Old Testament Hebrew Bible

Old Testament |
Hebrew-Bible
Study Guide by Course Hero
Hebrew and Aramaic. It is sacred scripture for both Judaism

What's Inside and Christianity and important to other world religions,
including Islam, Samaritanism, Yazdânism, the Druze, and the
Bahá'í Faith. In Judaism the Hebrew Bible is called the
j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1 "Tanakh" or simply the "Bible," and its contents are counted as
24 separate books. In Protestant Christian Bibles these same
d In Context ..................................................................................................... 1
books make up the "Old Testament," but they are ordered and
a Author Biography ...................................................................................... 1 counted differently, as 39 books. In the Catholic and Orthodox
Christian churches, the Old Testament includes additional
h Key Figures .................................................................................................. 1 books called "Apocrypha" or "Deuterocanonical." The books of
the Hebrew Bible were written by many authors over a span of
k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 5
several centuries. They focus on the history of the people of
Israel, the revelation of divine law to Israel, and the relationship
c Book Summaries .................................................................................... 10
between the people of Israel and their god, Yahweh. The
g Quotes ........................................................................................................ 47 Tanakh is the source of key texts read during the Sabbath
liturgy and informs later Jewish beliefs and practices. The Old
l Symbols ...................................................................................................... 51 Testament is the historical background and theological
foundation for the 27 books of the New Testament and is an
m Themes ........................................................................................................ 51
important source text for Christian theology alongside the New
m Motifs .......................................................................................................... 53 Testament. This guide follows the Jewish order and
organization of the books of the Hebrew Bible: Torah,
m Glossary ..................................................................................................... 55 Prophets, and Writings.
e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 55
d In Context
j Book Basics
AUTHOR a Author Biography
Various
YEARS WRITTEN
10th–2nd Centuries BCE h Key Figures
GENRE
Religion
AT A GLANCE
The Hebrew Bible is a collection of books originally written in
Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Key Figures 2
way back to the land of Canaan. His favored son, Joseph, long
Yahweh/God thought dead, rises to power in Egypt, after which Jacob and
all his family migrate there in a time of famine. His descendants
The God of ancient Israel is identified by multiple terms, become numerous there, and eventually become the nation of
including "God," "Lord," and "El Shaddai" (traditionally Israel, which is divided into tribes named after Jacob's sons
translated "God Almighty"). However, the primary name of and grandsons.
Israel's deity, formally revealed to Moses in Exodus, is Yahweh.
In subsequent Jewish tradition Yahweh's name was no longer
pronounced, so most English Bible translations replace the
name itself with "the LORD" or some other substitute title.
Moses
Genesis attributes the creation of the world and all life to
Moses is the central human character of the Torah. He is
Yahweh, states that Yahweh brought about the great primeval
saved from death as a child and commissioned by Yahweh
flood as punishment for human wickedness, and describes the
later in life to confront the Egyptian pharaoh and lead the
beginning of his relationship with the ancestors of Israel.
Israelites out of Egypt. After the plagues ravaging Egypt and
Yahweh's special relationship with Israel begins with the
the crossing of the Red Sea, he leads the people to Mount
establishment of a covenant with Abraham, and then the
Sinai. There he mediates an agreement between Yahweh and
liberation of the Israelites from Egypt becomes the character-
the people of Israel and receives the law from Yahweh on the
defining event for Yahweh. Yahweh reveals the laws of the
mountain. Moses's task of leading the Israelites after they
Torah to Israel, leads them to successful conquest of the land
leave Sinai becomes increasingly difficult. After 40 years of
of Canaan, and anoints chosen rulers over the people. All of
wandering in the wilderness, he does not enter the land of
Israel's subsequent history during the monarchic period is
Canaan himself. Just outside its border he delivers a farewell
evaluated in the biblical texts based on the people's fidelity and
address, exhorting the people to remain faithful to Yahweh and
obedience, or lack thereof, to their God Yahweh.
obedient to the law. Then he dies. He is lauded at the end of
the Torah as the greatest prophet in all of Israel's history.
Abraham
The story of Israel begins with Abraham. Yahweh promises to
Joshua
make his descendants into a great nation, and Abraham
Joshua enters the story in Exodus as a military lead under
migrates to the land of Canaan. He accumulates much wealth
Moses. He commands the Israelites in battle against the
there but remains childless for many years. Eventually, he
Amalekites, and later leads the spies sent by Moses into
fathers a son with a maidservant because his wife Sarah
Canaan. Moses, before his death at the end of Deuteronomy,
seems unable to conceive. But Yahweh's promise and
declares Joshua as his successor to lead the tribes of Israel in
Abraham's faith are reaffirmed, and Abraham and Sarah finally
the conquest of Canaan. In the book of Joshua, Joshua takes
have a son, Isaac. As a final test of Abraham's trust, Yahweh
over leadership of Israel and wins a series of miraculous
instructs him to offer this much-awaited son as a human
battles guided by Yahweh. Upon the completion of the
sacrifice. Just as Abraham is about to kill Isaac, the sacrifice is
conquest, Joshua supervises the allocation of the conquered
stopped and Isaac spared.
land among the 12 tribes of Israel. At the end of his career he
leads the tribes of Israel in a covenant renewal ceremony at
Shechem and records the words of their declaration on a
Jacob scroll.
Jacob is the younger of Isaac's twin sons, but he usurps his

brother Esau's birthright and becomes Isaac's primary heir. He
marries sisters, Rachel and Leah, and accumulates significant
David
wealth from his father-in-law. He is given the name Israel ("he
While Saul rules as the first king of Israel, David is only the
wrestled God") after an encounter with a divine figure on his
youngest son of a man named Jesse from the tribe of Judah.
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After Saul angers Yahweh, the prophet Samuel anoints David

to become the new king. Initially, David serves as a musician
and soldier under Saul. Through military successes, David
gains power and popularity. Soon Saul feels threatened by
David and turns against him. David becomes an exile until Saul
dies in battle. After Israel proclaims David king at Hebron, he
conquers the city of Jerusalem and makes it his capital city. He
consolidates power throughout the region and reigns for 40
years. During his life, Yahweh promises through the prophet
Nathan that David's descendants would rule on the throne in
Jerusalem in perpetuity.
Solomon
Solomon is the son of King David and Bathsheba. His
succession of David is not uncontested. His half-brother and
Absalom had already died in pursuit of the throne, and as David
nears death, both Solomon and another half-brother Adonijah
vie for the throne. With his mother's help, Solomon secures the
blessing of David and other leaders in Jerusalem. As king,
Solomon enriches and builds up the kingdom of Israel. He
gains international renown for great wisdom, and marries many
foreign women to solidify alliances. Most significantly for the
biblical story, Solomon oversees the construction of the first
temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. The biblical texts praise him in
all respects except one—because of his wives, he allowed the
incursion of the worship of foreign gods into Israel. After
Solomon's death, his son Rehoboam loses 10 of the 12 tribes of
Israel from his kingdom.

Full Key Figure List Aaron is the brother of Moses and first
priest of the Israelites, whose
descendants inherit the office of high
Aaron priest. He assists Moses from their first
Key Figure Description
confrontations with the Egyptian
pharaoh and throughout the wilderness
Yahweh is the primary name of the God journey.
of ancient Israel in the Hebrew Bible. The
Bible explains the entire history of
Yahweh/God Adam is the first man created by
ancient Israel as the product of a
Yahweh. Adam and his wife, Eve, the first
covenant relationship between Yahweh
woman, are expelled from the garden of
and this chosen people. Adam
Eden for disobeying Yahweh's
instructions not to eat from the tree of
Abraham (called Abram initially) is the the knowledge of good and evil.
first major ancestor, or patriarch, of the
people of Israel. Because of his faith in
Abraham After her husband and son are both
Yahweh, Yahweh promises to make
assassinated while ruling Judah, Athalia
Abraham's descendants into a great
claims the throne of Judah for herself to
nation.
Athaliah become the only ruling queen of Judah in
the Hebrew Bible. She rules for six years
Also known as Israel, Jacob is the son of before being killed in a coup that places
Isaac and Rebekah, and father of 12 sons her grandson Joash on the throne.
Jacob
whose descendants make up the 12
tribes of Israel.
Daniel is an exiled Judean serving in the
Babylonian court in the 6th century BCE.
Moses is the paradigmatic prophet of Daniel He survives a series of trials, interprets
Israel. He leads the people out of slavery dreams for the king, and receives
in Egypt, receives the laws of Yahweh at apocalyptic visions of future events.
Moses
Mount Sinai, and guides the people until
they arrive at the edge of the land of
Eve is the first woman, created by God
Canaan.
from a rib taken from Adam's body. After
a talking serpent persuades Eve to eat
Joshua is Moses's successor as leader Eve from the "tree of the knowledge of good
of Israel. He leads the tribes of Israel in and evil" against Yahweh's instructions,
Joshua Eve and Adam are banished from the
the conquest of the land of Canaan and
apportions the land among the tribes. Garden of Eden.
David is the second and most celebrated Ezekiel is a prophet of priestly lineage
king of the united monarchy of Israel. He who prophesied in Babylonia during the
makes Jerusalem the capital city and early years of Judean exile. The book
David Ezekiel
founds a dynasty that rules there for bearing his name records his prophetic
over 400 years until the fall of Jerusalem messages, strange visual
to Babylon in 586 BCE. demonstrations, and dramatic visions.
Solomon is the third and final king of the Ezra is a Jewish scribe and priest who
united monarchy of Israel. After a returns from exile in Babylon to
conflicted succession of his father, Jerusalem in the middle of the 5th
Solomon David, Solomon becomes a powerful century BCE. After arriving in Jerusalem,
Ezra
ruler who gains renown for great wisdom he instructs the people in the Torah, puts
and for building the temple of Yahweh in marriage to foreigners to an end, and
Jerusalem. leads the people in a renewal of the
covenant with Yahweh.

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Plot Summary 5
Hagar is the servant of Abraham's wife Job is pious, wealthy, and happy, until all
Sarah and the mother of Abraham's first is taken away from him as a test of faith.
Hagar son, Ishmael. After Sarah has her own Job argues forcefully with his friends
Job
son Isaac, she forces Abraham to send about the cause of his misfortunes until
Hagar and Ishmael away. Yahweh appears and silences the
argument, but also vindicates Job.
Hezekiah rules Judah in the last quarter

of the 8th century BCE. He institutes Joseph is the first son of Jacob by his
Hezekiah religious reforms and manages to favorite wife, Rachel. Sold by his elder
preserve Jerusalem against the siege of brothers into slavery, he rises to power in
Joseph
the Assyrian king Sennacherib. Egypt and eventually provides for his
entire family to reside there during a
famine.
Isaac is the first son of Abraham and
Sarah, and father of the twin brothers
Jacob and Esau. In old age, he is Josiah rules Judah from 641–609 BCE in
Isaac
deceived by his wife, Rebecca, into the final decades before the kingdom fell
giving the younger twin, Jacob, the to Babylonian incursions. According to 2
birthright that should have been Esau's. Josiah Kings, a scroll of the Torah was
rediscovered in the temple during
Josiah's reign, prompting him to institute
Isaiah prophesies during the 8th century sweeping religious reforms.
BCE to several successive kings of
Judah. His prophetic messages primarily
Isaiah advise these kings to rely on Yahweh Noah and his family are the only humans
alone in the face of threats from Assyria Noah spared from the great flood in Genesis.
and not to turn to ill-advised alliances His descendants repopulate the earth.
with other nations.
Omri becomes the sixth king of the
Jehu assassinates all surviving members Northern Kingdom of Israel after a
of the Omride dynasty in Israel and violent struggle for the throne among
Judah before taking the throne of the multiple contenders. He establishes the
Jehu Omri
Northern Kingdom for himself. He then new northern capital of Samaria and
rules for 28 years in the latter half of the inaugurates a four-generation dynasty
9th century. that makes the Northern Kingdom
powerful and affluent.
Jeremiah prophecies in Jerusalem during

the final decades of the kingdom of Sarah is the wife of Abraham and mother
Judah, and his scribe Baruch is said to of Isaac. She is long unable to conceive,
have recorded his messages for the Sarah and Abraham fathers his first son
Jeremiah book of Jeremiah. His prophecies of Ishmael with her maidservant, but at the
coming doom for Judah make him age of 90 she gives birth to Isaac.
unpopular with Judean leadership, and
after the fall of Jerusalem his last stated
whereabouts are in exile in Egypt. Saul becomes the first king of Israel after
the prophet Samuel anoints him to rule,
but he soon falls out of favor with
Saul
Jeroboam I led the 10 northern tribes in Samuel. After Saul dies in battle against
rebellion against Solomon's son the Philistines, his former servant David
Rehoboam and became the first king of becomes king.
the Northern Kingdom of Israel. He is
Jeroboam I
despised in the Hebrew Bible for this act
of rebellion and for establishing the
northern centers of worship at Dan and
Bethel. k Plot Summary

moral principles
Torah crimes and punishments
civic institutions
The books of the Torah are the following: taboos on food and behavior
holy days
Genesis
instructions for worship of Yahweh at the portable tent
Exodus
shrine, or tabernacle, at the center of the Israelite camp
Leviticus
Numbers The Israelites leave Mount Sinai near the beginning of
Deuteronomy Numbers and wander in the wilderness for 40 years. Finally
passing through the region of Moab, they arrive at the edge of
The word torah is Hebrew for "instruction." Although
Canaan, the land Yahweh has promised to them. The Torah
conventionally translated as "law," the Torah includes a mixture
concludes in Deuteronomy with more laws, framed by a
of narratives and legal material. Because it is made up of five
farewell address by Moses—who hands over leadership of the
books, it is also referred to as the Pentateuch (penta = five;
people to his appointed successor, Joshua, before he dies.
teuch = books). The Torah is the heart of the Bible for Judaism.
It begins in Genesis with stories about global, primeval events:
the creation of the world, the first humans (Adam and Eve) and
how they became separated from their god, Yahweh, and the Prophets
centuries-long lives of early humans. When the world becomes
corrupt and full of violence, Yahweh brings about a The books of the Prophets are the following:
catastrophic flood, and Noah's family and the animals are

Joshua
saved aboard an ark. After the flood, humanity is scattered into
Judges
many nations that speak different languages.
1 Samuel
The story then focuses on the lives of the earliest ancestors of 2 Samuel
Israel: Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and their families. The 1 Kings
stories about Abraham focus on his faith in Yahweh and 2 Kings
Yahweh's promise to make his descendants into a great nation. Isaiah
The promise begins to be fulfilled two generations later, when Jeremiah
Abraham's grandson Jacob has 12 sons, all of whom have Ezekiel
many children of their own, which become the "12 tribes of The Twelve: Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah,
Israel." Genesis ends as Jacob's family migrates to the land of Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, Malachi
Egypt, and his favored son, Joseph, rises to a powerful position

Jewish tradition divides the Prophets into the Former Prophets
in the Egyptian court.
and the Latter Prophets. The Former Prophets include Joshua,
In Exodus the narrative resumes with the descendants of Israel Judges, 1–2 Samuel, and 1–2 Kings. Christian tradition often
(called Hebrews or Israelites) living in slavery in Egypt. Yahweh labels this group the "historical books" because they tell the
chooses an Israelite named Moses to confront the Egyptian history of the Israelite people.
ruler (or pharaoh), to bring 10 plagues against Egypt as

Joshua describes the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites and
demonstrations of Yahweh's power, to part the waters of the
the division of the conquered land among the 12 tribes of Israel.
Red Sea, and to lead the fleeing Israelites into the wilderness.
Judges portrays life in Israel after Joshua's death and before
The Israelites then come to Mount Sinai, where Moses
Israel gets a king. This time of escalating chaos is interrupted
receives the laws of the Torah directly from Yahweh.
by periods of leadership by figures called "judges."
The people remain at Mount Sinai through the rest of Exodus

The books of 1–2 Samuel and 1 Kings explain how Israel got a
and all of Leviticus. In this portion of the Torah, narrative
monarchy and detail the reigns of its first three kings: Saul,
episodes appear along with lengthy sections of law on all sorts
David, and Solomon. After David establishes Jerusalem as
of subjects, including:

Israel's capital city, Solomon constructs the temple of Yahweh King Solomon. These books focus on universal moral and
there. theological issues, although each has a distinctive style and
theological perspective.
After Solomon's death, the kingdom divides into two separate
nations: Israel in the north and Judah in the south. The rest of 1 Job tells the story of a wealthy righteous man afflicted with all
and 2 Kings tells the history of these two kingdoms and their sorts of troubles: the loss of his wealth and his children, and his
rulers until Israel falls to Assyria in 722 BCE and Judah falls to own painful health problems. Job addresses the timeless
Babylon in 587 BCE. The text focuses on how faithful the question of why bad things happen to good people and
rulers of Israel and Judah are to a particular view of how encourages faithfulness through difficult times. Song of Songs
Yahweh should be worshipped. (often called Song of Solomon) is a love poem, and is
traditionally attributed to Solomon.
The Latter Prophets consists of books named after prophetic
figures to whom their contents are attributed. The three Ruth and Esther are short stories focused on the actions of a
longest of these—Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel—are central heroine after whom the book is named. While Ruth is
sometimes called the "Major Prophets," while the 12 shorter set in the time of Judges, Esther is set in the Persian court
books are sometimes called the "Minor Prophets" or the "Book after the Babylonian exile. Because of their historical settings
of the Twelve" because Jewish tradition counts them as one Christian tradition places them in the historical books rather
book. These books offer messages from Yahweh in response than the Writings.
to political and social crises, some of which are narrated in the
Former Prophets. With occasional prose interludes, most are Lamentations and Daniel are placed with the Writings in Jewish
written as poetry. They often critique the actions of the people tradition but are included among the prophetic books in
of Israel and Judah and their rulers, denounce political Christian tradition. Consisting of poetic laments over the fall of
alliances, and call for greater adherence to laws of Yahweh. Jerusalem, Lamentations is traditionally attributed to the
prophet Jeremiah. Daniel communicates the visions of its
namesake prophet, much like earlier prophetic books. It is not
Writings included in the Prophets, perhaps because it was written so

late. While its story is set in the Babylonian exile, it was not
completed until the 2nd century BCE.
The books of the Writings are the folllowing:
Ezra-Nehemiah and 1–2 Chronicles narrate historical events

Psalms
and are grouped with the Former Prophets as historical books
Proverbs
in Christian tradition, as are Ruth and Esther. Ezra-Nehemiah
Job
describes efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem and its
Song of Songs
temple when the Israelites return to the land after the end of
Ruth
the Babylonian exile. The books of Chronicles retell much of
Lamentations
the history covered in the books of Samuel and Kings from a
Ecclesiastes
much later perspective, after the temple was rebuilt and
Esther
Israelite society reestablished in the land.
Daniel
Ezra-Nehemiah
1 Chronicles
2 Chronicles
The Writings is the most diverse section of the Hebrew Bible

because it contains books of several genres. Psalms is a
collection of songs (or poems) of different types that
functioned in the religious life of ancient Israel. Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, and Job are all categorized as wisdom literature,
with Proverbs and Ecclesiastes both traditionally attributed to

Timeline of Events
2400 BCE
Noah's family survives the great flood aboard the ark (in
traditional biblical chronology).
Middle Bronze Age
Abraham and the patriarchs of Israel live in the land of

Canaan.
15th or 13th century BCE
Moses leads the Israelites out of the land of Egypt to

Mount Sinai and receives the law from Yahweh.
15th or 13th century BCE
Joshua leads the Israelites in the conquest and allotment

of the land of Canaan.
1050 BCE
Saul is anointed the first king of Israel.
1010 BCE
David becomes king over all of Israel and makes

Jerusalem his capital city.
970 BCE
Solomon becomes king after David in a contested

succession.
965 BCE
Solomon commissions construction of the temple in

Jerusalem.
930 BCE
The kingdom is divided; Jeroboam I rules 10 tribes in the

north, Rehoboam rules Judah in the south.
885 BCE
Omri seizes the throne of the Northern Kingdom and

founds the new capital of Samaria.

840 BCE
Jehu kills Joram, ending the dynasty of Omri, and seizes

the throne of the Northern Kingdom.
840 BCE
Athaliah becomes the only queen to rule Judah after her

son Ahaziah is assassinated.
735 BCE
Israel joins Syrian states in rebellion against Assyria;

Judah refuses to join.
722 BCE
The Northern Kingdom of Israel is conquered by the

Assyrian king Shalmaneser V.
701 BCE
The Assyrian King Sennacherib invades Judah and

besieges Jerusalem under King Hezekiah, but the city is
spared.
622 BCE
King Josiah claims to have rediscovered the book of the

Torah and institutes religious reform in Judah.
597 BCE
Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar subdues Jerusalem,

and the first wave of exiles is sent to Babylon.
586 BCE
The city of Jerusalem and the temple are destroyed.
539 BCE
The Persian king Cyrus conquers Babylon, and Judean

exiles begin to return.
515 BCE
The second temple in Jerusalem is completed and

dedicated.
450 BCE
Ezra returns to Jerusalem and instructs the people

concerning the Torah.

