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The Foundations
of Algebra

1.1 The Real Number System

1.2 The Real Number Line
1.3 Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials
1.4 Factoring
1.5 Rational Expressions
1.6 Integer Exponents
1.7 Rational Exponents and Radicals
1.8 Complex Numbers

Suppose you asked a friend of yours, who is a physics major, “How long does it take for a
rock to reach the ground after being thrown into the air?” She will tell you that an object
thrown straight up with a velocity of 20 meters per second would reach the ground in a little
more than 4 seconds, if air resistance was not a factor. This is true, however, only on the
Earth. What if we were on another planet, or even a large moon like Ganymede? An object
thrown straight up from the surface of Ganymede, with the same initial velocity of 20 m/s,
would take almost 20 seconds to reach the ground. (Check out the Chapter Project.)

1
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2 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

If you asked your friend how she arrived at these conclusions, she could
use words like algebraic expression, factoring, and polynomial. Before you
read this chapter, explore one of these words at http://mathworld.
http://mathworld wolfram.com/Polynomial.html. This site can help you discover the meanings
.wolfram.com
of many other terms as well.
/Polynomial.html
Many problems that each of us encounters in the real world require the
use and understanding of mathematics. Often, the methods used to solve
these problems share certain characteristics, and it is both helpful and
important to focus on these similarities. Algebra is one branch of mathemat-
ics that enables us to learn basic problem-solving techniques applicable to
a wide variety of circumstances.
For example, if one starts with 2 apples and gets 3 more apples, how
many apples does one have? If the travel time between Philadelphia and
New York was 2 hours in the morning and 3 hours in the afternoon, how
much time was spent traveling? The solution to the first problem is
2 apples  3 apples  5 apples
The solution to the second problem is
2 hours  3 hours  5 hours
Algebra focuses on the fact that
2x  3x  5x
It does not matter what meaning one gives to the symbol x.
Although this level of abstraction can create some difficulty, it is the
nature of algebra that permits us to distill the essentials of problem solving
into such rudimentary formulas. In the examples noted above, we used the
counting or natural numbers as the number system needed to describe the
problems. This number system is generally the first that one learns as a
child. One can create other formulas for more general number systems.
We shall begin our presentation with a discussion of the real number
system and its associated properties. We note a correspondence between
the real numbers and the points on a real number line, and give a graphical
presentation of this correspondence. The remainder of this chapter is devot-
ed to a review of some fundamentals of algebra: the meaning and use of
variables, algebraic expressions and polynomial forms, scientific notation,
factoring, operations with algebraic fractions, and an introduction to the
complex number system.
■ ■ ■
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 3

1.1 The Real Number System

Sets
We will need to use the notation and terminology of sets from time to time. A
set is simply a collection of objects or numbers that are called the elements or
members of the set. The elements of a set are written within braces so that the
notation
A = {4, 5, 6}
tells us that the set A consists of the numbers 4, 5, and 6. The set
B = {Exxon, Ford, Sony}
consists of the names of these three corporations. We also write 4 ∈ A, which
we read as “4 is a member of the set A.” Similarly, Ford ∈ B is read as “Ford
is a member of the set B,” and Chrysler ∉ B is read as “Chrysler is not a mem-
ber of the set B.”
If every element of a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is a subset
of B. For example, the set of all robins is a subset of the set of all birds.

EXAMPLE 1 SET NOTATION AND PROPERTIES

The set C consists of the names of all coins whose denominations are less than
50 cents. We may write C in set notation as follows:

C  {penny, nickel, dime, quarter}

We see that dime ∈ C, but half dollar ∉ C. Further, the set H  {nickel, dime}
is a subset of C.

✔ Progress Check
The set V consists of the vowels in this particular sentence.
a. Write V in set notation.
b. Is the letter k a member of V?
c. Is the letter u a member of V?
d. List the subsets of V having four elements.

Answers
a. V = {a, e, i, o, u} b. No c. Yes
d. {a, e, i, o}, {e, i, o, u}, {a, i, o, u}, {a, e, o, u}, {a, e, i, u}

The Set of Real Numbers

Since much of our work in algebra deals with the real numbers, we begin with
a review of the composition of these numbers.
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4 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

The numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , used for counting, form the set of natural

numbers. If we had only these numbers to use to show the profit earned by
a company, we would have no way to indicate that the company had no
profit or had a loss. To indicate no profit we introduce 0, and for losses we
need to introduce negative numbers. The numbers
. . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, . . .
form the set of integers. Thus, every natural number is an integer, and the set
of natural numbers is seen to be a subset of the set of integers.
When we try to divide two apples equally among four people, we find no
number in the set of integers that expresses how many apples each person
should get. We need to introduce the set of rational numbers, which are num-
bers that can be written as a ratio of two integers.
p

q with q not equal to zero
Examples of rational numbers are
2 7 3
0  4 
3 5 4
n
By writing an integer n in the form 1, we see that every integer is a rational num-
ber. The decimal number 1.3 is also a rational number since 1.3 = 13 10
.
We have now seen three fundamental sets of numbers: the set of natural num-
bers, the set of integers, and the set of rational numbers. Each successive set includes
the previous set or sets, and each is more complicated than the one before. However,
the set of rational numbers is still inadequate for sophisticated uses of mathematics,
since there exist numbers that are not rational, that is, numbers that cannot be writ-
ten as the ratio of two integers. These are called irrational numbers. It can be shown
that the number a that satisfies a  a = 2 is such a number. The number , which is
the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter, is also such a number.
The decimal form of a rational number always forms a repeating pattern,
such as
1
= 0.5000 . . .
2
13
= 1.3000 . . .
10
1
= 0.333 . . .
3
2
= 0.181818 . . .
11
(
(
(

(Note: The three dots, known as ellipses, following the numbers in each of the
examples above means that the pattern continues in the same manner forever.)
The decimal form of an irrational number never forms a repeating pattern.
The rational and irrational numbers together form the set of real numbers. (See
Figure 1.)
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 5

Rational Numbers

Integers

Natural Irrational
Numbers Numbers

FIGURE 1 The Set of Real Numbers

Calculator Alert

(1) Rational Numbers

A calculator display shows only a finite number of digits, which is often an
approximation of the exact answer. Use your calculator to convert the ration-
al numbers 2, 10 , 3, and 2
1 13 1
11 to decimal form, and note how these representa-
tions differ from those shown above.
1÷2 = 0.5
13 ÷ 10 = 1.3
1÷3 = 0.3333333333
2 ÷ 11 = 0.1818181818
Which representations are exact and which are approximate?

(2) Irrational Numbers

Most calculators provide a rational decimal approximation to irrational num-
bers. For example, ten-digit approximations to 2 and  are

2 = 1.414213562
 = 3.141592654

The System of Real Numbers

The system of real numbers consists of the set of real numbers together with
the operations of addition and multiplication; in addition, this system satisfies
the properties listed in Table 1, where a, b, and c denote real numbers.

EXAMPLE 2 PROPERTIES OF REAL NUMBERS

Specify the property in Table 1 illustrated by each of the following statements.

a. 2 + 3 = 3 + 2 b. (2  3)  4 = 2  (3  4)
1
c. 2   = 1 d. 2(3 + 5) = (2  3) + (2  5)
2
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6 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

SOLUTION
a. commutative under addition c. multiplicative inverse
b. associative under multiplication d. distributive law

Equality
When we say that two numbers are equal, we mean that they represent the
same value. Thus, when we write

a=b

Read “a equals b”, we mean that a and b represent the same number. For
example, 2 + 5 and 4 + 3 are different ways of writing the number 7, so we can
write
2+5=4+3
Equality satisfies four basic properties shown in Table 2, where a, b, and c are
any real numbers.

TABLE 1 Properties of Real Numbers

Example Algebraic Expression Property
3 + 4 is a real number. a + b is a real number. Closure under addition
The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
2  5 is a real number. a  b is a real number. Closure under multiplication
The product of two real numbers is a real number.
4+8=8+4 a+b=b+a Commutative under addition
We may add real numbers in any order.
3(5) = 5(3) a(b) = b(a) Commutative under multiplication
We may multiply real numbers in any order.
(2 + 5) + 3 = 2 + (5 + 3) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Associative under addition
We may group the addition of real numbers in any
order.
(2  5)3 = 2(5  3) (ab)c = a(bc) Associative under multiplication
We may group the multiplication of real numbers in any
order.
4+0=4 a+0=a Additive identity
The sum of the unique real number 0 and any real num-
ber leaves that number unchanged.
3(1) = 3 a(1) = a Multiplicative identity
The product of the unique real number 1 and any real
number leaves that number unchanged.
5 + (5) = 0 a + (a) = 0 Additive inverse
The number a is called the negative, opposite,
or additive inverse of a. If a is added to a, the
result is the additive identity 0.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 7

TABLE 1 Properties of Real Numbers (cont.)

Example Algebraic Expression Property
1 1
 
7 
7 =1 If a ≠ 0, a   
a =1 Multiplicative inverse
1
The number a is called the reciprocal, or
1
multiplicative inverse, of a. If a is multiplied
by a, the result is the multiplicative identity 1.
2(5 + 3) = (2  5) + (2  3) a(b + c) = ab + ac Distributive laws
(4 + 7)2 = (4  2) + (7  2) (a + b)c = ac + bc If one number multiplies the sum of two numbers,
we may add the two numbers first and then
perform the multiplication; or we may multiply
each pair and then add the two products.

EXAMPLE 3 PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY

Specify the property in Table 2 illustrated by each of the following statements.
a. If 5a  2  b, then b  5a  2.
b. If a  b and b  5, then a  5.
c. If a  b, then 3a  6  3b  6.

SOLUTION
a. symmetric property b. transitive property c. substitution property

Additional Properties
Using the properties of real numbers, the properties of equalities, and rules of
logic, we can derive many other properties of the real numbers, as shown in
Table 3, where a, b, and c are any real numbers.

TABLE 2 Properties of Equality

Example Algebraic Expression Property
3=3 a=a Reflexive property
6 6
If 
3 = 2 then 2 = .

3 If a = b then b = a. Symmetric property
6 8 6 8
If 
3 = 2 and 2 = , then

4

3 = 
4 If a = b and b = c, then a = c. Transitive property
6 6
If = 2, then we may replace

3

3 by If a = b, then we may replace Substitution property
6
2 or we may replace 2 by 3. a by b or we may replace b by a.
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8 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

TABLE 3 Additional Properties of Real Numbers

Example Algebraic Expression Property
6 6
If 
3
= 2 then 
3
+4=2+4 If a = b, then a + c = b + c The same number may be added to
6

3
(5) = 2(5) ac = bc both sides of an equation. Both sides
of an equation may be multiplied
by the same number.
6 6
If 
3
+ 4 = 2 + 4 then 
3
= 2. If a + c = b + c then a = b. Cancellation law of addition
6 6
If 
3
(5) = 2(5) then 
3
= 2. If ac = bc with c ≠ 0 then a = b. Cancellation law of multiplication
2(0) = 0(2) = 0 a(0) = 0(a) = 0 The product of two real numbers can
2(3) = 0 is impossible. If ab = 0 then a = 0 or b = 0. be zero only if one of them is zero.
The real numbers a and b are said to
be factors of the product ab.
(3) = 3 (a) = a Rules of signs
(2)(3) = (2)(3) = 6 (a)(b) = (a)(b) = (ab)
(1)(3) = 3 (1)(a) = a
(2)(3) = 6 (a)(b) = ab
(2) + (3) = (2 + 3) = 5 (a) + (b) = (a + b)

We next introduce the operations of subtraction and division. If a and b

are real numbers, the difference between a and b, denoted by a  b, is
defined by
a  b = a + (b)
and the operation is called subtraction. Thus,
6  2 = 6 + (2) = 4 22=0 0  8 = 8
We can show that the distributive laws hold for subtraction, that is,
a(b  c) = ab  ac
(a  b)c = ac  bc

Calculator Alert

In addition to a key for subtraction, most calculators have a key to represent

negative numbers. This key may be labeled +/– , (–) , or CHS . We write 6,
for example, to represent the keystrokes necessary to enter a negative number
into your calculator. You must select the keystrokes that are appropriate for
your calculator.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 9

If a and b are real numbers and b ≠ 0, then the quotient of a and b, denot-
a
ed or a/b, is defined by

b

a 1
=a
b b
a
and the operation is called division. We also write b as a ÷ b and speak of the
fraction a over b. The numbers a and b are called the numerator and denom-
a
inator of the fraction b, respectively. Observe that we have not defined divi-
sion by zero, since 0 has no reciprocal.
In Table 4, a, b, c, and d are real numbers with b ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, and d ≠ 0.

✔ Progress Check
Perform the indicated operations.

a. 3 + 1 b. 5  4 c. 2 + 3

5 4 2 15 3 7

Answers

17
a.  b. 2 23
 c.  
20 3 21

TABLE 4 Additional Properties of Real Numbers

Example Algebraic Expression Property

6 23 3 ac a
   Rules of
10 25 5 bc b fractions
2 5 10 a c ac
   
3 7 21 b d bd
4 2 a c
 since 4  3 = 6  2  if ad = bc
6 3 b d
2 5 7 a c ac
   
9 9 9 d d d
2 2 a a
9 9 (9 ) 2 d d (d ) a
     
5 5 (9 ) 5 b b (d ) b
9 9 d d
2 5 2 (4 ) 5 (3 ) a c a (d ) c (b )
         
3 4 3 (4 ) 4 (3 ) b d b (d ) d (b )
8 15 23 ad  cb
   
12 12 12 bd
2 2 a a
3 3 (3  7 ) 2(7 ) 14 b b (bd ) ad
      
5 5 (3  7 ) 5(3 ) 15 c c (bd ) cb
7 7 d d
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10 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Exercise Set 1.1

22. The difference of two irrational numbers is
In Exercises 1–8, write each set by listing its ele-
always an irrational number.
ments within braces.
In Exercises 23–36, the letters represent real num-
1. The set of natural numbers from 3 to 7,
bers. Identify the property or properties of real
inclusive
numbers that justify each statement.
2. The set of integers between 4 and 2
23. a + x = x + a 24. (xy)z = x(yz)
3. The set of integers between 10 and 8
25. xyz + xy = xy(z + 1)
4. The set of natural numbers from 9 to 3,
26. x + y is a real number
inclusive

5. The subset of the set S = {3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 27. (a + b) + 3 = a + (b + 3)

2} consisting of the positive integers in S 28. 5 + (x + y) = (x + y) + 5
2
6. The subset of the set S = { , 1.1, 3.7,

3 29. cx is a real number.
4.8} consisting of the negative rational num-
30. (a + 5) + b = (a + b) + 5
bers in S
31. uv = vu 32. x + 0 = x
7. The subset of all x ∈ S, S = {1, 3, 6, 7, 10},
such that x is an odd integer 33. a(bc) = c(ab) 34. xy  xy = 0
8. The subset of all x ∈ S, S = {2, 5, 8, 9, 10} 1
35. 5   = 1 36. xy  1 = xy
such that x is an even integer 5

In Exercises 922, determine whether the given In Exercises 37–40, find a counterexample; that
statement is true (T) or false (F). is, find real values for which the statement is
false.
9. 14 is a natural number.
4 37. a  b = b  a
10.  5 is a rational number.
a b
11.

 is a rational number. 38.  = 
3 b a
1.75
12. 
18.6 is an irrational number. 39. a(b + c) = ab + c
13. 1207 is an integer. 40. (a + b)(c + d) = ac + bd
14. 0.75 is an irrational number.
In Exercises 41–44, indicate the property or prop-
4
15. 
5 is a real number. erties of equality that justify the statement.
16. 3 is a rational number. 41. If 3x = 5, then 5 = 3x.
17. 2 is a real number. 42. If x + y = 7 and y = 5, then x + 5 = 7.
18. The sum of two rational numbers is always a 43. If 2y = z and z = x + 2, then 2y = x + 2.
rational number.
44. If x + 2y + 3z = r + s and r = x + 1, then
19. The sum of two irrational numbers is always x + 2y + 3z = x + 1 + s.
an irrational number.

20. The product of two rational numbers is In Exercises 45–49, a, b, and c are real numbers.
always a rational number. Use the properties of real numbers and the prop-
erties of equality to prove each statement.
21. The product of two irrational numbers is
45. If a = b, then ac = bc.
always an irrational number.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 11

a
c
b
46. If a = b and c ≠ 0, then  =  .
c i. ( )( ) ( )( )
3
4
21
37

3
4
16
37
47. If a  c = b  c, then a = b.

48. a(b  c) = ab  ac
1
3
 ( )
1
4
j.
7 3
49. Prove that the real number 0 does not have a 
1 8 16
reciprocal. (Hint: Assume b = 0 is the recip-
rocal of 0.) Supply a reason for each of the
following steps.
( )( )
3 1
5 7
k.
1 1 1
1 =0 
0 2 3
=0b
=0
l. ⴢ( )
2 3 4
5 2 7
Since this conclusion is impossible, the origi-
nal assumption must be false. 54. What is the meaning attached to each of the
following?
50. Give three examples for each of the following: 6 0
a. b.
a. a real number that is not a rational number 0 6
b. a rational number that is not an integer 6 0
c. d. 1
c. an integer that is not a natural number 6 2
0
51. Give three examples for each of the following: e.
0
a. two rational numbers that are not integers
whose sum is an integer 55. Use your calculator to convert the following
fractions to (repeating) decimals. Look for a
b. two irrational numbers whose sum is a
rational number pattern that repeats.
1 3 10 2
52. Find a subset of the reals that is closed with a.  b.   c.  d. 
4 5 13 7
respect to addition and multiplication but
not with respect to subtraction and division. e. Does your calculator round off the final
digit of an approximation, or does your
53. Perform the indicated operations. Verify
calculator “drop off” the extra digits? To
your answers using your calculator.
answer this question, evaluate
a. (8) + 13
2 ÷ 3 to see if your calculator displays
b. (8) + (13) 0.6666666666 or 0.6666666667.
c. 8  (13)
56. A proportion is a statement of equality
d. (5)(3)  (12) between two ratios. Solve the following pro-

   
8 –5 portions for x.
e.  + 3 + 
9 9 7 x 7 11
a.  =  b.  = 
5 8 12 x 3
f. 3
2
57. On a map of Pennsylvania, 1 inch represents
5
8 10 miles. Find the distance represented by
g. 1
2
3.5 inches.

