May 31,

2021

CITY OF MALABON UNIVERSITY

Maya-maya cor. Pampano St., Longos Malabon City
(Telephone Nos. 374-57-72/376-00-64)

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING
(EDUC 222)

Jeanette Fernandez Daran

BEED 2A

Asynchronous Activity : Dates May 27 and May 31.

1. Here are some teaching methods based on the Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory
*Cognitive Apprenticeship

Modelling

Coaching

Application

Reflection

Exploration

*Reciprocal Teaching

*Anchored Instruction

* Inquiry Learning

*Discovery Learning

*Problem _Based Learning

2. Discuss these teaching methods. Describe the importance of each to the teaching learning
situations.

3. Search for some studies /researches about cognitive / metacognitive abilities . Be able to
discuss the findings in relation to our lesson about cognition and metacognition.

Due date of submission Monday , May 31 at 5pm

I.

 COGNITIVE APPRENTICESHIP is a theory of the process where a master of a skill

teaches that skill to an apprentice.
Constructivist approaches to human learning have led to the development of a theory of
cognitive apprenticeship. This theory holds that masters of a skill often fail to take into
account the implicit processes involved in carrying out complex skills when they are
teaching novices. To combat these tendencies, cognitive apprenticeships “…are designed,
among other things, to bring these tacit processes into the open, where students can
observe, enact, and practice them with help from the teacher…” (Collins, Brown, &
Newman, 1987, p. 4). This model is supported by Albert Bandura’s (1997) theory of
modeling, which posits that in order for modeling to be successful, the learner must be
attentive, must have access to and retain the information presented, must be motivated to
learn, and must be able to accurately reproduce the desired skill.

The model is aimed primarily at teaching the problem-solving processes that experts use to
handle complex tasks. Cognitive apprenticeship focuses on cognitive and metacognitive skills
and processes. The framework for designing learning environment describes four dimensions:
context, methods, sequence, and sociology.

Importance of Cognitive Apprenticeship

The method is aimed primarily at teaching the problem-solving processes that experts use to
handle complex tasks. Cognitive apprenticeships are intended to enable apprentices to learn
strategies and skills in the context of their application to realistic problems, within a culture
focused on and defined by expert practice
1) Cognitive apprenticeship encourages reflection on differences between novices and expert
performance
2) Cognitive apprenticeship encourages the development of self-monitoring and correction skills
required for the problem solver to alternate among different cognitive activities
2) Sequencing: Tasks are sequenced to reflect the changing demands of learning: increasing
complexity, increasing diversity, and global before local skills
3) Sociology: With exploiting cooperation and the culture of expert practice, cognitive
apprenticeship extends situated learning to diverse settings so that students learn how to apply
their skills in varied context with intrinsic motivation.

Instructional strategies
1) Modeling that involves an expert’s carrying out a task so that student observe and build a
conceptual model of the processes required to accomplish the task
2) Coaching that consists of observing student’s performance and offering hints, scaffolding,
feedback, modeling, reminders, and new tasks
3) Scaffolding provided by the teacher to help the student carry out a task
4) Articulation that gets students to articulate their knowledge, reasoning, or problem-solving
processes in a domain
5) Reflection that enables students to compare their own problem-solving processes with those
an expert, peer, and an internal cognitive model of expertise.
6) Exploration as a method of teaching sets general goals for students and that encourages
students to focus on particular subgoals of interest to them.

 RECIPROCAL TEACHING - In small group reading sessions, reciprocal teaching

refers to an instructional activity in which students take on the role of instructor. Teachers
demonstrate and then teach students how to use four tactics to lead group discussions:
summarizing, question generation, clarifying, and forecasting. After learning the skills,
students take turns acting as teachers and conducting a discussion about what they've
read.

How to use Reciprocal Teaching

Before Reciprocal Teaching can be used successfully by your students, they need to have been
taught and had time to practice the four strategies that are used in reciprocal teaching
(summarizing, questioning, predicting, clarifying).
It is a structured method of guided reading where children are gradually taught to take on group
roles to explore and find meaning in texts. Reciprocal reading emphasises teamwork and
supports independent comprehension skills.