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Book Summaries 10
scatter.
c Book Summaries
Abraham
Genesis
Yahweh instructs a man named Abram to move with his
family from Mesopotamia to the land of Canaan, the future
territory of Israel, and promises big things: "I will make of
Summary you a great nation, and I will bless you, and make your name
great."
After a brief journey to Egypt to escape famine, Abram
Genesis is often divided into four sections. The first, known as returns to Canaan and accumulates wealth as a livestock
the primeval history (Chapters 1–11), relates the famous stories farmer.
of the creation of the world (1–2), the Garden of Eden (3), Abram and his brother Lot survive a regional war, after
Cain's murder of Abel (4), the flood (6–9), and the Tower of which Abram meets an enigmatic king/priest, Melchizedek.
Babel (11), with genealogies interspersed. The next two Yahweh renames Abram as Abraham and his wife Sarai as
sections revolve around the lives of Israel's patriarchs, Sarah and instructs Abraham to mark their relationship with
Abraham (Chapters 12–25) and Jacob (Chapters 27–36)—one Yahweh by practicing male circumcision.
intervening chapter (26) connects these two figures through Because Sarah is old and they have no children, Abraham
Isaac, the son of Abraham and father of Jacob. The final fathers a son, Ishmael, with Hagar, an Egyptian slave who
section centers around Joseph, one of Jacob's 12 sons was gifted by Sarah to Abraham.
(Chapters 37–50). Two angels destroy the corrupt cities of Sodom and
Gomorrah by raining fire from heaven, but Lot, who lives in
Sodom, is saved.
Primeval History Over 90 years old, Sarah finally bears Abraham a son,
whom they name Isaac.
In the first of two distinct creation stories, Yahweh creates Yahweh tests Abraham's faith by requesting that he
the world and all living things in six days and declares it sacrifice Isaac, but just before Abraham complies, an angel
"good" before resting on the seventh day. intervenes to stop him and presents a ram as a substitute
In the second creation story, Yahweh fashions the first sacrifice.
human, Adam, from the dirt and cultivates a garden called Isaac marries a woman named Rebekah, who bears him twin
Eden for him. Seeing that "it is not good that the man should sons, Esau and Jacob.
be alone," Yahweh creates animals and then Eve, the first
woman.
Adam and Even follow the advice of a talking serpent and Jacob
eat fruit from a forbidden tree, a violation for which Yahweh
banishes them from the garden. Esau was born first, but Jacob usurps Esau's privileged
The first son of Adam and Eve, Cain, kills his younger status as firstborn son.
brother Abel out of jealousy. Jacob marries two sisters, Leah and Rachel, and acquires
Several generations later, humanity has become corrupt, considerable wealth from their father, Laban, in the process.
and Yahweh determines to destroy all life on earth with a Through his two wives and their two handmaids, Jacob sires
flood. 13 children—12 sons and 1 daughter.
Noah, a righteous man, builds an ark and saves his family Jacob encounters a mysterious divine figure with whom he
and a pair of each animal species from the flood. wrestles through the night, after which he receives a new
Noah's descendants spread and populate the earth. name—Israel, meaning "he wrestled God."
People gather and build a city with an immense tower, called After a long time apart, Jacob meets Esau and the brothers
Babel. In response, Yahweh confuses their speech and they embrace warmly.

Jacob revisits the shrine at Bethel where he first Traditions about the ancestors of Israel in the rest of Genesis
encountered Yahweh earlier in his life, and returns home to likely originated in diverse times and places. The familial
visit his aging father, Isaac, on his deathbed. relationships between the important figures may even be later
inventions meant to present these diverse traditions as the
traditions of one Israelite people. Many of the episodes
Joseph included in Genesis are etiological, explaining the origins of the
names of individuals such as Israel, places such as Bethel, and
Jacob favors Joseph, the second youngest of his sons, over practices such as circumcision. The Joseph story stands out
his elder brothers. because of its well-crafted, novella-like format, which may
Joseph's jealous brothers conspire to kill him but decide to signal a distinct origin and function.
sell him as a slave to passing merchants, who take him to
Despite the diverse origins for these stories, they are well
Egypt.
organized in Genesis. Beginning with 2:4, headings stating
Joseph initially does well as an overseer for an Egyptian
"These are the generations of ... " introduce genealogical lists
official named Potiphar but refuses the sexual advances of
and narrative hinges that reaffirm the historical connections of
Potiphar's wife, who lies to Potiphar that Joseph assaulted
characters and events in the book (see Genesis 2:4, 5:1, 6:9,
her.
10:1, 25:12, 25:19, 36:1, and 37:2). The Greek word genesis,
Potiphar has Joseph put in jail, where he gains a reputation
which translates "generation" in Greek versions of these
for interpreting dreams.
passages, is where the title Genesis comes from. Genesis also
Joseph is released from jail and appointed second-in-
includes the first segments of a basic structure for the
command over all Egypt after he interprets a dream for the
narrative arc of the Torah, based on a series of three
Pharaoh.
covenants, or formal agreements between Yahweh and central
Famine spreads across the land and Joseph's brothers
characters: Noah, Abraham, and Moses.
come to Egypt to buy grain from Joseph, whom they do not
recognize. The impressive combination of all these stories in Genesis
Eventually, Joseph reveals his identity, the brothers repent communicated a clear message to its ancient Hebrew readers:
of their treachery, and the entire family, including their they were one people, all children of Abraham who worshipped
father, Jacob, move to Egypt and flourish. the same god and whose ancestral ties to the land of Canaan
Genesis concludes with the death of Jacob in Egypt, were intertwined.
surrounded by his sons.
Analysis Exodus
Genesis offers many explanations for the nature of Yahweh,
the origin of the world, the human condition, and the Summary
backstories of the ancestors of Israel. It also introduces
themes that echo throughout the rest of the Torah, especially When Exodus opens, the situation of the Israelites—also called
Yahweh's interest in a special relationship with his Hebrews—in Egypt has changed dramatically in the 400 years
people—epitomized by the promises to Abraham—and the since the clan of Jacob prospered there at the end of Genesis.
human tendency to stray from Yahweh's expectations, They have become great in number but are now slaves, subject
beginning with Adam and Eve. From a distance Genesis looks to harsh conditions. The first half of Exodus (Chapters 1–19)
like an orderly narrative that takes readers from creation to relates the Hebrews' flight from Egypt, while the second half
Egypt. But it achieves its broad coverage of topics by (Chapters 20–40) describes their encounter with Yahweh at
combining stories from different sources and perspectives that Mount Sinai, traditionally located in the Sinai peninsula but
are not always fully harmonized. Yet together, they create an considered by some scholars to be in Northwest Arabia.
intelligible narrative arc.

agreement in a ceremony.
From Egypt to Mount Sinai Moses returns up the mountain for 40 days to receive stone
tablets with the laws written on them by Yahweh's own
Threatened by their increasing numbers, the Egyptian hand.
pharaoh orders the systematic killing of male Hebrew Yahweh instructs Moses how to construct the tabernacle, a
children. portable tent shrine for the worship of Yahweh, and all its
To save his life, one Hebrew mother puts her son in a cultic furnishings, including a gold-covered wooden chest,
basket and floats it down the Nile River, where it is found by known as the Ark of the Covenant, which will house the
the Pharaoh's daughter who rescues him and names him stone tablets.
Moses. While Moses remains on the mountain, Aaron collects
As an adult, Moses murders an Egyptian for abusing a golden items from all the people and melts them down to
Hebrew slave and flees from Egypt to the land of Midian in fashion a calf idol, which they proceed to worship.
Northwest Arabia. Angered by the people's betrayal, Yahweh considers
Moses marries the daughter of a Midianite priest. destroying them entirely, but Moses intercedes by pleading
Speaking through a burning bush, Yahweh instructs Moses, for mercy.
with the help of his brother Aaron, to confront the Egyptian Moses descends the mountain, smashes the tablets,
ruler to secure the release of the Hebrews from slavery. destroys the calf, and commands the execution of 3,000
When the Pharaoh refuses to cooperate with Moses and Israelites.
Aaron's requests that he release the Hebrews, Yahweh Moses creates a new set of tablets and receives a new list
demonstrates his power against the Egyptians 10 times (the of stipulations from Yahweh.
10 plagues), the last of which sees all firstborn children of The people erect the tabernacle and create all its
the Egyptians killed during the night, while the Hebrews furnishings, including the Ark of the Covenant.
prepare to flee the land. The glory of Yahweh fills the tabernacle, visible as a cloud
The Pharaoh tells the Hebrews to leave but then pursues during the day and as fire at night.
them as they flee the land of Egypt. Yahweh parts the
waters of the Red Sea, allowing the Hebrews to cross over
on dry land, and then drowns the Egyptian army as they Analysis
attempt to follow.
The Hebrews begin their trek through the wilderness to the The deliverance of Israel from Egypt is in many ways the key
east of Egypt, led by Moses. narrative event in the entire Hebrew Bible and is constantly
After three months surviving difficult conditions, the people evoked as the defining item on Yahweh's resume: "I am
arrive at Mount Sinai, the place where Yahweh first spoke to Yahweh your God who brought you out from the land of
Moses from the burning bush. Egypt." Exodus introduces and narrates the life of Moses, who
The people agree to a covenant relationship, or formal is the central character of the Torah. Finally, Exodus provides
agreement, with Yahweh. The agreement is punctuated by a the first selection of laws in the Torah, including the iconic Ten
dramatic theophany, or appearance of Yahweh, in the form Commandments.
of thunder and lightning and "a thick cloud."
Exodus defines the identities of Yahweh and the nation of
Israel, as well as the nature of their covenant relationship.
At Mount Sinai When Moses encounters the deity at the burning bush, his
name, Yahweh, is formally revealed for the first time. The
On the mountain, Yahweh reveals to Moses a set of laws, exodus event and the giving of the law at Mount Sinai then
often called the "Covenant Code." The collection of laws become the defining events in the relationship between
begins with a list of core precepts, now known as the Ten Yahweh and the people of Israel. It is only when the covenant
Commandments or Decalogue. agreement and the law defining its stipulations are presented
Moses descends from the mountain, repeats the laws to the at Sinai, and the people agree to uphold them, that the nation
people, writes them down, and confirms the covenant of Israel is formally brought into existence.

Much of the material in Exodus is clearly written with the later skin diseases.
context of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah in mind. The Chapter 16 details Yahweh's instructions concerning an
lengthy description of the tabernacle and its construction is a annual purification ceremony for the whole nation of Israel,
blueprint for the temple of Yahweh in Israel. The golden calf called the Day of Atonement or Yom Kippur.
episode anticipates later controversies about rival factions Chapters 17–26 present a group of laws conventionally
within the Israelite priesthood, because it portrays Aaron, the referred to as the Holiness Code because of statements
traditional ancestor of the high priesthood in Jerusalem, quite such as Leviticus 19:2: "You shall be holy, for I Yahweh your
negatively. The legal material in the Covenant Code assumes God am holy."
an established society in Israel. Chapter 27 provides a final set of instructions on dedicating
various things to Yahweh.
As the Israelites prepare to leave Egypt, Moses gives them
detailed instructions as to how to prepare for the night of the
final plague. Here, Exodus looks forward to the observance of Analysis
the festival of Passover/Unleavened Bread in the land of Israel:
"This day shall be a day of remembrance for you. You shall Leviticus focuses on several areas: the sacrificial system,
celebrate it as a festival to Yahweh; throughout your regulations for all aspects of life, and issues of purity and
generations you shall observe it as a perpetual ordinance" impurity. The system of sacrificial offerings to Yahweh,
(Exodus 12:14). This combination of law and narrative gives orchestrated by the priests in the lineage of Aaron, is to be of
Exodus much of its potency as a document that establishes central importance to the religious life of all Israelites. Israelites
Israel's identity as the people of Yahweh. must also pay constant attention to their status of ritual purity
or impurity, because the latter precludes any participation in
the sacrificial cult. The Documentary Hypothesis assigns most
Leviticus of Leviticus to the Priestly source, and these themes represent
some of its most striking features.
The regulations restricting which foods are considered clean,

Summary or kosher, and unclean in Leviticus 11 have long been a topic of
discussion. While various practical explanations have been
The ending of Exodus leaves the reader with the impression
sought for the prohibited foods—considering pork unhealthy or
that the Israelites are about to depart from Mount Sinai and
disease-prone, for example—none are convincing. Leviticus
continue their journey toward Canaan. But no such narrative
itself offers no rationale for these regulations other than divine
action takes place in the subsequent book of Leviticus.
mandate and the idea that these foods defile the body of the
Leviticus consists almost entirely of instructions and
one who eats them. Though expanded and clarified by much
regulations concerning religious practices and other matters
later Jewish tradition, Leviticus is part of the foundation for the
that Yahweh relates to Moses at the tabernacle.
dietary system that continues to govern Jewish practice to this
Chapters 1–7 give detailed instructions concerning the day.
types of sacrificial offerings that can be presented to
Yahweh at the tabernacle: burnt offerings, grain offerings,
peace offerings, purification offerings to atone for sins, and Numbers
guilt offerings for other kinds of violations.
Chapters 8–10 describe the consecration of the tabernacle
and the formal installation of Aaron and his sons as its high Summary
priests, during which Yahweh incinerates two of Aaron's
sons for offering "strange fire." Numbers is often discussed in three sections. In the first
Chapters 11–15 cover regulations about purity, including (Chapters 1–10) the Israelites receive a final collection of
what the Israelites may eat and how they should handle instructions and regulations before they leave Mount Sinai. The
situations such as death, childbirth, genital discharges, and second section (Chapters 11–25) concern problems during

their journey. The final section (Chapters 26–36) provides Balak, the king of Moab, hires a prophet named Balaam to
further miscellaneous regulations and looks forward to the curse the Israelites, but Balaam involuntarily blesses them
apportionment of the land of Canaan between the tribes of instead.
Israel. The Israelites disobey Yahweh by marrying foreign Moabite
and Midianite women and worshipping a local deity,
prompting a devastating plague.
Chapters 1–10
A census is taken of adult men from all the 12 tribes—the Chapters 26–36
descendants of each of the 12 sons of Jacob—with a total
count surpassing 600,000. Yahweh commands a second census, which reveals that
Many new regulations (supplementing those in Leviticus) only Moses, Caleb, and Joshua remain of the adult
are listed, including an arrangement for the camp of the generation that was forced to wander in the wilderness for
Israelites, the duties of the priests, guidelines for special 40 years, but the adult male population of all the tribes
vows, determining guilt in cases of adultery, making together still tops 600,000.
offerings, and observing Passover. Joshua is formally appointed to be Moses's successor as
Final instructions for departure are given, and the Israelites leader of the people.
break camp and resume their journey. Additional regulations for offerings, vows, and inheritance
are provided.
The Israelites conquer Midian, providing land for the people
Chapters 11–25 east of the Jordan River.
Instructions for dividing the land of Canaan, yet to be
These chapters chronicle the people's wandering in the conquered, among the tribes occupy the final chapters of
wilderness. Many short narratives relate problems Numbers.
encountered, the people's complaints, and Yahweh's
solutions:
Lacking food, Yahweh provides quail to eat. Analysis
Lacking water, Moses and Aaron strike a rock with
Aaron's staff, and water flows out from it to solve the The contents of the book of Numbers are remarkably diverse.
crisis, but something about this displeases Yahweh who Unlike Leviticus, which effectively pauses the narrative
condemns them to die before entering the promised land. progression of the Torah while listing large blocks of legal
Aaron dies shortly after. material and cultic regulations, Numbers intersperses narrative
Venomous snakes plague the people, but Moses makes a and nonnarrative sections throughout. The wide variety of
bronze serpent that can cure the potentially lethal material in Numbers provides revealing glimpses of the
effects of the snakebites. diversity of religious practices in ancient Israel and its environs.
The people despair after spies report that the inhabitants of
The case of the woman accused of adultery in Numbers 5
Canaan look too strong to be defeated and have fortified
describes a kind of trial by ritual/ordeal with magical
towns.
overtones. Presented before the altar of Yahweh, the woman
The people's faithlessness angers Yahweh, who declares
must swear to her innocence and drink the "water of
that none of the adults living among the people shall enter
bitterness," in which the ink of a written curse has been
the promised land except for Joshua and Caleb, two spies
washed. If she is guilty, the curse causes some sort of physical
who maintained faith. The people must wander in the
harm to the woman, possibly a miscarriage. This ritual is
wilderness for 40 years until the rest of the generation
reminiscent of other trials by "ordeal" known from the ancient
perishes.
Near East, such as the river ordeal mentioned in the Code of
Various additional regulations are recorded, as well as a
Hammurabi. In cases where accusations could not be proven,
rebellion challenging the leadership of Moses and Aaron,
an individual would jump in the river. Survival proved innocence,
which is put down.

while drowning indicated guilt.

5–26)
The portrayal of Balaam in Numbers 22–24 as a professional
prophet reflects the broader practice of prophecy in the Moses recalls the covenant with Yahweh at Mount Horeb
ancient Near East. Numerous references to prophets and (Sinai) and repeats the Ten Commandments, also commonly
diviners working in the service of political rulers are found in called the Decalogue, with slight differences from the
ancient texts from Mesopotamia and Syria. At the version given in Exodus 20.
archaeological site of Deir Alla, located on the east side of the Moses gives one of the most celebrated commands in the
Jordan River valley in modern Jordan, inscriptions written on Torah in Deuteronomy 6:4–5: "Hear, O Israel: Yahweh is our
plastered walls were found that also mention a person named God, Yahweh alone. You shall love Yahweh your God with all
Balaam described as a "seer" or prophet. These inscriptions your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your might."
can be securely dated to the 8th century BCE, and suggest Moses anticipates the challenges that will face the people
that this portion of Numbers is portraying a known figure of when they reach the land of Canaan, especially the
that time period. temptation to worship other gods.
Moses emphasizes that the people will only continue to
prosper if they remain faithful and obedient to Yahweh.
Deuteronomy Deuteronomy 12–26 is the final major law collection in the
Torah, the Deuteronomic Code.
The Deuteronomic Code treats various issues common
Summary to the other law collections, the Covenant Collection and

the Holiness Collection: dietary restrictions, debt
forgiveness, manumission of slaves, and the calendar of
Deuteronomy begins where Numbers ends. The Israelites are
holy days.
assembled on the east side of the Jordan River, preparing to
The Deuteronomic Code also covers guidelines for public
enter the land of Canaan. Its contents are presented as a
officials, including judges, kings, priests, and prophets;
series of speeches by Moses to the Israelites before his death,
issues of judicial process; rules of warfare; and a variety
which happens at the end of the book.
of other miscellaneous topics aimed at maintaining social
order and harmony.
First Speech (Chapters 1–4)

Moses reviews the storyline of the Israelites' travels in the
Final Speeches and Narrative
wilderness since they left Egypt. The narrative varies in a
number of details from the corresponding accounts in
Conclusion (Chapters 27–34)
Exodus–Numbers.
Chapters 27–28 describe the blessings that will result from
Following this historical prologue, Moses exhorts the people
obedience to the covenant and the curses that will result
to obey the laws of Yahweh, and especially to avoid
from disobedience.
worshipping idols. He also predicts disastrous
Moses again recounts the Israelites' journey thus far and
consequences if the Israelites fail to obey these
anticipates future disaster because of unfaithfulness.
commandments, which may be a veiled reference to the
Seeing his own death as imminent, Moses charges his
future exile in Babylon.
successor Joshua to "be strong and bold" in leading the
people into the land of Canaan.
Second Speech (Chapters Moses sings a song of praise to Yahweh, pronounces

blessings for the tribes of Israel, ascends Mount Nebo to
look across into the promised land, and then dies at the age
of 120.

Analysis Joshua
A covenant—a formal agreement, such as a political
treaty—between Yahweh and the people of Israel is prominent
in the encounter with Yahweh at Mount Sinai in Exodus and
Summary
anticipated even before that in Genesis. Yet this concept is
most extensively developed in Deuteronomy. The book
frequently calls the arrangement between Yahweh and the Chapters 1–12
people of Israel a covenant (Hebrew: berit), and it has long
been argued that much of Deuteronomy is modeled after Joshua leads the tribes of Israel in the conquest of Canaan.
ancient Near Eastern political treaties. The Neo-Assyrian
Israelite spies are sent to the city of Jericho to gather
"Vassal Treaties of Esarhaddon," dated to 672 BCE, is
information. A prostitute named Rahab hides them in
sometimes identified as a possible direct inspiration for
exchange for protection for her family when the Israelites
Deuteronomy, because it fits the approximate time period of
conquer the city.
Deuteronomy's composition and was distributed in the western
When the Israelites cross the flooded Jordan River, Yahweh
provinces of the Assyrian empire.
holds back the waters in a miracle recalling the crossing of
Numerous features of the book of Deuteronomy can be the Red Sea.
compared with features of ancient Near Eastern treaties. The Joshua circumcises all the men of Israel and the Passover is
recounting of the wilderness journey at the beginning of observed.
Deuteronomy corresponds to historical prologues found in The Israelites take Jericho and executes all the people and
treaties. The commandments related by Moses fill the place of livestock, except Rahab's family.
the stipulations of a treaty agreement. Blessings and curses The Israelites conquer Ai, and Joshua builds an altar at
for adherence to or violation of an agreement, like those in Mount Ebal.
Deuteronomy 27–28, are typical of treaties. Even the treatment Joshua's people defeat many cities—31 kings in all—in the
of the "scroll of the Torah" described in Deuteronomy, Judahite hill country.
including the fact that it is deposited in a sacred space and
recited publicly, has parallels in the handling of Near Eastern
treaty tablets. The distinctive "love" language in Deuteronomy, Chapters 13–24
such as "You shall love Yahweh your God," corresponds to the
vocabulary of ancient Near Eastern treaties, where such The land of Canaan is divided among the tribes of Israel.
language indicates political loyalty.
After the conquest is complete, the geographical limits of
The message of Deuteronomy is all the more potent and land apportioned to each of the 12 tribes of Israel are
politically subversive because of the historical context of detailed.
Assyrian imperial domination in the 7th century BCE, when the Caleb receives his individual allotment first among the
book's composition began. Deuteronomy sends a clear Judahites because he, along with Joshua, did not lose faith
message by borrowing the language of treaties that demanded when sent to spy on the land by Moses in Numbers 13–14.
loyalty to the rulers of invading empires and applying it to the The priestly tribe of the Levites does not receive a discrete
relationship between Yahweh and the people of Israel. The territory but is given 48 cities in which to reside, spread
ultimate loyalty of the people of Israel must lie with Yahweh throughout the lands of the other tribes. Six of these
alone, not with any human ruler, and to place loyalty with any Levitical cities are also designated "cities of refuge," where
other political entity is to commit idolatry. Just as violation of a individuals who cause an accidental death are able to flee in
treaty agreement with a more powerful nation would have order to escape retributive violence.
serious consequences, violation of the covenant between When three tribes build an altar, they have to assure the
Yahweh and Israel will lead to national disaster. other Israelites that they won't use it for sacrifices.
Joshua assembles the leaders of the tribes at Shechem,