2 58. A car travels 135 miles on 6 gallons of gaso-

3
h. 4
line. How far can it travel on 10 gallons of
3 gasoline?
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12 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

59. A board 10 feet long is cut into two pieces,

62. A piece of property is valued at $28,500.
the lengths of which are in the ratio of 2:3.
What is the real estate tax at $75.30 per
Find the lengths of the pieces.
$1000.00 evaluation?
63. A woman’s take-home pay is $210.00 after
deducting 18% withholding tax. What is her
pay before the deduction?
64. List the set of possible ways of getting a total
of 7 when tossing two standard dice.
65. A college student sent a postcard home with
the following message:
3 5
60. An alloy is 8 copper, 12 zinc, and the balance SEND
lead. How much lead is there in 282 pounds MORE
of alloy? ————
MONEY
If each letter represents a different digit, and
the calculation represents a sum, how much
money did the student request?
66. Eric starts at a certain time driving his car
from New York to Philadelphia going 50
mph. Sixty minutes later, Steve leaves in his
car en route from Philadelphia to New York
61. Which is the better value: 1 pound 3 ounces of going 40 mph. When the two cars meet,
beans for 85 cents or 13 ounces for 56 cents? which one is nearer to New York?

1.2 The Real Number Line

There is a simple and very useful geometric interpretation of the real number
system. Draw a horizontal line. Pick a point on this line, label it with the num-
ber 0, and call it the origin. Designate the side to the right of the origin as the
positive direction and the side to the left as the negative direction.

Negative Positive
direction | direction
0
Origin

Next, select a unit for measuring distance. With each positive integer n, we
associate the point that is n units to the right of the origin. With each negative
number n, we associate the point that is n units to the left of the origin. Ratio-
3 5
nal numbers, such as 4 and  2, are associated with the corresponding points
by dividing the intervals between integers into equal subintervals. Irrational
numbers, such as 2  and , can be written in decimal form. The correspon-
ding points can be found by approximating these decimal forms to any desired
degree of accuracy. Thus, the set of real numbers is identified with all possible
points on this line. There is a real number for every point on the line; there is a
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 13

point on the line for every real number. The line is called the real number line,
and the number associated with a point is called its coordinate. We can now
show some points on this line.
5
Negative
––
2 –34 2 π Positive
direction –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 direction

The numbers to the right of zero are called positive; the numbers to the left
of zero are called negative. The positive numbers and zero together are called
the nonnegative numbers.
We will frequently use the real number line to help picture the results of
algebraic computations. For this purpose, we are only concerned with rela-
tive locations on the line. For example, it is adequate to show  slightly to
the right of 3 since  is approximately 3.14.

EXAMPLE 1 REAL NUMBER LINE

3 13
Draw a real number line and plot the following points:  2, 2, .
4

SOLUTION
3 13
––
2 2 –4

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

Inequalities
If a and b are real numbers, we can compare their positions on the real num-
ber line by using the relations less than, greater than, less than or equal to, and
greater than or equal to, as shown in Table 5.

TABLE 5 Inequalities
Symbol Meaning
 Less than
 Greater than

Less than or equal to
Greater than or equal to

Table 6 describes both algebraic and geometric interpretations of the

inequality symbols, where a and b are real numbers.
Expressions involving inequality symbols, such as a  b and a b, are
called inequalities. We often combine these expressions so that a
b  c
means both a
b and b  c. (Note: a  c is also true.) For example, 5

x  2 is equivalent to 5
x and x  2. Equivalently, x is between 5 and
2, including 5 and excluding 2.
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14 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

✔ Progress Check
Verify that the following inequalities are true by using either the
“Equivalent Statement” or the “Geometric Statement” of Table 6.

a. –1 < 3 b. 2 ≤ 2

c. –2.7 < –1.2 d. –4 < –2 < 0

e. – 7 < 7 < 7

2 2

TABLE 6 Inequalities
Algebraic Equivalent Geometric
Expression Meaning Statement Statement

a>0 a is greater than 0. a is positive. a lies to the right of

the origin.
a<0 a is less than 0. a is negative. a lies to the left of the origin.
a>b a is greater than b. a – b is positive. a lies to the right of b.
a<b a is less than b. a – b is negative. a lies to the left of b.
a>b a is greater than or equal to b. a – b is positive or zero. a lies to the right of b or
coincides with b.
a<b a is less than or equal to b. a – b is negative or zero. a lies to the left of b or
coincides with b.

TABLE 7 Properties of Inequalities

Example Algebraic Expression Property
Either 2 < 3 , 2 > 3, or 2 = 3. Either a < b, a > b, or a = b. Trichotomy property
Since 2 < 3 and 3 < 5, then 2 < 5. If a < b and b < c then a < c. Transitive property
Since 2 < 5, then 2 + 4 < 5 + 4 or 6 < 9. If a < b then a + c < b + c. The sense of an inequality
is preserved if any constant is
added to both sides.
Since 2 < 3 and 4 > 0, then 2(4) < If a < b and c > 0, then ac < bc. The sense of an inequality is
3(4) or 8 < 12. preserved if it is multiplied
by a positive constant.
Since 2 < 3 and –4 < 0, then If a < b and c < 0, then ac > bc. The sense of an inequality is
2(–4) > 3(–4) or –8 > –12. reversed if it is multiplied
by a negative constant.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 15

The real numbers satisfy the properties of inequalities shown in Table 7,

where a, b, and c are real numbers.

EXAMPLE 2 PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITIES

a. Since 2 < 4 and 4 < 5, then 2 < 5.
b. Since 2 < 5, 2 + 3 < 5 + 3, or 1 < 8.
c. Since 3 < 4, 3 + (5) < 4 + (5), or 2 < 1.
d. Since 2 < 5, 2(3) < 5(3), or 6 < 15.
e. Since 3 < 2, (3)(2) > 2(2), or 6 > 4.

Absolute Value
Suppose we are interested in the distances between the origin and the points
labeled 4 and 4 on the real number line. Each of these points is four units
from the origin; that is, the distance is independent of the direction and is
nonnegative. (See Figure 2.) Furthermore, the distance between 4 and 4 is
8 units.
Negative Positive
direction direction
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4

4 units 4 units

FIGURE 2 Distance on the Real Number Line

When we are interested in the magnitude of a number a, and do not care

about the direction or sign, we use the concept of absolute value, which we
write as ⏐a⏐. The formal definition of absolute value is stated as follows:

⏐a⏐ =
 – aa if a ≥ 0
if a < 0

Since distance is independent of direction and is always nonnegative, we can

view ⏐a⏐ as the distance from the origin to either point a or point a on the
real number line.

EXAMPLE 3 ABSOLUTE VALUE AND DISTANCE

a. ⏐4⏐ = 4 ⏐4⏐ = 4 ⏐0⏐ = 0
b. The distance on the real number line between the point labeled 3.4 and the
origin is ⏐3.4⏐ = 3.4. Similarly, the distance between point 2.3 and the ori-
gin is ⏐2.3⏐ = 2.3.
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16 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

In working with the notation of absolute value, it is important to perform

the operations within the bars first. Here are some examples.

EXAMPLE 4 ABSOLUTE VALUE

a. ⏐5  2⏐ = ⏐3⏐ = 3

b. ⏐2  5⏐ = ⏐3⏐ = 3

c. ⏐3  5⏐  ⏐8  6⏐ = ⏐2⏐  ⏐2⏐ = 2  2 = 0
47 3 3 1
d.   
6 6 6 2

Graphing Calculator Alert

Your calculator may have an absolute value key, usually labeled ABS . If you
have a graphing calculator, it is important to use parentheses when you use this
key.

Examples: a. ABS(5  2)
b. ABS(2  5)
c. ABS(3  5)  ABS(8  6)
d. ABS(4  7) ÷ (6)

Table 8 describes the properties of absolute value where a and b are real
numbers.
We began by showing a use for absolute value in denoting distance from
the origin without regard to direction. We conclude by demonstrating the use
of absolute value to denote the distance between any two points a and b on the
real number line. In Figure 3, the distance between the points labeled 2 and 5
is 3 units and can be obtained by evaluating either ⏐5  2⏐ or ⏐2  5⏐.
Similarly, the distance between the points labeled 1 and 4 is given by either
⏐4  (1)⏐ = 5 or ⏐1  4⏐ = 5.

3 units

–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
5 units

FIGURE 3 Distance on the Real Number Line

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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 17

TABLE 8 Basic Properties of Absolute Value

Example Algebraic Expression Property
⏐–2⏐ ≥ 0 ⏐a⏐ ≥ 0 Absolute value is always nonnegative.
⏐3⏐ = ⏐–3⏐ = 3 ⏐a⏐ = ⏐–a⏐ The absolute values of a number and its
negative are the same.
⏐2 – 5⏐= ⏐–3⏐ = 3 ⏐a – b⏐ = ⏐b – a⏐ The absolute value of the difference of two
⏐5 – 2⏐ = ⏐3⏐ = 3 numbers is always the same, irrespective of the
order of subtraction.
⏐(–2)(3)⏐ = ⏐–2⏐⏐3⏐ = 6 ⏐ab⏐ = ⏐a⏐⏐b⏐ The absolute value of a product is the
product of the absolute values.

Using the notation 

AB to denote the distance between the points A and B,
we provide the following definition:

Distance on the Real Number Line

The distance 
AB between points A and B on the real number

line, whose coordinates are a and b, respectively, is given by


AB = ⏐b – a⏐

The third property of absolute value from Table 8 tells us that 

AB = ⏐b  a⏐ =
⏐a  b⏐. Viewed another way, this property states that the distance between any
two points on the real number line is independent of the direction.

EXAMPLE 5 DISTANCE ON THE REAL NUMBER LINE

Let points A, B, and C have coordinates 4, 1, and 3, respectively, on the
real number line. Find the following distances.

a. AB 
b. CB , where O is the origin
c. OB

SOLUTION
Using the definition, we have
 = ⏐1  (4)⏐ = ⏐1 + 4⏐ = ⏐3⏐ = 3
a. AB
 = ⏐1  3⏐ = ⏐4⏐ = 4
b. CB
 = ⏐1  0⏐ = ⏐1⏐ = 1
c. OB
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18 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

✔ Progress Check
The points P, Q, and R on the real number line have coordi-
nates –6, 4, and 6, respectively. Find the following distances.

a. PR 
b. QP 
c. PQ

Answers
a. 12 b. 10 c. 10

Exercise Set 1.2

1. Draw a real number line and plot the follow- In Exercises 11–14, indicate the set of numbers
ing points. on a real number line.

a. 4 b. 2 11. The natural numbers less than 8

c. 5 d. 3.5 12. The natural numbers greater than 4 and less
2
than 10
e. 0
13. The integers that are greater than 2 and less
2. Draw a real number line and plot the follow-
than 7
ing points.
a. 5 b. 4 14. The integers that are greater than 5 and
less than or equal to 1
c. 3.5 d. 7
2 In Exercises 15–24, express the statement as an
e. 4
inequality.
3. Give the real numbers associated with the
15. 10 is greater than 9.99.
points A, B, C, D, O, and E on the real
number line below. 16. 6 is less than 2.

E C O A B D 17. a is nonnegative.
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
18. b is negative.

4. Represent the following by real numbers. 19. x is positive.

a. a profit of $10 20. a is strictly between 3 and 7.
b. a loss of $20 1 1
21. a is strictly between 2 and 4.
c. a temperature of 20°F above zero
22. b is less than or equal to 4.
d. a temperature of 5°F below zero
23. b is greater than or equal to 5.
In Exercises 5–10, indicate which of the two
given numbers appears first, viewed from left to 24. x is negative.
right, on the real number line. In Exercises 25–30, give a property of inequalities
1 that justifies the statement.
5. 4, 6 6. , 0
2
7. 2, 3 8. 0, 4 25. Since 3 < 1, then 1 < 3.
4
9. 5,  2 10. 4, 5 26. Since 5 <  1 and 1 < 4, then 5 < 4.
3
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 19

27. Since 14 > 9, then 14 < 9. 54. List the set of integers x such that

28. Since 5 > 3, then 5 ≠ 3. a. 2 < x < 3

b. 0 < x < 5
29. Since 1 < 6, then 3 < 18.
c. 1 < 2x < 10
30. Since 6 > 1, then 7 is a positive number.
55. For the inequality 1 < 5, state the resulting
In Exercises 31–44, find the value of the expres- inequality when the following operations are
sion. Verify your answer using your calculator. performed on both sides.
31. ⏐2⏐ 2
32.  
3  a. add 2 b. subtract 5

33. ⏐1.5⏐ 34. ⏐0.8⏐ c. multiply by 2 d. multiply by 5

e. divide by 1
 
2 f. divide by 2
35. ⏐2⏐ 36.   
5
g. square
37. ⏐2  3⏐ 38. ⏐2  2⏐
56. A computer sales representative receives $400
39. ⏐2  (2)⏐ 40. ⏐2⏐ + ⏐3⏐
monthly plus a 10% commission on sales.
⏐14 – 8⏐ ⏐2 – 12⏐ How much must she sell in a month for her
41.  42. 
⏐–3⏐ ⏐1 – 6⏐ income to be at least $600 for that month?
⏐3⏐ – ⏐2⏐ ⏐3 – 2⏐
43.  44.  In Exercises 57–62, use the coordinates given in
⏐3⏐ + ⏐2⏐ ⏐3 + 2⏐ Exercises 45–50 to find the midpoint of the inter-
In Exercises 45–50, the coordinates of points A val.
—
and B are given. Find AB .
63. For what values of x does each of the fol-
45. 2, 5 46. 3, 6 lowing hold?
11 a. ⏐3  x⏐ = 3  x
47. 3, 1 48. 4, 
2
4 4 b. ⏐5x  2⏐ = (5x  2)
49.   ,  50. 2, 2
5 5 ⏐x – 3⏐
64. Evaluate  for x = 2, 1, 0, 1, 2.
51. For what values of x and y is ⏐x + y⏐ = ⏐x⏐ x–3
+ ⏐y⏐? Make a conjecture about the value of this
expression for all values of x.
52. For what values of x and y is ⏐x + y⏐ < ⏐x⏐
+ ⏐y⏐?

53. Find the set of integers whose distance from

3 is less than or equal to 5.

1.3 Algebraic Expressions and Polynomials

A variable is a symbol to which we can assign values. For example, in Section
p
1.1 we defined a rational number as one that can be written as q, where p
and q are integers and q is not zero. The symbols p and q are variables since
we can assign values to them. A variable can be restricted to a particular
number system (for example, p and q must be integers) or to a subset of a
number system.
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20 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

If we invest P dollars at an annual interest rate of 6%, then we will earn

0.06P dollars interest per year; and we will have P + 0.06P dollars at the end of
the year. We call P + 0.06P an algebraic expression. Note that an algebraic
expression involves variables (in this case P), constants (such as 0.06), and al-
gebraic operations (such as +, –, ×, ÷). Virtually everything we do in algebra
involves algebraic expressions.
An algebraic expression takes on a value when we assign a specific number
to each variable in the expression. Thus, the expression
3m + 4n

m+n
is evaluated when m = 3 and n = 2 by substitution of these values for m and n:
3(3) + 4(2) 9 + 8 17
 =  = 
3+2 5 5
We often need to write algebraic expressions in which a variable multiplies
itself repeatedly. We use the notation of exponents to indicate such repeated multi-
plication. Thus,

a1 = a a2 = a  a an = a  a  · · · · a


n factor

where n is a natural number and a is a real number. We call a the base and
n the exponent and say that an is the nth power of a. When n = 1, we sim-
ply write a rather than a1.

It is convenient to define a0 for all real numbers a ≠ 0 as a0 = 1. We will

provide motivation for this seemingly arbitrary definition in Section 1.7.

EXAMPLE 1 MULTIPLICATION WITH NATURAL NUMBER EXPONENTS

Write the following without using exponents.

 
1 3
a.  b. 2x3
2
c. (2x)3 d. 3x 2 y 3

SOLUTION

 
1 3 1 1 1 1
a.  =      =  b. 2x3 = 2  x  x  x
2 2 2 2 8
c. (2x)3 = 2x  2x  2x = 8  x  x  x d. 3x 2 y 3 = 3  x  x  y  y  y
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 21

WARNING
Note the difference between
(3)2 = (3)(3) = 9
and
32 = (3  3) = 9

Calculator Alert

Your calculator evaluates exponents using a special key, which may be labeled
x y , y x , or ^ .

Example: (1 ÷ 2) x y 3 = 0.125

or (1 ÷ 2) y x 3 = 0.125

or (1 ÷ 2) ^ 3 = 0.l25

We will use x y or ^ to indicate the exponentiation key in this text.