Importance of Reciprocal Teaching

Why use reciprocal teaching? It encourages students to think about their own thought process
during reading. It helps students learn to be actively involved and monitor their comprehension
as they read. It teaches students to ask questions during reading and helps make the text more
comprehensible.
Research supports that reciprocal teaching improves students' comprehension skills and
maintains their improved skills due to the organization and implementation of the effective
strategies. Reciprocal teaching is also successful and proven effective with English language
learners and at-risk students.

 ANCHORED INSTRUCTION is a technology-based learning approach which stresses

the importance of placing learning within a meaningful, problem-solving context. A form
of situated learning, anchored instruction uses context-- stories or micro--- to situate the
learning and application of knowledge. In other words, the learning is contextualized to
provide students with realistic roles that serve to enhance the learning process.
The innovation was to situate learning in realistic problems, allowing students to
experience the same professional dilemmas facing experts in a given field.
realistic and authentic context: Anchored modules typically embed all of the information
need— embedded data or hints are used as scaffolding— to solve the problem, making it
easier to manage in environments with limited time or limited resources.

Importance of Anchored Instruction

Anchored instruction is a framework for learning that emphasizes complex problem solving in
integrated learning contexts. Integrated learning contexts take on the form of drawing realistic
connections, making learning meaningful for students, and forming connections within and
between content domains. An anchored instruction activity supports learning opportunities that
relate to and extend thinking to other content areas.
Learning and teaching activities are designed around an "anchor" which is often a story,
adventure, or situation that includes a problem or issue to be resolved and that is of interest to the
students. The “anchoring” refers to the bonding of the content within a realistic and authentic
context: Anchored modules typically embed all of the information need— embedded data or
hints are used as scaffolding— to solve the problem, making it easier to manage in environments
with limited time or limited resources.

It is similar to problem-based learning (PBL) but not as open-ended. In PBL, students would be
expected to do more first-hand research into resources external to the learning environments.
Anchored learning is also related to case-based learning, although the stories presented are meant
to be explored and discussed rather than simply read or watched.

 INQUIRY-BASED LEARNING - Inquiry-based learning is a method of instruction that

emphasizes the importance of the student's participation in the learning process. Students
are encouraged to investigate the topic, ask questions, and exchange ideas rather than
having the teacher tell them what they need to know.
Small-group discussion and guided learning are two ways to learning used in inquiry-
based learning. Instead of memorizing facts and material, students learn by doing. This
allows them to build knowledge through exploration, experience, and discussion.

Importance of Inquiry-based Learning

• Enhances learning experiences for children
Sitting in a classroom taking notes isn’t always the most effective (or fun) way to learn. Rather
than memorizing facts from the teacher, inquiry-based learning enhances the learning process by
letting students explore topics themselves.
• Teaches skills needed for all areas of learning
As they explore a topic, students build critical thinking and communication skills. The cognitive
skills that students develop can be used to improve comprehension in every subject, as well as in
day-to-day life.
• Fosters curiosity in students
An inquiry-based learning approach lets students share their own ideas and questions about a
topic. This helps foster more curiosity about the material and teaches skills students can use to
continue exploring topics they are interested in.
• Deepens students’ understanding of topics
Rather than simply memorizing facts, students make their own connections about what they are
learning. This allows them to gain a better understanding of a topic than they would get by just
memorizing and recalling facts.
• Allows students to take ownership of their learning
Students have the opportunity to explore a topic, giving them more of a sense of ownership over
their learning. Instead of the teacher telling them what they should know, students are able to
learn in a way that works for them.
• Increases engagement with the material
As a form of active learning, this approach encourages students to fully engage in the learning
process. By allowing students to explore topics, make their own connections, and ask questions,
they are able to learn more effectively.
• Creates a love of learning
Inquiry-based learning is designed to teach students a love of learning. When students are able to
engage with the material in their own way, not only are they able to gain a deeper understanding
—they are able to develop a passion for exploration and learning.
At Grade Power Learning, we believe in an active, engaging learning experience. Learn more
about our approach to learning and how we can get your child on the path to success.