retells the history of Yahweh's provision for the Israelites captives. This raises a key point for understanding Joshua:
from Abraham to the present day, and admonishes the However shocking to modern sensibilities, its theology and
people not to be led astray by the foreign peoples that politics must be understood in their ancient context, where
remain around them. There is a covenant renewal they are not so unusual.
ceremony.
Joshua dies at age 110.
Judges
Analysis
Joshua presents significant challenges for the reader,
Summary
especially regarding its relationship to history and the ethics of
Judges begins after the death of Joshua.
its holy war narrative.
The first prologue describes each of the tribes of Israel
The historicity of the events portrayed in Joshua has long been
fighting the Canaanites to take possession of their allotted
debated. Problems with the story are evident within the book
portions of land but failing in each case to drive them out
itself: the few battles narrated with any detail cover only a
completely.
limited area of the region they are supposed to possess. A full
The second prologue covers the era of the judges, when the
list of 31 kings and their cities who have been conquered is
Israelites worshipped Canaanite deities such as Baal and
given in Joshua 12, but fewer than half of these are mentioned
Astarte instead of Yahweh.
elsewhere in Joshua. Joshua is also in tension with Judges,
Events occur in a repeating cycle: (1) unfaithfulness to
which narrates significant warfare between the Canaanites
Yahweh leads to crisis for the tribes of Israel; (2) Yahweh
and Israelites continuing after Joshua's death, despite the
has mercy and sends a heroic military leader—or judge—to
impression that the whole land had already been conquered.
deliver them from their enemies; and (3) the people enjoy a
Archaeological study in Israel has further complicated the period of peace.
historicity of Joshua's conquest story. While the ruins of Hazor There's a sequence of judges who take leadership in Israel
do show a fiery destruction from the approximate time of amidst these escalating cycles of chaos:
Joshua, other cities portrayed in Joshua, such as Jericho and Ehud stabs the Moabite king, Eglon, and the Israelites
Ai, seem to have been uninhabited ruins in this period. defeat the Moabites.
Archaeology does show shifting settlement trends in the Deborah and Barak defeat Jabin of Hazor, a victory
region during the period, and an Israelite society did emerge in celebrated in archaic language that may stem from an
Canaan one way or another. But a dramatic conquest like that earlier source.
portrayed in Joshua may not have been the sole or primary Gideon destroys his father's shrine to Baal and routs a
cause. large Midianite army with a force of only 300, a victory

that causes conflict among the tribes of Israel—kingship
Also challenging for readers of Joshua is the holy war for Israel is first introduced here.
portrayed in the book. Despite ancestral claims to a handful of After Gideon's death, the people of the city of Shechem
places within Canaan, Joshua's Israelite armies could declare his son Abimelech king, but he doesn't last long.
reasonably be perceived as hostile foreign invaders waging an Jephthah is a warrior who leads Israel against the
unprovoked, violent campaign justified by claims of a divine Ammonites, but his victory means he has to make his
mandate. Not only do they attack and raze cities without daughter a human sacrifice because of a rash vow he
provocation, they are commanded by Yahweh to "devote to made.
destruction" all the inhabitants of the cities they conquer, "men Endowed with supernatural strength through his uncut
and women, young and old, oxen, sheep, and donkeys." This hair, Samson fights the enemy Philistines but has a
program of the so-called "ban" (Hebrew: herem) is paralleled in weakness for women. He kills himself in a temple along
a 9th-century BCE Moabite inscription, which uses the same with thousands of Philistines.
terminology and prescribes similar slaughter of enemy Still lacking their own territory, the tribe of Dan captures

a city in northern Israel. Along the way they steal an idol

and its Levite priest.
Summary
When an unnamed Levite travels through the area of
The establishment of a monarchy in Israel is the topic of 1
Benjamin, he allows his concubine to be raped and killed
Samuel, which focuses on the careers of three key figures:
to save himself. He cuts her body into pieces and sends
Samuel (Chapters 1–8), Saul (Chapters 9–15), and David
them to the tribes of Israel, igniting a war against the
(Chapters 16–31).
tribe of Benjamin.
Analysis Samuel
Judges is a combination of folkloric narratives and the Hannah prays for a child at the temple in Shiloh, and the
editorializing of the Deuteronomistic History. It constructs a priest Eli assures her the petition will be answered.
vivid picture of a transitional period between Israel's arrival in Her son Samuel is born, and Hannah devotes him to service
Canaan and the establishment of monarchic rule, and makes a at the Shiloh temple.
case for the necessity of the stabilizing rule of a king in Israel. Years later Eli's corrupt sons, Hophni and Phinehas, die in
battle against the Philistines as Samuel had predicted.
The voice of the Deuteronomistic Historian(s) is distinctive, The Philistines take the Ark of the Ccovenant, which brings
especially at the beginning and end of Judges, as well as in plagues on them.
scattered comments throughout the book. In this period the Fearing the plagues, the Philistines return the Ark to the
people repeatedly "did what was evil in the sight of Yahweh" by Israelites.
worshipping other gods. This betrayal precipitates a cycle of Samuel emerges as the leader of Israel—priest, prophet,
judgment enacted through political enemies, deliverance under and judge.
the leadership of the judge appointed by Yahweh, and When Samuel's sons can't rule effectively, the elders of
temporary peace before the cycle repeats. Other comments Israel ask for a king.
show the Deuteronomistic theological view of history, which Samuel grants their request but gives strong warnings: a
involves Yahweh repaying people with death for their crimes. king will take their sons and daughters into service, will
appropriate their agricultural lands, and will extort their
A phrase repeated four times over the final chapters of Judges possessions.
articulates the narrator's final assessment of the situation: "In
those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what
was right in their own eyes" (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25). This betrays
the essential purpose of Judges within the Deuteronomistic
Saul
History: to set the stage for and rationalize the establishment
Saul, a "handsome young man," meets Samuel, who helps
of monarchic rule in Israel. That said, Judges also anticipates
him on an errand and then reveals that Yahweh has chosen
the pitfalls of kingship in the story of Gideon's son Abimelech
Saul to be King over Israel.
attempting to seize power through violence and treachery.
Saul initially proves himself worthy of the task by defeating
Israel may well need a king, but this episode conveys that only
Nahash, an Ammonite king who had been oppressing the
a divinely appointed king who adheres to the instructions of
Israelites.
Yahweh will suffice.
Soon Saul runs into trouble by performing sacrifices when
Samuel was absent, giving capricious commands to his
troops, and violating instructions to destroy all the spoils of
1 Samuel a battle.
At Yahweh's instruction, Samuel goes to Bethlehem to meet
a man named Jesse, and anoints his youngest son, David, to
replace Saul as king.

a charismatic military leader who begins to exceed his king in

David popularity, David fits the bill of a classic usurper. He forms a
band of renegades and even takes up residence in one of the
A talented lyre player, David enters Saul's service as his cities of the Philistines, Israel's hated enemy. He serves as the
musician and armor bearer. personal bodyguard of one of the Philistine kings who fought
David's defining moment comes when he faces the and defeated Saul. In 2 Samuel, David even comes to be in
fearsome champion of the Philistine army, Goliath, and kills possession of King Saul's crown and his son Ishbaal's head.
him with only a sling and stones. Yet innocent explanations are offered for all these suspicious
As David rises in influence, he becomes an army circumstances, and counternarratives emphasize that David
commander, befriends Saul's son Jonathan, and marries could have killed Saul multiple times but refused to do so.
Saul's daughter Michal. Jonathan, whose inheritance of the throne David stands to
As David's renown eclipses Saul's, Saul becomes jealous usurp, is his closest friend and insists that David should reign
and suspicious of David, and Saul attempts to kill David on instead of him.
multiple occasions—but David repeatedly eludes him.
Unable to reconcile with Saul, David gathers followers, Other sources may also be incorporated into the narratives
taking up residence among the Philistines under the about Saul, but the picture is far murkier than for David. The
protection of King Achish of Gath. tale of Saul's rise is initially positive and even charming. This
As Philistine armies gather against him, Saul finds a abruptly turns sour when he and Samuel clash over the
sorceress at Endor who calls up the spirit of Samuel. administration of sacrifices, but his missteps hardly seem
Samuel's ghost tells Saul the armies of Israel will lose, and worse than those of most other kings in the history of Israel
Saul and Jonathan will die the next day. and Judah. These tensions suggest the possibility that earlier
David's band, distrusted by some of the Philistines, fights an sources more positive toward Saul have been incorporated by
Amalekite raiding party, while the Philistines defeat Saul at the Deuteronomistic History.
Mount Gilboa.
Three of Saul's sons die, and Saul is wounded by archers
before falling on his sword. 2 Samuel
Analysis Summary
The book of 1 Samuel serves multiple purposes within the
Set entirely within David's time, 2 Samuel opens with an
Deuteronomistic History. It portrays a transition from
account of David becoming king of Israel and Judah. The latter
leadership under figures such as the judges, which Samuel still
part of the book describes his reign, which was fraught with
embodies in part, to divinely anointed kings. It also emphasizes
rebellion and other problems.
the ambivalence toward kingship found throughout the
Deuteronomistic History, clearest in Samuel's warnings to the
Israelites who request a king. Samuel anointing Saul and
continuing to advise him exemplifies the role that the
David Becomes King (Chapters
Deuteronomistic History gives to prophets throughout Israel's
history in communicating the will of Yahweh to rulers. It
1–8)
presents Saul as the archetype of the failed king who does not
After a second account of Saul's death in the battle
heed the advice of the prophets or obey Yahweh's commands.
between the Israelites and Philistines—which differs
Most prominently, it presents David as the model of a chosen
completely from the account narrated in 1 Samuel 31—David
leader who prospers with Yahweh's support.
returns to Hebron and is anointed king over Judah.
While the Deuteronomistic shaping of 1 Samuel is evident, Meanwhile, Saul's military commander Abner has already
many of its individual stories may have served to deflect proclaimed Saul's remaining son Ishbosheth (elsewhere
criticism of David and Saul in pre-Deuteronomistic sources. As called Ishbaal) as king over the rest of Israel.

War breaks out between the rival factions, but David

steadily gains ground. (Chapters 21–24)
Both Abner and Ishbosheth are assassinated in suspicious
circumstances. The final four chapters of 2 Samuel, often called an
With all rivals now eliminated, David is made king over all appendix, relate a song of praise for Yahweh, the exploits of
Israel at Hebron. David's elite warriors, and an account of David taking a
David conquers the city of Jerusalem. After making it his census of all the people in Israel, which briefly angers
new capital, he brings the Ark of the Covenant into the city. Yahweh and brings a plague on the land.
David wants to build a temple for Yahweh in Jerusalem. The

prophet Nathan informs him that Yahweh wants his
successor to build the temple, but Yahweh will make David
Analysis
the founder of a great dynasty and that his "throne shall be
The book of 2 Samuel takes the reader from the moment the
established forever."
young charismatic leader David is invested with the powers of
David defeats Israel's rivals on all sides, including Philistines,
kingship over Israel to the waning years of his reign when he is
Moabites, Arameans, Edomites, and Ammonites.
too old to fight and his family has been torn apart by strife
among his children. These stories reveal many complex
The Court History of David aspects of David, making him the most multifaceted character
in the Hebrew Bible.
(Chapters 9–20) The first half of 2 Samuel continues the glowingly positive
portrayal of David in 1 Samuel. His early years of rule are
David brings the one remaining heir of the house of Saul, successful and prosperous. He conquers the city of
Jonathan's crippled son Mephibosheth, to dine at his own Jerusalem—so central to the Hebrew Bible from this point
table. forward—without incident, and begins to build it up. Although
David has an affair with Bathsheba, the wife of one of his he is not allowed to build the temple, Yahweh promises David a
soldiers, named Uriah. David arranges to have Uriah killed in dynasty that would rule in perpetuity in Jerusalem. This
battle and weds Bathsheba, and she bears him a son, promise is a focus of the Deuteronomistic History and is the
Solomon. These actions anger Yahweh, and Nathan source of enduring hope for restoration of Israel, even after the
prophesies that "the sword shall never depart" from David's disaster of the Babylonian exile.
house.
David's firstborn son, Amnon, rapes his own half-sister But soon after, David's shortcomings begin to have
Tamar, whose full brother Absalom murders Amnon in consequences. His affair with Bathsheba and conspiracy to
revenge. murder her husband prompt a sharp rebuke from Nathan. This
Absalom gains popularity with the people of Israel, then event marks a major turning point in the story. Throughout the
attempts to usurp the throne from his father David, resulting rest of 2 Samuel, David seems largely unable to govern
in a war between Absalom's supporters and David's. effectively or control the political maneuverings around him.
David's commander, Joab, kills Absalom, and David is Yet even in his moments of failure, his weaknesses stem partly
restored to the throne in Jerusalem. from a propensity for mercy rather than vengeance. His
A man named Sheba leads a second revolt, which is quickly character becomes more believably complex in the latter half
put down. of 2 Samuel, but he remains Yahweh's anointed king and
dynastic progenitor throughout.
Other Parts of David's Reign

1 Kings

Rehoboam reigns over the southern kingdom of Judah

Summary alone in Jerusalem.
Jeroboam makes Shechem his capital and sets up two
The book of 1 Kings divides fairly evenly between the story of
golden calf idols, in Dan and Bethel, so that the Israelites will
Solomon (Chapters 1–11) and the events of the ensuing kings
no longer go to the temple in Jerusalem to worship.
after the division of the monarchy (Chapters 12–22).
After Jeroboam, several kings rapidly take the throne and
are assassinated until Omri, commander of the Israelite
army, seizes power and establishes a new dynasty.
Solomon Meanwhile, the Davidic line continues uninterrupted on the
throne of Judah.
With David old and infirm, his eldest surviving son, Adonijah,
Omri's son Ahab succeeds him and is criticized, especially
declares himself king.
for marrying Jezebel, a Sidonian princess, and worshipping
Bathsheba and the prophet Nathan approach David and
the god Baal.
persuade him to proclaim another son, Solomon, as king.
During Ahab's reign, a prophet named Elijah opposes
The priest Zadok and Nathan anoint Solomon, and
worship of Baal in Israel.
Adonijah's supporters disband.
Ahab has various wars with the Arameans to the north, and
David provides final instructions to King Solomon and dies
is eventually killed in battle.
after 40 years of rule.
Solomon consolidates his rule by having Adonijah and other
political rivals killed.
Analysis
Yahweh appears to Solomon and offers to grant him a
request of his choosing. Solomon asks for wisdom to 1 Kings portrays Solomon as a king of unparalleled wisdom and
govern, which pleases Yahweh, who grants it. accomplishments who becomes especially noteworthy as the
Solomon's reign is described as a time of peace and great king who built the first temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. This
prosperity, when everyone "ate and drank and were happy." aggrandizing description becomes implausible when it boasts
His power is said to extend from the Euphrates River in the of the vast quantities of wealth Solomon accumulates, the
northeast to the border of Egypt in the southwest, a claim lavishness of his building projects, and the international reach
doubted by most scholars. of his power and fame. His portrayal also lacks the more
Solomon constructs a lavish palace and a temple for convincing grittiness and pathos of David in 1–2 Samuel.
Yahweh. Solomon's primary shortcoming, allowing his many foreign
Solomon gathers some 1,000 women to be his wives and wives to proliferate the worship of other deities in Jerusalem, is
concubines, many of them foreign. Over time, they "turned only superficially attached to the end of the account of his
away his heart after other gods," a violation that leads reign to provide a theological rationale for the division of his
Yahweh to declare that Solomon's kingdom shall be divided kingdom after his death.
after his death.
Jeroboam, in charge of Solomon's forced labor, receives an After the division into two kingdoms, the format of 1 Kings
oracle that he will become king over 10 of the tribes of Israel changes to a more rapid annalistic recounting of the kings of
but then flees to Egypt until Solomon's death. Israel and Judah. These brief descriptions are interspersed
Solomon dies after a 42-year reign, and his son Rehoboam with the Deuteronomistic History's theological assessments of
becomes king. each king, almost all of them negative. This begins a narrative
arc that leads up to and rationalizes the downfalls of the
kingdoms of Israel and Judah described in 2 Kings. The
The Divided Monarchy Deuteronomistic History is not primarily interested in simple
historiography here. It constructs a sustained argument that
The kingdom splits in two after Rehoboam refuses to lighten both kingdoms met their demise because kings repeatedly
the burden on the people. The 10 northern tribes abandon strayed from Yahweh's instructions and did not heed the
him and form the kingdom of Israel, led by Jeroboam, while advice of the prophets. Kings who introduced illicit worship,
such as Jeroboam with the shrines at Dan and Bethel and

Ahab with Baal worship, receive particular condemnation. The descendants of Jehu and Joash continue to reign in the
Prophets such as Elijah, meanwhile, do their best to establish northern and southern kingdoms for several generations.
Yahweh's supremacy over other gods—seen most clearly with The majority of kings north and south "did what was evil in
the dramatic showdown with the prophets of Baal (1 Kings the sight of Yahweh."
18)—but their message often goes unheeded. After almost a century of relative peace, in the late 8th
century BCE incursions by rulers of the powerful Neo-
Assyrian Empire begin to plague the Northern Kingdom of
2 Kings Israel.
Israel resists Assyrian aggression, while Judah becomes a
vassal of Assyria.
Summary The Assyrian King Shalmaneser invades Israel, destroys the

capital city of Samaria, and scatters the Israelites in exile.
Because of its many violations of Yahweh's commandments
The first part of 2 Kings (Chapters 1–17) continues the story of
and worship of other gods, the Northern Kingdom has been
the parallel kingdoms of Israel and Judah, culminating in
destroyed forever.
Israel's destruction at the hands of Assyria in 722 BCE. The
rest of the book (Chapters 18–25) relays the similar fate of
Judah, who despite the efforts of two good kings (Hezekiah
and Josiah) similarly fell to idolatry and was destroyed by The Final Years of Judah
Babylonia in 586 BCE.
With Israel vanquished, Hezekiah comes to the throne of
Judah. 2 Kings praises him as a religious reformer who
The Divided Monarchy until removed heterodox shrines from the land.
Another Assyrian king, Sennacherib, invades Judah, but
Israel's Fall withdraws after Hezekiah pays heavy tribute.

Hezekiah dies. His son, Manasseh, reverses all of his
father's reforms and is characterized as the worst king in
Elijah continues to promote the worship of Yahweh until his
Judah's history.
career comes to an end in impressive fashion—he is taken
Manasseh dies after a long reign.
up to heaven in a whirlwind as his successor Elisha looks on.
Shortly after, Manasseh's grandson, Josiah, becomes king
Like Elijah, Elisha performs miraculous feats, even
and is characterized by 2 Kings as an excellent king who
resurrecting people from the dead.
obeyed Yahweh.
Israel and Judah continue to go to war against the
The high priest Hilkiah rediscovers a "book of the Torah" in
surrounding states. Elisha at times works outside Israel,
the treasury of the temple and brings it to Josiah, who
including anointing Hazael as king of the Arameans, Israel's
begins a new major reform.
enemy to the north.
Josiah renews the covenant with Yahweh and purges all
Hazael clashes with King Joram of Israel and King Ahaziah
heterodox shrines and religious practices from the land, but
of Judah.
is unexpectedly killed when going to meet the Egyptian
The Israelite military commander Jehu, having been
pharaoh.
anointed by Elisha, orchestrates the murder of both Joram
After Josiah's death, a series of kings rule Judah, which
and Ahaziah on their way home from battle with Aram.
becomes a pawn in the greater war between Egypt and
During Jehu's coup, the Israelite queen mother Jezebel, wife
Babylonia.
of Ahab, is thrown down from a window to her death, and
Judah ultimately sides with Egypt—the wrong decision—and
every descendant of Omri is killed, concluding his dynasty.
in response Nebuchadnezzar, king of the Neo-Babylonian
Meanwhile, Ahaziah's mother, Athaliah, seizes power in
Empire, exiles the Judahite elite to Babylon and installs a
Judah and attempts to murder all rivals, but Ahaziah's young
puppet ruler, Zedekiah.
son Joash is hidden by the priests.
Zedekiah foolishly rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, who
After six years in power, Athaliah is ousted by Jehoiada the
now responds by razing Jerusalem and destroying the
priest, who places seven-year-old Joash on the throne.

temple.
The kingdom of Judah falls, but 2 Kings ends with a glimmer Isaiah
of hope by noting that the exiled Judahite ruler Jehoiachin
(a descendant of David) survives in Babylon, providing hope
for a future renewal. Summary
Analysis Isaiah of Jerusalem (Chapters

The primary task of the rest of 2 Kings is to explain the events
leading up to the downfall of the Northern Kingdom of Israel in
1–39)
722 BCE and of Judah in 586 BCE. This story is key to
Isaiah is introduced as "the vision of Isaiah son of Amoz,
understanding the entire Deuteronomistic History. Here, the
which he saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem in the days
narrative spanning Joshua's conquest, the judges, and all the
of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah" (1:1).
kings of Israel and Judah comes to its two most consequential
Several opening oracles express Yahweh's dissatisfaction
outcomes. All the warnings about unfaithfulness to Yahweh's
with the status quo in Judah.
commands and prohibitions of worship of other deities
Chapter 6 relates Isaiah's prophetic commission. Isaiah has
anticipate these momentous events.
a vision of Yahweh enthroned in the temple, surrounded by
The demise of the Northern Kingdom is straightforward in 2 seraphs. When Yahweh asks who will be sent to speak to
Kings. None of its rulers worshipped Yahweh properly. The the people, Isaiah responds "Here am I; send me!" (6:8).
Assyrian conquest of the kingdom is explained thus: "This During the Syro-Ephraimite War in the 730s BCE, in which
occurred because the people of Israel had sinned against Israel and Aram allied against Judah, Isaiah counsels King
Yahweh their God. ... They had worshipped other gods and Ahaz of Judah to trust Yahweh for deliverance.
walked in the customs of the nations ... and in the customs that Isaiah prophesies that Yahweh will use Assyria to judge
the kings of Israel had introduced" (2 Kings 17:7–8). both Israel and Judah, but when this is finished Assyria's
arrogance will also be judged and Judah will enjoyed
Explaining the downfall of Judah presents a more challenging renewed peace and prosperity (Chapters 11–12).
quandary for the Deuteronomistic History. Although the kings Chapters 13–23 present a series of oracles against foreign
of Judah had many failures of their own, the Deuteronomistic nations, including Babylonia, Assyria, Philistia, Moab,
History presents the unbroken Davidic dynasty in Jerusalem as Damascus, Cush, Egypt, Edom, Arabia, and Tyre, each of
Yahweh's anointed leadership for all Israel, a throne which will receive its own judgment in due course.
"established forever." Confounding the problem is the detail Chapters 24–27 resemble the "apocalyptic" genre of some
that two of Judah's later kings, Hezekiah and Josiah, took later prophet texts, describing judgment for all the earth and
dramatic steps to correct the wrongs of their day and reform a future renewal for all people centered in Jerusalem.
Judahite religion and society. But these reforms must be Chapters 28–35 present further oracles of woe against
understood as too little too late. The blame is placed on the Israel, Judah, Assyria, Egypt, and Edom, as well as visions of
vilified Manasseh, who undid all of Hezekiah's reforms during a restored peace and righteous rule in Jerusalem.
55-year reign: "Still Yahweh did not turn from the fierceness of Chapters 36–39 reproduce narratives about the reign of
his great wrath ... because of all the provocations with which Hezekiah from 2 Kings 18–20.
Manasseh had provoked him" (2 Kings 23:26). 2 Kings thus Isaiah reassures Hezekiah that Jerusalem will withstand
gives a dramatic and painful conclusion to the long saga of the an Assyrian siege. The Assyrian army withdraws soon
Deuteronomistic History. But with the notice that King after.
Jehoiachin survives in exile, it hints at the possibility of a Isaiah informs Hezekiah that he will die of an illness, but
sequel. after fervent prayer, Yahweh adds 15 years to Hezekiah's
life.
Isaiah warns Hezekiah that Jerusalem's wealth will be
taken away to Babylon in the future.