In addition to the exponentiation key, your calculator probably has a spe-
cial key labeled x 2 .

Examples: (3) x 2 = 9

3 x 2 = 9

Later in this chapter we will need an important rule of exponents.

Observe that if m and n are natural numbers and a is any real number, then

am  an = a  a  · · · · a  a  a  · · · · a


m factors n factors

Since there are a total of m + n factors on the right side, we conclude that

aman = am+n

EXAMPLE 2 MULTIPLICATION WITH NATURAL NUMBER EXPONENTS

Multiply.
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22 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

a. x2  x3
b. (3x)(4x4)

SOLUTION
a. x2  x3 = x2+3 = x5
b. (3x)(4x4) = 3  4  x  x4 = 12x1+4 = 12x5

✔ Progress Check
Multiply.
a. x5  x2 b. (2x6)(–2x4)

Answers
a. x7 b. –4x10

Polynomials
A polynomial is an algebraic expression of a certain form. Polynomials play an
important role in the study of algebra since many word problems translate into
equations or inequalities that involve polynomials. We first study the ma-
nipulative and mechanical aspects of polynomials. This knowledge will serve as
background for dealing with their applications in later chapters.
Let x denote a variable and let n be a constant, nonnegative integer. The
expression axn, where a is a constant real number, is called a monomial in x. A
polynomial in x is an expression that is a sum of monomials and has the gener-
al form

P = anxn + an  1xn  1 + . . . + a1x + a0, an ≠ 0 (1)

Each of the monomials in Equation (1) is called a term of P, and a0, a1, . . . , an
are constant real numbers that are called the coefficients of the terms of P. Note
that a polynomial may consist of just one term; that is, a monomial is considered
to be a polynomial.

EXAMPLE 3 POLYNOMIAL EXPRESSIONS

a. The following expressions are polynomials in x:
3
3x4 + 2x + 5 2x3 + 5x2  2x + 1  x3
2
Notice that we write 2x3 + 5x2 + (2)x + 1 as 2x3 + 5x2  2x + 1.

b. The following expressions are not polynomials in x:

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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 23

4 2x – 1
2x1/2 + 5 3 
x x–2
Remember that each term of a polynomial in x must be of the form axn,
where a is a real number and n is a nonnegative integer.

The degree of a monomial in x is the exponent of x. Thus, the degree of 5x3

is 3. A monomial in which the exponent of x is 0 is called a constant term and
is said to be of degree zero. The nonzero coefficient an of the term in P with
highest degree is called the leading coefficient of P, and we say that P is a poly-
nomial of degree n. The polynomial whose coefficients are all zero is called the
zero polynomial. It is denoted by 0 and is said to have no degree.

EXAMPLE 4 VOCABULARY OF POLYNOMIALS

Given the polynomial
4
P = 2x4  3x2 +  x  1
3
The terms of P are
4
2x4, 0x3, 3x2,  x, 1
3
The coefficients of the terms are

3, 4 1
2, 0, ,
3
The degree of P is 4 and the leading coefficient is 2.

A monomial in the variables x and y is an expression of the form axmyn,

where a is a constant and m and n are constant, nonnegative integers. The num-
ber a is called the coefficient of the monomial. The degree of a monomial in x
and y is the sum of the exponents of x and y. Thus, the degree of 2x3y2 is 3 + 2
= 5. A polynomial in x and y is an expression that is a sum of monomials. The
degree of a polynomial in x and y is the degree of the highest degree monomial
with nonzero coefficient.

EXAMPLE 5 DEGREE OF POLYNOMIALS

The following are polynomials in x and y:

2x2y + y2  3xy + 1 Degree is 3.

xy Degree is 2.
3x4 + xy  y2 Degree is 4.

Operations with Polynomials

If P and Q are polynomials in x, then the terms axr in P and bxr in Q are said to
be like terms; that is, like terms have the same exponent in x. For example, given
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:18 PM Page 24

24 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

P = 4x2 + 4x  1

and

Q = 3x3  2x2 + 4

then the like terms are 0x3 and 3x3, 4x2 and 2x2, 4x and 0x, 1 and 4.
We define equality of polynomials in the following way:

Two polynomials are equal if all like terms are equal.

EXAMPLE 6 EQUALITY OF POLYNOMIALS

Find A, B, C, and D if

Ax3 + (A + B)x2 + Cx + (C  D) = 2x3 + x + 3

SOLUTION
Equating the coefficients of the terms, we have

A = 2 A+B=0 C=1 CD=3

B=2 D = 2

If P and Q are polynomials in x, the sum P + Q is obtained by forming the

sums of all pairs of like terms. The sum of axr in P and bxr in Q is (a + b)xr.
Similarly, the difference P  Q is obtained by forming the differences, (a  b)xr,
of like terms.

EXAMPLE 7 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS

a. Add 2x3 + 2x2  3 and x3  x2 + x + 2.

b. Subtract 2x3 + x2  x + 1 from 3x3  2x2 + 2x.

SOLUTION
a. Adding the coefficients of like terms,

(2x3 + 2x2  3) + (x3  x2 + x + 2) = 3x3 + x2 + x  1

b. Subtracting the coefficients of like terms,

(3x3  2x2 + 2x)  (2x3 + x2  x + 1) = x3  3x2 + 3x  1

WARNING
(x + 5)  (x + 2) ≠ (x + 5)  x + 2

The coefficient 1 must multiply each term in the parentheses. Thus,

BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:18 PM Page 25

Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 25

(x + 2) = x  2
Therefore,
(x + 5)  (x + 2) = x + 5  x  2 = 3
while
(x + 5)  x + 2 = x + 5  x + 2 = 7

Multiplication of polynomials is based on the rule for exponents developed

earlier in this section,

aman = am+n

and on the distributive laws

a(b + c) = ab + ac
(a + b)c = ac + bc

EXAMPLE 8 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Multiply 3x3(2x3  6x2 + 5).

SOLUTION
3x3(2x3  6x2 + 5)
= (3x3)(2x3) + (3x3)(6x2) + (3x3)(5) Distributive law
= (3)(2)x3+3 + (3)(6)x3+2 + (3)(5)x3 aman = am+n
= 6x6  18x5 + 15x3

EXAMPLE 9 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Multiply (x + 2)(3x2  x + 5).

SOLUTION
(x + 2)(3x2  x + 5)
= x(3x2  x + 5) + 2(3x2  x + 5) Distributive law
= 3x3  x2 + 5x + 6x2  2x + 10 Distributive law and aman = am+n
= 3x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 10 Adding like terms

✔ Progress Check
Multiply.
a. (x2 + 2)(x2 – 3x + 1) b. (x2 – 2xy + y)(2x + y)

Answers
a. x4 – 3x3 + 3x2 – 6x + 2 b. 2x3 – 3x2y + 2xy – 2xy2 + y2
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26 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

The multiplication in Example 9 can be carried out in “long form” as

follows:

3x2  x + 5
x+2
———————
3x3  x2 + 5x = x(3x2  x + 5)
6x2  2x + 10 = 2(3x2  x + 5)
—————————–
3x3 + 5x2 + 3x + 10 = sum of above lines

In Example 9, the product of polynomials of degrees 1 and 2 is seen to be

a polynomial of degree 3. From the multiplication process, we can derive the
following useful rule:

The degree of the product of two nonzero polynomials is the sum of

the degrees of the polynomials.

Products of the form (2x + 3)(5x  2) or (2x + y)(3x  2y) occur often, and
we can handle them by the method sometimes referred to as FOIL: F = first, O
= outer, I = inner, L = last.
F = 10x 2 L = –6 F = (2x)(5x) = 10x2
O = (2x)(2) = 4x
I = (3)(5x) = 15x
(2x + 3) (5x – 2)
L = (3)(2) = 6
I = 15x
Sum = 10x2  4x + 15x  6
= 10x2 + 11x  6

O = – 4x

A number of special products occur frequently, and it is worthwhile know-

ing them.

Special Products
(a + b)(a – b) = a2 – b2
(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a + b) = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a – b)2 = (a – b)(a – b) = a2 – 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
(a – b)3 = a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 27

EXAMPLE 10 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

Multiply.
a. (x + 2)2 b. (x  3)2 c. (x + 4)(x  4)

SOLUTION
a. (x + 2)2 = (x + 2)(x + 2) = x2 + 4x + 4

b. (x  3)2 = (x  3)(x  3) = x2  6x + 9

c. (x + 4)(x  4) = x2  16

✔ Progress Check
a. Multiply (2x2 – xy + y2)(3x + y). b. Multiply (2x – 3)(3x – 2).

Answers
a. 6x3 – x2y + 2xy2 + y3 b. 6x2 – 13x + 6

Graphing Calculator Power User’s Corner

(1) Assigning Values to Variables

Assign values to variables on your graphing calculator using the STORE com-
mand. There is usually an arrow key → or a key labeled STO . For example,
to set M = 3, you press

3 → M or 3 STO M

Check your owner’s manual for details. The owner’s manual may be available
online. Look up your calculator by model and number.

(2) Evaluating Algebraic Expressions on a Graphing Calculator

Once specific values have been assigned to variables in your graphing calcula-
tor, you can use these variables to evaluate algebraic expressions. For example,
evaluate
3m + 4n

m+n
when m = 3 and n = 2.
Step 1. Store 3 in memory location M and store 2 in memory location N.
Step 2. Enter and evaluate the expression

(3M + 4N) ÷ (M + N)
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28 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Graphing Calculator Power User’s Corner (cont.)

Note that the numerator expression and the denominator expression

must both be enclosed in parentheses. On some calculators, you may
need to enter 3 × M and 4 × N to multiply.

Step 3. Note that your answer is given in the decimal form 3.4. Use your cal-
17
culator to verify that 5 = 3.4.

Exercise Set 1.3

In Exercises 1–6, evaluate the given expression 14. ⏐x + y⏐ + ⏐x  y⏐ when x = 3, y = 2
when r = 2, s = 3, and t = 4. ⏐a – 2b⏐
15.  when a = 1, b = 2
2a
1. r + 2s + t 2. rst
⏐x⏐ + ⏐y⏐ when x = 3, y = 4
16. 
rst
3.  4. (r + s)t ⏐x⏐ – ⏐y⏐
r+s+t
r+s r+s+t –⏐a – 2b⏐ when a = 2, b = 1
17. 
5.  6. 
rt t ⏐a + b⏐
2
7. Evaluate 3 r + 5 when r = 12. ⏐a – b⏐ – 2⏐c – a⏐
18.  when
9
⏐a – b + c⏐
8. Evaluate 5C + 32 when C = 37. a = 2, b = 3, c = 5
9. If P dollars are invested at a simple interest
Carry out the indicated operations in Exercises
rate of r percent per year for t years, the
19–24.
amount on hand at the end of t years is P +
Prt. Suppose you invest $2000 at 8% per 19. b5  b2 20. x3  x5
year (r = 0.08). Find the amount you will
21. (4y3)(5y6) 22. (6x4)(4x7)
have on hand after
1

2 x (2x)  35 x  

10 
a. 1 year b. 2 year c. 8 months. 3 3 6 3 x 3
23. 24.
10. The perimeter of a rectangle is given by the
25. Evaluate the given
formula P = 2(L + W), where L is the length
expressions and verify your answer using
and W is the width of the rectangle. Find the
your calculator.
perimeter if
a. 13 b. 108
a. L = 2 feet, W = 3 feet
c. 25 d. 71
1 1
b. L = 
2 meter, W = 
4 meter
26. Evaluate the given expressions using your
11. Evaluate 0.02r + 0.314st + 2.25t when r = calculator.
2.5, s = 3.4, and t = 2.81. a. 910 b. 0.86
12. Evaluate 10.421x + 0.821y + 2.34xyz when 27. Which of the following expressions are not
x = 3.21, y = 2.42, and z = 1.23. polynomials?
Evaluate the given expression in Exercises 13–18. a. 3x2 + 2x + 5 b. 3x2y
13. ⏐x⏐  ⏐x⏐  ⏐y⏐ when x = 3, y = 4 c. 3x2/3+ 2xy + 5 d. 2x 4 + 2xy3 + 5
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:18 PM Page 29

Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 29

28. Which of the following expressions are not x

polynomials?
2 4
a. 4x5  x1/2 + 6 b.  x3 +  x  2
5 3
c. 4x5y d. x4/3y + 2x  3 x
y
In Exercises 29–32, indicate the leading coeffi-
cient and the degree of the given polynomial.
x
29. 2x + 3x  5
3 2
30. 4x  8x + x + 3
5 2

3
31.  x4 + 2x2  x  1
5
FIGURE 4 See Exercise 42.
32.1.5 + 7x3 + 0.75x7
a. x2 + xy b. 2x + 2y
In Exercises 33–36, find the degree of the given
polynomial. c. 4x d. 4x + 2y

33. 3x2y  4x2  2y + 4 43. An investor buys x shares of G.E. stock at

$35.5 per share, y shares of Exxon stock at
34. 4xy3 + xy2  y2 + y
$91 per share, and z shares of AT&T stock
1 at $38 per share. What does the polynomial
35. 2xy3  y3 + 3x2  2 36.  x3y3  2
2 35.5x + 91y + 38z represent?
37. Find the value of the polynomial
Perform the indicated operations in Exercises
3x2y2 + 2xy  x + 2y + 7 when x = 2 and y
44–62.
= 1.
44. (4x2 + 3x + 2) + (3x2  2x  5)
38. Find the value of the polynomial 0.02x2 +
0.3x  0.5 when x = 0.3. 45. (2x2 + 3x + 8)  (5  2x + 2x2)
46. 4xy2 + 2xy + 2x + 3  (2xy2 + xy  y + 2)
39. Find the value of the polynomial
2.1x3 + 3.3x2  4.1x  7.2 when x = 4.1. 47. (2s2t3  st2 + st  s + t)  (3s2t2  2s2t 
4st2  t + 3)
40. Write a polynomial giving the area of a circle
of radius r. 48. 3xy2z  4x2yz + xy + 3  (2xy2z + x2yz 
yz + x  2)
41. Write a polynomial giving the area of a tri-
angle of base b and height h. 49. a2bc + ab2c + 2ab3  3a2bc  4ab3 + 3
50. (x + 1)(x2 + 2x  3)
42. A field consists of a rectangle and a square
arranged as shown in Figure 4. What does 51. (2  x)(2x3 + x  2)
each of the following polynomials represent? 52. (2s  3)(s3  s + 2)
53. (3s + 2)(2s2  s + 3)
54. (x2 + 3)(2x2  x + 2)
55. (2y2 + y)(2y3 + y  3)
56. (x2 + 2x  1)(2x2  3x + 2)
57. (a2  4a + 3)(4a3 + 2a + 5)
58. (2a2 + ab + b2)(3a  b2 + 1)
59. (3a + ab + b2)(3b2 + 2b + 2)
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30 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

60. 5(2x  3)2 81. Perform the indicated operations.

61. 2(3x  2)(3  x)

 
a. 2  1 2 + 1
x x 
62. (x  1)(x + 2)(x + 3)
 
2
wx  z
b.  
63. An investor buys x shares of IBM stock at y
$98 per share at Thursday’s opening of the c. (x + y + z)(x + y  z)
stock market. Later in the day, the investor
sells y shares of AT&T stock at $38 per 82. Find the surface area and volume of the
share and z shares of TRW stock at $20 per open-top box below.
share. Write a polynomial that expresses the
amount of money the buyer has invested at
the end of the day.

64. An artist takes a rectangular piece of card-

board whose sides are x and y and cuts out a 83. Eric can run a mile in 4.23 minutes, and
x
square of side 2 to obtain a mat for a paint- Benjamin can run 4.23 miles in an hour. Who
ing, as shown in Figure 5. Write a polynomi- is the faster runner?
al giving the area of the mat.
84. a. Let P = $1000; that is, store 1000 in mem-
y ory location P. Evaluate P + 0.06P by
–x2 entering the expression P + 0.06P into
your calculator.
b. Repeat part (a) for P = $28,525.
Cut out –x2 x
85. Let A = 8 and B = 32; that is, store 8 in
memory location A and 32 in memory loca-
tion B. Evaluate the following expressions by
entering them into your calculator as they
FIGURE 5 See Exercise 64. appear below. (Use a multiplication sign if
your calculator requires you to do so.)
In Exercises 65–78, perform the multiplication
mentally. a. A(B + 17) b. 5B  A2

65. (x  1)(x + 3) 66. (x + 2)(x + 3) c. AA d. 16A  3AB

67. (2x + 1)(2x + 3) 68. (3x  1)(x + 5) 86. Find the value of the polynomial 20t  0.7t2
when t is 28 and when t is 29. Try to find a
69. (3x  2)(x  1) 70. (x + 4)(2x  1)
value for t (other than 0) that gives the
71. (x + y)2 72. (x  4)2 expression a value close to zero.
73. (3x  1)2 74. (x + 2)(x  2) 87. Consider the polynomial vt  2at2.
1

75. (2x + 1)(2x  1) 76. (3a + 2b)2 a. Compare this expression to the expression
2
77. (x + y )2 2
78. (x  y) 2 given in Exercise 86. What values of v and
a would make them identical?
79. Simplify the following.
b. Using your calculator, experiment with dif-
a. 310 + 310 + 310 b. 2n + 2n + 2n + 2n ferent values of v, a, and t. Try to put your
80. A student conjectured that the expression N data in an organized chart. In physics, this
= m2  m + 41 yields N, a prime number, expression represents position of a body in
for integer values of m. Prove or disprove free fall: v is the initial velocity, and a is the
this statement. acceleration due to gravity.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 31

1.4 Factoring
Now that we can find the product of two polynomials, let us consider the
reverse problem: given a polynomial, can we find factors whose product yields
the given polynomial? This process, known as factoring, is one of the basic tools
of algebra. In this chapter, a polynomial with integer coefficients is to be fac-
tored as a product of polynomials of lower degree with integer coefficients; a
polynomial with rational coefficients is to be factored as a product of polyno-
mials of lower degree with rational coefficients. We will approach factoring by
learning to recognize the situations in which factoring is possible.