 DISCOVERY LEARNING - Discovery Learning was introduced by Jerome Bruner,

and is a method of Inquiry-Based Instruction. This popular theory encourages learners to
build on past experiences and knowledge, use their intuition, imagination and creativity,
and search for new information to discover facts, correlations and new truths. Learning
does not equal absorbing what was said or read, but actively seeking for answers and
solutions.

Importance of Discovery Learning

Problem Solving
Instructors should guide and motivate learners to seek for solutions by combining existing and
newly acquired information and simplifying knowledge. This way, learners are the driving force
behind learning, take an active role and establish broader applications for skills through activities
that encourage risks, problem-solving and probing.

Learner Management
Instructors should allow participants to work either alone or with others, and learn at their own
pace. This flexibility makes learning the exact opposite of a static sequencing of lessons and
activities, relieves learners from unnecessary stress, and makes them feel they own learning.

Integrating and Connecting

Instructors should teach learners how to combine prior knowledge with new, and encourage them
to connect to the real world. Familiar scenarios become the basis of new information,
encouraging learners to extend what they know and invent something new.

Information Analysis and Interpretation

Discovery learning is process-oriented and not content-oriented, and is based on the assumption
that learning is not a mere set of facts. Learners in fact learn to analyze and interpret the acquired
information, rather than memorize the correct answer.

Failure and Feedback

Learning doesn’t only occur when we find the right answers. It also occurs through failure.
Discovery learning does not focus on finding the right end result, but the new things we discover
in the process. And it’s the instructor’s responsibility to provide feedback, since without it
learning is incomplete.

 PROBLEM BASED LEARNING - Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is a teaching

method in which complex real-world problems are used as the vehicle to promote student
learning of concepts and principles as opposed to direct presentation of facts and
concepts. In addition to course content, PBL can promote the development of critical
 thinking skills, problem-solving abilities, and communication skills. It can also provide
opportunities for working in groups, finding and evaluating research materials, and life-
long learning (Duch et al, 2001).
PBL can be incorporated into any learning situation. In the strictest definition of PBL, the
approach is used over the entire semester as the primary method of teaching. However,
broader definitions and uses range from including PBL in lab and design classes, to using
it simply to start a single discussion. PBL can also be used to create assessment items.
The main thread connecting these various uses is the real-world problem.

Importance of Problem Based Assessment

• The problem must motivate students to seek out a deeper understanding of concepts.
• The problem should require students to make reasoned decisions and to defend them.
• The problem should incorporate the content objectives in such a way as to connect it to
previous courses/knowledge.
• If used for a group project, the problem needs a level of complexity to ensure that the
students must work together to solve it.
• If used for a multistage project, the initial steps of the problem should be open-ended and
engaging to draw students into the problem.

While problem-based learning (PBL) is a teaching strategy to promote critical thinking,

creativity and self-directedness in learning is very important. It is the meaning of the learning,
with a contextual understanding, that marks the significance of this approach in our healthcare
education.
Benefits of Problem-Based Learning
For Students
 It’s a student-centered approach.
 Typically students find it more enjoyable and satisfying.
 It encourages greater understanding.
 Students with PBL experience rate their abilities higher.
 PBL develops lifelong learning skills.
For Instructors
 Class attendance increases.
 The method affords more intrinsic reward.
 It encourages students to spend more time studying.
 It promotes interdisciplinarity.
For Institutions
 It makes student learning a priority.
 It may aid student retention.
 It may be taken as evidence that an institution values teaching.

III.
Search for some studies /researches about cognitive / metacognitive abilities
Cognitive strategies are based on the need to achieve a particular goal, whilst the purpose of
Metacognitive strategies is to ensure that the cognitive goal has been reached.

What is the difference between the two?