unidentified "suffering servant" of Isaiah 52–53 were also read

Second Isaiah (Chapters as messianic prophecies in early Christianity.
40–55) These and other well-known interpretations of passages in

Isaiah have little to do with the original significance of the book
In Chapter 40 the context abruptly shifts to Judah's exile in itself, and arguably do much to obscure it. Read in its original
the 6th century, and the oracles proclaim a message of context, the composite work of Isaiah showcases sustained
comfort to the conquered Judahites. theological reflection on Yahweh's sovereignty over the history
Four passages in Second Isaiah focus on an unidentified of the people of Israel and Judah through the political crises of
"servant" of Yahweh (42:14; 49:1–6; 50:4–11; 52:13–53:12) the 8th century BCE, the catastrophe of the Babylonian exile in
who will "bring forth justice," be "a light to the nations," and the 6th century BCE, and the challenge of rebuilding life in
prosper after having suffered greatly. In the context of this Jerusalem after the exile had ended. Isaiah's repeated
section of Isaiah, these statements most likely refer to Israel message to the kings of Judah in the 8th century BCE was to
collectively. resist the temptation to form alliances with foreign nations and
The prophet compares the return of Judah from exile in instead rely on Yahweh's continued provision for Judah to
Babylon is likened to a new exodus. stand on its own. Addressing the context of the Babylonian
exile of Judah in the 6th century BCE and its aftermath, the
latter half of Isaiah assures that Yahweh is in control of
Third Isaiah (Chapters 56–66) international events and has a plan to restore Judah after it
has served its time of punishment for past mistakes.
Third Isaiah presents a group of oracles that appear to
address the people of Judah after the exile has ended and
life in Jerusalem is being rebuilt. Jeremiah
Several passages suggest that not all is well: "The righteous
perish, and no one takes it to heart" (57:1).
Chapters 60–62 and 66 prophesy a glorious future for Summary
Jerusalem, where all humanity will assemble to worship
Yahweh. Jeremiah is a complex book and is not presented in consistent
chronological order. There are three main units (1–25, 26–36,
37–45) that each end with references to Jeremiah's defining
Analysis message in 604 BCE to King Jehoiakim, and a fourth unit of
oracles against foreign nations and concluding items (46–52).
Isaiah is a lengthy and complex book of dense prophetic
poetry, with a number of historically significant interpretive
cruxes. It was one of the most significant books of the Hebrew
Bible for early Christianity and is frequently cited in the New
Chapters 1–25
Testament. However, several famous traditional Christian
The book opens with Jeremiah's commission: "Before I
interpretations of portions of Isaiah have little to do with the
formed you in the womb I knew you, and before you were
book's original meaning.
born I consecrated you; I appointed you a prophet to the
In its original context, the announcement of the birth of a child nations," Yahweh tells Jeremiah (1:5).
named Immanuel in Isaiah 7:14 was clearly meant to assure The opening chapters indict Israel for faithlessness and
King Ahaz that the threat from Israel and Damascus would predict doom for Judah: a great foe will descend on it from
soon pass, and most likely anticipates the birth of his son the north.
Hezekiah who would reign after him. However, early Christian Jeremiah delivers a message at the gate of the temple in
readers of Isaiah read the text instead as a messianic Jerusalem, warning the people not to be overconfident that
prediction of the birth of Jesus (Matthew 1:22–23). An oracle Yahweh will always dwell in this temple and protect
about an ideal future Davidic king in Isaiah 9:1–7, and the them—disaster is coming.

Yahweh, "the living God and the everlasting King" (10:10) is against the people's idolatry.
contrasted with the gods of other nations, which are mere
idols.
Chapters 11–20 use a variety of metaphors and other Chapters 46–52
rhetorical techniques to condemn Judah's breaking of the
covenant through idolatry and the coming exile. Jeremiah's Chapters 46–51 contain oracles against the foreign nations
message of doom provokes false prophets to proclaim a of Egypt, Philistia, Moab, Ammon, Edom, Damascus, Elam,
message of peace, and Jeremiah's own life is threatened. and Babylon.
Jeremiah repeatedly complains to Yahweh for his own Chapter 52 appends to the book a full account of the fall of
unhappy situation as the bearer of bad news. Jerusalem, which is mostly identical to 2 Kings 24–25.
In a series of oracles in Chapters 21–24, Jeremiah speaks
directly to Zedekiah, the final King of Judah, calling him to
repent. Analysis
The material in the prose didactic passages shares distinctive
Chapters 26–36 language and emphases with the Deuteronomistic History (the
books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings). Many scholars
The second unit begins with another prophecy of doom, suggest these passages are the work of scribes who were
leading "the priests and the prophets and all the people" to involved with the project of the Deuteronomistic History, or at
seize Jeremiah and declare that he should die. least shared its perspective and were steeped in its language.
Avoiding a death sentence, Jeremiah faces off with another These passages emphasize that Judah's leaders have broken
prophet, Hananiah, who promises imminent peace for their covenant with Yahweh by worshipping other gods and
Jerusalem. Jeremiah predicts that Hananiah will die soon, failing to uphold the laws of God.
which happens.
The most consistent and striking feature of Jeremiah is the
Jeremiah writes a letter to those already exiled in Babylon,
repeated emphasis on imminent and inescapable doom for
advising them to put down roots there because they will
Jerusalem. From the beginning, Jeremiah proclaims that
remain in exile for some time.
Yahweh's judgment against the people was at hand, and no
In Chapters 30–33 Jeremiah surprisingly changes from his
intercession can change this fact. These messages quickly
dire proclamations to a message of hope of restoration for
make Jeremiah an unwelcome voice to Judahite officials and
Israel.
other prophets as well, leading to his own imprisonment on
Returning to form, the second unit concludes with Jeremiah
multiple occasions. Jeremiah himself takes no pleasure in his
foretelling the coming siege of Jerusalem. His scribe Baruch
vocation, either, lamenting the fate of his people and that he is
dictates his words and then delivers it to King Jehoiakim,
treated with abuse and scorn for constantly shouting "violence
who does not receive the message well.
and destruction!" (20:8). Yet the prophet emphasizes that he
cannot escape his calling, and ultimately the doom he
Chapters 37–45 proclaims for Jerusalem does come to pass.
Despite its primarily dire outlook, the book of Jeremiah does

Two separate accounts of Jeremiah being imprisoned over include an outline of hope for the future. Exiled Judahites must
accusations of sedition are given in Chapters 37–38. accept their fate for the duration of the 70 years of exile, but
Jerusalem falls to the army of Nebuchadnezzar. Jeremiah is after this period of punishment Yahweh will begin to restore his
put under the charge of a Babylonian official, who later people in their homeland.
releases him.
Gedaliah, appointed governor of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar,
instigates a rebellion that is rapidly put down.
The remaining leaders of Judah flee to Egypt, taking
Jeremiah with them, where he continues to prophesy

Ezekiel is shown a valley of "dry bones" (37:1–14). He

Ezekiel prophesies to the bones, which are re-covered in flesh and
reanimated.
Yahweh will defeat Israel's cosmic foes Gog and Magog
Summary (Chapters 38–39).
Chapters 1–24 Chapters 40–48

Ezekiel sees a theophany (appearance of God), pronounces Ezekiel concludes with an extended vision of a new temple and
oracles against Judah and Jerusalem, and performs dramatic a new Israel.
"sign-acts" to illustrate Yahweh's message.
Yahweh's glory will return from the east to dwell in the new
An otherworldly "throne-chariot," which moves in all temple (43:1–12).
directions and is guarded by fantastical creatures, appears. Princes will rule in Israel and must "put away violence and
Yahweh addresses Ezekiel as "son of man" (New Revised oppression, and do what is just and right" (45:9).
Standard Version "mortal") and sends him "to the people of A great river will flow out from the temple, making the land
Israel ... a nation of rebels" (2:3) to warn them. verdant (47:1–12).
Ezekiel decries the idolatry practiced in Israel and proclaims
the end has come for Judah (Chapters 6–7).
The glory of Yahweh departs from the temple in Jerusalem Analysis
and heads eastward to join the exiles (Chapters 10–11).
Ezekiel likens Jerusalem to a useless vine to be burned up Ezekiel's bizarre demonstrations and diverse imagery give the
and to an unfaithful wife who has betrayed Yahweh for book its unique flavor. Such prophetic "sign acts" are attested
many lovers and will be publicly stripped and shamed to a lesser degree in other prophets of the Hebrew Bible and
(Chapters 15–16). broader ancient Near Eastern culture. In the 18th century BCE,
Ezekiel laments the fate of his people and proclaims that one prophet from the city of Mari in Syria tears apart a live
Yahweh's sword will be drawn against them (Chapters lamb and eats its raw flesh to warn of a coming plague.
19–21). Ezekiel's most celebrated vision is the "valley of dry bones,"

which are brought back to life before the prophet's eyes
(37:1–14). The immediate point of this passage is the collective
Chapters 25–32 restoration of all Israel.
Ezekiel sees religious corruption in Jerusalem as the

Oracles are announced against other nations and Ezekiel precipitating cause of the city's final destruction in 587 BCE
discusses Yahweh's desire for the people to repent. (see Chapter 8). The people have introduced idols and
religious "abominations," provoking Yahweh to anger and
Ammon, Moab, Edom, and Philistia will all be punished for
causing his glory to depart from the temple. Scholars have
their hostilities toward Israel and Judah (Chapter 25).
noted that some of the terminology Ezekiel frequently uses
Tyre will be destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, or so Ezekiel
and his emphases on purity and contamination of the land
initially prophesies (Chapters 26–28), but a subsequent
coincide significantly with material in the Torah associated with
oracle dated years later acknowledges that this did not
the Priestly Source, especially the Holiness Code in Leviticus
quite come to pass (29:17–21).
17–26. Ezekiel himself was a priest in the Zadokite lineage, and
Egypt will be brought to an end on the coming "Day of
thus may have been connected in some way to the school of
Yahweh" (Chapters 30–32).
thought reflected in Leviticus.
Yahweh himself will act as shepherd and judge before
restoring a Davidic ruler and establishing a new "covenant Although the doom of Jerusalem is clear from the outset, the
of peace" (Chapter 34). prophet's message has a clearly stated goal of bringing about

repentance and correction among the remnant of Israel in In Hosea, Israel's principal crime against Yahweh is the worship
exile. A single refrain with minor variations is used almost 60 of other deities, particularly the Canaanite god Baal (2:8; 13:1).
times in Ezekiel: "Then you will know that I am Yahweh." For Hosea refers to a plurality of "Baals" rather than a singular
Ezekiel, all the errors the people have committed reflect a deity, reflecting the worship of multiple local deities identified
failure to truly understand the identity and character of by the name/title Baal (literally, "lord") throughout the region. A
Yahweh. The dramatic events of Ezekiel's lifetime were striking statement in Hosea 2:16 suggests that some were
punitive lessons sent by Yahweh to expose these failings and, blending the identity of these Baal deities with Yahweh. Hosea
if the people truly repent, bring the nation back to life as also specifically rebukes the worship of calf idols in the shrines
Yahweh intended it. at Samaria (8:5–6) and Bethel (10:5). The heretical religious
practices Hosea condemns are understood by the prophet to
coincide with pervasive moral depravity. Forceful rhetoric
Hosea about all these failings is meant to persuade Israel toward
repentance.
Summary
Joel
Hosea marries an unfaithful woman named Gomer, and their
children have symbolic names, including "Not My People."
The "lovers" that Israel has cheated on Yahweh with are the Summary
foreign gods they have worshipped, especially the
Canaanite god Baal. Joel 1:1–2:17 describes a catastrophic plague of locusts.
Because of Israel's violence, corruption, faithlessness, and Joel calls for a solemn fast for all the people and says
worship of idols, it will be swallowed up by other nations repentance can still bring deliverance (2:12).
(7–8). All the nations who have wronged Israel will be judged, but
Israel was once like a beloved son (11:1). Now the people of "Jerusalem shall be holy," and "Judah shall be inhabited
Israel will become "wanderers among the nations" (9:17). forever" (3:17, 20).
If they renounce their reliance on foreign nations and
idolatry, God will "heal their disloyalty" and "love them freely"
(14:4). Analysis
The most distinctive element of Joel is its vivid description of a
Analysis locust plague, a calamity characterized as an act of Yahweh's
judgment. In the prophetic books the focus is usually on hostile
Hosea is best remembered for the prophet's symbolic foreign nations as the instruments of God's punishment. Yet in
marriage to an adulterous woman (a "wife of whoredom"). A Joel, the locust plague serves this purpose, and foreign nations
major question for readers has been whether a prophet would appear only as the objects of judgment on the coming Day of
actually have entered such a scandalous marriage just to Yahweh. This may reflect that the usefulness of rhetoric about
illustrate Israel's unfaithfulness. However, the central metaphor foreign invasion as divine judgment has been exhausted after
of marital infidelity defines Hosea's messages against the centuries of living under foreign domination.
kingdom of Israel throughout the book. At times the rhetoric of
this metaphor becomes truly shocking, as when Yahweh The second major element of Joel is its distinctive vision of the
declares that the promiscuous woman will be stripped naked Day of Yahweh. All nations will be judged and punished for past
and publicly shamed for her affairs (2:3, 10). As offensive as wrongs against Yahweh's people. Judah and Jerusalem will
this image certainly is, the ultimate point of this metaphor in flourish. Unique to Joel is the vision of a pouring out of
Hosea is that Yahweh desires reunification with wayward Israel Yahweh's spirit "on all flesh," granting prophetic gifts. In the
in spite of the people's many mistakes. Christian New Testament, this language factors significantly
into the developing theology of the "Holy Spirit" and is quoted

at length by the Apostle Peter (Acts 2). For Joel this spiritual (1 Kings 12). For Amos, the shrine of Bethel fostered religious
awakening will define Yahweh's people in the new, ideal practice that tolerated and even perpetuated injustice and
Jerusalem. exploitation, and thus was no true temple of God.
Amos includes multiple references to the "day of Yahweh"
Amos motif common to many of the prophetic books. For those

Amos condemns in Israel, this day will bring their destruction
(8:9–14). This message is balanced by the final passage of
Amos (9:11–15), when ruins will be rebuilt and Israel will prosper
Summary again.
Judgment for hostilities and exploitation will strike foreign

cities and nations.
The wealthy in Israel exploit the vulnerable (2:6–7).
Obadiah
Yahweh's wrath is especially directed against the shrine at
Bethel (3:14, 4:4) and the elites of Samaria who live in luxury
while exploiting the poor (3:15, 4:1–3). Summary
Because Israel has introduced unjust practices and the
worship of other gods, Yahweh will send them into exile Yahweh will punish Edom for "the slaughter and violence"
(5:25–27). which Edom has done to its "brother Jacob" (v. 10).
Amos sees visions of multiple calamities awaiting Israel: Edom's punishment will match the crime: "As you have done,
locusts, fire, and sword (7:1–9). it shall be done to you" (v. 15).
Although Israel's judgment will come, a remnant will remain The people of Israel and Judah will be restored, not only
(9:8), and in future days Yahweh's people will be restored recovering their former territories but also ruling the lands
and flourish in their land (9:11–15). of their neighboring kingdoms, including Edom.
Analysis Analysis
Amos is celebrated for its pointed criticisms of economic Obadiah is the shortest book of the Hebrew Bible, only 21
exploitation and its clarion call to "let justice roll down like verses long. Its single prophetic oracle condemns Edom for
waters, and righteousness like an ever-flowing stream" (5:24). participating in the destruction and looting of Jerusalem when
The prophet saw in 8th-century Israel a prosperous country it fell to Babylon in 586 BCE. Condemnation of Edom is found
that worshipped Yahweh in its temples but violated the most elsewhere in the prophets (e.g., Isaiah 34:5–17; 63:1–4;
fundamental principles of God's laws in its economic practices. Jeremiah 49:7–22; Ezekiel 25:12–14; 35:1–15) and in Psalms
Although just prosperity in the land is part of the final vision (137:7) but receives its most specific explanation in Obadiah.
(9:11–15), the wealth that the elites of Samaria currently enjoy The Edomites are said to be the descendants of Jacob's
has been accumulated by exploiting the poor (2:7; 4:1; 5:11) and brother Esau, and some biblical texts reflect a continued idea
dishonest business dealings (8:5–6). Amos himself raised of kinship between the two nations (e.g., Deuteronomy 23:7).
livestock and tended fruit trees (7:14), so he may have keenly Obadiah emphasizes that this kinship makes Edom's crime all
understood the vulnerability of agriculturalists in the land that the more odious. While Obadiah envisions a glorious
the Israelite elites were exploiting. restoration for the people of Israel, Edom faces total
elimination.
In addition to his criticism of injustice, Amos directs
condemnation toward the shrine at Bethel (3:14; 4:4; 5:5–6;
7:10–13). According to the Hebrew Bible, Jeroboam I founded
Bethel as a royal shrine after he led the northern tribes to
separate from Judah and form the Northern Kingdom of Israel

gracious qualities have frequently saved Israel from Yahweh's

Jonah wrath, Jonah presents the discomforting scenario of seeing
this same mercy applied to one of Israel's paradigmatic
enemies. This universalistic perspective is often interpreted as
Summary a corrective to extreme ethnocentrism present in the time
Jonah was written. Another way of interpreting the text is to
Yahweh commands Jonah to prophesy in Nineveh, but focus on the vocation of the prophet. Jonah may simply be
Jonah promptly heads in the exact opposite direction on a guilty of being too self-absorbed, worrying more about the
ship. embarrassing outcome of his message of imminent doom for
When the ship is caught in a terrible storm, Jonah confesses Nineveh not coming to pass (the sign of a false prophet in
that he is fleeing from the command of his god, then is Deuteronomy 18:22) than about the greater good of Yahweh's
thrown overboard and swallowed by a large fish. He remains concern for all people. Ultimately, the readers of Jonah are left
alive inside its stomach for three days before being returned to wrestle with questions about the prophet's vocation and the
to land and finally reaching Nineveh. breadth of Yahweh's mercy.
In response to Jonah's prophecy, the people and livestock
of Nineveh observe a fast in sackcloth and ashes, and
Yahweh decides not to punish the repentant city. Micah
Jonah is furious, but Yahweh challenges him: "Should I not
be concerned about Nineveh, that great city, in which there
are more than a hundred and twenty thousand persons who
do not know their right hand from their left, and also many
Summary
animals?" (4:10).
Micah criticizes the wealthy who oppress others (2:1–2).
The corruption of the "heads of Jacob and rulers of the
house of Israel" is described in extreme terms: they flay the
Analysis skin off of Yahweh's people and consume their flesh (3:1–3).
Chapters 4–5 contain oracles of hope: Yahweh will arbitrate
Jonah is truly unique among the prophetic books of the
justice for all, and wars between nations will cease.
Hebrew Bible. It is not a book of prophetic messages, but a
Micah describes an ideal future Davidic king who will be
folktale featuring a prophet. It is apparent that the tale is meant
from Bethlehem (5:2).
to be instructive, but the precise moral of the story goes
Yahweh does not want offerings, but only desires people "to
unstated and remains open to interpretation.
do justice," "to love kindness," and "to walk humbly" with
The initial tension in the Jonah story comes from the fact that their God (6:8).
any mention of the Neo-Assyrian city of Nineveh would invoke The nations will see the error of their ways and fear
feelings of dread and animosity for its ancient audience. Yahweh, who will pardon the remnant of his people
Assyria destroyed the Northern Kingdom of Israel in 722 BCE (7:16–20).
and exiled its people, and attempted to do the same to Judah
in 701 BCE. With this history in view, no ancient Israelite would
have envied Jonah's assignment. The sudden repentance of Analysis
the Ninevites and Yahweh's willingness to relent from
punishing them must have been a shocking plot twist for Micah's oracles address themes common to most of the
ancient readers. prophets: Israel and Judah will fall to their enemies as
punishment for their sins. Micah's perspective as an apparent
Vexed at Yahweh's leniency, Jonah references descriptions of rural outsider who critiques the urban elites of Samaria and
Yahweh's character found elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible: "You Jerusalem with equal ferocity is distinct. Micah does cite
are a gracious God and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding idolatry and improper worship in both Samaria and Jerusalem
in steadfast love, and ready to relent from punishing" (compare as a cause for judgment (1:5), but his consistent critique is of
Exodus 34:6–7, Psalms 86:15, 103:8, 145:8). Although these systemic economic injustice and corruption among the leaders

of Israel and Judah. power throughout the Near Eastern world, so its demise in 622
BCE would have been received as good news by many.
Micah's outsider perspective can arguably even be seen in the
way he describes a future Davidic king (5:2). While other While Nahum expresses the expected attitude of any Israelite
prophets emphasize royal language and trappings, or the toward Assyria, Jonah (putatively set in the first half of the 8th
rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple, Micah focuses on the century) provides a provocative counterpoint. A
humble origins of David as paradigmatic. From Bethlehem, out straightforward narrative reading of the books implies that
of "one of the little clans of Judah," will come the one to rule, Nineveh is treated mercifully by Yahweh initially, but after
and "he shall be the one of peace" (5:2, 5). In the Christian New decades of aggression toward God's people finally meets its
Testament, these statements are interpreted as messianic just end. On the other hand, Jonah was likely written later than
prophecies referring to Christ (Matthew 2:6), although the full Nahum, and presents the theological point that even Nineveh
passage in Micah presupposes a time when Assyria is still a could hypothetically have been treated mercifully by Yahweh if
threat (5:6). the people repented. Together Nahum and Jonah explore two
aspects of Yahweh's nature in the Hebrew Bible: righteous
Several pithy statements encapsulate Micah's message. indignation and just punishment contrasted with generous
Toward the end of the book he expresses the essence of his mercy.
devotion, "But as for me, I will look to Yahweh " (7:7). Micah's
most celebrated statement is perhaps the single best concise
articulation of the core message of the early prophets: "He has
told you, O mortal, what is good; and what does Yahweh
Habakkuk
require of you but to do justice, and to love kindness, and to
walk humbly with your God?" (6:8). Micah's message was a
challenge to all people in Israel and Judah to recover this
Summary
essence of their faith.
The prophet bemoans destruction, violence, and injustice.
Yahweh instructs Habakkuk to be patient in waiting for
Nahum justice to unfold; soon "the earth will be filled with the
knowledge of the glory of Yahweh" (2:14).
Habakkuk recalls when Yahweh marched forth to save his
people from their enemies in the past (3:13) and bolsters
Summary himself to await Yahweh's justice for the present situation
(3:16).
Nahum extols the power and righteous judgment of The book ends with a declaration of faith in the midst of dire
Yahweh, a "jealous and avenging God." circumstances: "Though the fig tree does not blossom, and
He foretells a siege of Nineveh; Nineveh's fate will mimic no fruit is on the vines ... yet I will rejoice in Yahweh; I will
that of the Egyptian city of Thebes, which had been exult in the God of my salvation" (3:17–18).
destroyed and its people killed or exiled.
Analysis
Analysis
Habakkuk portrays a prophet wrestling with the challenge of
Nahum stands out among the prophetic books for its focus on maintaining faith in the midst of troubled circumstances that
celebrating the downfall of a foreign enemy, Assyria. Oracles appear likely to only get worse. If the traditional dating of
against foreign nations occur in many prophetic books, but Habakkuk to the end of the 7th century BCE is correct, this
only Obadiah and Nahum focus entirely on the condemnation may correspond to the troubled times after the death of King
of a single enemy nation. The vengeance Nahum expressed Josiah (2 Kings 23). Yahweh's first reply to Habakkuk's
against Nineveh is based on the role of Assyria as the chief question does not put the prophet at ease; Babylon's ascent to
nemesis of Israel and Judah throughout the 8th and 7th power would mean only more destruction and subjugation for
centuries BCE. For centuries it had been a feared imperial