Common Factors
Consider the polynomial
x2 + x
Since the factor x is common to both terms, we can write
x2 + x = x(x + 1)

EXAMPLE 1 FACTORING WITH COMMON FACTORS

Factor.
a. 15x3  10x2 b. 4x2y  8xy2 + 6xy c. 2x(x + y)  5y(x + y)

SOLUTION
a. 5 and x2 are common to both terms. Therefore,

15x3  10x2 = 5x2(3x  2)

b. Here we see that 2, x, and y are common to all terms. Therefore,

4x2y  8xy2 + 6xy = 2xy(2x  4y + 3)

c. The expression (x + y) is found in both terms. Factoring, we have

2x(x + y)  5y(x + y) = (x + y)(2x  5y)

✔ Progress Check
Factor.
a. 4x2 – x b. 3x4 – 9x2 c. 3m(2x – 3y) – n(2x – 3y)

Answers
a. x(4x – 1) b. 3x2(x2 – 3) c. (2x – 3y)(3m – n)
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32 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Factoring by Grouping
It is sometimes possible to discover common factors by first grouping terms.
Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLE 2 FACTORING BY GROUPING

Factor.

a. 2ab  b  2ac  c b. 2x  4x2y  3y  6xy2

SOLUTION
a. Group those terms containing b and those terms containing c.
2ab + b + 2ac + c = (2ab + b) + (2ac + c) Grouping
= b(2a + 1) + c(2a + 1) Common factors b, c
= (2a + 1)(b + c) Common factors 2a + 1

a. Alternatively, suppose we group terms containing a.

2ab + b + 2ac + c = (2ab + 2ac) + (b + c) Grouping
= 2a(b + c) + (b + c) Common factors 2, a
= (b + c)(2a + 1) Common factor (b + c)
b. 2x  4x2y  3y  6xy2
= (2x  4x2y)  (3y  6xy2) Grouping with sign change
= 2x(1  2xy)  3y(1  2xy) Common factors 2x, 3y
= (1  2xy)(2x  3y) Common factor 1  2xy

✔ Progress Check
Factor.
a. 2m3n + m2 + 2mn2 + n b. 2a2 – 4ab2 – ab + 2b3

Answers
a. (2mn + 1)(m2 + n) b. (a – 2b2)(2a – b)

Factoring Second-Degree Polynomials

To factor a second-degree polynomial, such as

x2 + 5x + 6

we first note that the term x2 can have come only from x  x, so we write two
incomplete factors:

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x )(x )
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 33

The constant term +6 can be the product of either two positive numbers or two
negative numbers. Since the middle term +5x is the sum of two other products,
both signs must be positive. Thus,

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + )(x + )

Finally, the number 6 can be written as the product of two integers in only two
ways: 1  6 and 2  3. The first pair gives a middle term of 7x. The second pair
gives the actual middle term, 5x. So

x2 + 5x + 6 = (x + 2)(x + 3)

EXAMPLE 3 FACTORING SECOND-DEGREE POLYNOMIALS

Factor.

a. x2  7x + 10 b. x2  3x  4

SOLUTION
a. Since the constant term is positive and the middle term is negative, we must
have two negative signs. Integer pairs whose product is 10 are 1 and 10,
and 2 and 5. We find that

x2  7x + 10 = (x  2)(x  5)

b. Since the constant term is negative, we must have opposite signs. Integer
pairs whose product is 4 are 1 and 4, and 2 and 2. Since the coefficient of
3x is negative, we assign the larger integer of a given pair to be negative.
We find that

x2  3x  4 = (x + 1)(x  4)

When the leading coefficient of a second-degree polynomial is an integer

other than 1, the factoring process becomes more complex, as shown in the fol-
lowing example.

EXAMPLE 4 FACTORING SECOND-DEGREE POLYNOMIALS

Factor 2x2  x  6.

SOLUTION
The term 2x2 can result only from the factors 2x and x, so the factors must be
of the form
2x2  x  6 = (2x )(x )

The constant term, 6, must be the product of factors of opposite signs, so we
may write
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34 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

(2x + )(x  )
2x  x  6 = or
2

(2x  )(x + )

The integer factors of 6 are

16 61 23 32

By trying these we find that

2x2  x  6 = (2x + 3)(x  2)

✔ Progress Check
Factor.
a. 3x2 – 16x + 21 b. 2x2 + 3x – 9

Answers
a. (3x – 7)(x – 3) b. (2x – 3)(x + 3)

WARNING
The polynomial x2  6x can be written as

x2  6x = x(x  6)

and is then a product of two polynomials of positive degree. Students often fail
to consider x to be a “true” factor.

Special Factors
There is a special case of the second-degree polynomial that occurs frequently
and factors easily. Given the polynomial x2  9, we see that each term is a per-
fect square, and we can verify that
x2  9 = (x + 3)(x  3)

The general rule, which holds whenever we are dealing with a difference of two
squares, may be stated as follows:

Difference of Two Squares

a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 35

EXAMPLE 5 SPECIAL FACTORS

Factor.

a. 4x2  25 b. 9r2  16t2

SOLUTION
a. Since

4x2  25 = (2x)2  (5)2

we may use the formula for the difference of two squares with a = 2x and b
= 5. Thus,

4x2  25 = (2x + 5)(2x  5)

b. Since

9r2  16t2 = (3r)2  (4t)2

we have a = 3r and b = 4t, resulting in

9r2  16t2 = (3r + 4t)(3r  4t)

✔ Progress Check
Factor.
a. x2 – 49 b. 16x2 – 9 c. 25x2 – y2

Answers
a. (x + 7)(x – 7) b. (4x + 3)(4x – 3) c. (5x + y)(5x – y)

The formulas for a sum of two cubes and a difference of two cubes can be
verified by multiplying the factors on the right-hand sides of the following
equations:

Sum and Difference of Two Cubes

a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 – ab + b2)
a3 – b3 = (a – b)(a2 + ab + b2)

These formulas provide a direct means of factoring the sum or difference

of two cubes and are used in the same way as the formula for a difference of
two squares.
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36 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

EXAMPLE 6 SPECIAL FACTORS

Factor.
1
a. x3 + 1 b. 27m3  64n3 c.  u3 + 8v3
27

SOLUTION
a. With a = x and b = 1, the formula for the sum of two cubes yields the fol-
lowing result:

x3 + 1 = (x + 1)(x2  x + 1)

b. Since

27m3  64n3 = (3m)3  (4n)3

we can use the formula for the difference of two cubes with a = 3m and b
= 4n:

27m3  64n3 = (3m  4n)(9m2 + 12mn + 16n2)

c. Note that

 
1 1 3
 u3 + 8v3 =  u + (2v)3
27 3
and then use the formula for the sum of two cubes:

  
1 u u2 2
 u3 + 8v3 =  + 2v    uv + 4v2
27 3 9 3

Combining Methods
We conclude with problems that combine the various methods of factoring that
we have studied. As the factoring becomes more complicated, it may be help-
ful to consider the following strategy:

Remove common factors before

attempting any other factoring techniques.

EXAMPLE 7 COMMON FACTORS, GROUPING, AND SPECIAL FACTORS

Factor.

a. 2x3  8x b. 3y(y + 3) + 2(y + 3)(y2  1)

SOLUTION
a. Observing the common factor 2x, we find that
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 37

2x3  8x = 2x(x2  4)
= 2x(x + 2)(x  2)
b. Observing the common factor y + 3, we see that
3y(y + 3) + 2(y + 3)(y2  1) = (y + 3)[3y + 2(y2  1)]
= (y + 3)(3y + 2y2  2)
= (y + 3)(2y2 + 3y  2)
= (y + 3)(2y  1)(y + 2)

Focus on “MAGICAL” Factoring for Second-Degree Polynomials

Factoring involves a certain amount of trial and error that can become frustrating,
especially when the lead coefficient is not 1. You might want to try a scheme that
“magically” reduces the number of candidates. We demonstrate the method for the
polynomial

4x2 + 11x + 6 (1)

Using the lead coefficient of 4, write the pair of incomplete factors

(4x )(4x ) (2)

Next, multiply the coefficient of x2 and the constant term in Equation (1) to
produce 4  6 = 24. Now find two integers whose product is 24 and whose sum
is 11, the coefficient of the middle term of (1). Since 8 and 3 work, we write

(4x + 8)(4x + 3) (3)

Finally, within each parenthesis in Equation (3) discard any common numerical
factor. (Discarding a factor may only be performed in this “magical” type of
factoring.) Thus (4x + 8) reduces to (x + 2) and we write

(x + 2)(4x + 3) (4)

which is the factorization of 4x2 + 11x + 6.

Will the method always work? Yes—if you first remove all common factors
in the original polynomial. That is, you must first write
Try the method on
these second-degree 6x2 + 15x + 6 = 3(2x2 + 5x + 2)
polynomials:
and apply the method to the polynomial 2x2 + 5x + 2.
3x2 + 10x – 8 (For a proof that the method works, see M. A. Autrie and J. D. Austin, “A
6x2 – 13x + 6 Novel Way to Factor Quadratic Polynomials,” The Mathematics Teacher 72,
4x2 – 15x – 4 no. 2 [1979].) We use the polynomial 2x2 – x – 6 of Example 4 to demonstrate
10x2 + 11x – 6 the method when some of the coefficients are negative.
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38 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Factoring ax 2 + bx + c Example: 2x 2 – x – 6
Step 1. Use the lead coefficient a to write Step 1. The lead coefficient is 2, so we write
the incomplete factors (2x )(2x )
(ax )(ax )

Step 2. Multiply a and c, the coefficients of x2, Step 2. a · c = (2)(–6) = –12

and the constant term.

Step 3. Find integers whose product is a  c and Step 3. Two integers whose product is –12 and
whose sum equals b. Write these integers whose sum is –1 are 3 and –4. We then write
in the incomplete factors of Step 1. (2x + 3)(2x – 4)

Step 4. Discard any common factor within each Step 4. Reducing (2x – 4) to (x – 2) by discarding the
parenthesis in Step 3. The result is the common factor 2, we have
desired factorization. 2x2 – x – 6 = (2x + 3)(x – 2)

✔ Progress Check
Factor.
a. x3  5x2 – 6x b. 2x3 – 2x2y – 4xy2
c. –3x(x  1)  (x  1)(2x2  1)

Answers
a. x(x + 6)(x – 1) b. 2x(x + y)(x – 2y) c. (x + 1)(2x – 1)(x – 1)

Irreducible Polynomials
Are there polynomials that cannot be written as a product of polynomials of
lower degree with integer coefficients? The answer is yes. Examples are the poly-
nomials x2 + 1 and x2 + x + 1. A polynomial is said to be prime, or irreducible,
if it cannot be written as a product of two polynomials, each of positive degree.
Thus, x2 + 1 is irreducible over the integers.

Exercise Set 1.4

Factor completely. 10. 9a3b3 + 12a2b  15ab2
1 3 11. x2 + 4x + 3 12. x2 + 2x  8
1. 5x  15 2. x + y
4 4 13. y2  8y + 15 14. y2 + 7y  8
3. 2x  8y 4. 3x  6y + 15
15. a2 – 7ab + 12b2 16. x2 – 49
5. 5bc + 25b 6. 2x4 + x2
1
17. y2 –  18. a2 – 7a + 10
7. 3y2  4y5 8. 3abc + 12bc
9
9. 3x2 + 6x2y  9x2z
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 39

19. 9 – x2 20. 4b2 – a2 75. 3(x + 2)2(x – 1) – 4(x + 2)2(2x + 7)

21. x2 – 5x – 14 22. x2y2 – 9 76. 4(2x – 1)2(x + 2)3(x + 1) – 3(2x – 1)5(x +

1 – y2 2)2(x + 3)
23.  24. 4a2 – b2
16 77. Show that the difference of the squares of
2
25. x – 6x + 9 26. 2 21
ab – two positive, consecutive odd integers must
9 be divisible by 8.
27. x2 – 12x + 20 28. x2 – 8x – 20
78. A perfect square is a natural number of the
29. x2 + 11x + 24 30. 9
y2 –  form n2. For example, 9 is a perfect square
16
since 9 = 32. Show that the sum of the
31. 2x2 – 3x – 2 32. 2x2 + 7x + 6 squares of two odd numbers cannot be a
33. 3a2 – 11a + 6 34. 4x2 – 9x + 2 perfect square.

35. 6x2 + 13x + 6 36. 4y2 – 9 79. Find a natural number n, if possible, such
that 1 + n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n + 3) is a perfect
37. 8m2 – 6m – 9 38. 9x2 + 24x + 16
square.
39. 10x2 – 13x – 3 40. 9y2 – 16x2
80. Prove or disprove that 1 + n(n + 1)(n + 2)(n
41. 6a2 – 5ab – 6b2 42. 4x2 + 20x + 25 + 3) is a perfect square. (Hint: Consider [1 +
n(n + 3)]2.)
43. 10r2s2 + 9rst + 2t2 44. x12 – 1
81. Factor completely.
45. 16 – 9x2y2 46. 6 + 5x – 4x2
a. (x + h)3 – x3 b. 2n + 2n+1 + 2n+2
47. 8n2 – 18n – 5 48. 15 + 4x – 4x2
c. 16 – 81x12 d. z2 – x2 + 2xy – y2
49. 2x2 – 2x – 12 50. 3y2 + 6y – 45
82. Factor completely.
51. 30x2 – 35x + 10 52. x4y4 – x2y2

53. 18x2m + 33xm + 9m 54. 25m2n3 – 5m2n


a. 
2
n(n + 1) 2 + (n + 1)3

n(n
b.  + 1)(2n + 1) + (n + 1)2
55. 12x2 – 22x3 – 20x4 6
1
c.  (a + bx)2 – a (a + bx)
56. 10r2 – 5rs – 15s2 b b
57. x4 – y4 58. a4 – 16 83. Factor the following expressions that arise in
different branches of science.
59. b4 + 2b2 – 8 60. 4b4 + 20b2 + 25
a. biology (blood flow): C[(R + 1)2 – r2]
61. x3 + 27y3 62. 8x3 + 125y3
b. physics (nuclear): pa2 + (1 – p)b2 – [pa +
63. 27x3 – y3 64. 64x3 – 27y3 (1 – p)b]2
c. mechanics (bending beams): X2 – 3LX +
65. a3 + 8 66. 8r3 – 27
2L2
1 m3 – 8n3
67.  68. 8a3 – 1 b3
8 64 d. electricity (resistance): (R1 + R2)2 – 2r(R1
+ R2)
69. (x + y)3 – 8 70. 27 + (x + y)3
e. physics (motion): –16t2 + 64t + 336
71. 8x6 – 125y6 72. a6 + 27b6
84. a. Factor this expression, used to find the
73. 4(x + 1)(y + 2) – 8(y + 2)
answers given in the chapter opening.
74. 2(x + 1)(x – 1) + 5(x – 1)
20t  0.7t2
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40 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

b. Show that the factored form and the origi- Experiment with different values of s, v, and
nal form are identical by using your t. Which ones give you an expression that is
graphing calculator to compare the easy to factor? (Reread Exercise 87 in Section
GRAPH of each expression. Graphing will 1.3. The s we have added could represent the
be explained in Chapter 3. original position of the object.)
1
85. Factor the general expression vt  at2. 87. Mathematics in Writing: Write a short para-
2
graph explaining the differences in the tech-
86. Suppose we alter the expression from
niques you used to factor the scientific
Exercise 85 by adding a constant:
expressions in Exercise 83 parts a, b, and c.
s  vt  1at2 Find at least one other problem in this prob-
2
lem set that uses a technique similar to each
of the three you have described.

1.5 Rational Expressions

Much of the terminology and many of the techniques for the arithmetic of
fractions carry over to algebraic fractions, which are the quotients of algebraic
expressions. In particular, we refer to a quotient of two polynomials as a
rational expression.

Notation

Any symbol used as a divisor in this text is always assumed

to be different from zero.

Therefore, we will not always identify a divisor as being different from zero
unless it disappears through some type of mathematical manipulation.
Our objective in this section is to review the procedures for adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing rational expressions. We are then able to
convert a complicated fraction, such as
1
1
x
1 1
2

x x
into a form that simplifies evaluation of the fraction and facilitates other opera-
tions with it.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 41

Multiplication and Division

of Rational Expressions
The symbols appearing in rational expressions represent real numbers. We
may, therefore, apply the rules of arithmetic to rational expressions. Let a,
b, c, and d represent any algebraic expressions.

a c ac
ⴢ  Multiplication of rational expressions
b d bd

a a
b b (bd ) ad
 ⴢ 
c c (bd ) cb Division of rational expressions
d d

EXAMPLE 1 MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF RATIONAL

EXPRESSIONS
2x 3y3
Divide  by  .
y x–3

SOLUTION 2x 2x
y y (y ) (x  3 ) 2x(x  3 )
 ⴢ  , x3
3y3 3
3y (y ) (x  3 ) 3y4
x3 x3

The basic rule that allows us to simplify rational expressions is the cancella-
tion principle.

