Water Bound Macadam

International Focus Group on Rural Road Engineering
Information Note
Water Bound Macadam
Category : Technical Information/On-carriageway/
PROBLEM
The road surface has inadequate bearing capacity or traction
SOLUTION
If stone is available, construct a Water Bound Macadam (WBM) surface (or base for
bituminous sealed road)
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Water bound macadam (WBM) comprises two components, a layer of coarse stone
(37.5mm to 75mm size) into which graded fine aggregate (<5mm size) is slurried or
washed. This forms a tightly bound, strong and semi-impervious matrix. It can used as
an unpaved surface or as a base material on roads with bituminous seals.
Alternatives: In areas where water is scarce or expensive to obtain, it is possible to

construct a dry bound macadam (DBM) surface. The only difference in approach is
that dry fines are vibrated into the voids between the stones, rather than being washed
in with water. Compaction is likely to take longer than when water is used.
FEATURES
Water bound macadam provides an improved surfacing option where stone is

available and graded gravels are in short supply. The road surface (or road base) is
built up in layers. Coarse stone (37.5-75mm diameter) is shaped, laid over the
substrate and compacted. The fine material (<5mm) is then added and washed into the
voids. Using strong stone, edge support and ensuring voids are filled of fines produces
a durable surface of low to medium roughness. Sources of stone are generally
relatively easy to locate in volcanic and mountainous areas. WBM is particularly
suitable in these areas where the terrain is often steep and motorised vehicles travel
slowly uphill. WBM provides traction, protects the subsoil and preventing erosion and
pulverisation. WBM is particularly suited to construction by labour, utilises local
materials and minimise use of mechanical equipment. Waterbound macadam can
produce a low capital cost surface, if stone and fines are locally available (within
10km). Maintenance is low cost, and labour friendly with only occasional blinding
and pothole infilling being required.
Page 1 www.ifgworld.org
Information Note
WBM is particularly appropriate as an improved base for subsequent

bituminous sealing using labour-based and intermediate equipment.
DESIGN ASPECTS
Stone:
The stones used to form the surface should be angular, non-flaky (similar dimensions
in all directions) and have a nominal size of around 40 mm. Larger stone (up to
75mm) can be used. However, the compacted surface of each layer should not exceed
twice the nominal maximum particle size of the stone used. Larger stone can be used
as kerbstones to provide edge support. A range of other materials such as fired-clay
bricks, broken into chips, are also suitable for WBM. Stone can be broken by hand or
using rudimentary crushing equipment.
To test the stones for strength, drop one fist sized stone ten times onto a larger
rock from a height of 1.5 metres. If the stone is not significantly damaged, it
should be strong enough for WBM
Table : Coarse Aggregate for WBM (DBM)
Sieve Size Percentage Passing

mm Nominal Sieve Size
75 100
50 85-100
37.5 35-70
28 0-15
Fine material: The fine material should be less than 5mm in size, graded and be
preferably non-plastic. Single sized material is not recommended. The fines produced
by hand breaking or rudimentary crushing the coarse stone does not usually produce a
fine material in the quantity or grading needed. It is therefore usually necessary to
seek out supplies of sandy soils (e.g. within or close to river beds). In dry and semi-
arid areas, sandy soils with quite large proportions of clay can be used, as the clay will
give an additional binding action. If the surface is to be sealed with bitumen, lower
plasticity materials should be sourced. In some cases addition of 5-10% cement or
lime can be used to strengthen the material or reduce plasticity.
General considerations: If the WBM is to be sealed with a bitumen surfacing a

camber of about 3 percent is acceptable. Where used as an unpaved surfacing a
camber of 5 to 6% is normal.
Information Note
CONSTRUCTION ASPECTS
Subsoil and Edge Support:

WBM should be constructed on a firm foundation. In some cases, where sub-soils are
weak, it may be necessary to let the site “dry out” before shaping and compacting the
formation layer and constructing the surfacing. This can be achieved by carrying out
construction in the dry season (assuming a ready supply of water) or improvement of
the site drainage. The normal formation for earth roads is constructed to the required
camber and width. Pegs and string are used to mark the final road level (according to
the required surfacing thickness). A berm is constructed along the kerb line by
forming and compacting a 500 mm wide windrow of soil to the required layer
thickness. This is then cut to form a vertical face along a trench into which kerbstones
are laid. The berm provides additional edge support for the WBM. The top of the
kerbstones are set at the required final road level. Fine material should be back-filled
and compacted around the kerbstones with hand rammers. Edge support can be
provided by construction of a kerb line and providing compacted earth shoulders. If
the WBM is to be sealed with bitumen the WBM should be extended into the shoulder
for the full road width.
General Construction Sequence for WBM
• Construction and shaping of formation (and drainage)

• Construction of shoulder berm and berm drains
• Trenching and placing of kerbstones
• Placing and compaction of coarse stone
• Placement and washing in of fines
Figure 1 Stones being compacted into place

IMAGE
Figure 2 Close up of the layer of coarse stones (using broken bricks)

IMAGE
Figure 2 Fines being washed into the surface

IMAGE
Berm drains: To prevent trapping water within the road structure it is necessary to
provide drainage. A 250mm wide trench should be cut through the shoulder every two
to three metres on both sides of the carriageway, with a gentle downward fall. The
trench should be filled with 50 to 75mm of free draining material (such as a sand-
gravel mix) and compacted before bring up to the final level with berm soil. This is a
particularly important feature if the WBM is to be surfaced with bitumen.
Information Note
Surface: The WBM is constructed in two stages. Firstly the coarse stone is spread
over the road area to just above the required final road level. A single pass of a
vibrating plate or pedestrian roller is used to settle and bed the stone in position.
Alternatively this can be achieved using hand rammers. The second stage involved
spreading the fine material over the stones which is then sprayed with water to form a
slurry. The slurry is washed into the matrix of the coarse stone. This process is
assisted by using squeegees. When no more fines will enter the layer, a final
compaction using hand rammers, plate compactors or roller (vibratory compaction is
carried out. Additional fines are applied to areas showing further settlement on
compaction.
MAINTENANCE
The top layer of fine material, if not stabilised with cement, will gradually be abraded
by traffic. It may be necessary to apply more fines as these are lost to rain or traffic. If
not properly maintained, the additional fine material can be lost, resulting ultimately
in loosening of the stone and destruction of the surface. The surface should remain
semi-impervious to water. Soft spots can be dealt with by removing the fines and
stones over the affected area, levelling (possibly with replacement of weak material
with improved soil), re-laying the stones, and refilling with fresh fines.
Waterbound macadam is liable to collapse if unsupported at the side. The berm or

kerbstones should be checked for signs of damage and reformed and compacted or re-
laid as necessary.
If the WBM is showing signs of saturation, the berm drains should be checked for
blockages.
NOTE : WBM surfaces SHOULD NOT be maintained by graders.

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International Focus Group on Rural Road Engineering

Water Bound Macadam

Category : Technical Information/On-carriageway/

The road surface has inadequate bearing capacity or traction

Alternatives: In areas where water is scarce or expensive to obtain, it is possible to

Water bound macadam provides an improved surfacing option where stone is

WBM is particularly appropriate as an improved base for subsequent

Table : Coarse Aggregate for WBM (DBM)

Sieve Size Percentage Passing

General considerations: If the WBM is to be sealed with a bitumen surfacing a

Subsoil and Edge Support:

General Construction Sequence for WBM

• Construction and shaping of formation (and drainage)

Figure 1 Stones being compacted into place

Figure 2 Close up of the layer of coarse stones (using broken bricks)

Figure 2 Fines being washed into the surface

Waterbound macadam is liable to collapse if unsupported at the side. The berm or

NOTE : WBM surfaces SHOULD NOT be maintained by graders.

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