Judah. Yahweh's second response assures Habakkuk that Obadiah 15; Zechariah 12:4). Zephaniah's message initially
justice will come for Babylon but still leaves the prophet with sounds hopelessly dire. The day of Yahweh will bring "a full,
considerable anxiety about the future. terrible end" for "all the inhabitants of the earth" (1:18).
However, after the hope of a humble remnant for Judah is
Habakkuk's assertion of faith in the final chapter is poignant in introduced, Zephaniah ends in a joyful paean celebrating
this context. Recalling Yahweh's deliverance in the past, he Yahweh's sovereignty in Jerusalem and its people's future
asserts continued trust in spite of the present circumstances restored glory.
and bleak outlook. The poem Habakkuk offers as a prayer uses
traditional poetic language for Yahweh marching forth from
Teman in the south as a warrior deity. Similar language in
Deuteronomy 33:2–3, Judges 5:4–5, and Psalm 68:7–8
Haggai
associates this march specifically with Mount Sinai, where the
covenant between Yahweh and Israel is established and the
law given to Moses (Exodus).
Summary
The statement "the righteous live by their faith" in Habakkuk Haggai delivers a message from Yahweh to Zerubbabel, the
2:4 is quoted several times in the Christian New Testament governor of Judah, and Joshua, the high priest, insisting the
(Romans 1:17; Galatians 3:11; Hebrews 10:38) in discussions of time has come to begin work on the temple.
the relative values of faith and "works of the law." Although the Haggai's second message (2:1–9) comes a month after work
expression resonated with the rhetoric of those texts, such a on the temple has begun: soon "the treasure of all nations"
dichotomy between "faith" and "works" is not present in the will flow to Jerusalem, making the future splendor of the
original context of Habakkuk 2:4, where the contrast being temple greater than its former glory.
made is between the wicked and the righteous, both of whom A third message (2:10–19) insists that although in the
are identified by their actions. absence of the temple Yahweh's people have been
"unclean," now that restoration is underway Yahweh will
bless them.
Zephaniah Haggai's final message claims Zerubbabel will reclaim the
throne of David and restore the Judean monarchy.
Summary Analysis
Zephaniah warns of judgment and destruction on the "day
Haggai's prophetic messages call for the restoration of the two
of Yahweh" (1:7, 14).
central institutions of Jerusalem, the temple of Yahweh and the
Destruction will fall against Judah and Jerusalem because
Davidic dynasty. The two Judean leaders he
of the worship of other gods (1:4–5), adoption of foreign
addresses—Joshua and Zerubbabel—represent these
customs, and corruption (1:8–9), and Judah is called to
institutions. According to 1 Chronicles 6:13, Joshua, son of
repentance.
Jehozadak, was the grandson of the last high priest to serve in
Foreign nations will face judgment (2:4–15).
the temple in Jerusalem before the destruction of the city and
While the haughty will be removed, "a people humble and
exile of its people. Upon returning from exile, Joshua reclaimed
lowly" will remain (3:12).
his hereditary office. Zerubbabel son of Shealtiel was the
grandson of King Jehoiachin, the second-to-last King of Judah,
and thus a potential heir to the Davidic throne.
Analysis
According to Ezra 1:1–4, the rebuilding of the Jerusalem temple
Zephaniah describes a coming "day of Yahweh" on which was sanctioned by King Cyrus of Persia. In Haggai the
decisive judgment for the wicked will be poured out. This "day rebuilding has been delayed nearly two decades. In Ezra, work
of Yahweh" motif is present in a number of prophetic books on the temple is said to begin soon after the exiles returned, c.
(Isaiah 13:9; Jeremiah 46:10; Joel 1:15; 2:1; 3:14; Amos 5:18;

536 BCE, but resistance from enemies of Judah brought work

on the temple to a halt for many years, and Haggai prophesied
Analysis
that work must resume after this hiatus (Ezra 5:1). There is
Zechariah, like his close contemporary Haggai, relates
some discrepancy between these accounts, but Ezra
prophetic messages concerning the restoration of Judah in the
nonetheless places Haggai's prophecy and the completion of
early years after the Babylonian exile. This includes rebuilding
the temple at the same time.
the temple, restoring the leadership of the high priesthood
Haggai's final passage addresses the more provocative topic, under Joshua, and—most provocatively—restoring the
Zerubbabel and the restoration of monarchic rule in Jerusalem. monarchy in Jerusalem. These priorities are expounded in
After Yahweh reorders the political status quo, overthrowing Zechariah's colorful visions (1:7–6:15).
nations and kingdoms, Zerubbabel will be made like Yahweh's
Three key passages expound the roles of Joshua the high
"signet ring." This language, referring to a sealing stone worn
priest and Zerubbabel, the heir of the Davidic monarchy
on a ring, alludes to royalty (compare Jeremiah 22:24–30).
(3:1–10; 4:1–14; 6:9–15). Zechariah 3:1–10 focuses on the
Although such expectations for Zerubbabel are found in both
reaffirmation of the priesthood, while only alluding to "things to
Haggai and Zechariah, after his early leadership in Jerusalem
come" which include Yahweh's "servant, the branch," language
he disappears from the historical record entirely, and his
suggesting a king. Zechariah 4:1–14 is clearer that both Joshua
ultimate fate is unknown.
and Zerubbabel have roles to fill as Yahweh's "two anointed
ones." Zechariah 6:9–15 is the most challenging of these
passages to understand, but the interpretation most consistent
Zechariah with the passage as a whole and the rest of Zechariah is that
Joshua is given a priestly crown and instructions about the
other who is soon to be crowned as well. Zerubbabel's name
Summary does not appear, but the person who will wear the other crown
is called "the branch," and will build the temple, "bear royal
In the first two visions (1:7–17 and 1:18–21), the earth is at honor," and "sit upon his throne and rule." Zechariah 6:13
peace and those who oppress Yahweh's people are fated makes clear that this passage envisions a king and priest side
for punishment. by side.
The third vision (2:1–5) signifies the rebuilding of Jerusalem.
In the fourth vision (3:1–10), Zechariah sees Satan accusing The specific vision of restored priestly and royal leadership in
the high priest Joshua before God, but Joshua is vindicated Jerusalem at the heart of Zechariah 1–8 is mostly absent from
and charged with leadership of Yahweh's house. the final oracles of Zechariah 9–14, suggesting a later origin of
The fifth vision (4:1–14) describes a seven-bowled the latter, when the initial optimism for Zerubbabel to reclaim
lampstand (Hebrew: menorah) flanked by two olive trees the Davidic throne had passed. In fact, the final passage
that represent the temple and the Davidic monarchy, now ignores any human kingship and asserts that Yahweh himself
under the leadership of Joshua and Zerubbabel. will become king over all the earth in Jerusalem. These oracles
The sixth and seventh visions (5:1–4 and 5:5–11) foretell show the evolving visions and aspirations of Judeans living
punishments for the wicked who defy Yahweh. under Persian hegemony and still hoping for a more full
The final vision (6:1–8) is of four chariots, "the four winds of restoration and flourishing of Yahweh's chosen people.
heaven," patrolling the earth.
9:1–11:17 includes oracles against enemy nations and
predictions of restoration of Yahweh's people and their king Malachi
in Jerusalem.
12:1–14:21 describe judgment, repentance, and purification
for Jerusalem when all the nations of the earth will come to Summary
Jerusalem "to worship the King, Yahweh of hosts" (14:16).
In the first disputation (1:2–5), Yahweh's love for Israel is
contrasted with his treatment of Edom, which had become a

desolate land by this time.

The second disputation (1:6–2:9) addresses problems in the
Summary
temple priesthood.
The third disputation (2:10–16) accuses that Judah has
"profaned the sanctuary of Yahweh ... and has married the Chapters 1–9
daughter of a foreign god," an accusation usually
understood to indicate either worship of a foreign goddess 1 Chronicles begins with a series of genealogies, detailing the
or marriage to foreign women. ancestral history of Israel.
In the fourth disputation (2:17–3:5), Yahweh assures that his
The first section moves from Adam, the first human in
messenger will come, bringing swift judgment against the
Genesis, through Noah and his descendants, to Abraham
wicked.
and his sons Ishmael and Isaac.
Yahweh accuses the people of failing to present their tithes
A brief section details the lineage of Isaac's first son, Esau,
and offerings in the fifth disputation (3:6–12).
in the nation of Edom.
In the final disputation, Yahweh acknowledges that the
The descendants of Isaac's second son, Jacob/Israel,
people have "spoken harsh words" in questioning the value
namely, the 12 tribes of Israel, are then listed. The tribe of
of faithfulness to him (3:13–4:3).
Judah is treated first and in greatest detail, including the
An epilogue (4:4–5) admonishes the reader to remember
royal line of King David down to c. 400 BCE.
the teaching of Moses, and proclaims that the prophet Elijah
The final lists name the leading families in Jerusalem after
will return in advance of "the great and terrible day of
the exile, including priests, Levites, and temple staff.
Yahweh."
Analysis Chapters 10–29

Malachi discusses issues of concern for the postexilic The majority of 1 Chronicles focuses on the reign of King
community in Judah. The discussion of problems with the David.
priesthood and the offerings they present critiques the current
The downfall of David's predecessor, Saul, is only briefly
running of the temple in Jerusalem, but does not hint at any
narrated, and the complex politics between David and Saul
deeper critique of the sacrificial cult such as those found in
described in 1 Samuel are omitted.
other prophets. Temple sacrifices and offerings remain of vital
After Saul's death, David is promptly endorsed as king by all
importance in Malachi, and must be done correctly.
Israel. He immediately proceeds to conquer Jerusalem and
The ending of Malachi (4:4–5) may serve as an epilogue to the establish his capital there.
entire series of the 12 Minor Prophets (Hosea-Malachi), which David relocates of the Ark of the Covenant to Jerusalem
were grouped together in the canon of the Hebrew Bible at an and organizes the guild of sacred musicians to play music
early date and probably underwent their final editing as a and sing before it.
discrete corpus. It directs the reader's attention back to the A dynastic promise to David is delivered by the prophet
Torah of Moses, and forward in expectation of the future Day Nathan: although David will not build Yahweh a "house" (a
of Yahweh. temple), Yahweh will build David a "house" (a royal dynasty).
1 Chronicles 20:1 repeats the introduction to the story of
David's affair with Bathsheba and murder of her husband
1 Chronicles from 2 Samuel 11, but the story itself is omitted.
David incurs God's wrath by taking a census of Israel in 1
Chronicles 21. This story follows the episode as it is also
told in 2 Samuel 24, except that in Chronicles Satan incites
David to do this, not Yahweh as in Samuel.
David acquires the site of a threshing floor in Jerusalem that
would become the location of the temple. He amasses large

quantities of raw materials for the temple before charging its physical design and raw materials to its priests, guards, and
his son Solomon with the task of building it when he professional musicians. Only then does he hand things over to
becomes king. his son Solomon. These details are not found in earlier biblical
In old age, David prepares for the transfer of power to his books. They reflect the significance ascribed to both David and
son Solomon by appointing temple administrators, guards, temple institutions in the Chronicler's day.
sacred musicians, priests, judges, regional administrators,
and military commanders. He also gives Solomon detailed
plans for the design of the temple and gathers large sums 2 Chronicles
of gold and silver to support its construction.
All Israel ratifies Solomon's succession in an assembly at
Jerusalem, in contrast to 1 Kings, where the succession is
Summary
contested. David offers a final public prayer of thanksgiving
and farewell, Solomon is enthroned, and David dies after a
prosperous 40-year reign.
Chapters 1–9
Analysis The first section of 2 Chronicles describes the reign of King
Solomon.
1 Chronicles is the first half of the Chronicler's version of
Solomon assembles all the leaders of Israel to worship
Israel's history. The Chronicler frequently draws on earlier
Yahweh at the tabernacle in Gibeon. Solomon prays for
biblical books for source material. What he includes, omits, and
wisdom and is blessed by Yahweh.
adds compared to these sources show his priorities. The first
Solomon begins constructing the Jerusalem temple,
distinctive feature of 1 Chronicles is the long collection of
employing skilled craftsmen from Tyre and thousands of
genealogies in Chapters 1–9, which cover the biblical story
laborers conscripted from foreigners residing in the land of
from Adam to the last surviving heirs of the Davidic royal line c.
Israel.
400 BCE. These lists show a keen interest during the
After the temple and its furnishings are complete, the Ark of
Chronicler's time in tracing the family history of Judeans into
the Covenant is brought into its innermost chamber, and
the distant past.
Solomon leads a dedication ceremony. Yahweh's glory fills
1 Chronicles presents David as the ideal king and true founder the temple, and God promises to perpetuate David's
of the temple in Jerusalem. Many events and details of David's dynasty through Solomon if he remains obedient to God's
rise to power in 1 and 2 Samuel are omitted in 1 Chronicles. instructions.
Stories that reflect badly on David are left out. Nothing is said Solomon's kingdom prospers and accumulates significant
about the complex politics between David and Saul that led to wealth and power.
David's rise to power. The most vivid story of David's moral
failing, his affair with Bathsheba and murder of her husband, is
absent from 1 Chronicles. When 1 Chronicles 17 repeats the Chapters 10–36
promise of an eternal dynasty spoken to David by Nathan, it
leaves out a statement that God will still punish David when he The rest of 2 Chronicles recounts the history of Judah from
sins. Solomon's reign also lacks the political intrigue and the division of the two kingdoms after Solomon's death to the
bloody conflict described in 1 Kings. The Chronicler apparently end of the Judahite monarchy and Babylonian exile. The
felt that unpleasant details about David and Solomon either history of the Northern Kingdom of Israel is ignored except
should be suppressed or were just not relevant to the story he when it is relevant for the history of Judah.
wanted to tell.
After Solomon dies, his son Rehoboam becomes king.
1 Chronicles also adds new material. The Chronicler describes Rehoboam quickly angers the people by threatening harsh
David preparing to establish the temple in Jerusalem. David rule and forced labor, causing 10 of the 12 tribes to secede
organizes every aspect of the temple and its personnel, from and make Jeroboam, one of Solomon's former officials, their

king. of his life in 2 Kings, he prays to God and repents of his

Rehoboam heeds a message from God not to go to war mistakes.
with the 10 seceding tribes and focuses instead on fortifying King Josiah institutes centralized worship in Judah at the
the kingdom of Judah. temple in Jerusalem, following the model of his grandfather,
An Egyptian king named Shishak marches through Judah Hezekiah. After a scroll of the Torah is discovered in the
and pillages many of its cities. temple, Josiah renews the covenant with Yahweh and
Rehoboam's son King Abijah leads the army of Judah in a observes a national Passover festival.
major victory against Jeroboam and the army of the After Josiah is killed in battle, the kingdom of Judah
Northern Kingdom. unravels under its final kings, Jehoahaz, Jehoiakim,
King Asa defeats a much larger Ethiopian army in battle, and Jehoiachin, and Zedekiah.
enforces religious reforms in Jerusalem. He angers Yahweh Zedekiah's rebellion prompts King Nebuchadnezzar of
by seeking an alliance with the Aramean king in Damascus. Babylon to destroy Jerusalem and exile its people. 2
King Jehoshaphat sends officials throughout the cities of Chronicles explains this as the result of Judah's kings,
Judah to instruct the people from the "book of the Torah of priests, and people failing to heed God's instructions sent
Yahweh." An ill-advised alliance with the Northern Kingdom through the prophets.
of Israel results in military defeat, but Jehoshaphat then After a 70-year "Sabbath" rest for the land, exiles are called
wins a major victory against the Ammonites and Moabites. to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple under the
The reigns of King Jehoram, King Ahaziah, and Queen Persian King Cyrus.
Athaliah are described as a period of decline and conflict.
The priest Jehoiada leads a coup to remove Athaliah from
the throne and replace her with the only surviving heir, the Analysis
young boy Joash.
As king, Joash renovates the temple in Jerusalem before a 2 Chronicles tells its own version of the history of the kingdom
conflict develops with some of his priests and officials that of Judah from the time of Solomon in the 10th century BCE to
ultimately results in his murder after he is wounded in battle. the end of the kingdom and the Babylonian exile in the 6th
King Amaziah defeats Edom but brings back their gods (i.e., century BCE. This account draws heavily from Kings, but it also
their cult statues) to Jerusalem, which angers Yahweh. diverges significantly. The most significant difference is that
Amaziah then suffers defeat by the Northern Kingdom of there is no independent history of the Northern Kingdom. It
Israel and Jerusalem is looted. apparently was not of interest to the Chronicler. As was the
King Uzziah builds up Judah's cities and army. After case with David in 1 Chronicles, many incriminating details
presenting offerings in the temple of Yahweh himself rather about Solomon reported in 1 Kings are omitted in 2 Chronicles.
than through the priests, Uzziah is struck with leprosy.
2 Chronicles also describes the reigns of several kings not
King Jotham continues his father's building programs,
present in Kings. For example, King Abijah and King
defeats the Ammonites, and demands tribute from them.
Jehoshaphat are treated briefly in 1 Kings, but long accounts in
King Ahaz turns to condemned religious practices, including
2 Chronicles portray both as defenders of Judah against
child sacrifice, and is dominated by both the Aramean
foreign enemies. 2 Chronicles also amplifies King Hezekiah. He
kingdom of Damascus and the Northern Kingdom of Israel.
rivals King Josiah as the paradigmatic ruler and religious
In desperation he appeals to the powerful king of Assyria
reformer. One of the most significant differences is that 2
for help, but this only brings Assyrian domination upon
Kings portrays King Manasseh as consistently evil, while in 2
Judah.
Chronicles he repents after his initial missteps.
King Hezekiah is the ideal king in 2 Chronicles. He removes
all the unorthodox shrines put in place by Ahaz, restores
The inclusions, omissions, and additions in 2 Chronicles are
accepted practices of worship in the temple under the
shaped by the Chronicler's ideas about political and religious
leadership of the priests, and fortifies Jerusalem to
leadership in Judah. The institutions of worship in Yahweh's
withstand the siege of the Assyrian King Sennacherib.
temple in Jerusalem first organized by King David must be
King Manasseh initially undoes all his father Hezekiah's
maintained under the proper priests and temple personnel.
religious reforms, but in a twist not recorded in the account
Rulers must adhere to all the instructions of the Torah. They

must also follow the guidance of the priests and prophets in During the reign of Artaxerxes in the mid-5th century, "a
order to ensure Yahweh's providence and protection from scribe skilled in the Torah of Moses" named Ezra returns to
enemies. This retelling of the past conveys the Chronicler's Jerusalem with the Persian king's blessing, bringing more
vision for the future of Judah amidst ongoing efforts to rebuild exiles back with him.
Judean religious and national identity under the Persian When he arrives in Jerusalem, Ezra is dismayed that
Empire. Judeans are marrying foreigners and urges the people to
cease this practice and expel any foreigners from their
families immediately. The people publicly repent of the
Ezra practice and follow Ezra's advice, sending away all foreign
wives and their children.
Summary
Analysis
There is a major chronological break between Ezra 1–6, which
Ezra is complex and confusing for the reader. The story of
narrates the initial dedication of the temple in the 6th century
events leading to the completion of the temple combines
BCE, and Ezra 7–10, which introduce the person Ezra's
narrative and quotations of primary source documents. These
reforms in the 5th century BCE. The first part of the book
sources include letters from the reigns of Darius and of
describes the return of Judean exiles in 538 BCE and their
Artaxerxes several decades later. The letters also refer to
work restoring the temple over the next two decades.
documents from the earlier time of Cyrus. When the first letter
After conquering the former Babylonian Empire, the Persian is introduced, the text of Ezra switches from Hebrew to
King Cyrus declares that Judeans in exile may return home Aramaic. When it returns to Hebrew at the end of chapter 7,
to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple of Yahweh. Ezra narrates the story in the first person until the final chapter
Many exiles return, bringing with them sacred temple switches back to third person.
furnishings that had been carried away to Babylon when the
The primary concerns of the book of Ezra are clear. The first
First Temple was destroyed.
part of the book describes the process of rebuilding the
After arriving in Jerusalem, the exiles begin rebuilding the
temple after the return to Jerusalem, the people's dedication to
temple under the leadership of the high priest Jeshua
that task, and Yahweh's provision for the temple's completion,
(Joshua) and Zerubbabel, newly appointed governor of
even in the face of opposition and delays. Ezra presents all of
Judah and heir of the Davidic dynasty.
these tasks as part of Yahweh's plan. He emphasizes that they
An altar is soon built so the people can resume the offering
require faithful obedience by the people. After Ezra returns
of burnt offerings to Yahweh and the observance of
several decades later, there are two primary concerns. The
religious festivals.
first is to instruct the people in proper observance of the
When the foundations are laid for a new temple, nonnative
Torah. The second is to maintain their distinctive cultural and
inhabitants of Judah initially attempt to join the rebuilding
ethnic identity by ending marriage with foreigners and
effort. After Zerubbabel refuses them, they organize
dismissing any foreign wives already among them, along with
opposition to the rebuilding effort and progress on the
their children. Ezra's instructions regarding these marriages
temple stalls.
were harsh and xenophobic. Ezra viewed them as necessary to
The prophets Haggai and Zechariah urge renewal of the
prevent cultural assimilation amidst the vast and diverse
rebuilding efforts, and the Persian King Darius grants
Persian Empire.
permission to continue the rebuilding.
The temple is completed in the sixth year of the reign of
Darius, 515 BCE, and the Judeans observe the Passover
festival shortly thereafter. Nehemiah
At this point the narrative skips ahead about fifty years and
relates Ezra's own return to Jerusalem around 460 BCE.