Cancellation Principle
ab b
 = , a0
ac c

a
This rule results from the fact that  = 1. Thus,
a
ab a b b b
==1=
ac a c c c
Once again we find that a rule for the arithmetic of fractions carries over to
rational expressions.
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42 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

EXAMPLE 2 FACTORING AND CANCELLATION

Simplify.

x2 – 4 3x2(y – 1) 6x(y – 1)2 x2 – x – 6

a. 
2
b.  ÷ 3
c. 2
x + 5x + 6 y+1 (y + 1) 3x – x

SOLUTION
x2 – 4 (x + 2)(x – 2) x–2
a. 
2
=  =  , x  2
x + 5x + 6 (x + 3)(x + 2) x+3

3x (y  1 ) 3x2 (y  1 )
2

y1 y1 (y  1 ) 3 3x2 (y  1 ) (y  1 ) 2

b.  ⴢ 
6x(y  1 ) 2 6x(y  1 ) 2 (y  1 ) 3 6x(y  1 ) 2
(y  1 ) 3 (y  1 ) 3

x(y  1 ) 2
 , x  0, y  1
2(y  1 )

x2 – x – 6 (x – 3)(x + 2) (x – 3)(x + 2) x+2

c. 2
=  =  =  , x3
3x – x x(3 – x) –x(x – 3) –x
x+2
= – , x3
x

Note that in Example 2c, we wrote (3 – x) as –(x – 3). This technique is

often used to recognize factors that may be canceled.

✔ Progress Check
Simplify.

a.  4 – x2 8 – 2x ÷ x2 – 16
2
 b.   
x –x – 6 y y

Answers
2 – x,
a.   x ≠ –2 b. – 2, x ≠ 4, y ≠ 0
x– 3 x+4

WARNING
a. Only multiplicative factors can be canceled. Thus,
2x4
 24
x
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 43

Since x is not a factor in the numerator, we may not perform cancellation.

b. Note that
y x
2 2
yx
yx
To simplify correctly, write
y2 – x2 (y + x)(y – x)
 =  = y + x, yx
y–x y–x

Addition and Subtraction of Rational

Expressions
Since the variables in rational expressions represent real numbers, the rules of
arithmetic for addition and subtraction of fractions apply to rational expres-
sions. When rational expressions have the same denominator, the addition and
subtraction rules are as follows:

a b a+b
+=
c c c

a b a–b
–=
c c c

For example,
2 4 5 2–4+5 3
–+==
x–1 x–1 x–1 x–1 x–1
To add or subtract rational expressions with different denominators, we
must first rewrite each rational expression as an equivalent one with the
same denominator as the others. Although any common denominator will
do, we will concentrate on finding the least common denominator, or LCD,
of two or more rational expressions. We now outline the procedure and pro-
vide some examples.

EXAMPLE 3 LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR FOR RATIONAL NUMBERS

Find the LCD of the following three fractions:
1 7 3
  
8 90 25
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44 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

SOLUTION
Least Common Denominator

Method Example
1
Step 1.  7 3
Step 1. Factor the denominator of each fraction.  2
23 2  32  5 5

Step 2. Find the different factors in the denominator and the Step 2. Highest Final
highest power to which each factor occurs. Factor exponent factors
2 3 8
3 2 9
5 2 25

Step 3. The product of the final factors in Step 2 is the LCD. Step 3. The LCD is 23  32  52 = 8  9  25.

EXAMPLE 4 LEAST COMMON DENOMINATOR FOR RATIONAL

EXPRESSIONS
Find the LCD of the following three rational expressions:
1 –2 3x
  
x3 – x2 x3 – x x2 + 2x + 1
SOLUTION
Least Common Denominator
Method Example
Step 1.  1 –2 3x
Step 1. Factor the denominator of each fraction.  2
x2(x – 1) x(x – 1)(x + 1) (x + 1)

Step 2. Find the different factors in the denominator Step 2. Highest Final
and the highest power to which each factor occurs. Factor exponent factors
x 2 x2
x–1 1 x–1
x+1 2 (x + 1)2
Step 3. The product of the final factors in Step 2 Step 3. The LCD is x2(x – 1)(x + 1)2
is the LCD.

✔ Progress Check
Find the LCD of the following fractions:
2a – 7b 3
   
(3a2 + 12a + 12)b a(4b2 – 8b + 4) ab3 + 2b3

Answers
12ab3(a + 2)2(b – 1)2
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 45

Equivalent Fractions
2 6 6 2
The fractions  and  are said to be equivalent because we obtain  by multiplying 
3 5 15 2 15 5
by , which is the same as multiplying  by 1. We also say that algebraic fractions are
3 5
equivalent fractions if we can obtain one from the other by multiplying both the numera-
tor and denominator by the same expression.
To add rational expressions, we must first determine the LCD and then convert each
rational expression into an equivalent fraction with the LCD as its denominator. We can
accomplish this conversion by multiplying the fraction by the appropriate equivalent of 1.
We now outline the procedure and provide an example.

EXAMPLE 5 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Simplify.
x+1 – 2
 2

2x 3x(x + 2)

SOLUTION
Addition of Rational Expressions
Method Example
Step 1. Find the LCD. Step 1. LCD = 6x2(x + 2)
x + 1  3(x + 2) = 3x2 + 9x + 6
Step 2. 
Step 2. Multiply each rational expression by a fraction whose  
numerator and denominator are the same, and 2x2 3(x + 2) 6x2(x + 2)
consist of all factors of the LCD that are missing in 2 (2x ) 4x
ⴢ 
the denominator of the expression. 3x(x  2 ) (2x ) 6x2 (x  2 )

x+1 – 2
Step 3. Add the rational expressions. Do not multiply out Step 3.  
2x2 3x(x + 2)
the denominators since it may be possible to cancel.
3x2 + 9x + 6 –
=  4x

6x2(x + 2) 6x2(x + 2)

3x2 + 5x + 6
= 
6x2(x + 2)

✔ Progress Check
Perform the indicated operations.
x –8 +
a.  3 b. 4r – 3 – 2r + 1 + 2
     
x – 4 x – 2x
2 2 9r 3 4r 2 3r

Answers
x–3 , 6r 2 +7r – 12
a.   x≠2 b.  
x(x + 2) 36 r 3
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46 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Complex Fractions
At the beginning of this section, we said that we wanted to be able to sim-
plify fractions such as
1– 1
x
————
1 1
2 + 
x x

This is an example of a complex fraction, which is a fractional form with

fractions in the numerator or denominator or both.

EXAMPLE 6 DIVISION OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS

Simplify the following:
1–1
x
————
1 1
2 + 
x x
SOLUTION
Simplifying Complex Fractions

Method Example
1 and 1 is x2.
Step 1. The LCD of 
Step 1. Find the LCD of all fractions in the numerator 2
and denominator. x x

( )
1
1
x (x2 ) x2x
ⴢ  x0
( )
Step 2. Multiply the numerator and denominator by Step 2. ,
1 1 (x2 ) 1x
the LCD. Since this is multiplication by 1, the 
x2 x
result is an equivalent fraction.

x(x1 )
 , x0
1x

✔ Progress Check
Simplify.
1 a b
2 
x b a
a. b.
2 1 1
1 
x a b

Answers
2x  1 2
b2 ,
a. , x0 b. a+ a  0, b0
x2 b–a
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 47

Exercise Set 1.5

Perform all possible simplifications in Exercises 25. 2b , 3

1–20. b – 1 (b – 1)2

y2  25 2+x, 3
26. 
x+4 
1.  2. x2 – 4 x – 2
x2 – 16 y5
27. 4x , 5
x2 – 8x + 16 5x2 – 45 
3.  4.  x – 2 x2 + x – 6
x–4 2x – 6
3 2y
6x2 – x – 1 3
+ x2 – 3x  
5.  6. 2x
 28. y2 – 3y – 4 , y + 1
2x2 + 3x – 2 2
3x – 5x + 2

7.  2 ÷ 3 3 , 2, x
29.   
3x – 6 2x – 4 x+1 x x–1
5x + 15 ÷ 3x + 9
8.  4, 3 , x
 30.   
8 4 x x – 1 x2 – 2x + 1
25 – a2  2b2 + 6b 2xy2 x+y
9.   10.  In Exercises 31–50, perform the indicated opera-
b+3 a–5 xy 4xy tions and simplify.
x + 2 ÷ x2 – 2x – 8 31. 8 + 4
11.   
3y 15y2 a–2 2–a

32.  x + 2
12. 3x ÷ 6x2 

2 x2 – 4 4 – x2
x+2 x –x–6
x–1 +2
33. 
6x2 – x – 2  2x2 – 7x + 6
13.  3

2x2 – 5x + 3 3x2 + x – 2
34. 1 + 2

6x2 + 11x – 2  5x2 – 3x – 2 x–1 x–2
14.  
4x2 – 3x – 1 3x2 + 7x + 2 1 + 3 a – b
35.   36.  
a+2 a–2 8b 12a
15. (x2 – 4)  2x + 3
x2 + 2x – 8 4 – 5
37.  4x – 1 + 2
 38.  2
3x xy 6x3 3x
16. (a2 – 2a)  a+1
6 – a – a2 39.  5 – x 40. x – y

2x + 6 x + 3 x–y x+y
x2 – 7x + 10
17. (x2 – 2x – 15) ÷ 
41.  5x + 4 4 – 3
42. 
x2 + 1 
2x2 – 18 3x – 9 r r+2
2y  5y  3
2
18. ÷ (y2 + y – 12) 1 + 2x – 1
y4 43.  
x – 1 (x – 2)(x + 1)

19.  x2 – 4 x2 + 3x – 4 
  x+3 2x
44.  – 
x–1

x + 2x – 3 x2 – 7x + 10 x2 + 3x + 2
2 2x + 1 (2x + 1)(x – 2)

45.  2x + 3
20. x2 – 9  2x2 + 5x + 2  x2 – x – 2
  x2 + x – 2 x + 2
6x2 + x – 1 x2 + 4x + 3 x2 – 3x
46.  2 + x
In Exercises 21–30, find the LCD. 
x – 2 x2 – x – 6
4, x – 2
21.  x , x+4 2x – 1 – x–2
 22.   47.  
x y x –1 x+2 x2 + 5x + 6 x2 + 4x + 3
5 – a, 7
23.  x + 2, x – 2
 24.   2x – 1 –
48.  
x
a 2a x x2 x3 – 4x x2 + x – 2
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48 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

49. 2x + x+1 1

 65. 1
x2 – 1 x2 + 3x – 4 1
1
2x + x – 1 1
50.    1
x+2 x – 2 x2 – 4 1x
In Exercises 51–66, simplify the complex fraction
and perform all indicated operations. 1
66. 1 
2 1 1
1 x 1
x x 1
51. 52. 1
3 1 1x
1 2
x x
r2 67. Combine and simplify.
1
x1 s2 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
53. 54. a.    
1 r R1 R2 R3 R4
1 1
x s
b.  3 + 4d – 5d2
 
c – d (c – d)2 (c – d)3
x216
55. 6 +k–2
1 1 c. 
 k+3
4 x
a b 68. Simplify the complex fractions.

ab a  b 1 1 1 1
56.  
a2b2 (x  h ) 2
x2 x2 9
a. b.
4 h x3
1
1 x 4
2
69. Find the errors in the following and correct
57. 2 58.
1 x
1 the statements.
a x2  x6
1
a b
 b 1
b a a. 
59. 1 1 1
1 1 
 a b a
a b
1

( )( )
x x
 b 1 a b
x2 x  2 b.  
60. 1 1 b 1 1
2x x2 
 a b
x2 x2
a2(3b + 4a) = 3b + 4a
c. 
2 
61. 3  a2 + b2 b2
1
1 1– x
1x d.  = –1
1+ x
3
62. 2  e. (x2 – y2)2 = x4 – y4
2
1
1x a+b =a
f. 
1 b
y 1
1 1
1 y
63. y 64. 1
1
1 y
y y
1
1
y
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 49

1.6 Integer Exponents

Positive Integer Exponents

In Section 1.3, we defined an for a real number a and a positive integer n as

an = a  a  · · ·  a


n factors

and we showed that if m and n are positive integers then aman = am + n. The method
we used to establish this rule was to write out the factors of am and an and count
the total number of occurrences of a. The same method can be used to establish
the rest of the properties in Table 9 when m and n are positive integers.

TABLE 9 Properties of Positive Integer Exponents, m > 0 and n > 0

Example Property
22  23  25 aman = am+n
4  8 = 32

(23)2 = 23·2 = 26 (am)n = amn

82 = 64

(2  3)2 = 22  32 (ab)m = ambm

62 = 4  9

   
2 m
6 62 a am
 =  =
2 22 b bm
36
32 = 
4

25 am = am–n if m > n, a0
2 = 23 
2 an
32
=8
4

22 1 an = 1 a0
5 = 3   if m > n,
2 2 am am–n
4 1
=
32 8

52 25 am = 1 if a  0
2 =  = 1 
5 25 am
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50 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

EXAMPLE 1 MULTIPLICATION WITH POSITIVE INTEGER EXPONENTS

Simplify the following.

a. (4a2b3)(2a3b) b. (2x2y)4

SOLUTION
a. (4a2b3)(2a3b) = 4  2  a2a3b3b = 8a5b4

b. (2x2y)4 = 24(x2)4y4 = 16x8y4

✔ Progress Check
Simplify, using only positive exponents.
a14
c.  –2(x + 1)n
a. (x3)4 b. x4(x2)3  d.  
a8 (x + 1)2n


–ab2

3
e. (3ab2)3 f.  
c3

Answers
a. x12 b. x10 c. a6 d. 2n
(x + 1)
a3b6
f. 
e. 27a3b6 
c9

Zero and Negative Exponents

We next expand our rules to include zero and negative exponents when the base
is nonzero. We wish to define a0 to be consistent with the previous rules for
exponents. For example, applying the rule aman = am+n yields

ama0 = am+0 = am

Dividing both sides by am, we obtain a0 = 1. We therefore define a0 for any

nonzero real number by

a0  1, a0

The same approach leads us to a definition of negative exponents. For consis-

tency, if m  0, we must have

ama–m = am–m = a0 = 1 or ama–m = 1 (1)

Division of both sides of Equation (1) by am suggests that we define a–m as

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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 51

a–m  1m
, a0
a

Dividing Equation (1) by a–m, we have

am  1–m
, a0
a

Thus, am and a–m are reciprocals of one another. The rule for handling negative
exponents can be expressed as follows:

A nonzero factor moves from numerator to denominator (or from

denominator to numerator) by changing the sign of the exponent.

WARNING
It is important to note that

00 is not defined. Furthermore, 0–m is also not defined for m > 0.

We may also conclude that

a0  0 and a–m  0, m>0

We summarize these results in Table 10.

TABLE 10 Properties of Integer Exponents, a  0

Example Property

– 12
0
=1 a0 = 1

8 = 23 = 1–3 am = 1–m

2 a
2–3 = 13 = 1 a–m  1m
2 8 a

EXAMPLE 2 OPERATIONS WITH INTEGER EXPONENTS

Simplify the following, using only positive exponents:
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52 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

2 y3k+1
a. 0 b. (x2y–3)–5 c. 2k
, k>0
(x – 1) 2y

SOLUTION
2 2 y15
a. 0 =  = 2 b. (x2y–3)–5 = (x2)–5(y–3)–5 = x–10y15 = 
(x – 1) 1 x10
y3k+1 y3k+1y–2k y3k+1–2k 1
c.  2k
=  =  =  yk+1
2y 2 2 2

✔ Progress Check
Simplify, using only positive exponents.

–3x4y–2
 
x–3 –1
a. x–2y–3 b.   c. 
9x–8y6 x–4

Answers
a. 213 x12
b. –  c. 1

xy 3y8 x

WARNING
Do not confuse negative numbers and negative exponents.
1
a. 2–4 = 
24
Note that 2–4 ≠ –24.
b. (–2)–3 =  1 = 1 =–1
 
(–2)3 –8 8
1 = 1.
Note that (–2)–3 ≠  
23 8

Scientific Notation
One of the significant applications of integer exponents is that of scientific
notation. This technique enables us to recognize the size of extremely large and
extremely small numbers rather quickly and in a more concise form.
Consider the following examples for powers of 10:

One thousand = 1000 = 1 × 103 = 103

1 1
One thousandth = 0.001 =  = 3
= 10–3
1000 10
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 53

Reversing the procedure we obtain:

1. 102  1 × 102 = 100.0, namely, 1 with the decimal point two places to the
right of it.
1
2. 10–2 = 1 × 10–2 =  = 0.01, namely, 1 with the decimal point two places
100
to the left of it.

Scientific Notation
A number is written in scientific notation if it is of the form a
× 10m, where 1 ≤ a  10 and m is some integer. If a = 1, it is
generally omitted.

EXAMPLE 3 WRITING IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

° ) equals 1 ten-billionth of a meter. Write this in scientific
An angstrom (A
notation.

SOLUTION
° = 0.0000000001 meters = 10–10 meters
1 A

EXAMPLE 4 WRITING IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

One light-year is approximately 6 trillion miles. Write this in scientific nota-
tion.

