Since 58% of the soil passes through the No. 200 sieve, it is a fine-grained soil.

CHAPTER 3 Page 11 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Referring to the plasticity chart:

For LL = 30 and PI = 10, it can be

classified as CL.

In order to determine the group name, we refer to figure for Flowchart group names for inorganic
silty and clayey soils (part1).

Looking at the figure below which is taken from the figure for Flowchart group names for inorganic
silty and clayey soils (part1):

The percent retained on No. 200 sieve is more than 30%. Percent of gravel = 0; percent of
sand = (100 - 58) - (0) = 42. Hence, percent sand > percent gravel. Also, percent gravel is less
than 15%. Hence the group name is sandy lean clay.

CHAPTER 3 Page 12 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

The AASHTO system of soil classification was developed in 1929 as the Public Road
Administration classification system. It has undergone several revisions, with the present version
proposed by the Committee on Classification of Materials for Subgrades and Granular Type Roads
of the Highway Research Board in 1945 (ASTM designation D-3282; AASHTO method M145).

The AASHTO (See AASHTO, 1982) classification in present use is given in the table in the next
page. According to this system, soil is classified into seven major groups: A-1 through A-7. Soils
classified under groups A-1, A-2, and A-3 are granular materials of which 35% or less of the particles
pass through the No. 200 sieve. Soils of which more than 35% pass through the No. 200 sieve are
classified under groups A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7. These soils are mostly silt and clay-type materials.
This classification system is based on the following criteria:

1. Grain size
a. Gravel: fraction passing the 75mm (3in.) sieve and retained on the No. 10 (2mm) U.S.
sieve
b. Sand: fraction passing the No. 10 (2mm) U.S. sieve and retained on the No. 200
(0.075mm) U.S. sieve
c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the No. 200 U.S. sieve

2. Plasticity: The term silty is applied when the fine fractions of the soil have a plasticity index of
10 or less. The term clayey is applied when the fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or
more.

3. If cobbles and boulders (size larger than 75 mm) are encountered, they are excluded from the
portion of the soil sample from which classification is made. However, the percentage of such
material is recorded.

Steps in Classification
1. Use the AASHTO Table to determine the group classification. Begin on the left side with A-1-a
soils and check for each of the criteria. If all have been met, then this is the group
classification.

2. If any criterion is not met, step to the right and repeat the process, continuing until all the
criteria have been satisfied. Do NOT begin at the middle of the chart.

3. Finally, express the AASHTO soil classification as the group classification followed by the group
index in parentheses. Ex: A-4(20)

CHAPTER 3 Page 13 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Group Index:
𝑮𝑰 = (𝑭 – 𝟑𝟓)[𝟎.𝟐 + 𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟓(𝑳𝑳 – 𝟒𝟎)] + 𝟎.𝟎𝟏(𝑭 – 𝟏𝟓)(𝑷𝑰 – 𝟏𝟎)
Where:
F = fines content (passing #200 sieve), percentage
LL = liquid limit
PI = plasticity index

When evaluating group index for A-2-6 or A-2-7 soils, use only the second term.
𝑮𝑰 = 𝟎.𝟎𝟏(𝑭 – 𝟏𝟓)(𝑷𝑰 – 𝟏𝟎)
*For all soils, express the GI as a whole #.
*Computed GI of less than zero should be reported as zero.

CHAPTER 3 Page 14 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

Sample Problem 3
The results of the particle-size analysis of a soil are as follows:
Percent passing through the No. 10 sieve = 42
Percent passing through the No. 40 sieve = 35
Percent passing through the No. 200 sieve = 20

The liquid limit and plasticity index of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 25 and 20,
respectively. Classify the soil by the AASHTO system.

Solution:

Since 20% (i.e., less than 35%) of soil is passing No. 200 sieve, it is a granular soil. Hence it can
be A-1, A-2, or A-3. Starting from the left of the table, the soil falls under A-1-b see the table below.

The group index of the soil is 0. So, the soil is A-1-b (0).

CHAPTER 3 Page 15 of 16
Module 1 – Soil Classification

References

Das, B. M., et al. (2018). Principles of geotechnical engineering (9th ed.). Australia: Cengage Learning

CHAPTER 3 Page 16 of 16