step in making the city fit to be the center of Judean life again.
Summary Once the walls are rebuilt and the temple completed,
Nehemiah and Ezra lead the people in rededication to their
Nehemiah 1–7 narrates in first person the governor Nehemiah's
historic covenant relationship with Yahweh. Ezra's lengthy
efforts to rebuild the city of Jerusalem in the mid-5th century
prayer recites the full sweep of Israel's history. In particular, it
BCE.
recalls the covenant renewal ceremony led by Joshua when
Living in exile in the Persian city of Susa, Nehemiah learns of the tribes of Israel first conquered the land in Joshua 24.
the ruinous state of Jerusalem and prays that God will have
Nehemiah's picture of Judean religion in the 5th century BCE
mercy on the people and allow Nehemiah to succeed in
under Persian rule emphasizes the central role of the Torah as
rebuilding the city.
sacred text, the institutions of the rebuilt Jerusalem temple,
While serving as cupbearer to the Persian King Artaxerxes,
and the leadership of the priesthood. The great assembly in
Nehemiah secures permission to return to Judah as
Nehemiah 8–9 showcases the new kind of religious leader that
governor and rebuild the city.
Ezra represents, both a priestly figure and a scholar of the
Nehemiah arrives in Jerusalem and begins work rebuilding
Torah who provides authoritative instruction to the people
the city walls and gates of Jerusalem despite opposition
concerning its proper observance. As the Persian-appointed
from powerful officials in the region.
governor, Nehemiah also guides the people in observance of
In the midst of rebuilding efforts, Nehemiah confronts
the Torah.
economic injustice in Judah that is exploiting the poorest
Judeans.
The city walls of Jerusalem are completed after only 52
days of labor, and Nehemiah stations guards around the city
Daniel
walls and gates.
In Nehemiah 8–13, Ezra returns to the story and leads a Summary

covenant renewal assembly in Jerusalem.
Ezra reads from the Torah of Moses at length to the

assembled crowd, while his assistants help explain its Chapters 1–6
meaning to the people.
The people celebrate the Festival of Booths (Sukkot). Chapters 1–6 of Daniel consist of stories about Daniel and his
Ezra recites a lengthy prayer, recalling all of Israel's history friends living in exile in Babylon.
with Yahweh and committing all those assembled to renew
Daniel, Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah are chosen from
the covenant with God.
among the Judean exiles in Babylon to serve in King
Genealogical lists are included to detail who had returned to
Nebuchadnezzar's court. They refuse to defile themselves
Jerusalem and taken part in the renewal.
by eating the king's rations of food and wine and are
A dedication ceremony is held for the rebuilt walls of
allowed to eat and drink only vegetables and water.
Jerusalem.
Nebuchadnezzar is troubled by a dream in which a statue
The book ends with Nehemiah speaking again in the first
made of various metals is destroyed by a stone. Daniel
person, describing assorted issues of Torah observance
proves himself to the king by explaining the meaning of the
that he addresses during his years as governor.
dream as an image of a succession of kingdoms that would
rise and fall in the world.
Nebuchadnezzar erects a large golden statue that all are
Analysis
commanded to worship. When Hananiah, Mishael, and
Azariah (who are given the Babylonian names Shadrach,
Nehemiah continues the story of reconstruction in Jerusalem
Meshach, and Abednego) refuse, they are thrown into the
from the book of Ezra. It was originally joined with Ezra as a
fire of a great furnace but miraculously not burned, and the
single work. Nehemiah's successful effort to rebuild the ruined
king spares their lives.
city walls of Jerusalem as its governor is portrayed as the final

Nebuchadnezzar sees a vision of a great tree cut down by what historical events will transpire in the succession from
an angelic figure who descends from heaven. Daniel the Persian Empire to Greek rule, describing Alexander's
explains the vision as foretelling that the king will go mad conquest, the division of his empire, and various political
and flee to the wilderness, which subsequently happens. conflicts between the Ptolemaic and Seleucid rulers in the
The Babylonian king Belshazzar sees writing miraculously 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. After a "contemptible person"
appear on the wall in the midst of a lavish feast. Daniel is (Antiochus IV) profanes the temple and halts the Jewish
brought in to interpret the sign for the king and proclaims sacrificial offerings for three and a half years, his rule will be
that the words mark the end of his kingdom. Belshazzar dies brought to an end with the intervention of the angel Michael.
that very night. Daniel is told that this period of suffering will be followed by
Daniel becomes a powerful official under the Persian ruler a resurrection, with everlasting life for the righteous and
Darius, but a plot is hatched to force Darius to have Daniel judgment for the wicked. Daniel is told to seal up the words
executed by throwing him into a den of lions. Miraculously, of the vision until the future time to which it refers.
the lions do not harm Daniel, and his accusers are devoured
by the lions instead.
Analysis
Chapters 7–12 The book of Daniel unites two different types of literature from
Judaism in the Second Temple period around the figure Daniel
Chapters 7–12 relate a series of apocalyptic visions revealed to and the motif of interpreting dreams and visions. The situation
Daniel that are meant to predict major historical events from for Jews living under foreign rule in exile is precarious in these
the Babylonian Empire in the 6th century BCE down to the rule stories, but it is not entirely bleak. Wise and virtuous figures
of the Seleucid king Antiochus IV over Palestine c. 175–165 such as Daniel and his friends are able to prosper as long as
BCE. they remain faithful to the worship of Yahweh alone and
obedient to the stipulations of the Torah. When crises of
Daniel sees a vision of four fantastical beasts, which persecution do arise, they are miraculously delivered.
represent a succession of kingdoms ruled by the Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah surviving the fiery furnace and
Babylonians, Medes, Persians, and Greeks. Daniel surviving the lions' den are examples of this.
In association with the final beast/kingdom, Daniel sees a
"little horn" speaking arrogantly, which represents Antiochus Daniel 7–12 has a much different flavor and reflects a time of
IV. Daniel then sees a vision of the heavenly court, where a more immediate crisis. The visions Daniel sees predict the
figure "like a son of man" is charged by God to establish rule succession of ruling empires in the Near East down to the
over the earth. Seleucid rule of Palestine in the 2nd century BCE. By Chapter
Daniel sees another vision, this time of a ram that is 11 it is obvious that the vision specifically addresses the period
defeated by a goat with a single horn. When the goat's of crisis when Antiochus IV disrupted Jewish worship in the
single horn breaks, it is replaced by four horns. From one of Jerusalem. At Daniel 11:40, the vision begins to predict future
the four horns grows another large horn, which begins resolution and divine intervention. From that point forward, the
persecuting "the host of heaven" and "the sanctuary." This description is vague. But it seems to align with what actually
vision alludes to Alexander the Great's conquest, the transpired, which allows this portion of Daniel to be dated
division of his empire after his death, and Antiochus IV's between 167 and 164 BCE. That makes Daniel the latest dated
persecution of the Jews and desecration of the Jerusalem book in the Hebrew Bible.
temple.
The visions of Daniel 7–12 are an excellent example of the
Daniel prays concerning the prediction of the prophet
genre of apocalyptic literature that flourished in the Second
Jeremiah that the period of Judah's exile would be 70 years.
Temple period. This genre is characterized by supernatural
The angel Gabriel responds that the period of judgment will
visions, angelic guides/interpreters, symbolic imagery
in fact be 70 weeks of years, or 490 years, placing the end
(including fantastic beasts), and a pessimistic view of history
of their suffering sometime in the early 2nd century BCE.
that requires dramatic divine intervention to set things right.
Daniel sees a final vision in which the angel Gabriel explains
The heightened role of angels in Jewish theology of this period

is prominent in Daniel's apocalyptic visions. Daniel 12:2 also just, and he reaches even further for an explanation: Job's
makes the clearest statement in the Hebrew Bible of a view of children may have sinned to bring about their death. Job
resurrection of the dead for both reward and punishment. A must rely on God's justice if he believes himself innocent.
dominant principle in these theological developments seems to Job still finds the situation unfair. He laments that it is
be that the present status quo is so far from how life ought to impossible for him as a mortal human to argue his case
be that dramatic and decisive divine intervention is needed to before God and succeed.
set things right. Zophar adds an even more direct accusation: Job lies about
his own guilt and deserves even more punishment than God
has given him.
Job Job responds that the wisdom the friends have offered is
trite and unhelpful. He knows no less than they about the
wisdom and might of God. Nonetheless, he resolves to
Summary argue his case with God directly.

In a second round of speeches, Job's three friends reassert
their positions, and Job responds to each.
Eliphaz and Bildad each give a third speech to which Job
Prologue responds.
In place of a third speech from Zophar, a poem in praise of
Job begins with a short narrative prologue written in prose that wisdom appears that is not attributed to any of the
introduces the main character and his situation. characters.
In his last speech, Job makes a final plea for God to answer
Job lives a virtuous and pious life with his family in the land
his complaints and explain what he has done to deserve
of Uz, to the east of Israel.
such punishment.
A heavenly being called "the accuser" (Hebrew: satan)
When Job's three friends have no more to say, a young man
proposes that God test Job's faith. (See Insights for more
named Elihu speaks up to confront Job. Elihu is not
information.) A rapid series of disasters destroy Job's
mentioned before or after this in the book, and many view
wealth, take the lives of his children, and strike him with a
his speech as a later insertion. Elihu's lengthy speech
painful skin disease.
critiques Job's own speeches and his implication that God is
Job mourns his great misfortune but ultimately reaffirms his
not just.
faith in God.
Before anyone responds to Elihu's speech, Yahweh
Job's three friends Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar gather
suddenly appears. Yahweh interrogates Job at length,
around him while he suffers in silence for seven days.
demonstrating Job's limited understanding of the world in
contrast to Yahweh's unrivaled knowledge and power over
all created things. Yahweh has this knowledge and power
Body because Yahweh created them.
Job responds only with brief statements of apparent
The body of the book is a lengthy debate about Job's situation.
resignation, conceding that he cannot respond to Yahweh's
Job, his friends, and finally God all give speeches in dense
demonstration of superior knowledge and power.
Hebrew poetry.
Finally breaking his silence, Job dramatically curses the day

of his birth and longs for death to end his misery. Epilogue
Eliphaz advises Job to remain patient and asserts that Job's
misfortune must be divine correction for some error in Job's Job ends with a brief epilogue that returns to the prose
life. narrative voice of the prologue.
Job responds that his misfortune clearly outweighs anything
Yahweh censures Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar for not
he might have done wrong. He continues to wish for death.
speaking "what is right." Job intercedes on their behalf and
Bildad asserts more forcefully than Eliphaz did that God is

Yahweh grants them mercy. Christian theology. The Hebrew word for "accuser," satan, is
Yahweh praises Job for speaking truthfully about him and the source of the name Satan. But it is not yet a proper name
continues to call Job his "servant." in Job. The satan in Job is partly responsible for Job's
Yahweh restores to Job twice as much wealth as he had suffering, but his role is different than that of the evil Satan.
before and grants him 10 new children to replace those he The satan is a prosecuting attorney in the heavenly court who
had lost. Job dies happily in old age. tests Job's righteousness and piety. This understanding of
satan later evolves in various ways in both early Judaism and
Christianity.
Analysis
Among the books of the Hebrew Bible, none receives more Psalms
universal recognition as a timeless piece of literature than Job.
This book confronts the central questions of theodicy, or the
idea that the divine is good and just, despite the existence of
evil. Rather than addressing these questions in the abstract,
Summary
Job creates a stage drama in which the main characters
Headings in Psalms divide its contents into five major sections
debate theological questions with urgency and fervor. Part of
or "books." The first of these, Book 1, includes Psalms 1–41. The
its enduring appeal is that the resolution of this debate is
majority of the psalms in this section are attributed to David.
ambiguous. Job can only respond with resignation when God
finally appears to address him, but then, in a final twist, God Psalm 1 contrasts the wicked with those who delight in the
vindicates Job in the epilogue. Torah of Yahweh.
Psalm 3 includes the first superscription attributing a song
Both Job and Yahweh appear differently in the prose prologue
to David. Its individual prayer for deliverance is set in the
and epilogue than they do in the poetic dialogue. This has led
time of David's conflict with his son Absalom.
many scholars to question whether the prose and poetry of
Numerous other psalms in Book 1 express individual
Job have separate origins. The narrative details of the
complaints or laments (Psalms 5–7, 13, 17, 22, 25–28, 32, 38,
prologue give the reader of Job inside knowledge of the cause
and 39). These typically express prayers to Yahweh for
of Job's suffering. This knowledge is never imparted to Job or
deliverance from enemies or other crises. All attributed to
the other characters. It allows the reader to recognize that the
David.
explanations of Job's suffering offered by his three
Psalm 8 exemplifies the doxological emphasis of many
companions are inadequate. It also makes clear that the book
psalms. It praises Yahweh for the creation of the world and
is a critique of the conventional wisdom contained in the
humanity.
friends' speeches. The epilogue complicates the apparent
Psalms 9 and 10 together form a lengthy alphabetic acrostic
resolution of the dialogue because it adds a final plot
poem—where each verse begins with the next letter of the
twist—Job's life is fully restored and then some—that many
alphabet—expressing praise of Yahweh, a prayer for
readers take to trivialize the profound complexity of the book
deliverance, and a lament at Yahweh's apparent delay in
up until that point.
action.
Even if the rest of Job is taken as a literary unity, Elihu's Psalm 18, attributed to David, emphasizes Yahweh's
speech is widely regarded as a secondary addition. None of protection and patronage of the righteous king.
the other characters even acknowledge or respond to Elihu. Psalm 19, a hymn of praise, lauds the evidence of God's
He is also not named with the other characters at the end of glory in the created world and in the Torah.
the book. If Elihu's speech is removed, the dialogue proceeds Psalm 22 is another individual petition for deliverance. In the
naturally from Job's final speech directly to Yahweh's New Testament gospels, Jesus prominently quotes its
appearance. opening line during his crucifixion: "My God, my God, why
have you forsaken me?"
The identity and role of the heavenly being called "the accuser" Psalm 23, the most famous individual psalm in modern
in Job is an important point in the development of Jewish and times, expresses confidence in Yahweh's provision and

protection. "Yahweh is my shepherd, I shall not want." Moses." Despite this superscription, it appears to be a
Psalm 29 extols Yahweh's power in language that resonates prayer for Yahweh to bring the punishment of the exile to an
strongly with traditional Canaanite storm god mythology. end.
At the end of Psalm 41, a brief doxological prayer concludes Several psalms in this section (93, 96–99) share language
Book 1 of Psalms. declaring that "Yahweh is king" (or "Yahweh reigns"). These
are often called "enthronement psalms."
Book 2 includes Psalms 42–72. Book 4 concludes with several hymns of praise and
thanksgiving that prompt the worshipper to "bless," "praise,"
Psalms 42–43 form a single poem that laments the
and "give thanks to" Yahweh (100, 103–6).
individual's separation from Yahweh and his temple.
Psalms 105 and 106 retell Israel's history and end this
Psalm 44 is an example of a song of communal complaint.
section of Psalms with a plea for Yahweh to gather Israel
The people lament national losses in war and invoke
back from exile.
Yahweh to come to their aid.
Psalm 45 is an example of a royal psalm. It appears to have Psalms 107–50 make up the fifth and final book of Psalms.
originally been a song for the occasion of a king's marriage
but is often reinterpreted theologically. Psalm 107 begins the final section of Psalms with
Psalm 49 is a wisdom poem. It instructs its readers to trust affirmations that Yahweh rescued his people from exile and
not in wealth but in Yahweh. gathered them back together. This suggests a setting after
Psalm 51 is one of the most poignant penitential psalms. Its the exiles had returned to Jerusalem and reestablished the
superscription casts it as a prayer of repentance by David temple in Jerusalem.
after his affair with Bathsheba. Psalm 119 is the longest psalm, an elaborate alphabetic
At the end of Psalm 72, a postscript states: "The prayers of acrostic poem, featuring entire stanzas in which every line
David son of Jesse are ended." In spite of this statement, a begins with the same letter of the alphabet. It celebrates the
number of songs attributed to David still appear after this in guidance provided by Yahweh in the Torah.
Psalms, a clue that the collection of psalms grew over time Psalms 120–34 all bear the superscription "a song of
in multiple stages. ascents." Traditionally this title has been associated with
religious pilgrimages to Jerusalem, which does feature
Book 3 consists of Psalms 73–89. prominently in several of these psalms.
Psalms 135 and 136 are hymns of praise that celebrate
Psalm 74 clearly refers to the destruction of the First
Yahweh's past deeds, both in the history of Israel and in
Temple, which means the song must have been written
creation.
during the Babylonian exile. The psalm calls Yahweh to
Psalm 137 stands out from the generally optimistic psalms
action in the present by reciting mythological language
around it as a vivid lament of the Judahites in exile. "By the
about Yahweh's past victory over the forces of chaos and
rivers of Babylon—there we sat down and there we wept
subsequent acts of creation.
when we remembered Zion."
Several additional psalms in this section clearly have the
Psalms 145–50 end the book of Psalms with a series of
crisis of the Babylonian exile in view, and most of the
hymns repeating the refrain "Praise Yahweh!" (hallelu-yah).
communal complaint psalms are found here (including
Psalms 79, 80, 83, and 89).
Psalm 82 includes a brief description of Yahweh speaking
to a "divine council" that includes other gods who are called
Analysis
sons of "Elyon," a name for the senior deity in the traditional
Psalms is a diverse collection. It expanded over time in the
Canaanite pantheon.
postexilic period. Early translations of Psalms into other
Psalm 89 appeals to a covenant between Yahweh and
languages often changed the contents: the Greek version of
David to maintain the Davidic dynasty in perpetuity.
Psalms adds one additional psalm. Syriac manuscripts add five
Book 4 includes Psalms 90–106. more. And even more psalms circulated in antiquity. The
headings that divide Psalms into five "books" are late editorial
Psalm 90 is the only psalm introduced as "a prayer of additions that may have been inspired by the five books of the

Torah. Superscriptions included with the individual psalms Wisdom is envisioned as a woman calling out in the streets
include information about traditional attributions and historical to whoever will listen. The invitation of lady wisdom is
settings as well as musical settings. contrasted with the enticements of the "strange woman"
who would seduce the young man into sin.
The Psalms vary considerably in genre and focus. Hymns The fates of the righteous and wicked contrast starkly. God
express praise of God's attributes and actions. The subgroup blesses the former but curses the latter.
of enthronement hymns affirm that "Yahweh is king!" Psalms of Practical instructions warn the young man to avoid laziness,
both individual and communal lament starkly describe dishonesty, and adultery.
problems in the world and beseech God to intervene. Psalms The focus returns to the personified lady wisdom, who calls
of thanksgiving express gratitude for actions that are out along the road and hosts a banquet for all to come and
perceived to be God's action. Wisdom psalms share language learn wisdom.
and emphases with wisdom literature in the Hebrew Bible. In Proverbs 8:22-31 in particular have drawn much attention,
acrostic psalms, each line or stanza starts with a successive especially among feminist readings of the Bible. In it lady
letter of the Hebrew alphabet. wisdom describes herself as being created "before the
beginning of the earth." She assisted in creation, working
Several clues suggest that the current order of the psalms is
beside Yahweh, "like a master worker."
roughly chronological. The first two books contain most of the
psalms attributed to David and end with the notice in Psalm 72 Proverbs 10:1–22:16 are a diverse collection of brief sayings
that "the prayers of David son of Jesse are ended." Hymns of under the heading "The Proverbs of Solomon." These
praise to Yahweh and individual prayers for deliverance or statements are primarily descriptive, expressing the authors'
mercy are prominent in this first half of the collection. With the perceptions of timeless truths.
start of Book 3, clear references to the fall of Jerusalem and
the exile suddenly become frequent. Book 4 mixes hymns of Numerous proverbs contrast the behaviors and fates of the
worship with exhortations for Yahweh to remember the people righteous with the wicked, and of the wise with the foolish.
of Israel and gather them back from exile. Book 5 begins by For example, "The hope of the righteous ends in gladness,
affirming that Yahweh has remembered his people and but the expectation of the wicked comes to nothing" (10:28).
gathered them back from exile. Subsequent psalms are at Many sayings emphasize the rewards for diligence and
home in the restored worship of Yahweh in Jerusalem. Psalms conscientiousness, while others warn of the consequences
not only references most of the major theological themes of of laziness and idleness.
the entire Hebrew Bible, it also alludes to a major portion of the The use of inaccurate weights and measures is repeatedly
overall narrative arc. condemned.
Various sayings describe the ideal model of prudent
children learning discipline and wisdom from their parents.
Proverbs Assorted proverbs emphasize the justice of God and the
inevitability of reward or punishment for good or evil deeds.
This conviction underlies much of the material presented in
Summary Proverbs.
Proverbs 22:17–24:34 contain two sections of sayings headed