What to Learn Vs. How to Learn

Cognitive Strategies Metacognitive Strategies

Processes and strategies that help us to learn Processes and strategies to assess how we learn

Mental processes and thinking abilities in which Thinking about the thinking. Assesses the use of
people engage on a daily basis such as memory, the cognitive strategy and identifies how it was
learning, problem solving, evaluation, used and if it was used correctly and if not, how
reasoning, and decision making. can it be used differently or what may be done
differently when using it.

Process of thinking Controls the cognitive process.

Levels of Cognition: Depth of Knowledge Planning, monitoring, evaluating, self-

regulating

Level 1: Recall and Reproduction (identify, Planning -What am I supposed to learn? What
answer who, what, when, where, why, and how) prior knowledge will help me with this task?
What should I do first? What should I look for
What is the formula for in this reading? How much time do I have to
Identify the details of complete this? In what direction do I want my
Who is thinking to take me?
Describe the events of
List the Monitoring - How am I doing? Am I on the
right track? How should I proceed? What
Level 2: Skill and Concept (Infer, categorize, information is important to remember? Should I
compare and contrast, summarize, use context move in a different direction? Should I adjust
clues) the pace because of the difficulty? What can I
do if I do not understand?
How or why would use?
What other way could you solve? Evaluating - How well did I do? What did I
What are examples and non-examples of? learn? Did I get the results I expected? What
What is the evidence for? could I have done differently? Is there
If you changed these elements , what may anything I don’t understand—any gaps in my
happen? knowledge? Do I need to go back through the
task to fill in any gaps in understanding?
Level 3: Strategic Thinking and Reasoning
(Critique, develop an argument, solve a Self-regulating - Can I apply this way of
 problem, draw conclusions based on data) thinking to other problems or situations? What
may I do the same/different the next time?
What are the possible flaws in?
What is the theme or lesson learned?
What inferences will these facts support?
What evidence can you find to support?
What ideas justify this position?

Level 4: Extended Thinking (Initiate, design,

collaborate, research, synthesize)

How may this argument be strengthened? What

may be a different way to present this
information?
What may be some alternative solutions?
What may be a different way to present this
problem?
How may this be redesigned?

Below are examples in reading, writing, social studies/science, and math.

What to Learn How to Learn

Reading Comprehension Planning: I need to be able to find the author’s

key message with evidence.
What is the author’s key message?
Monitoring: Was I able to identify the key
What is the evidence? message with evidence?

How do I analyze the evidence? How do I use Did annotating work for me? Why or why not?
annotating? Was I focused?
What is the key message to underline? How do Evaluating:
I know what is evidence?
What worked?

What could I do differently?

 Writing Planning: I need to be able to respond to an
extended response prompt.
What are the steps to organize my writing?
How do I use this graphic organizer? Monitoring: Did I reach the goal? Did I follow
How do I work with my peer in completing a the correct steps in organizing? Using the
graphic organizer? graphic organizer? If not, what should I do
instead?

Evaluating: What worked? What can I do

differently?

Science/Social Studies Planning: I need to know about the Declaration

of Independence/Scientific Method. What do I
What is the Declaration of already know about ?
Independence/Scientific Method?
Monitoring: Can I describe the steps? Can I
Why is this important to know? What are the explain how I got my answer? Was I focused?
steps in the SM? What do the terms mean? Do I need to slow down and reread?
How do I identifying vocabulary I do not
know? Evaluating: What did I do right to identify the
hypothesis? What could I have done
differently?

Math Planning: I need to know what slope is and

how to calculate it.
What is slope?
Monitoring: Was I able to solve the problem?
What are the steps in calculating slope? Did I follow the correct steps?

What are questions I should ask myself when Evaluating: What did I do right to solve the
calculating slope? problem? What worked in solving the problem?
What could I have done differently?
What would a correct answer look like?

You may engage students in using these tools by modeling questioning and providing them with
tools to do the same. As we examine some of these strategies and tools, note how they may help
a student to:
• focus,
• take control of their learning,
• assess what and how they are learning (formative assessment),
• stay more engaged and persist in reaching learning targets and goals, and
• identify small successes in learning and they reach the target.