SOLUTION
1 light-year ≈ 6,000,000,000,000 miles = 6 × 1012 miles

If a × 10m is the result of some calculations or measurements involving sci-

entific notation, then the number of digits present in a are generally taken as the
significant digits of the answer. For example, 6 × 1012 has one significant digit.
If we write a number in scientific notation with fewer significant digits than
the original number presented, we must round the last significant digit used
according to the following rule:

• Add 1 to the last significant digit if the digit following it in the original num-
ber is 5, 6, 7, 8, or 9.

• Leave the last significant digit alone if the digit following it in the original
number is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.

EXAMPLE 5 WRITING IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

The speed of light is approximately 186,282 miles per second. Write it in sci-
entific notation with four significant digits.
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54 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

SOLUTION
The speed of light ≈ 1.863 × 105 miles per second since 186,282 is rounded to
186,300.

EXAMPLE 6 WRITING IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

There are 31,557,600 seconds in an average year (365.25 days). Write it in sci-
entific notation with four significant digits.

SOLUTION
1 year = 3.156 × 107 seconds.

EXAMPLE 7 CALCULATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

Find the number of miles in 1 light-year to four significant digits.

SOLUTION
One light-year is the number of miles light travels in 1 year.

1 light-year = (1.863 × 105 miles per second)(3.156 × 107 seconds)

= 5.880 × 1012 miles.

Note that this becomes 6 × 1012 miles if we require only one significant
digit. The number of significant digits of our answer equals the minimum num-
ber of significant digits involved in our calculations.

Calculator Alert

Your calculator has a key that can be used to enter numbers in scientific nota-
tion. This key may be labeled EXP , EE , or EEX . Note how numbers entered
in this manner appear on the calculator’s display window.

Example: 1.863 EXP 5 × 3.156 EXP 7 = 5 .8 7 9 6 2 8 1 2 or 5 .8 7 9 6 2 8E 12

≈ 5.880 × 1012
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 55

✔ Progress Check
1 ounce = 0.02834952 kilogram
Write this number in scientific notation using:
a. two significant digits
b. three significant digits
c. five significant digits

Answers
a. 2.8 × 10–2 b. 2.83 × 10–2 c. 2.8350 × 10–2

Exercise Set 1.6

In Exercises 1–6, the right-hand side is incorrect. y3(y3)4
27. (2x + 1)3(2x + 1)7 28. 
(y4)6
Find the correct term.

1. x2  x4 = x8 2. (y2)5 = y7 29. (–2a2b3)2n 30. ( 2

 a2b3c2
3
) 3

b6 = b3
3.  x2 = x4
4. 
b2 x6 31. 20 + 3–1 32. (xy)0 – 2–1

5. (2x)4 = 2x4 6. ()
4
3
4

4
34
33.
(2x  1 ) 0
2
3
34. (–3)–3

In Exercises 7–64, use the rules for exponents to 1

simplify. Write the answers using only positive 35. 36. x–5
34
exponents.
37. (–x)3 38. –x–5
  
4 3
7. 1
– 1
– m 3m
8. (x )
2 2 39. 1 40. (2a)–6
y–6
9. (y4)2n 10. (–4)6
(–4)10 41. 5–355 42. 4y5y–2

43. (32)–3 44. (x–2)4

 
3
x
11. –  12. 3r r 2 3
y 45. (x–3)–3 46. [(x + y)–2]2
12
13. (x3)5  x4 x
14.  22 x8
x8 47.  48. 
2–3 x–10
15. (–2x2)5 16. –(2x2)5 2x4y–2
49.  50. (x4y–2)–1
17. x3n  xn 18. (–2)m(–2)n x2y–3

y 
3 5
19. xn 20. 3x
1
xn+2 2
51. (3a–2b–3)–2 52.
(2xy ) 2
21. (–5x3)(–6x5) 22. (x2)3(y2)4(x3)7
(r2)4
23.  24. [(3b + 1)5]5 3
(r4)2

(2a2b ) 4
53. ( 1
 x3y4
2
) 54.
(x2 ) 2
(3y2 ) 3
 
n
3
25.  x2y3 26.
2 (3ab2 ) 3
( )
2
3a5b2 x3
55. 56.
9a4b2 x2
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56 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

If we take the value of π to be 3.14, find the

( )
2
2a2b4 2x3y2 volume of a bubble, using scientific notation, if
57. 58.
a3c3 x3y3 its radius is 0.09 inch.
y–2

y 
–1
59. (a – 2b2)–1 60. 84. Find the distance, expressed in scientific
–3
notation, that light travels in 0.000020 sec-
(a + b)–1
61.  62. (a–1 + b–1)–1 onds if the speed of light is 1.86 × 105 miles
(a – b)–2 per second.

ba  + ba 
–1 –1
a–1 + b–1
63.  64. 85. The Republic of Singapore is said to have
a–1 – b–1 the highest population density of any coun-
try in the world. If its area is 270 square
  = ba 
–n n
a
65. Show that  miles and its estimated population is
b
4,500,000, find the population density, that
Evaluate each expression in Exercises 66–69. is, the approximate number of people per
66. (1.202)–1 67. [(–3.67)2]–1 square mile, using scientific notation.


7.65  
4.46 
–1 2 2 –1 86. Scientists have suggested that the relation-
68. 7.65 69. 4.46
2 –1
ship between an animal’s weight W and its
In Exercises 70–75, write each number using sci- surface area S is given by the formula
2
entific notation. 
S = KW 3
70. 7000 71. 0.0091
where K is a constant chosen so that W,
72. 452,000,000,000 73. 23 measured in kilograms, yields a value for S,
measured in square meters. If the value of K
74. 0.00000357 75. 0.8 × 10–3
for a horse is 0.10 and the horse weights 350
In Exercises 76–81, write each number without kilograms, find the estimated surface area of
exponents. the horse, using scientific notation.
76. 4.53 × 105 77. 8.93 × 10–4 87. Simplify the following:
78. 0.0017 × 107 79. 145 × 103 2n+3 + 2n + 2n a(1 – r3)
a.  b. 
80. 100 × 10–3 81. 1253 × 10–6 4(2n+3 – 2n+1) 1–r
96m
c.  d. 8
4
+ 84 + 84 + 84
82. The dimensions of a rectangular field, meas- 
32m 44
ured in meters, are 4.1 × 103 by 3.75 × 105.
Find the area of this field expressed in scien- (6 × 10–2)(2 × 10–3)
e. 
tific notation. 3 × 108
88. Assuming a lifetime is 70 years, how much is
83. The volume V of a spherical bubble of
radius r is given by the formula that in seconds? Express your answer in sci-

4 πr3 entific notation.

V=
3
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 57

1.7 Rational Exponents and Radicals

nth Roots
Consider a square whose area is 25 cm2 (square centimeters), and whose sides
are of length a. We can then write

a2 = 25

so that a is a number whose square is 25. We say that a is the square root of b
if a2 = b. Similarly, we say that a is a cube root of b if a3 = b; and, in general, if
n is a natural number, we say that

a is an nth root of b if an = b

Thus, 5 is a square root of 25 since 52 = 25, and –2 is a cube root of –8 since

(–2)3 = –8.
Since (–5)2 = 25, we conclude that –5 is also a square root of 25. More gen-
erally, if b > 0 and a is a square root of b, then –a is also a square root of b. If
b < 0, there is no real number a such that a2 = b, since the square of a real num-
ber is always nonnegative. (In Section 1.8, we introduce an extended number
system in which there is a root when b < 0 and n is even.)
We would like to define rational exponents in a manner that is consistent with
the rules for integer exponents. If the rule (am)n = amn is to hold, then we must have

(b1/n)n = bn/n = b

But a is an nth root of b if an = b. Then for every natural number n, we say that

b1/n is an nth root of b

Principal nth Root

If n is even and b is positive, there are two numbers that are nth roots of b. For
example,
42 = 16 and (–4)2 = 16

There are then two candidates for 161/2, namely 4 and –4. To avoid ambiguity
we say that 161/2 = 4 That is, if n is even and b is positive, we always choose the
positive number a such that an = b is the nth root, and call it the principal nth
1/n
root of b. Thus, b denotes the principal nth root of b.
We summarize these results in Table 11.
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58 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

TABLE 11 Properties of Powers an = b and Roots a = b1/n for Integer n > 0

Example Property
23 = 8 (–2)3 = –8 Any power of a real number is a real number.
81/3 = 2 (–8)1/3 = –2 The odd root of a real number is a real number.
0n = 0 01/n =0 A positive power or root of zero is zero.
2 2
4 = 16 (–4) = 16 A positive number raised to an even power equals
the negative of that number raised to the same
even power.
(16)1/2 = 4 The principal root of a positive number is a
positive number.
(–4)1/2 is undefined in the real number system. The even root of a negative number is not
a real number.

EXAMPLE 1 ROOTS OF A REAL NUMBER

Evaluate.

a. 1441/2 b. (–8)1/3

 16 
1 1/4
c. (–25)1/2 d. – 

SOLUTION
a. 1441/2 = 12 b. (–8)1/3 = –2

 16 
1 1/4 1
c. (–25)1/2 is not a real number d. –  = –
2

Rational Exponents
Now we are prepared to define bm/n. Where m is an integer (positive or nega-
tive), n is a positive integer, and b > 0 when n is even. We want the rules for
exponents to hold for rational exponents as well. That is, we want to have

43/2 = 4(1/2)(3) = (41/2)3 = 23 = 8

and

43/2 = 4(3)(1/2) = (43)1/2 = (64)1/2 = 8

To achieve this consistency, we define bm/n for an integer m, a natural number

n, and a real number b, by

bm/n = (b1/n)m = (bm)1/n

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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 59

where b must be positive when n is even. With this definition, all the rules of
exponents continue to hold when the exponents are rational numbers.

EXAMPLE 2 OPERATIONS WITH RATIONAL EXPONENTS

Simplify.

a. (–8)4/3 b. x1/2  x3/4 c. (x3/4)2 d. (3x2/3y–5/3)3

SOLUTION
a. (–8)4/3 = [(–8)1/3]4 = (–2)4 = 16

b. x1/2  x3/4 = x1/2+3/4 = x5/4

c. (x3/4)2 = x(3/4)(2) = x3/2

27x2
d. (3x2/3y–5/3)3 = 33  x(2/3)(3)y(–5/3)(3) = 27x2y–5 = 5
y

Focus: When Is a Proof Not a Proof?

Books of mathematical puzzles love to include “proofs” that lead to false or

contradictory results. Of course, there is always an incorrect step hidden some-
where in the proof. The error may be subtle, but a good grounding in the fun-
damentals of mathematics will enable you to catch it.

Examine the following “proof.”

1  11/2 (1)
 [(–1)2]1/2 (2)
 (–1)2/2 (3)
 (–1)1 (4)
 –1 (5)
The result is obviously contradictory: we can’t have 1 = –1. Yet each step seems
to be legitimate. Did you spot the flaw? The rule

(bm)1/n = bm/n

used in going from Equation (2) to (3) does not apply when n is even and b is
negative.
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60 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

✔ Progress Check
Simplify. Assume all variables are positive real numbers.
x1/3y2/3
 
12
a. 274/3 b. (a1/2b–2)–2 c. 5
z /6

Answers 4 x4y8
a. 81 b. b c. 1
a z0

Radicals
The symbol b  is an alternative way of writing b1/2; that is, b
 denotes the
nonnegative square root of b. The symbol 
is called a radical sign, and b 
is called the principal square root of b. Thus,

25
=5 0
=0 –25
 is undefined
n
In general, the symbol b is an alternative way of writing b1/n, the principal nth
n
root of b. Of course, we must apply the same restrictions to  b that we estab-
1/n
lished for b . In summary:
n

b = b1/n = a where an = b

with these restrictions:

n
• if n is even and b  0, 
b is not a real number;
n
• if n is even and b ≥ 0, 
b is the nonnegative number a satisfying
n
a = b.

WARNING
Many students are accustomed to writing 4  = 2. This is incorrect since the
symbol 
indicates the principal square root, which is nonnegative. Get in the
habit of writing 4 = 2. If you want to indicate all square roots of 4,
write 4 = 2.

n
In short, 
b is the radical form of b1/n. We can switch back and forth from
one form to the other. For instance,
3 5
7
 = 71/3 (11)1/5 = 11

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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 61

Finally, we treat the radical form of bm/n where m is an integer and n is a

positive integer as follows:

n
bm/n = (bm)1/n = b
m

and
n
bm/n = (b1/n)m = (
b)m

Thus
3
82/3 = (82)1/3 = 8
2
3
)2
= (81/3)2 = (8
(Check that the last two expressions have the same value.)

EXAMPLE 3 RADICALS AND RATIONAL EXPONENTS

Change from radical form to rational exponent form or vice versa. Assume all
variables are nonzero.
1
a. (2x)–3/2, x>0 b. 
7

4
y
c. (–3a)3/7 d. x
2
+ y2

SOLUTION
1 1 1 1
a. (2x)–3/2 =  = b. 
7 = = y–4/7
3/2
(2x) 3
8x
 
y 4 4/7
y
7
c. (–3a)3/7 = –27a
3 d. x
2
+ y2 = (x2 + y2)1/2

✔ Progress Check
Change from radical form to rational exponent form or vice
versa. Assume all variables are positive real numbers.
4 5/2 1
a. 2rs
3 b. (x + y) c. y–5/4 d. 
4 
m5

Answers
1
a. (2r)1/4s3/4 b. (x
 + y)5 c. 
4  d. m–5/4
y5

Since radicals are just another way of writing exponents, the properties
of radicals can be derived from the properties of exponents. In Table 12, n is
a positive integer, a and b are real numbers, and all radicals are real numbers.
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62 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

TABLE 12 Properties of Radicals

Example Property
3 3 n n

82 = (
8)2 = 4 b
m
= (
b)m
n n n
4
9
 = 36
=6 a
b = 
ab
3 n

 
8 3 8 2 a n a
3   n 
27 37 3 b b
3 n
(–2)
3 = –2 
an = a if n is odd
n
(–2)
2 = ⏐–2⏐ = 2 
an = ⏐a⏐ if n is even

Here are some examples using these properties.

EXAMPLE 4 OPERATIONS WITH RADICALS

Simplify.
3 3
a. 18
 b. 
–54 
c. 28x3
y d. x
6

SOLUTION
a. 18
 = 9
 2 = 9
2
 = 32

3 3 3 3 3
b. 
–54 = 2)
(–27)( = 
–27 2 = –32
3 3 3 3 3 3

c. 28x3
y = 2
8
x3 y = 2(2)(x)y = 4xy

d. x
6 = x
2  x
2  x
2 = ⏐x⏐  ⏐x⏐  ⏐x⏐ = ⏐x⏐3

WARNING
The properties of radicals state that

2 = ⏐x⏐
x

It is a common error to write x2 = x. This can lead to the conclusion that
2 = –6. Since the symbol 
represents the principal, or nonnegative,
(–6)
square root of a number, the result cannot be negative. It is therefore essen-
n
2 = ⏐x⏐(and, in fact, 
tial to write x xn = ⏐x⏐ whenever n is even) unless
we know that x ≥ 0, in which case we can write x 2 = x.

Simplifying Radicals
A radical is said to be in simplified form when the following conditions are
satisfied:
n
1. b
m
has m  n;
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 63

n
2. b
m
has no common factors between m and n;

3. A denominator is free of radicals.

The first two conditions can always be met by using the properties of radicals
and by writing radicals in exponent form. For example,
3 3 3 3 3
x
4 = x
3
 x = x
3
 = xx
x 

and
6 3
x
4 = x4/6 = x2/3 = x
2

The third condition can always be satisfied by multiplying the fraction by a

properly chosen form of unity, a process called rationalizing the denominator.
For example, to rationalize 1 we proceed as follows:
3


1 1 3 3 3
 ⴢ  
3 3 3 3 2 3
In this connection, a useful formula is

 + n
(m )(m
 – n
) = m – n

which we will apply in the following examples.

EXAMPLE 5 RATIONALIZING DENOMINATORS

Rationalize the denominator. Assume all variables denote positive numbers.
4 5 5
a. xy b. 
5
 – 2

c. 
x
+2
d. 
x+2

SOLUTION
x x x y xy xy
a.
   
y y y y

y2

y

4 4 5  2 4(5  2 ) 4
b.  ⴢ   (5  2 )
52 52 5  2 52 3

5 5 x2 5 (x  2 )
c.  ⴢ 
x  2 x  2 x2 x4

5 5 x  2 5x  2
d.  ⴢ 
x  2 x  2 x  2 x2
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64 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

✔ Progress Check
Rationalize the denominator. Assume all variables denote positive
numbers.
9xy3 6 4
a. b. c. 
3xy 2  6 x
  y


Answers
3 (2 4(x  y )
a. 3y23xy
 b.    6
) c.
2 xy

There are times in mathematics when it is necessary to rationalize the

numerator instead of the denominator. Although this is in opposition to a
simplified form, we illustrate this technique with the following example.
Note that if an expression does not display a denominator, we assume a
denominator of 1.

EXAMPLE 6 RATIONALIZING NUMERATORS

Rationalize the numerator. Assume all variables denote positive numbers.

4 x  3
  2
a.  (5 ) b.
3 x4
x  2
c. x
4 d.
x4

SOLUTION
4 5 2 4 (5  2 ) 4
a. (5  2 ) ⴢ  
3 5 2 3 (5 2 ) 5 2
See Example 5 (b).
x 3 x  3 x2  3
b. ⴢ 
x  4 x  3 (x  4 ) (x  3 )

x  4 x  4 x  16
c. ⴢ 
1 x  4 x  4
x  2 x  2 x4 1
d. ⴢ   , x4
x4 x  2 (x  4 ) (x  2 ) x  2
EXAMPLE 7 SIMPLIFIED FORMS WITH RADICALS
Write in simplified form. Assume all variables denote positive numbers.