Chapters 1–9 form a discrete section under the heading, "The
with the description "words of the wise."
proverbs of Solomon son of David, king of Israel."
The first section of "words of the wise" (22:17–24:22)
An introduction (1:1–7) explains that these collected sayings
changes from the descriptive format of the preceding
serve to teach wisdom and insight to the young, the simple,
section to a direct didactic format in which the reader is
and the wise. It concludes by stating that "the fear of
addressed in the second person.
Yahweh is the beginning of knowledge."
Several instructions pertain to proper behavior in the royal
A lengthy section (1:8–9:18) is framed as a father addressing
court and elite society.
a son, warning the young man not to be led astray into sin
A group of proverbs emphasizes the pitfalls of excess
and foolishness.

consumption of wine. Although the general theological outlook and specific

The final section of "words of the wise" (24:23–34) emphases remain consistent throughout Proverbs, different
commends impartiality, honesty, and diligence. sections contain distinctive formats and voices. Chapters 1–9
are framed as a father speaking to a son. The language in this
Chapters 25–29 present a collection of proverbs that are section is highly gendered; the son is admonished to listen to
attributed to Solomon but said to have been copied by the the voice of lady wisdom and avoid the seductions of the
officials of King Hezekiah. "strange woman." Chapters 10–22 and 25–29 offer descriptive
observations and generalized assessments of wise and foolish
An opening section extols the wisdom of a king and advises
behavior. "The words of the wise" in Chapters 22–24 return to
humility in his presence.
direct address and didactic format but imply the voice of a
Various sayings use colorful imagery in similes to convey
teacher to a student. The acrostic poem extolling the "virtuous
ideas, such as: "Like a dog that returns to its vomit is a fool
woman" in Chapter 31 stands out as unlike anything else in
who reverts to his folly" (26:11).
Proverbs. These diverse formats and voices demonstrate the
Various proverbs describe foolishness and how to respond
complex and composite nature of the collected wisdom that is
to it, occasionally with conflicting advice. Proverbs 26:4
the book of Proverbs.
warns not to "answers fools according to their folly," while
26:5 recommends just the opposite.
Sayings in Proverbs 28–29 focus especially on justice,
righteousness, and generosity to the poor. Ruth
Proverbs 30 contains sayings attributed to "Agur son of
Jakeh," while Chapter 31 is introduced as "the words of King Summary
Lemuel ... that his mother taught him."
Ruth begins by introducing the family of Elimelech and Naomi
Chapter 30 begins with a series of rhetorical questions
from Bethlehem in Judah.
about wisdom and knowledge of God.
Several units of proverbs use a progressive counting format In a time of famine, Elimelech and Naomi travel with their
to assess thematic groups, as in 30:18: "Three things are sons Mahlon and Chilion to Moab.
too wonderful for me; four I do not understand." Elimelech dies in Moab. Mahlon and Chilion marry Moabite
Chapter 31 begins with warnings, apparently to King Lemuel women named Orpah and Ruth.
from his mother, against the temptations of women and After Mahlon and Chilion also die, Naomi prepares to return
wine. home and says farewell to her daughters-in-law.
The final section of Proverbs extols in an acrostic poem an Orpah stays in Moab, but Ruth insists that she will stay with
ideal virtuous woman who skillfully manages the affairs of Naomi for the rest of her life. Naomi concedes, and the two
her household. return to Judah together.
Once Naomi and Ruth have returned to Bethlehem, they work

Analysis together to secure a new marriage for Ruth.
Proverbs is named for the pithy expressions of observation Ruth gathers barley in the fields behind the main harvest
and advice that make up most of the book. It emphasizes workers. While doing so, she catches the eye of Boaz, a
conventional wisdom regarding piety, wise and righteous living, wealthy relative of Elimelech.
prudence and diligence, and general propriety. Its short Boaz tells Ruth to remain in his field and ensures that she is
instructions and observations apply this conventional piety and well taken care of during the harvest.
wisdom to all aspects of life. Proverbs represents the general After hearing of Ruth's encounter with Boaz, Naomi
"orthodoxy" to which the other two primary examples of encourages Ruth to pursue a marriage with him.
wisdom literature in the Hebrew Bible, Job and Ecclesiastes, Naomi recommends to Ruth a bold plan. While Boaz sleeps
respond and from which they partially deviate. on the threshing floor, Ruth presents herself to him in the
middle of the night and proposes marriage.

Boaz responds to Ruth's proposition with enthusiasm, but

he explains that he must secure permission from her late Esther
father-in-law's closest relative before proceeding.
Boaz meets the relative and the city elders in the gate. He
explains that one of Elimelech's kin should redeem his Summary
ancestral land from Naomi and also marry Ruth to
perpetuate his family line. Esther 1–2 explains how a Jewish woman named Esther, called
After his relative declines to do, Boaz declares his intention Hadassah in Hebrew, became a queen of the Persian King
to marry Ruth and assume control of Elimelech's estate. The Ahasuerus.
assembly blesses the marriage.
In the midst of a lavish feast, King Ahasuerus summons his
After marrying, Boaz and Ruth have a son named Obed.
queen, Vashti, to parade herself before the assembled
Naomi helps care for Obed herself.
guests and display her beauty.
Obed's grandson will be David, the most famous king of
When Vashti refuses, Ahasuerus removes her from her
Israel.
position as queen and issues a public decree that wives
must not disobey their husbands in such a way.
Analysis Ahasuerus chooses the young Jewish woman Esther, put

forward by her cousin and adoptive father Mordecai, to be
Ruth tells a timeless story of virtuous people taking care of his new queen.
each other in a traditional, kinship-focused agricultural society. Mordecai then helps uncover an assassination plot against
The main character, Ruth, is praised for her "loyalty" (Hebrew: Ahasuerus and brings it to the king's attention with Esther's
hesed). Naomi appears embittered by the loss of her husband help.
and sons, but she helps secure their well-being and the future
Chapters 3–8 narrate a sudden threat of persecution of Jews
of her household through her friendship with Ruth. Boaz
in the Persian Empire and Esther's bold actions to save her
recognizes Ruth's virtues from their first meeting. He treats her
people.
with concern and kindness, and responds favorably to her bold
proposition. The genealogy at the end of Ruth depicts these Mordecai refuses to bow down before Ahasuerus's highest
exemplary characters as ancestors of King David. The official, Haman, so Haman convinces the king to command
connection of this virtuous Moabite woman to the ancestry of the execution of Jews throughout the empire.
the Israelite king counters the aversion toward marrying Esther learns of this crisis and exchanges messages with
foreigners elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible. Mordecai, who urges her to act.
Risking her own life by approaching the king without an
Ruth is especially fascinating for its portrayal of traditional
invitation, Esther prompts Ahasuerus to invite Haman to a
social and agrarian practices. It presents a realistic image of
private banquet.
communal harvesting work, including provision for the poor to
Haman boasts of his favored status with the king and queen
gather what is left by the main harvesters as described in the
while amplifying his hatred of Mordecai, only to be ordered
Torah (Leviticus 19:9–10; Deuteronomy 24:19). Boaz's meeting
the next day to bestow special honors on Mordecai.
with the elders at the city gate illustrates traditional community
Again at banquet with Haman and the king, Esther asks the
leadership. His concern for the right of the next of kin to marry
king to save her and her people from persecution and
Ruth and claim the ancestral land of Elimelech coincides with
reveals that Haman is the one responsible for their plight.
various traditions about ancestral land inheritance (Leviticus
The king responds positively to Esther's plea, and Haman is
25:25–28) and so-called levirate marriage in which the brother
hanged on the very gallows where he had hoped to execute
of a deceased man must marry the deceased brother's widow
Mordecai.
(Deuteronomy 25:5–10), described in the Torah. Curiously,
King Ahasuerus elevates Mordecai to Haman's former role.
various details in Ruth do not exactly conform to the relevant
Together, Mordecai and Esther reverse Haman's order
stipulations on these practices in the Torah. This raises the
calling for the annihilation of Jews.
question of whether the book accurately portrays archaic
social customs or only pretends to.

The final two chapters of Esther conclude the story and

connect it with the origins of the Jewish holiday Purim. Ecclesiastes
With Mordecai now in power, Jews throughout the empire
retaliate with violence against those who had planned to kill Summary
them.
To celebrate the deliverance of the Jews from this crisis, The first half of Ecclesiastes (1:1–6:9) elaborates on a theme
Mordecai establishes a celebratory feast on the 14th and expressed at the outset and repeated frequently thereafter:
15th days of the month of Adar. The feast is named Purim "Vanity of vanities, says the Teacher, vanity of vanities! All is
because Haman had cast the "lot" (Hebrew: pur) to destroy vanity." Supporting this theme is another repeated assertion in
the Jews but failed. this section of the book: "There is nothing new under the sun."
Esther ends with a brief epilogue, emphasizing that all these
events are recorded in the Persian royal annals. An opening poem in 1:2–11 portrays the constant activity of
the natural world and humanity as unchanging and
ultimately futile.
Analysis Speaking as "king over Israel in Jerusalem," the Teacher
concludes that even great wisdom is of no benefit, for with it
Esther is an example of a literary genre found in early Jewish comes only sorrow and vexation.
texts often called the "court tale." Like the Joseph novella in Neither his great accomplishments as king, such as building
Genesis and the stories in Daniel, it depicts exemplary Jewish projects and accumulation of wealth, nor his enjoyment of
individuals demonstrating wisdom and shrewdness in the great pleasure as king amount to anything meaningful.
perilous context of a foreign royal court. Despite this clear There is no difference between the fate of the foolish and
comparison, Esther is unique in many respects. God is never the wise, as both ultimately die. And humanity is no better
mentioned in the Hebrew version of the book. Esther and than animals, as all share the same fate.
Mordecai demonstrate not so much piety, like Daniel or A memorable poem in 3:1–8 reflects on the seasons for all
Joseph, as political cunning. Esther depicts what would be the things in the world, noting that there is "a time to be born,
earliest episode of an attempt at widespread systematic and a time to die," and so forth.
Jewish persecution, although it is questionable whether the Because all things seem predetermined by God and
events in the story actually took place. Perhaps the most unchanging, Ecclesiastes suggests that all humans can do
difficult aspect of Esther is the end of the book, which is "be happy and enjoy themselves as long as they live," and
celebrates without hesitation widespread retaliatory violence "enjoy their work."
against the would-be enemies of the Jews. These unusual A brief section providing instructions for behavior in
qualities made Esther one of the most debated books for Ecclesiastes 5 resembles more traditional didactic wisdom
inclusion in the canon of the Hebrew Bible for both Judaism literature.
and Christianity.Esther serves in part as an etiology, or origin The final section of the first half laments that even those
story, for the Jewish holiday Purim. It offers an explanation of things that ought to provide advantage in human
the name of the holiday, relating to the casting of a "lot" (pur). It life—wealth, honor, family, long life, wisdom—often do not.
also explains the observance as originally a celebration of the
deliverance of the Jews from persecution by Mordecai and The second half of Ecclesiastes (6:10–12:14) continues themes
Esther. Esther 9:22 explains that the holiday should include from the first half but adds new refrains on the limits of
joyous feasting, the exchange of gifts, and acts of charity. possible knowledge. "For who knows what is good for mortals
These elements remain components of the observance of while they live the few days of their vain life ... who can tell
Purim along with reading the megillah, or scroll, of Esther in them what will be after them under the sun?"
synagogues on the holiday.

Ecclesiastes 7 begins by outlining the theoretical benefits of
wisdom but ends by emphasizing the elusiveness of true
wisdom.
In a similar pattern, Chapter 8 begins with advice on proper

behavior before a king but shifts to musings on the extent and it does acknowledge God, but it recognizes that
limitations and misuses of human power in the world. neither ultimately guarantees justice or happiness for the
Vexed by the apparent injustice of all humanity meeting the individual. The final word in the epilogue counsels readers to
same fate, Ecclesiastes again suggests that the best one "fear God and keep his commandments." The first half of this
can do is to enjoy life and live it well until death. statement has precedent earlier in the book, but the latter
An anecdote of a poor but wise man who saves a city under does not. Moreover, the final verse of Ecclesiastes asserts that
siege but is then quickly forgotten illustrates the apparent God will bring all deeds into judgment. This is also difficult to
futility of wisdom in life. reconcile with much of the preceding material in Ecclesiastes.
After reviewing various possibilities for disaster in life or for The epilogue may have been supplied by an editor who wanted
the corruption of proper order, Ecclesiastes returns to the to emphasize that these notions endure in spite of everything
notion that enjoyment of life and diligence in work are the one has just read in the book. The reader of Ecclesiastes is left
best that humanity can do. to wrestle with the credibility of this conclusion. This
The final chapter of Ecclesiastes begins with a passage intellectual challenge gives the book much of its timeless
adjuring the reader to "remember your creator in the days of appeal.
your youth," before old age and despair set in.
After the central refrain that all is vanity is repeated one last
time, Ecclesiastes 12:9–14 provides an epilogue to the book. Song of Songs
The work of the Teacher in gathering and sharing wisdom is
described.
A final conclusion is offered, partly in tension with much of
Summary
the rest of Ecclesiastes: "Fear God and keep his
commandments, for that is the whole duty of everyone. For
Song of Songs portrays the interactions of an unnamed
God will bring every deed into judgment, including every
woman, often called the Shulamite, and her beloved, who is
secret thing, whether good or evil."
apparently a king, in a series of dialogues and poems. The
speaker in the text often changes between the two quickly and
subtly, and division of units is often subjective.
Analysis
In 1:2–2:6, the woman introduces herself and expresses
Ecclesiastes is fascinating for its apparent skepticism and desire for her beloved.
fatalism, and for its implicit critique of more glib expressions of A brief conversation between the lovers follows in 2:7–17,
wisdom literature. This skepticism is captured most memorably wherein each praises the other in vivid poetic imagery. The
in the book's central refrain: "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity!" woman also addresses the "daughters of Jerusalem."
Ecclesiastes supports this case by describing the unchanging The woman speaks at length of her beloved in 2:8–3:11,
nature of all life—there is nothing new under the sun—and the describing a series of encounters between them.
ultimate unreliability of virtues that ought to improve life for The man then speaks in 4:1–5:1, describing the woman's
people but often do not. Ecclesiastes sometimes sounds more beauty with rich imagery, especially to features of the
like traditional wisdom literature in its few didactic passages. natural world.
But these are all balanced with sober conclusions that even In 5:2–6:3 the woman speaks to the daughters of Jerusalem
wise behavior often does not profit as it should. The as she seeks out her lover.
universality of death for animals and humans, both righteous The man speaks again in 6:4–7:9, continuing his praise of
and wicked, also shapes the book's melancholy attitude. the woman's body.
In 7:10–8:4 the woman expresses her desire for the beloved
The problem of how to square the book's conclusion with its
and proposes that they meet in the vineyard.
central message depends in part on how much weight one
Short poetic units spoken by the woman to the beloved
gives to the epilogue. Throughout Ecclesiastes, the main
close out Song of Songs in 8:5–14. The text ends with her
advice seems to be that all anyone can do in life is enjoy good
calling for the beloved to "make haste ... like a gazelle or a
things as they come and do good work to the best of one's
young stag" in returning to her.
ability. This advice does endorse conventional wisdom to some

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Quotes 47
punishments at length. The speaker of the third poem

Analysis nonetheless also reaffirms the enduring faithfulness and
mercy of God. The people must wait for God's wrath to
The poetry of Song of Songs is vivid, evocative, and at times,
subside.
erotic. Elements of its descriptions of love and passion
The fourth poem describes the suffering and starvation of
resonate easily with modern readers: "many waters cannot
the people in the besieged city, from young children to the
quench love" (8:7); "my beloved is mine and I am his" (2:16).
elite of society.
Elsewhere, the imagery used in descriptions of physical beauty
The final poem is a prayer beseeching God to remember his
can seem bizarre: "your hair is like a flock of goats" (4:1); "your
people, who have become orphans. Lamentations ends on
neck is like the tower of David" (4:4). In ancient contexts these
an uncertain note: the prayer asks God to restore the
images would not have seemed quite so strange; all compare
people, "unless you have utterly rejected us."
the beauties of the human body to images of the richness of
the natural world and the land of Israel.
The biggest puzzle regarding Song of Songs has always been Analysis
the rationale for its inclusion and significance within the
Hebrew Bible. Both Jewish and Christian traditions partly Lamentations paints a vivid image of the horror of the
explained this by interpreting Songs of Songs allegorically, destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BCE and the soul-searching
reading the characters as symbols for something else. Early that followed. Although affirmations of faith and hope for
Jewish interpreters explained the book as an allegory in which restoration are scattered throughout the book, a somber and
the two lovers were Yahweh and Israel. The tradition of penitent tone dominates. Lamentations shares the view of
reading Song of Songs at Passover underscored this other books in the Hebrew Bible that the fall of Jerusalem was
interpretation. Similarly, Christian tradition has most often ordained by God in response to Judah's many sins. Yet it
understood it to represent the love between Christ and the sometimes seems to question whether the extent of the
church. In the Orthodox Christian tradition, clergy recite the punishment exceeded the severity of the crimes. Ultimately,
text as part of the prayer preparation for worship. While these Lamentations does not attempt to provide final answers to why
interpretive traditions have a rich and vibrant history, Song of Judah suffered as it did or what would happen next. Instead, it
Songs was almost certainly not composed with them in mind. communicates a full range of raw emotions of communal grief
and anguish in response to this catastrophe.
Lamentations
g Quotes
Summary
"So God created humankind in his
Lamentations consists of five separate poems, corresponding image, in the image of God he
to the five numbered chapters of the book in translations.
created them; male and female he
The first poem laments the fate of a desolate Jerusalem,
personifying the city as an aggrieved woman. Halfway
created them. God blessed them,
through the poem, the personified city begins speaking in and God said to them, "Be fruitful
first-person voice, lamenting her mistakes that brought
about this disaster. and multiply, and fill the earth and
The second poem emphatically laments that Yahweh, in subdue it; and have dominion over
anger, has caused the ruin of Jerusalem and brought
horrors upon the people. the fish of the sea and over the
The third and longest poem speaks in the voice of "one who
birds of the air and over every
has seen affliction," describing the severity of God's

This promise of Yahweh to Moses in Exodus 6:7 encapsulates

living thing that moves upon the
the primary narrative arc of Exodus–Deuteronomy in a single
earth."" declaration, and its language is echoed repeatedly throughout
the Hebrew Bible. Yahweh's identity and character are more
— Narrator, Genesis fully revealed to the people of Israel in the exodus, and they
become bound to Yahweh in a legal agreement or covenant
relationship.
In the first creation account of Genesis in verses 1:27–28, God
creates humanity on the 6th day after everything else on earth
has been made. This passage asserts that humanity is uniquely
made "in the image of God." While the language of this
"I am Yahweh your God, who
statement refers to physical resemblance, it has been brought you out of the land of
theologically interpreted in many different ways. In God's
blessing, humanity is given a privileged role over the rest of
Egypt, out of the house of slavery;
creation and directed to spread throughout the earth. you shall have no other gods
before me."
"Go from your country and your
— Yahweh/God, Exodus
kindred and your father's house to
the land that I will show you. I will This first instruction of the Ten Commandments, or Decalogue,
is found in Exodus 20:2–3 and is foundational for the entire
make of you a great nation, and I
law. Exclusive loyalty to Yahweh is the first and most essential
will bless you." stipulation of the covenant between Yahweh and Israel.
— Yahweh/God, Genesis
"You shall be holy, for I Yahweh
The story of the people of Israel begins with this first promise your God am holy."
to Abraham in Genesis 12:1. Genesis gives no explanation of
why Yahweh selects Abraham for this role. In response to this
— Yahweh/God, Leviticus
promise, Abraham leaves his home in Mesopotamia for the
land of Canaan and maintains faith in Yahweh throughout the
rest of his life. This statement in Leviticus 19:2 conveys the core theme of the
book of Leviticus (especially the Holiness Code) and the basic
logic of the mandate for holiness in the Hebrew Bible. Because
Yahweh is holy, the people of Israel are required to be holy as
"I will take you as my people, and I
well in order to remain in relationship with Yahweh.
will be your God. You shall know
that I am Yahweh your God, who
"Hear, O Israel: Yahweh is our God,
has freed you from the burdens of
Yahweh alone. You shall love
the Egyptians."
Yahweh your God with all your
— Yahweh/God, Exodus heart, and with all your soul, and
with all your might."