 
4 3 3
8x x
a. 
y5 b.  c. 6
 2
y y
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 65

SOLUTION
4 4 4 4 4
a. 
y5  
y4  y  
y4 y  yy

b.
8x3  (4x ) (2x )
2
4x2 2x 2x2x 2x2x y 2x2xy
 y

y

y

y

y

y

y

6 3 3 3

6 x3  x x x y2 xy2
c.  6 2 3  3 ⴢ 3 2
y2  y y y y y

✔ Progress Check
Write in simplified form. Assume all variables denote positive
numbers.
2xy3

3
18x6
a. 75
 b.  c. 
ab4c7 d.
y 
4
32x3y5

Answers
3x3 2y 3
y 4

a. 53 b. c. bc2abc
 d. –  8xy
3
y 2

Operations with Radicals

We can add or subtract expressions involving exactly the same radical forms. For
example,
  32
22   52

since
  32
22   (2  3)2
  52

and 3 3 3
3 
x2y  7 
x2y  4
x2y

EXAMPLE 8 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF RADICALS

Write in simplified form. Assume all variables denote positive numbers.

  43
a. 75   95

3 3
1
b. 
x2y –  xy
  3
x2y  4xy

2

SOLUTION
  43
a. 75   95
  25
  43

3 3 3
1
b. x2y –  xy
  3x2y  4xy
  2x2y  7xy

2 2
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66 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

WARNING
9
  16
 ≠ 25


You can perform addition only with identical radical forms. Adding unlike radi-
cals is one of the most common mistakes made by students in algebra! You can
easily verify that

9
  16
347

n m
The product of a and 
b can be readily simplified only when m  n.
Thus,
5 5 5

x2y  
xy = x
3 2
y
but
3 5

x2y  
xy

cannot be readily simplified.

EXAMPLE 9 MULTIPLICATION OF RADICALS

Multiply and simplify.
3 3 5 5
a. 2 
xy2   x
2 2
y b.  ab
a2b  
ab2

SOLUTION
3 3 3 3
a. 2
xy2  x
 y  2x
2 2
 y  2xyy
3 4

5 5 5
b. ab
a2b  
ab2  aab
b 
3 3

Calculator Alert

Most calculators have a 

key. Scientific and graphing calculators sometimes
x x
have a special key to evaluate other roots. This key may be y ,  , or x1/y .
If your calculator does not have a special root key, you can use the power key to
evaluate roots.
5
Example: Show that 
12  1.64375183.
x
Solution: If your calculator has a root key, evaluate 5 y 12.
Otherwise, evaluate 12 x y
(1  5) or 12 ^ (1  5) on your
calculator.
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 67

Exercise Set 1.7

In Exercises 34–36, provide a real value for each
In Exercises 1–12, simplify, and write the answer
using only positive exponents. variable to demonstrate the result.

1. 163/4 2. (125)1/3 2 ≠ x
34. x 35. x
2
 y2 ≠ x  y

3. (64)2/3 4. c1/4c2/3 36. x

y ≠ xy

2x1/3 y2/3
5. 6. In Exercises 37–56, write the expression in sim-
3/4
x y1/5 plified form. Every variable represents a positive

( )
1/6
x3/2 1254/3 number.
7. 8.
x2/3 1252/3 
37. 48 38. 200

1/3 2 6 6 4 1/2
9. (x y ) 10. (x y ) 39. 
3
54 40. x
8

( ) ( )
3/5 2/3 3 4
x15 x18 41. 
y7 42. b
14
11. 12.
y10 y6 4
43. 96x
 10
44. x
5 4
y
In Exercises 13–18, write the expression in radi- 3

cal form. 45. x

5 3
y 46.  
24b10c14

()
2/5 4
1 2/3
47. 16x
 y
8 5
48. 20x
 y
5 7 4
z
13. 14. x


4 1 4
15. a3/4 16. (–8x2)2/5 49. 50.
5 311
( )
3/2
8 2 4

17. (12x3y–2)2/3 18. x y 1 2
3 51. 52.
3y y
In Exercises 19–24, write the expression in expo-
4x2 8a2b2
nent form. 53. 54.
4 5
2x 2 2b
19. 83 20. 32 3 4
55. x
 y 2 7
56. 48x
 y
8 6 2
z
1 1
21. 5 22. 3
 (8 ) 2 x7 In Exercises 57–66, simplify and combine terms.
3 3
1   53
57. 23  58. 4
11  6
11
 (2a2b3 ) 4
5
23. 24.


4 4 3
a   4x
59. 3x    52
60. 32   22

9
In Exercises 25–33, evaluate the expression.   12
61. 227   48

Verify your answer using your calculator. 62. 20
  445
  80


 
4 25 3 3
25. 26. 63. 
40  45
  
135  280

9 4


abc
64. 2abc
  38abc


4 3 1
27. 81
 28. 2
27
  (35
65. 25   45
)

 ( 1
2
29.  (5 ) 2 30.
3
)   (312
66. 218   275
)

In Exercises 67–74, multiply and simplify.

 
2 2
31. ( 54 ) 32. (  72 ) 67. 3
(3
  4) 68. 8
(2
  3
)
3 3
33. (14.43)3/2 69. 3
x2y 
xy2
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68 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

94. Prove that ⏐ab⏐  ⏐a⏐⏐b⏐. (Hint: Begin

5 5
70. 4x

2 3
y x
4 2
y
.)
with ⏐ab⏐  (ab) 2
  3
71. (2 )2
95. Simplify the following.
  22
72. (8 )(2
  28
)
a. x
 x
x b. (x1/2  x1/2)2
  2y
73. (3x )(3x
  22y
)
 1  x2
3
74. (
2x  3)(
3
2x  3) c.  1  x2 
2
In Exercises 75–86, rationalize the denominator.

5 34  34  34
3 3 d.
75. 76. 54  5 4  5 4  5 4  5 4
2  3 79 5(1  x2 ) 1/2  5x2 (1  x2 ) 1/2
2 3 e.
77. 78. 1  x2
34 x5 96. Write the following in simplest radical form.
3 4
79. 80. a. ac
2

2
3a  1 22y

 1 ( )
3 3 a 2
81. 82. b.
5  5y 35 c


2  1 5  3 1
83. 84. c. x
2
x
2  1 53
97. The frequency of an electrical circuit is
6  2 2a
85. 86. given by
3 2 2x  y

1 Lc1c2
2 c1  c2
In Exercises 87–90, rationalize the numerator.
Make the denominator radical free. (Hint:
3x
  10
87. 12  88. Use the techniques for rationalizing the
x9
denominator.)
x4 2x  1
89. 90.
16x 3x , 0.04
98. Use your calculator to find 0.4 ,
, 0.000
0.004 4 , and so on, until you see
In Exercises 91 and 92, provide real values for x a pattern. Can you state a rule about the
and y and a positive integer value for n to value of
demonstrate the result.

a
n  n
  y
91. x  ≠ x
y 92. x
 y ≠ x  y
n n 10
where a is a perfect square and n is a posi-
93. Find the step in the following “proof” that is tive integer? Under what circumstances does
incorrect. Explain. this expression have an integer value? Test
2  4
  (2)(
2)   2
2
  2 your rule for large values of n.

1.8 Complex Numbers

One of the central problems in algebra is to find solutions to a given polynomial
equation. This problem will be discussed in later chapters of this book. For now,
observe that there is no real number that satisfies a polynomial equation such as
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 69

Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 69

x2  4

since the square of a real number is always nonnegative.

To resolve this problem, mathematicians created a new number system built
upon an imaginary unit i, defined by i  1. This number i has the proper-
ty that when we square both sides of the equation we have i2  1, a result that
cannot be obtained with real numbers. By definition,

i  1

i 2  1

We also assume that i behaves according to all the algebraic laws we have
already developed (with the exception of the rules for inequalities for real num-
bers). This allows us to simplify higher powers of i. Thus,

i 3  i 2  i  (1)i  i
i 4  i 2  i 2  (1)(1)  1

Now we may simplify in when n is any natural number. Since i4  1, we seek

the highest multiple of 4 that is less than or equal to n. For example,

i 5  i 4  i  (1)  i  i
i 27  i 24  i 3  (i 4)6  i 3  (1)6  i 3  i 3  i

EXAMPLE 1 IMAGINARY UNIT i

Simplify.

a. i 51 b. i 74

SOLUTION
a. i 51  i 48  i 3  (i 4)12  i 3  (1)12  i 3  i 3  i

b. i 74  i 72  i 2  (i 4)18  i 2  (1)18  i 2  (1)(1)  1

We may also write square roots of negative numbers in terms of i. For
example,

  i25
25   5i

and, in general, we define

a
  ia for a  0
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70 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Any number of the form bi, where b is a real number, is called an imaginary
number.

WARNING
4
9
 ≠ 36


The rule a
  b
  ab
 holds only when a ≥ 0 and b ≥ 0. Instead, write

4
9
  2i  3i  6i2  6

Having created imaginary numbers, we next combine real and imaginary

numbers. We say that a  bi is a complex number where a and b are real num-
bers. The number a is called the real part of a  bi, and b is called the imagi-
nary part. The following are examples of complex numbers.
4 1
3  2i 2i 2i   i
5 5
Note that every real number a can be written as a complex number by choos-
ing b  0. Thus,
a  a  0i

We see that the real number system is a subset of the complex number system.
The desire to find solutions to every quadratic equation has led mathematicians
to create a more comprehensive number system, which incorporates all previ-
ous number systems. We will show in a later chapter that complex numbers are
all that we need to provide solutions to any polynomial equation.

EXAMPLE 2 COMPLEX NUMBERS a + bi

Write as a complex number:
1
a.   b. 9
 c. 1  4

2

SOLUTION
1 1
a.       0i
2 2

b. 9
  i9
  3i  0  3i

c. 1  4
  1  i4
  1  2i

Do not be concerned by the word “complex.” You already have all the
basic tools you need to tackle this number system. We will next define opera-
tions with complex numbers in such a way that the rules for the real num-
bers and the imaginary unit i continue to hold. We begin with equality and
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 71

say that two complex numbers are equal if their real parts are equal and
their imaginary parts are equal; that is,

a  bi  c  di if ac and bd

EXAMPLE 3 EQUALITY OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Solve the equation x  3i  6  yi for x and y.

SOLUTION
Equating the real parts, we have x  6; equating the imaginary parts,
3  y or y  3.
Complex numbers are added and subtracted by adding or subtracting the
real parts and by adding or subtracting the imaginary parts.

Addition and Subtraction of Complex Numbers

(a  bi)  (c  di)  (a  c)  (b  d)i

(a  bi)  (c  di)  (a  c)  (b d)i

Note that the sum or difference of two complex numbers is again a complex
number.

EXAMPLE 4 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Perform the indicated operations.

a. (7  2i)  (4  3i) b. 14  (3  8i)

SOLUTION
a. (7  2i)  (4  3i)  (7  4)  (2  3)i  11  5i

b. 14  (3  8i)  (14  3)  8i  11  8i

✔ Progress Check
Perform the indicated operations.

a. (9  3i)  (6  2i) b. 7i  (3  9i)

Answers
a. 3  i b. 3  2i
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72 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

We now define multiplication of complex numbers in a manner that permits

the commutative, associative, and distributive laws to hold, along with the def-
inition i 2  1. We must have

(a  bi)(c  di)  a(c  di)  bi(c  di)

 ac  adi  bci  bdi 2
 ac  (ad  bc)i  bd(1)
 (ac  bd)  (ad  bc)i

The rule for multiplication is

Multiplication of Complex Numbers

(a  bi)(c  di)  (ac  bd)  (ad  bc)i

This result demonstrates that the product of two complex numbers is a complex
number. It need not be memorized. Use the distributive law to form all the prod-
ucts and the substitution i2  1 to simplify.

EXAMPLE 5 MULTIPLICATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Find the product of (2  3i) and (7  5i).

SOLUTION
(2  3i)(7  5i)  2(7  5i)  3i(7  5i)
 14  10i  21i  15i2
 14  11i  15(1)
 29  11i

✔ Progress Check
Find the product.

a. (3  i)(4  2i) b. (4  2i)(2  3i)

Answers
a. 14  2i b. 14  8i

The complex number a  bi is called the complex conjugate, or simply the

conjugate, of the complex number a  bi. For example, 3  2i is the conjugate of
3  2i, 4i is the conjugate of 4i, and 2 is the conjugate of 2. Forming the prod-
uct (a  bi)(a  bi), we have
(a  bi)(abi)  a2  abi  abi  b2i2
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 73

 a2  b2 Since i2  1

Because a and b are real numbers, a2  b2 is also a real number. We can sum-
marize this result as follows:

The Complex Conjugate and Multiplication

The complex conjugate of a  bi is a  bi. The product of a com-
plex number and its conjugate is a real number.

(a  bi)(a  bi)  a2  b2

Before we examine the quotient of two complex numbers, we consider the

1
reciprocal of a  bi, namely,  
a  bi . This may be simplified by multiplying both
numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
1
a  bi
 ( 1
a  bi
)( )
a  bi
a  bi
a  bi
 2
a b 2
 2
a
a b 2
 2
b
a  b2
i

In general, the quotient of two complex numbers

a  bi
c  di
is simplified in a similar manner, that is, by multiplying both numerator and
denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.
a  bi a  bi c  di
 ⴢ
c  di c  di c  di
(ac  bd )  (bc  ad ) i

c2  d2
ac  bd bc  ad
  2 i
c d
2 2
c  d2

Division of Complex Numbers

a  bi ac  bd  bc  ad i,
     c2  d2 ≠ 0
c  di c2  d2 c2  d2

This result demonstrates that the quotient of two complex numbers is a com-
plex number. Instead of memorizing this formula for division, remember that
quotients of complex numbers may be simplified by multiplying the numerator
and denominator by the conjugate of the denominator.

EXAMPLE 6 DIVISION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

2  3i
a. Write the quotient  in the form a  bi.
3  2i
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74 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

b. Write the reciprocal of 2  5i in the form a  bi.

SOLUTION
a. Multiplying numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the denomina-
tor, 3  2i, we have
2  3i 2  3i 3  2i 64i  9i  6i2 6  5i  6(1 )
 ⴢ  
3  2i 3  2i 3  2i 32  22 94

 12  5i 12 5
   i
13 13 13

1
b. The reciprocal is . Multiplying both numerator and denominator by
2  5i
the conjugate 2  5i, we have
1 2  5i 2  5i 2  5i 2 5
ⴢ     i
2  5i 2  5i 22  52 29 29 29

Verify that
2 5
(2  5i)    i  1
29 29

✔ Progress Check
Write the following in the form a  bi.

4  2i
a.  b. 1 3 i
 c.  
5  2i 2  3i 3  5i

Answers
18
16  
a.  i b. 2  3i 15  9 i
c.   
29 29 13 13 34 34

Calculator Alert

Some scientific and graphing calculators have the capability to do computa-

tions with complex numbers. Consult your owner’s manual for details. The
owner’s manual may be available online. Look up your calculator by model
and number.

Exercise Set 1.8

Simplify in Exercises 1–9. 3. i 83 4. i 54

1. i 60 2. i 27 5. i 33 6. i 15
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 75

7. i 84 8. i 39 In Exercises 49–57, perform the indicated opera-

tions and write the answer in the form a  bi.
9. i 25
2  5i 1  3i
In Exercises 10–21, write the number in the form 49. 50.
1  3i 2  5i
a + bi.
3  4i 4  3i
3 51. 52.
10. 2 11.   3  4i 4  3i
4
12. 0.3 13.  25 3  2i 2  3i
53. 54.
2i 3i
14.  5 15.  36
16. 18  17. 3  49
 2  5i 5  2i
55. 56.
3  72 3i  3i
18.    19. 0.3  98

2 4i
57.
20. 0.5  32
 21. 2  16
 2i
In Exercises 22–26, solve for x and y. In Exercises 58–64, find the reciprocal and write
22. (x  2)  (2y  1)i  1  5i the answer in the form a  bi.
23. (3x  1)  (y  5)i  1  3i
58. 3  2i 59. 4  3i
24.
 1
2 
 x  2  (3y  2)i  4  7i 1 i
60. 
2
61. 1 
1
3
i
25. (2y  1)  (2x  1)i  8  3i 62. 7i 63. 5i
26. (y  2)  (5x  3)i  5 3i
64.
3  2i
In Exercises 27–42, compute the answer and
write it in the form a  bi. In Exercises 65–68, evaluate the polynomial x2 
2x  5 for the given complex value of x.
27. 2i  (3  i) 28. 3i  (2  5i)
65. 1  2i 66. 2  i
29. 2  3i (3  2i)
67. 1  i 68. 1  2i
1i
30. (3  2i)  2  
2   69. Prove that the commutative law of addition
31. 3  5i  (2  i) holds for the set of complex numbers.

32. 12  i  1  32 i 70. Prove that the commutative law of multipli-
cation holds for the set of complex numbers.
33. 2i(3  i) 34. 3i(2  i)
71. Prove that 0  0i is the additive identity and
1  0i is the multiplicative identity for the
 1 i
35. i  
2  36.  
2 2
i 4i
 set of complex numbers.
37. (2  i)(2  i) 38. (5  i)(2  3i) 72. Prove that a  bi is the additive inverse of
39. (2  2i)(4  3i) 40. (2  5i)(1  3i) the complex number a  bi.

41. (3  2i)(2  i) 42. (4  3i)(2  3i) 73. Prove the distributive property for the set of
complex numbers.
In Exercises 43–48, multiply by the conjugate and
simplify. 74. For what values of x is x
 3 a real num-
ber?
43. 2  i 44. 3i
0
75. For what values of y is 2y  1 a real
45. 3  4i 46. 2  3i
number?
47. 4  2i 48. 5  2i
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76 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

76. Perform the multiplications and simplify. parentheses appropriately! (Note: The values of a
and b in each answer will be in decimal form.)
a. (x  yi)(x  yi)
86. Mathematics in Writing: Consider the addition
b. (1  i)5
and the multiplication of complex numbers.
c. (1  3
)4 How does i differ from a variable like x? If you
d. [x  (2  5i)][x  (2  5i)] always treat i as though it is a variable, at what
step in the procedures of addition or multiplica-
For Exercises 77–85, redo Exercises 49–57 using the tion would you run into trouble?
i key on your graphing calculator. Remember to use

■ ■ ■

Chapter Summary
Terms and Symbols

absolute value, ⏐⏐ 15 factoring 2 polynomial 22

algebraic expression 2 imaginary number 70 power 20
algebraic fraction 40 imaginary part 70 prime polynomial 36
algebraic operations 20 imaginary unit i 69 principal square root 60
base 20 inequalities 13 radical form 60
cancellation principle 41 inequality symbols, radical sign,  60
coefficient 22 , , ≤ , ≥ 13 rational expression 40
complex conjugate 72 integers 4 rational numbers 4
complex fraction 46 irrational numbers 4 rationalizing the denominator 63
complex number 68 irreducible polynomial 38 rationalizing the numerator 60
constant 23 LCD 43 real number line 2
constant term 23 leading coefficient 23 real numbers 2
degree of a monomial 23 least common denominator real part 70
degree of a polynomial 23 (LCD) 43 scientific notation 2
distance from point like terms 23 set 3
—
A to point B, AB 17 member of a set, ∈ 3 set notation 3
element of a set, ∈ 2 monomial 22 simplified form of a radical 59
equal 4 natural numbers 2 subset 3
equivalent fractions 45 nonnegative numbers 13 term 2
evaluate 11 not a set member, ∉ 3 variable 2
exponent 20 nth root 57 zero polynomial 23
factor 1 origin 11
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 77

Key Ideas for Review

Topic Page Key Idea

Set 3 A set is a collection of objects or numbers.
The Set of Real Numbers 3 The set of real numbers is composed of the rational and irrational
numbers. The rational numbers are those that can be written as the
p
ratio of two integers, q, with q ≠ 0; the irrational numbers cannot be
written as the ratio of two integers.
Properties 6 The real number system satisfies a number of important properties,
including:
closure commutativity associativity
identities inverses distributivity
Equality 6 If two numbers are identical, we say that they are equal.
Properties 7 Equality satisfies these basic properties:
reflexive property symmetric property
transitive property substitution property
Real Number Line 12 There is a one-to-one correspondence between the set of all real
numbers and the set of all points on the real number line. That is,
for every point on the line there is a real number, and for every real
number there is a point on the line.
Inequalities 13 Algebraic statements using inequality symbols have geometric inter-
pretations using the real number line. For example, a  b says that
a lies to the left of b on the real number line.
Operations 13 Inequalities can be operated on in the same manner as statements
involving an equal sign with one important exception: when an
inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number, the direc-
tion of the inequality is reversed.
Absolute Value 15 Absolute value specifies distance independent of direction. Four
important properties of absolute value are:
• ⏐a⏐ ≥ 0
• ⏐a⏐  ⏐a⏐
• ⏐a  b⏐  ⏐b  a⏐
• ⏐ab⏐  ⏐a⏐ ⏐b⏐
Distance 17 The distance between points A and B whose coordinates are a and
b, respectively, is given by
—
AB  ⏐b  a⏐
Polynomials 22 Algebraic expressions of the form
anxn  an1xn1  . . .  a1x  a0
are called polynomials.
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78 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Key Ideas for Review

Topic Page Key Idea

Operations 23 To add (subtract) polynomials, just add (subtract) like terms. To

multiply polynomials, form all possible products, using the rule for
exponents:
aman  amn
Factoring 31 A polynomial is said to be factored when it is written as a product
of polynomials of lower degree.
Rational Expressions 40 Most of the rules of arithmetic for handling fractions carry over to
rational expressions. For example, the LCD has the same meaning
except that we deal with polynomials in factored form rather than
with integers.
Exponents 49 The rules for positive integer exponents also apply to zero, negative
integer exponents, and, in fact, to all rational exponents.
Scientific Notation 52 A number in scientific notation is of the form
a × 10m
where 1 ≤ a  10 and m is some integer.
Radicals 60 Radical notation is another way of writing a rational exponent.
That is,
n

b  b1/n
Principal nth Root 57 If n is even and b is positive, there are two real numbers a such that
b1/n  a. Under these circumstances, we insist that the nth root be
n
positive. That is, b is a positive number if n is even and b is posi-
tive. Thus 16  4. Similarly, we must write
x
2  ⏐x⏐
to ensure that the result is a positive number.
Simplifying 62 To be in simplified form, a radical must satisfy the following
conditions:
n
• x m
has m  n.
n
• x  has no common factors between m and n.
m

• The denominator has been rationalized.

Complex Numbers 68 Complex numbers were created because there were no real numbers
that satisfy a polynomial equation such as
x2  5  0
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 79

Topic Page Key Idea

Imaginary Unit i 69 Using the imaginary unit i  1, a complex number is of the
form a  bi, where a and b are real numbers; the real part of a 
bi is a and the imaginary part of a  bi is b.
Real Number System 70 The real number system is a subset of the complex number system.

Review Exercises

Solutions to exercises whose numbers are in blue In Exercises 12–14, sketch the given set of num-
are in the Solutions section in the back of the bers on a real number line.
book.
12. The negative real numbers
In Exercises 1–3, write each set by listing its
13. The real numbers x such that x  4
elements within braces.
14. The real numbers x such that 1 ≤ x  1
1. The set of natural numbers from 5 to 4,
inclusive 15. Find the value of ⏐3⏐  ⏐1  5⏐.
—
2. The set of integers from 3 to 1, inclusive 16. Find PQ if the coordinates of P and Q are
9
 and 6, respectively.
2
3. The subset of x ∈ S, S  {0.5, 1, 1.5, 2} such
that x is an even integer 17. A salesperson receives 3.25x  0.15y dol-
lars, where x is the number of hours worked
For Exercises 4–7, determine whether the state-
and y is the number of miles driven. Find the
ment is true (T) or false (F).
amount due the salesperson if x  12 hours
4. 7
 is a real number. and y  80 miles.

5. 35 is a natural number. 18. Which of the following expressions are not
polynomials?
6. 14 is not an integer.
a. 2xy2  x2y b. 3b2  2b  6
7. 0 is an irrational number.
c. x1/2  5x2  x d. 7.5x2  3x   1 x0
In Exercises 8–11, identify the property of the 2
real number system that justifies the statement. In Exercises 19 and 20, indicate the leading coef-
All variables represent real numbers. ficient and the degree of each polynomial.

8. 3a  (3a)  0 19. 0.5x7  6x3  5 20. 2x2  3x4  7x5

9. (3  4)x  3x  4x In Exercises 21–23, perform the indicated opera-

tions.
10. 2x  2y  z  2x  z  2y

11. 9x  1  9x
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80 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Review Exercises

21. (3a2b2  a2b  2b  a)  (2a2b2  2a2b  3 2 1

 1
2b  a) x2 x1 x
40. 41. x 
2
x1 1
22. x(2x  1)(x  2) x
x
23. 3x(2x  1)2 In Exercises 42–50, simplify and express the
In Exercises 24–29, factor each expression. answers using only positive exponents. All vari-
ables are positive numbers.
24. 2x2  2 25. x2  25y2
42. (2a2b3)3 43. 2(a2  1)0
26. 2a2  3ab  6a  9b 27. 4x2  19x  5
x3
 
–4/3
44.  x3n
45. 
28. x  1
8
29. 27r  8s
6 6 y6 xn
In Exercises 30–33, perform the indicated opera- 2
46. 80
 47. 
tions and simplify. 12

4

14(y  1 ) 9(x  y ) 48. x

7 5
y 49. 32x
 y
8 6

30. ⴢ
3(x2  y2 )  7xy2 x
50.
x  y
4  x2 x2
31. 
2y2 3y 51. Compute
x2  2x  3 x2  4x  3 (5.10 × 107)(3.45 × 102)
32.  
2x2  x 3x3  3x2 7.10 × 104

a  b a2  4b2 to two decimal places and express the

33. ⴢ
a  2b a2  b2 answer in scientific notation.
In Exercises 34–37, find the LCD. 52. Rationalize the numerator for
1 2 3 x y
34. , ,
2x 2
x 4
2 x2 xy
4 5 3 In Exercises 53 and 54, perform the indicated
35. , ,
x x x
2
(x  1 ) 2 operations. Simplify the answer.
2 4 x2 53. x

4
y  2x
2 2
2 2
y
4
  5
54. (3 )2
36. , ,
(x  1 ) y y 2
5(x  1 ) 2
55. Evaluate the given expressions using your
y1 x2 3x
37. , , calculator.
x2 (y  1 ) 2xy  2x 4y2  8y  4
12  3
a.  b. ⏐(4)3  56⏐

In Exercises 38–41, perform the indicated opera- 5 7
tions and simplify. 
c. 8 d. π 8
4 2  3
38. 2   5
e. 27
 f.
a 4
2
6
39.  3 2
x  16
2
x4
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Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 81

a. In how many ways can a committee of


1 10

h. 
3
g. 
4 0.5 three persons be formed from among the
8
executive committee members?

 
4
2
i.  j. 95/8 b. According to the by-laws, there must be
3 at least three affirmative votes to carry a
56. Solve for x and y: motion. If the president automatically has
two votes, list all the minimal winning
(x  2)  (2y  1)i  4  7i
coalitions.
57. Simplify i 47. 1
65. If 6 children can devour 6 hot dogs in 10 of
In Exercises 58–61, perform the indicated opera- an hour, how many children would it take to
tions and write all answers in the form a  bi. devour 100 hot dogs in 6000 seconds?

58. 2  (6  i) 59. (2  i)2 66. A CD player costs a dealer $80. If he wishes

4  3i to make a profit of at least 25% of his cost,
60. (4  3i)(2  3i) 61. what must be the lowest selling price for the
2  3i
62. Perform the indicated operations. player?

a. Combine into one term with a common 67. Find the area of the shaded rectangle.
denominator 4x
1 1 1
 x
a b c
b. Simplify the quotient 4x
2y
1 1

a b
1 1 68. An open box is to be made from a 4 feet × 5

c d feet piece of tin by cutting out squares of
63. Dan, at 200 pounds, wishes to reduce his equal size from the four corners and bending
weight to 180 pounds in time to attend his up the flaps to form sides. Find a formula
college reunion in 8 weeks. He learns that it for the volume in terms of s, the side of the
takes 2400 calories per day to maintain his square. Write the inequality that describes
weight. A reduction of his caloric intake to the restriction on s.
1900 calories per day will result in his losing
weight at the rate of 1 pound per week.
What should his daily caloric intake be to
achieve this goal?

64. The executive committee of the student gov-

ernment association consists of a president,
vice-president, secretary, and treasurer.
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 82

82 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Review Exercises

69. Compute the following products: find the fifth even perfect number. See if
you can.
a. (x  y)(x2  xy  y2)
75. The speed of light is 3 × 108 meters per sec-
b. (x  y)(x3 x2y  xy2  y3)
ond. Write all answers using scientific nota-
c. (x  y)(x4  x3y  x2y2  xy3  y4) tion.
70. Using Exercise 69, find a general formula a. How many seconds does it take an object
that allows you to factor xn  yn, where n is traveling at the speed of light to go 1 ×
a positive integer. 1026 meters?

71. In ancient Alexandria, numbers were multi- b. How many seconds are there in 1 year of
plied by using an abacus as follows: 365 days?

19 × 28  (20  1)(30  2) c. Write the answer to part (a) in years.

(This answer is the approximate age of
 (20)(30)  (20)(2)  30  2
the universe.)
 600  40  30  2
 532 76. Write x  
 x 
x using exponents.
Set up a comparable sequence of steps for 13 77. Determine if (5  
24)2 and (2
× 17. )2 have the same value.
3
72. Find two ways of grouping and then factor- 78. The irrational number called the golden
ing ac  ad  bc  bd. ratio
73. The following calculation represents a sum. 5  1
T
If each letter represents a different digit, find 2
the appropriate correspondence between let- has properties that have intrigued artists,
ters and digits so that the sum is correct. philosophers, and mathematicians through
the ages. Show that T satisfies the identity
FORTY
TEN 1
T1
TEN T
————
SIXTY 79. Rationalize the numerator in the following:
x  h  1  x  1
74. A natural number is said to be perfect if it is a.
h
the sum of its divisors other than itself. For
example, 6 is the first perfect number since 6 3  x  3
b.
 1  2  3. Show that 28 is the second x
perfect number. 80. In alternating-current theory, the current I
Every number of the form 2p1(2p  1), (amps), voltage V (volts), and impedance Z
where 2p  1 is prime, is an even perfect (ohms) are treated as complex numbers. The
number. (Check your answer when p  formula relating these quantities is V  IZ. If
2.) Find the third and fourth even perfect I  2  3i amps and Z  6  2i ohms, find
numbers. The ancient Greeks could not the voltage across this part of the circuit.
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 83

Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 83

Review Tests

In Problems 1 and 2, write each set by listing its 13. Which of the following expressions are not
elements within braces. polynomials?

1. The set of positive, even integers less than 13 a. x5 b. 5x4y  3x2  y

2. The subset of x ∈ S, S  {1, 2, 3, 5, 7}, c. 4x3  x d. 2x2  3x0

such that x is a multiple of 3
In Problems 14 and 15, indicate the leading coef-
In Problems 3 and 4, determine whether the ficient and the degree of each polynomial.
statement is true (T) or false (F).
14. 2.2x5  3x3  2x 15. 14x6  2x  1
3. 1.36 is an irrational number.
In Problems 16 and 17, perform the indicated
22
4. π is equal to 
7
. operations.

In Problems 5 and 6, identify the property of the 16. 3xy  2x  3y  2  (1  y  x  xy)

real number system that justifies the statement.
17. (a  2)(3a2  a  5)
All variables represent real numbers.
In Problems 18 and 19, factor each expression.
5. xy(z  1)  (z  1)xy
18. 8a3b5  12a5b2  16a2b
 
1 1
6. (6)  
6 19. 4  9x2
In Problems 7 and 8, sketch the given set of num-
bers on a real number line. In Problems 20 and 21, perform the indicated
operations and simplify.
7. The integers that are greater than 3 and
less than or equal to 3
1
20. 
3n2 
m4  m2  n
 3
9n 2m 
8. The real numbers x such that 2 ≤ x  
2 16  x2 x1
21.  
9. Find the value of ⏐2  3⏐  ⏐4  2⏐. x  3x  4 x  4
2

—
10. Find AB if the coordinates of A and B are
22. Find the LCD of
6 and 4, respectively.
1 2 3
2  
11. The area of a region is given by the expression 2x 4x2  4 x2
3x2  xy. Find the area if x  5 meters and y
In Problems 23 and 24, perform the indicated
 10 meters.
operations and simplify.
12. Evaluate the expression 4
2
2x 5 x1
y2x 23.   24.
x2  9 3x  9 x 1
xy
if x  3 and y  1.
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 84

84 Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra

Review Tests

In Problems 25–28, simplify and express the

answers using only positive exponents. 31.  
2 4
1 xy  9xy

7/2 6 y2n
 
25.  x
x2/3

26. yn1 32. For what values of x is 2
ber?
 x a real num-

1
27. 0 28. (2a2b1)2 In Problems 33–35, perform the indicated opera-
(x  1)
tions and write all answers in the form a  bi.
In Problems 29–31, perform the indicated opera- 33. (2  i)  (3  i) 34. (5  2i)(2  3i)
tions.
5  2i
3 3 35.
29. 3
24  2
81   5)2
30. (7 2i

Writing Exercises

1. Evaluate (8)(1.4142) and (8)(2). Are these 3. Compare and contrast the properties of the
results close to one another? Why? complex numbers with those of the real
numbers.
2. Discuss the need for the complex number
system. 4. Discuss why division by zero is not permitted.
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 85

Chapter 1 ■ The Foundations of Algebra 85

Chapter 1 Project
Polynomial expressions are used by physicists to study the motion of objects in
free fall. Free fall means that the attraction of gravity is the only force operat-
ing on the object. In reality, other forces like air resistance play a role.
Take a look at Exercises 86 and 87 in Section 1.3 and Exercises 84–86 in
Section 1.4. Set up a table for various planets or moons in our solar system, and
use the Internet or other resources to find the data you need to write free-fall equa-
tions for objects on those worlds. (Hint: The value of a is all you need.) Here are
some values to start you off:
Mars: a  3.72
Earth: a  4.9
The Moon: a  1.6
All these values are in SI units, so the accelerations given above are in
meters per second squared.
Try to redo the Exercises listed above for various planets. Write a para-
graph explaining the problem described in the chapter opener.

■ ■ ■
BVT_CollAlg6e_001_HT_Alg_5e_c01_01-78.qxd 3/9/11 1:19 PM Page 86