— Moses, Deuteronomy this corpus. "Fear" with reference to God implies due
reverence, devotion, and humility.
This exhortation comes from Deuteronomy 6:4–5. Known as

the Shema—Hebrew for "hear"—the exhortation encapsulates
the central message of exclusive loyalty to Yahweh in "He shall judge between the
Deuteronomy. It is singled out as a central command of the
nations ... they shall beat their
Torah in Jewish tradition and is a central element of traditional
Jewish prayer cycles. In the New Testament, Jesus calls it the swords into ploughshares, and
greatest commandment in the law.
their spears into pruning-hooks;
nation shall not lift up sword
"When your days are fulfilled and against nation, neither shall they
you lie down with your ancestors, I learn war any more."
will raise up your offspring after
— Isaiah, Isaiah
you ...and I will establish his
kingdom. He shall build a house for Isaiah 2:4, duplicated in Micah 4, envisions the end of war
my name, and I will establish the among the nations of the world. This image of peace appears
within a fuller description of the "Day of Yahweh" that several
throne of his kingdom forever." of the biblical prophets looked forward to, when Yahweh would
intervene and set things right in the world.
— Yahweh/God, 2 Samuel
Located in 2 Samuel 7:11–13, this prophetic message delivered "I am Yahweh, and there is no
by the prophet Nathan to King David conveys the promise from
other; besides me there is no god."
Yahweh of an unending dynasty on the throne of Jerusalem.
Although David is not permitted to build Yahweh's temple
— Yahweh/God, Isaiah
himself, his son (Solomon) would, and their descendants would
continue to rule in perpetuity. Other texts in the Hebrew Bible
refer to this as a Davidic "covenant" with Yahweh. This statement from Isaiah 45:5 is one of several from
Chapters 40–55 of Isaiah that assert an explicit monotheism.
Yahweh alone is God, and no other gods exist. Despite
"The fear of Yahweh is the common assumptions to the contrary, this perspective is not
reflected in most of the Hebrew Bible. Its clearest articulation
beginning of wisdom, and the in Isaiah marks a consequential historical theological
knowledge of the Holy One is development for the so-called monotheistic faiths that would
develop from the religion of ancient Israel.
insight."
— Narrator, Proverbs "The days are surely coming, says

Yahweh, when I will make a new
This expression from Proverbs 9:10 captures much of the
essence of "wisdom literature" in the Hebrew Bible. In covenant with the house of Israel
particular, it expresses the correlation of wisdom and piety in

angel's message to Daniel illustrates new ideas that had

and the house of Judah. It will not
developed within Judaism by the 2nd century BCE. It is the
be like the covenant that I made only clear statement in the Hebrew Bible of a general
expectation of the resurrection of the dead, for either reward
with their ancestors...I will put my
or punishment.
law within them, and I will write it
on their hearts; and I will be their
"Let justice roll down like waters,
God, and they shall be my people."
and righteousness like an ever-
— Yahweh/God, Jeremiah flowing stream."
This passage, Jeremiah 31:31–33, expresses an idea found in — Yahweh/God, Amos

several texts from the time of the Judean exile. The covenant
between Yahweh and Israel had been suspended or broken This prophetic message from Amos 5:24 expresses the
with the exile but would be renewed when the exile ended. emphasis on justice and righteousness found in many of the
Here, Jeremiah refers not just to a covenant renewal but to a prophets in the Hebrew Bible. In the full passage from which
new and different covenant with Israel. Early Christians this well-known line is quoted, Yahweh declares that these
appropriated this phrase for their own understanding of a new things matter more than the formal elements of religion such
covenant/testament. as festivals, music, and sacrifices.
"Again one in human form touched "He has told you, O mortal, what is
me and strengthened me. He said good; and what does Yahweh
... "There shall be a time of require of you but to do justice,
anguish, such as has never and to love kindness, and to walk
occurred since nations first came humbly with your God?"
into existence. But at that time
— Narrator, Micah
your people shall be delivered,
everyone who is found written in This memorable statement from Micah 6:8 epitomizes the
"ethical monotheism" of the biblical prophets. Here, the
the book. Many of those who
prophet Micah enumerates a view of the essence of true
sleep in the dust of the earth shall Israelite religion around three foci of justice, kindness/mercy,
and humility before God.
awake, some to everlasting life,
and some to shame and
everlasting contempt."" "Remember the teaching of my
servant Moses, the statutes and
— Narrator, Daniel
ordinances that I commanded him
This text comes from Daniel 10:18-19, 12:1–2. This portion of the
at Horeb for all Israel. Lo, I will

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Symbols 51
send you the prophet Elijah before Vineyard

the great and terrible day of the
Lord comes."
A vineyard or vine is used often in the Hebrew Bible as a
symbol for the people of Israel. In Genesis 9:20, Noah was the
— Yahweh/God, Malachi
first person in history to plant a vineyard, immediately after the
flood. In metaphoric usage, Yahweh is the one who plants and
The corpus of prophets in the Hebrew Bible ends with this tends the vineyard of Israel: "You brought a vine out of Egypt;
statement in Malachi 4:4–5. It emphasizes two key points for you drove out the nations and planted it" (Psalm 80:8). The
Judaism in the Second Temple period: continued devotion to most prominent use of this symbol is the Song of the Vineyard
the Torah, and the expectation of an imminent divine in Isaiah 5, which likens Israel to a vineyard carefully tended by
intervention—here, cast as a return of the prophet Elijah—on Yahweh yet does not yield good grapes and must be uprooted:
behalf of Yahweh's people of Israel. "For the vineyard of the Lord of hosts is the house of Israel,
and the people of Judah are his pleasant planting; he expected
justice, but saw bloodshed; righteousness, but heard a cry!"
(Isaiah 5:7).
l Symbols Vineyard imagery, drawn from familiar agricultural practices of
the biblical world, captures the patience and diligence of
Yahweh's interactions with the people of Israel, as well as
Mountains Yahweh's frustration when the carefully tended vine does not
seem to bear fruit as expected.
Mountains are often the literal meeting places between

Yahweh and humans in the Hebrew Bible. Paradoxically, they
symbolize the power and transcendence of Yahweh, as well as
Branch
Yahweh's accessible presence among the people. Two
mountains are central to the Hebrew Bible: Mount Sinai, where
Moses meets Yahweh and receives the law; and Mount Zion, The image of a growing branch—particularly a new shoot
the location of the temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem. emerging from the stump of a tree that has been cut
down—symbolizes restoration and rejuvenation in the Hebrew
Mount Sinai is of utmost importance in the Torah, and Mount Bible. Isaiah envisions a day when "the branch of Yahweh," the
Zion dominates the biblical imagination thereafter. Mount Zion city of Jerusalem, will again prosper (Isaiah 4). This language in
is the location of the temple and the capital city Jerusalem, the prophets often refers to a chosen anointed ruler, or
which makes it synonymous with the kingdom of Judah messiah, who will restore the fortunes of the Davidic dynasty.
(especially in Isaiah and Psalms). A mythologized Zion features Isaiah predicts, "A shoot shall come out from the stock of
prominently in the prophets' visions of future renewal, as in Jesse, and a branch shall grow out of his roots" (Isaiah 11:1);
Isaiah 2:2: "In days to come the mountain of Yahweh's house and in Jeremiah, Yahweh proclaims, "I will raise up for David a
shall be established as the highest of the mountains, and shall righteous branch" (Jeremiah 23:5).
be raised above the hills; all the nations shall stream to it."
m Themes

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Themes 52
The main characters of the Hebrew Bible move geographically

Covenant between the celebrated homeland of Israel (ancient Canaan)
and various foreign locales, especially Egypt to the southwest
and Mesopotamia to the east. These movements are
The Hebrew Bible emphasizes a series of covenant (Hebrew: consequential. The early portion of the Hebrew Bible
berit) agreements between Yahweh and the people of Israel. (Genesis–Joshua) builds up to the establishment of Israel in
These covenants are formal statements of mutual commitment this promised land. After centuries of autonomy in this land, the
based primarily on the language and conventions of ancient kingdom of Judah falls (after Israel has already fallen in the
political treaties and loyalty agreements. Much of the story of north). Loss of autonomy in the land is the central catastrophe
Israel told in the Hebrew Bible depends on this foundational of the Hebrew Bible (2 Kings). Later portions of the Hebrew
idea. Israel is singled out as a people to be uniquely bound to Bible (Ezra, Nehemiah, 1–2 Chronicles) concern the effort to
Yahweh in a covenant. In return they are required to adhere to return from exile in Babylon and restore a kingdom in Judah,
the stipulations of this agreement, the laws and instructions of and this theme also appears in several of the prophetic books.
the Torah.
The Israelites are first connected to the land of Canaan when
The central covenant of the Hebrew Bible is formed between Yahweh calls Abraham to relocate there from Mesopotamia in
Yahweh and the people of Israel at Mount Sinai, as first Genesis. Canaan becomes the home territory of Abraham and
described in Exodus. There, Yahweh declares, "If you obey my his descendants (who live a seminomadic lifestyle). Famine
voice and keep my covenant, you shall be my treasured prompts Abraham's grandson Jacob and his entire family to
possession out of all the peoples" (Exodus 19:5). Deuteronomy leave this land for Egypt, the first major exile event. Centuries
elaborates on the covenantal nature of this event and even later, the descendants of Jacob are led out of slavery in Egypt
imitates many distinctive features of ancient treaty texts. This and begin their journey back to Canaan under the leadership of
central covenant is renewed at key junctures in Israel's history. Moses (Exodus–Deuteronomy). Joshua leads the people in
Joshua leads the people in a covenant renewal ceremony at conquering the land and allotting it to the 12 tribes (Joshua).
the conclusion of the conquest of Canaan (Joshua 24). It is
When the Northern Kingdom of Israel is conquered by Assyria,
renewed again when King Josiah of Judah reads the
its citizens are scattered in exile across the Assyrian empire
rediscovered "book of the covenant," which may refer to the
and disappear from the story (2 Kings). Less than a century
book of Deuteronomy in some form. Ezra leads the people to
and a half later, Judah is conquered by Babylon, and its people,
renew the covenant again after returning from exile in Babylon
too, go in to exile. However, a remnant is held together, and
(Ezra 10).
after the Persian King Cyrus conquers Babylon, many return to
The central biblical covenant between Yahweh and Israel is Judah and begin to rebuild.
anticipated already in Genesis. Yahweh first makes a covenant
The authors of the texts of the Hebrew Bible interpret these
with Noah, his family, and all the animals that survive the flood,
movements theologically. The establishment of the people in
promising never to destroy the earth in such a flood again
Canaan, the promised land, is an act of divine providence and
(Genesis 9). Next, Yahweh makes a covenant with Abraham to
blessing. The downfall and exile of Israel in the north, followed
make his descendants a great nation in the land of Canaan
by Judah in the south, are acts of divine judgment for the
(Genesis 15) and reaffirms this promise to Abraham's son Isaac
failures of these nations to be faithful to Yahweh. The return
and grandson Jacob. Yahweh's promise to David to maintain
from exile in Babylon demonstrates Yahweh's mercy and
his dynastic line in perpetuity is also presented as a covenant
continued commitment to the people of Israel.
(2 Samuel 7; Psalm 89).
Homeland and Exile Divine Justice and Mercy
The Hebrew Bible presents a stark view of humanity's

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Motifs 53
propensity for failure and wickedness at both the corporate

and individual level. Humanity's sinfulness is contrasted with Interpretations
the holiness and righteousness of Yahweh. This situation
prompts a central issue in the Hebrew Bible: How does this
holy God respond to sinful humanity?
Two answers to this problem are held in tension throughout

The Canons of the Hebrew Bible
the Hebrew Bible: God punishes iniquity justly, and God shows
The word canon comes from a Greek word meaning "ruler" and
mercy and compassion. A pivotal passage affirming the identity
is used to indicate the list of books that are include d in the
and character of God at the beginning of the Decalogue/Ten
Bible. The Jewish canon of the Hebrew Bible, the Tanakh,
Commandments affirms that Yahweh is "a jealous God,
includes 24 books, divided into three sections: the Torah, the
punishing children for the iniquity of parents, to the third and
Prophets, and the Writings. This list appears to have been
the fourth generation" (Exodus 20:5). Narratives throughout
stabilized by the 1st century CE. Early Christians primarily read
the Hebrew Bible depict Yahweh as not only punishing sinful
the books of the Hebrew Bible in Greek translations. This
actions but even fuming with anger at Israel's betrayals, and
group of Greek scriptures included additional books that
sometimes responding in a terrifying and deadly wrath. Yet
became part of the Christian canon, called the Old Testament,
Exodus also affirms that Yahweh is "a God merciful and
that were not part of the Jewish canon. These are often called
gracious, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast love and
the Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books. Catholic and
faithfulness, keeping steadfast love for the thousandth
Eastern Orthodox churches retain these books in their biblical
generation, forgiving iniquity and transgression and sin"
canons, each with a slightly different list of books included.
(Exodus 34:6).
Protestant Christian churches primarily follow the Jewish
Numerous biblical narratives depict Yahweh weighing these canon for the contents of their Old Testament, and either
alternatives, sometimes carrying out threatened judgment, separate the additional books into a discrete section called the
sometimes being moved to compassion and relenting from Apocrypha, or omit them entirely.
threatened wrath and judgment. In the book of Jonah, when

the despised Ninevites repent and prompt Yahweh to relent
The Hebrew Bible in Judaism
from destroying their city, Jonah references this dynamic in
language evoking Exodus 34: "I knew that you are a gracious
In Judaism, the books of the Hebrew Bible are called the
God and merciful, slow to anger, and abounding in steadfast
Tanakh, an acronym for the Hebrew names of the three main
love, and ready to relent from punishing," the prophet declares
sections of the Bible. The Jewish Tanakh, particularly the
in righteous indignation. Popular misconceptions of the
Torah, is the source of key texts read during the Sabbath
Hebrew Bible sometimes assert that it portrays only a God of
liturgy, or religious service, and informs later Jewish beliefs and
judgment and wrath, lacking in mercy. In reality, the divine
practices. It was the subject of extensive commentary already
tendencies toward judgment and mercy are held in complex
in antiquity. The Talmud collects interpretations and teachings
tension throughout the Hebrew Bible. In some cases, such as
of several early rabbis, or Jewish teachers, of the first few
that of Jonah and the Ninevites, Yahweh appears dramatically
centuries CE. Traditional Jewish belief holds that these
and even frustratingly merciful.
teachings, called "Oral Torah," were revealed to Moses at
Sinai, along with the "Written Torah." Adherence to these
traditional understandings of the Tanakh and Oral Torah varies
m Motifs
among different branches of modern Judaism.
The Hebrew Bible or Old Testament in

Christianity
Christians traditionally call the books of the Hebrew Bible the

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Motifs 54
"Old Testament," and they are joined with the books of the prophet Muhammad, and that Ishmael, rather than Isaac, was
New Testament to compose the Christian Bible. The Old the son whom Abraham nearly sacrificed.
Testament serves as the historical background and theological
foundation for the New Testament, and its text is frequently
quoted, as are its symbols and themes. Translation and Transmission of the
The terms "Old Testament" and "New Testament" are based
Hebrew Bible
on reference in the New Testament to a "new covenant" with
The Hebrew Bible was first translated from its original Hebrew
God established by Jesus. Early Christian writers extended this
and Aramaic into Greek beginning in the 3rd century BCE. This
terminology to the two major divisions of their canon of
Greek translation, commonly called the Septuagint, was widely
scriptures. They also often used "the law" and "the gospel" to
used by Greek-speaking Jews in the Hellenistic world. Early
refer to the Old and New Testaments. One 2nd-century
Christianity also primarily used the Old Testament texts in
Christian leader, Marcion, famously rejected the Old
Greek translation.
Testament entirely, but his views were denounced.
Even after the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE
The relationship of the Old Testament to Christian belief and
and the accompanying expulsion of the Jews from the land of
practice is complex and varied. The New Testament describes
Israel, the value of reading the Hebrew Bible in its original
much discussion and debate in early Christianity over the
languages was emphasized in Judaism. Aramaic translations
question of whether Christians, especially those of non-Jewish
(called targums) that paraphrased the Hebrew text were used,
background, should still follow the commandments of the
but they did not replace the original text. Christianity had relied
Torah. Mainstream Christianity concluded that the laws of the
on the Old Testament in Greek translation from the beginning
Old Testament no longer fully applied to Christians. A common
and continued to do so.
Christian approach has been to categorize the commandments
of the Torah—moral, ceremonial, and civil—and evaluate their Then a Latin translation produced by Jerome in the late 4th
applicability to Christianity based on these categories. Early century CE, called the Vulgate, displaced the Greek scriptures
Christian interpretation of the Old Testament often sought to as the primary biblical translation in the Western Christian
identify texts in the Old Testament that could be interpreted as church. The leaders of the Reformation in the 16th century CE
referring to Jesus. placed a renewed emphasis on translating the Bible into the
native languages of the people, concurrent with an emphasis
Following the Nazi Holocaust, many Christian scholars have
on individual engagement with the Bible for all Christians. The
questioned the traditional notion that the New Testament
advent of the movable-type printing press in Europe in the 15th
supersedes the Old, given how this literary interpretation has
century made mass dissemination of the Bible feasible. The
influenced cultural and policy attitudes toward Jews. This
first full translation of the Bible into English was completed in
theological question is seen as one the primary barriers
the 14th century by John Wycliffe. The King James Version,
between Christian and Jewish religious dialogue, and remains
completed in 1611, is a landmark in the development of the
controversial among Christians.
English language, and is still used within some Christian
churches today.
The Hebrew Bible in Islam

The Hebrew Bible is historically significant to Islam. The Qur'an
The Inspiration of the Hebrew Bible
specifically refers to the Torah and the Psalms as inspired, and
Traditional Jewish and Christian belief hold that the Hebrew
frequently refers to Moses. Many figures from the Hebrew
Bible is inspired by God, but specific articulations of this belief
Bible are called "prophets" or "messengers" in the Qur'an.
vary widely. Judaism traditionally connects the inspiration of
However, traditional Islamic belief also holds that the Hebrew
the Torah (written as well as oral) with the revelation of the
Bible became corrupted, and thus is not entirely accurate or
Torah to Moses from Yahweh. While Orthodox Judaism
reliable in its surviving form. Islamic tradition believes that
primarily upholds this traditional view of biblical inspiration,
Abraham's first son, Ishmael, is an ancestor of its central
other branches or sects of contemporary Judaism place less

Old Testament | Hebrew-Bible Study Guide Glossary 55
emphasis on it. Traditional Christian belief endorses the Hebrew Bible that distinguishes it from the books of the New
inspiration of both the Old and New Testaments as the Word Testament, also included in Christian Bibles
of God. Some conservative segments of Christianity further
specify the nature of this belief to insist that the Bible is Pentateuch (n) the first five books of the Hebrew Bible; also
infallible or inerrant, although interpretations of these ideas known as the Torah
vary. Other Christians, particularly from traditionally less

Prophets (n) the second division of books in the Hebrew Bible,
conservative churches, do not emphasize such understandings
according to the Jewish organization. It includes books
of inspiration and interpret the Bible less literally.
narrating the history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah as
well as books containing messages of prophets.
Talmud (n) the primary collection of teachings of leaders of

m Glossary Rabbinic Judaism spanning several centuries from c. 200 CE
onward
Apocalyptic Literature (n) a literary genre appearing in later
Tanakh (n) a Jewish name for the Hebrew Bible. Tankah is an
books of the Hebrew Bible that features fantastical visions and
acronym for the names of the three divisions of the Hebrew
the revelation of secret information from angelic beings
Bible in Hebrew: Torah (law/instruction), Nevi'im (prophets),
Apocrypha (n) a collection of Jewish writings included in some and Ketuvim (writings).
Christian Bibles along with the Hebrew Bible.
Torah (n) Jewish name for the first five books of the Hebrew
Babylonian Exile (n) the period from 586–539 BCE in which Bible. Torah is often translated "law," although it more precisely
Judah had been conquered by Babylon and many Judeans means "instruction."
were exiled. The initial phase of the exile ended when the
Writings (n) the third division of the Hebrew Bible. The Writings
Persian ruler Cyrus conquered Babylon and declared that the
contains the latest books included in the Hebrew Bible and the
exiles could return home.
most diverse range of literary genres.
canon (n) the list of books included in the Bible. Judaism and
various branches of Christianity have different canons of what
is included in the Old Testament/Hebrew Bible. e Suggested Reading
Deuteronomistic History (n) a name for the books of
Joshua–2 Kings that reflects the theory that these books Collins, John J. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible. Minneapolis,
comprise a single editorial project Fortress, 2014.
Documentary Hypothesis (n) a scholarly theory which states Coogan, Michael, and Cynthia R. Chapman. The Old
that the Torah is a combination of four parallel sources (J, E, P, Testament: A Historical and Literary Introduction to the Hebrew
and D) written by different authors at different times Scriptures. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2017.
Judah (n) the southern kingdom that remained under the rule Freedman, David Noel, editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
of the Davidic dynasty in Jerusalem after the northern tribes New York, Doubleday, 1992.
seceded. Judah remained independent until it was finally

Sarna, Nahum M., editor. The JPS Torah Commentary.
conquered by Babylon in 586 BCE.
Philadelphia, Jewish Publication Society, 1989–2003.
Northern Kingdom of Israel (n) the kingdom comprising 10

tribes of Israel that broke away from Judah after the death of
King Solomon. The Northern Kingdom was conquered by
Assyria in 722 BCE and was never restored.
Old Testament (n) the traditional Christian name for the
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Old Testament |

Hebrew and Aramaic. It is sacred scripture for both Judaism

e Suggested Reading .............................................................................. 55

Jacob is the younger of Isaac's twin sons, but he usurps his

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After Saul angers Yahweh, the prophet Samuel anoints David

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Hezekiah rules Judah in the last quarter

Jeremiah prophecies in Jerusalem during

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catastrophic flood, and Noah's family and the animals are

stories about Abraham focus on his faith in Yahweh and 2 Kings

Yahweh's promise to make his descendants into a great nation. Isaiah

The promise begins to be fulfilled two generations later, when Jeremiah

Abraham's grandson Jacob has 12 sons, all of whom have Ezekiel

Egypt, and his favored son, Joseph, rises to a powerful position

ruler (or pharaoh), to bring 10 plagues against Egypt as

The people remain at Mount Sinai through the rest of Exodus

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Writings included in the Prophets, perhaps because it was written so

Ezra-Nehemiah and 1–2 Chronicles narrate historical events

The Writings is the most diverse section of the Hebrew Bible

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Middle Bronze Age

Abraham and the patriarchs of Israel live in the land of

15th or 13th century BCE

Moses leads the Israelites out of the land of Egypt to

15th or 13th century BCE

Joshua leads the Israelites in the conquest and allotment

Saul is anointed the first king of Israel.

David becomes king over all of Israel and makes

Solomon becomes king after David in a contested

Solomon commissions construction of the temple in

The kingdom is divided; Jeroboam I rules 10 tribes in the

Omri seizes the throne of the Northern Kingdom and

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Jehu kills Joram, ending the dynasty of Omri, and seizes

Athaliah becomes the only queen to rule Judah after her

Israel joins Syrian states in rebellion against Assyria;

The Northern Kingdom of Israel is conquered by the

The Assyrian King Sennacherib invades Judah and

King Josiah claims to have rediscovered the book of the

Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar subdues Jerusalem,

The city of Jerusalem and the temple are destroyed.

The Persian king Cyrus conquers Babylon, and Judean

The second temple in Jerusalem is completed and

Ezra returns to Jerusalem and instructs the people

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intelligible narrative arc.

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The regulations restricting which foods are considered clean,

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while drowning indicated guilt.

Summary to the other law collections, the Covenant Collection and

First Speech (Chapters 1–4)

Second Speech (Chapters Moses sings a song of praise to Yahweh, pronounces